# ECSeg-S / ECSeg-M ONNX optimization & quantization report

**Question.** Should AnnotateIt replace the shipped FP32 ECSeg-S / ECSeg-M instance-segmentation
checkpoints with an optimized (graph-optimized / FP16 / INT8) variant — judged on size **and** speed
**and** quality **and** stability **and** browser compatibility together, not size alone?

**Decision: keep FP32 for both models (details in [§8](#8-verdicts)).**

| Model | Verdict | Best format | Size before → after | Browser warm latency before → after | Quality vs FP32 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **ECSeg-S** | **REJECT** | FP32 (unchanged) | 39.95 MiB → 39.95 MiB (no adoptable smaller variant) | 1299 ms → 1299 ms (every smaller variant is slower or won't run) | unchanged (candidates lose quality or produce 0 instances) |
| **ECSeg-M** | **REJECT** | FP32 (unchanged) | 77.08 MiB → 77.08 MiB | 2093 ms → 2093 ms | unchanged |

Nothing was changed in the app or in the checkpoint registry — there is no winning variant. The reusable
conversion + browser-benchmark tooling and this report are the application-repository deliverables.

> Reproduce everything: [`scripts/model-optimization/README.md`](../../scripts/model-optimization/README.md).
> Generated `.onnx` variants are **not** committed (large, rebuildable).
> Machine-readable results: [`data/sizes.csv`](data/sizes.csv), [`data/correctness.csv`](data/correctness.csv),
> [`data/latency.csv`](data/latency.csv) (Chrome primary), [`data/latency-webkit.json`](data/latency-webkit.json),
> [`data/combined.json`](data/combined.json).

---

## 1. Environment

**Hardware / OS.** Apple M4 Max, 16 logical cores, 48 GB RAM, macOS (darwin 25.5.0), arm64.

**Browser runtime (the runtime that decides the swap).** System Google Chrome driven headed/headless via
Playwright 1.57.0; onnxruntime-web **1.24.3** (the repo's pinned version, `node_modules/onnxruntime-web`);
WASM CPU execution provider; SIMD on. Also spot-checked on WebKit (Safari engine) via Playwright.

**Conversion toolchain (Python, throwaway venv — NOT an app dependency).** Python 3.12,
`onnx==1.17.0`, `onnxruntime==1.22.0` (Python, used only for conversion + the numerical-equivalence
reference), `onnxconverter-common==1.14.0`, `onnxslim==0.1.95`, `opencv-python-headless==5.0.0.93`,
`numpy==2.2.6`. Full pin list: [`requirements.txt`](../../scripts/model-optimization/requirements.txt).

**Why Python latency is not used as evidence.** In onnxruntime-web the `cpu` EP *is* the WebAssembly
backend, with different kernels and threading than native Python onnxruntime. Every latency number in this
report comes from onnxruntime-web in a real browser.

---

## 2. Method

1. **Baseline.** Download the two pinned FP32 checkpoints, verify SHA-256, characterize each
   (opset, node/initializer counts, weight dtypes, external-data, I/O contract, op histogram).
2. **Variants.** Build a matrix per model, each **preserving the exact public I/O contract**
   (see [§3](#3-hard-integration-constraints)).
3. **Numerical equivalence.** Feed byte-identical inputs to FP32 baseline and each candidate via Python
   onnxruntime (CPU) and measure raw-output error + end-to-end instance/box/mask agreement — with special
   attention to the decision boundaries (score ≈ 0.4, mask logit ≈ 0.0).
4. **Target-runtime latency.** Measure each variant in onnxruntime-web/WASM (session-create, cold, warm
   p50/p90/p95), configured exactly like the app's ECSeg session. **First** confirm each variant loads and
   runs at all (ONNX-checker passing is not sufficient).
5. **Quality.** Agreement-vs-FP32 on a held-out image set as the decision proxy (FP32 is the reference for
   a replacement decision); COCO calibration subset used for static INT8 and for diversity. See
   [§7 limitations](#7-limitations).
6. **Decide** per model (ADOPT / OPTIONAL / REJECT / INCONCLUSIVE).

**Images.** Static-INT8 calibration: 50-image COCO val2017 subset (fixed id list, app preprocessing).
Numerical-equivalence evaluation: the repo's 47 `datasets/` images — **disjoint** from calibration.

---

## 3. Hard integration constraints (read from the app source)

These shape which optimizations are even admissible:

- **Storage is uncompressed.** The offline model store writes the raw ONNX bytes into IndexedDB
  (`src/offline/services/offline-model-store.ts`). gzip/Brotli on the wire does **not** shrink the stored
  artifact — the download size must equal the pinned `sizeBytes`, and IndexedDB then holds the decompressed
  ONNX. **On-disk `.onnx` size is the real storage cost**, and is what the size tables below use.
- **The I/O contract is verified strictly at curated import** — `verifyTensorAgainstSpec()` in
  `src/pages/.../custom-model-curated-flow.ts` checks each tensor's **dtype and shape** against the pinned
  contract: `images` f32 `[1,3,640,640]` → `labels` i64 `[1,300]`, `boxes` f32 `[1,300,4]`, `scores` f32
  `[1,300]`, `masks` f32 `[1,300,160,160]`. A variant that changed an output dtype/shape would be rejected
  at setup. **Every variant here preserves this contract** (FP16 keeps I/O float32 via boundary casts; INT8
  keeps I/O float). If a winning artifact is adopted, its `sizeBytes` + `sha256` in
  `src/core/models/custom-checkpoints.ts` must be updated too.
- **ECSeg is pinned to the CPU/WASM EP** (`custom-checkpoints.ts`, `executionProviders: ['cpu']`) because
  the WebGPU EP fails this graph on ort-web 1.24.3. The graph contains 12 `GridSample` ops (deformable mask
  sampling), the most likely cause. **WebGPU is out of scope** — the benchmark measures CPU/WASM only.
- **Session options** the harness mirrors: `executionProviders:['cpu']`, `graphOptimizationLevel:'all'`,
  `logSeverityLevel:3`, `executionMode` = `sequential` (1 thread) / `parallel` (pool), `env.wasm.simd=true`.

---

## 4. Baseline characterization

Both checkpoints share the **identical graph topology** — 2753 nodes, 415 initializers, the same operator
histogram — differing only in weight width (channel counts). They are the same architecture at two
capacities.

| | ECSeg-S | ECSeg-M |
|---|---|---|
| SHA-256 | `fd30a61c…2522da` | `ded81475…820474` |
| Size on disk | 41,889,348 B (39.95 MiB) | 80,820,640 B (77.08 MiB) |
| opset / IR | 17 / 8 | 17 / 8 |
| Nodes / initializers | 2753 / 415 | 2753 / 415 |
| Weight dtype | 414×FLOAT + 1×INT64 | 414×FLOAT + 1×INT64 |
| Weight bytes | ~40.99 MB (98% of file) | ~79.82 MB (99% of file) |
| External data | none (self-contained) | none |
| ONNX checker | pass | pass |

**Operators (both).** `Conv`×45, `MatMul`×152, `Gemm`×5 (the quantizable compute), plus
`LayerNormalization`×40, `Sigmoid`×59, `Softmax`×26, `Erf`×14 (GELU), **`GridSample`×12**, `TopK`×3,
`GatherElements`×4, `Einsum`×1, and 954 `Constant` nodes (foldable). Because the file is ~98–99% FLOAT32
weights, halving weight width (FP16) roughly halves the file and INT8 roughly quarters the *weight* portion.

---

## 5. Variant matrix & sizes

All variants pass the ONNX checker and preserve the exact I/O contract of [§3](#3-hard-integration-constraints).

| Variant | What it does | ECSeg-S | | ECSeg-M | |
|---|---|--:|--:|--:|--:|
| | | MiB | % fp32 | MiB | % fp32 |
| **fp32** | baseline | 39.95 | 100% | 77.08 | 100% |
| **graphopt** | onnxslim: constant-fold, dead-node elimination, safe fusions (runtime-agnostic) | 40.72 | 102% | 77.85 | 101% |
| **fp16** | float16 weights, I/O kept float32 (boundary casts); conservative op block-list | 20.57 | 51% | 39.13 | 51% |
| **int8-dynamic** | weight-only dynamic INT8 (per-channel) on MatMul/Gemm | 16.57 | 41% | 32.75 | 42% |
| **int8-static** | static QDQ INT8 (Conv+MatMul), COCO calibration | 12.87 | 32% | 22.40 | 29% |
| **int8-static-selective** | static QDQ INT8 but mask-head nodes kept float | 13.98 | 35% | 24.41 | 32% |

Note: **graphopt is slightly larger** — onnxslim folds `Constant` nodes into initializers, materializing a
few tensors. Its only potential benefit is faster session-create, not smaller storage (the app already
applies `graphOptimizationLevel:'all'` at load, so the runtime graph is equivalent either way).

---

## 6. Results

### 6.1 Loads-and-runs in onnxruntime-web/WASM (the gate)

**Single-thread WASM (`wasm-st`): every variant loads and runs.** All six S variants and six M variants
create a session and produce the four outputs. Cross-runtime check: the FP32 baseline returns the **same 17
instances** on the reference image as Python onnxruntime — the harness is faithful.

**Multi-thread WASM (`wasm-mt`, the cross-origin-isolated browser config): the ECSeg graph hard-hangs at
`session.create` — for every variant, and for FP32 too.** This was isolated carefully:

- Reproduced across **every** threaded configuration tried: `numThreads` auto(0) / 4 / 2, `executionMode`
  both `parallel` and `sequential`, both headless and headed, both `chromium.launch` and
  `launchPersistentContext`. All hang at session creation; the hang is a hard, synchronous block of the
  renderer (an in-page 30 s timeout never fires), i.e. not merely slow.
- **It is ECSeg-graph-specific, not a harness artifact.** The repo's existing
  [`scripts/benchmark-sam2.mjs`](../../scripts/benchmark-sam2.mjs) harness — same onnxruntime-web 1.24.3,
  same single-file ORT bundle, same COOP/COEP server, same machine — brings the threaded WASM pool up
  fine and completes `wasm-mt` for SAM tiny/small/large. The ECSeg graph is what the threaded build cannot
  instantiate.
- This is the **same class of failure the app already documents** for ECSeg on the WebGPU EP (hence the
  hard `executionProviders:['cpu']` pin): the graph's deformable-attention machinery — 12 `GridSample`
  ops, `GatherElements`, `Einsum`, dynamic `TopK` — is not handled by these ORT-web backends.

**Consequences for this study.**
1. The benchmark measures **single-thread WASM**, which is not a fallback but the config the app actually
   ships on **Desktop (Tauri) and iOS** (both pinned to one thread by `session-parameters.ts`), i.e. 2 of
   3 platforms. It is also the cleaner per-op comparison.
2. For the pure browser (`app.annotateit.ai`, isolated → `numThreads:0`), ECSeg would request exactly the
   threaded pool that hangs here. Whether the app's bundler wiring avoids the hang in production is **out of
   scope and untested** — but optimization does **not** change it (every variant retains the GridSample
   machinery and hangs identically), so it is orthogonal to the swap decision.
3. Latency is input-independent for this architecture (static 640×640 input, fixed 300 queries, fixed
   160×160 masks, no data-dependent loops), so a single reference input is representative for timing.

### 6.2 Browser latency (onnxruntime-web 1.24.3, CPU/WASM single-thread)

Apple M4 Max, Chrome, `wasm-st` (single thread — the config Desktop+iOS ship, and the only one the ECSeg
graph runs in; see [§6.1](#61-loads-and-runs-in-onnxruntime-webwasm-the-gate)). 15 warm repeats after 2
warm-ups, identical input. Latency is input-independent for this static graph.

**ECSeg-S** (baseline warm p50 = 1299 ms)

| variant | session-create ms | cold ms | **warm p50 ms** | p90 | p95 | Δ warm vs fp32 | instances |
|---|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|
| fp32 | 529 | 1368 | **1299** | 1306 | — | — | 17 |
| graphopt | 435 | 1367 | **1300** | 1308 | — | +0.1% | 17 |
| fp16 | 703 | 1437 | **1366** | 1377 | — | **+5.2%** | 17 |
| int8-dynamic | — | — | **does not load** | — | — | — | — |
| int8-static | 691 | 1625 | **1523** | 1535 | — | **+17.2%** | **0** |
| int8-static-selective | 683 | 1604 | **1493** | 1500 | — | **+14.9%** | **0** |

**ECSeg-M** (baseline warm p50 = 2093 ms)

| variant | session-create ms | cold ms | **warm p50 ms** | p90 | p95 | Δ warm vs fp32 | instances |
|---|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|
| fp32 | 531 | 2140 | **2093** | 2103 | — | — | 18 |
| graphopt | 434 | 2135 | **2089** | 2093 | — | −0.2% | 18 |
| fp16 | 693 | 2238 | **2177** | 2185 | — | **+4.0%** | 18 |
| int8-dynamic | — | — | **does not load** | — | — | — | — |
| int8-static | 695 | 2482 | **2378** | 2388 | — | **+13.6%** | **0** |
| int8-static-selective | 673 | 2453 | **2343** | 2349 | — | **+11.9%** | **0** |

**Reading the table.**
- **graphopt**: warm latency identical; only a ~90 ms cheaper session-create; **larger** on disk. No win.
- **fp16**: **slower** in WASM (+4–5%). The WASM CPU EP has no native fp16 compute kernels, so ORT inserts
  cast-to-fp32 around every fp16 op — smaller weights, more work. S breaches the ≤5% warm budget.
- **int8-dynamic**: **fails `session.create`** in ort-web 1.24.3 —
  `[ShapeInferenceError] Incompatible dimensions` (ONNX-checker-valid but runtime-rejected). Hard fail.
- **int8-static / -selective**: **slower** (+12–17%: QuantizeLinear/DequantizeLinear overhead with no
  optimized INT8 kernels for this graph outweighs the smaller weights) **and produce 0 instances** — the
  head quantization collapses `scores` below the 0.4 threshold (calibration hit a zero-range weight in the
  segmentation head → zero scale → degenerate output; see [§6.3](#63-numerical-equivalence-vs-fp32)).
  Keeping the mask head float (`-selective`) does not recover detection — the score/box heads are also
  destroyed.

Net: the two variants that reduce storage the most (INT8) are the worst on both latency and quality; the
one with acceptable quality (fp16) is slower; the only lossless one (graphopt) is larger. **No variant is
simultaneously smaller, no-slower, and quality-neutral.**

### 6.3 Numerical equivalence vs FP32

Candidate vs FP32 on identical inputs (Python onnxruntime CPU), 47 held-out `datasets/` images, 358 (S) /
~360 (M) FP32 instances total. `mean mask IoU` is over matched instances; `worst-img` and `min-inst` expose
the tail. (`label_agreement_all300` is omitted — it is dominated by sub-threshold junk queries and is not
meaningful; `class match on real detections` is 1.00 for every runnable variant.)

**ECSeg-S**

| variant | cand/base inst | mean mask IoU | worst-img mask IoU | min-inst mask IoU | mask pixel flips | near-0.4 flips | NaN/Inf |
|---|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|:--:|
| graphopt | 358/358 | **1.000** | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.0% | 0 | no |
| fp16 | 357/358 | 0.988 | 0.667 | 0.000 | 13.9% | 1 | no |
| fp16-hi | 357/358 | 0.985 | 0.667 | 0.000 | 14.0% | 1 | no |
| int8-dynamic | — | — (fails to load in ORT-web) | | | | | |
| int8-static | **0**/358 | n/a | n/a | n/a | — | 358 | no |
| int8-static-selective | **0**/358 | n/a | n/a | n/a | — | 358 | no |

**ECSeg-M** (341 FP32 instances total)

| variant | cand/base inst | mean mask IoU | worst-img mask IoU | min-inst mask IoU | mask pixel flips | near-0.4 flips | NaN/Inf |
|---|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|--:|:--:|
| graphopt | 341/341 | **1.000** | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.0% | 0 | no |
| fp16 | 344/341 | 0.979 | 0.613 | 0.000 | 13.5% | 5 | no |
| fp16-hi | 342/341 | 0.976 | 0.548 | 0.000 | 13.3% | 5 | no |
| int8-dynamic | — | — (fails to load in ORT-web **and** Python ORT) | | | | | |
| int8-static | **0**/341 | n/a | n/a | n/a | — | 341 | no |
| int8-static-selective | **0**/341 | n/a | n/a | n/a | — | 341 | no |

M fp16 quality is **worse** than S (mean 0.976–0.979 vs 0.985–0.988; worst-image 0.55–0.61 vs 0.67) — the
larger model's larger mask logits (abs error up to ~670) degrade more under fp16.

**Reading it.**
- **graphopt is bit-identical** to FP32 (as expected from a lossless graph rewrite).
- **fp16 / fp16-hi**: mean mask IoU ~0.985–0.988 looks high, but the tail is real — at least one instance
  drops to IoU 0.0 (a fully wrong mask) and the worst image averages 0.67. Raising the fp16 range clamp
  from the library default ±1e4 to fp16's true ±65504 (`fp16-hi`) does **not** help — the error is inherent
  fp16 precision loss in the large mask logits, not clipping (max mask-logit error stays ~300). For an
  annotation tool this occasional fully-wrong mask is a real UX cost.
- **int8-static / -selective**: **0 instances** — all detections drop below the 0.4 score threshold (358
  near-threshold decision flips; no NaN/Inf — the head simply collapses). Static INT8 calibration hit a
  zero-range weight in the segmentation head (zero scale → degenerate quantized output). Excluding the mask
  head (`-selective`) does not recover it — the score/box heads are equally affected.
- **int8-dynamic**: does not load in **either** runtime — ort-web 1.24.3 rejects it with
  `[ShapeInferenceError] Incompatible dimensions` and Python onnxruntime 1.22 fails to load the model at
  all. Per-channel dynamic quantization of this graph's MatMuls produces a structurally invalid graph
  (ONNX-checker-valid, yet unloadable) — a concrete instance of "the checker accepting it is not
  sufficient".

### 6.3.1 Side-by-side visualizations

Rendered by `scripts/model-optimization/visualize.py` (FP32 vs candidate, plus a union-mask disagreement
panel). Stored under [`img/`](img/):

- [`ecseg-s-int8static-empty.png`](img/ecseg-s-int8static-empty.png) — the failure that matters most: FP32
  finds 18 instances on a parking-lot image, **int8-static finds 0** (union mask IoU 0.000). This is what
  "smaller" costs.
- [`ecseg-s-fp16-worstcase.png`](img/ecseg-s-fp16-worstcase.png) — FP32 vs fp16 on the worst held-out image
  for fp16 (per-instance mean mask IoU 0.667). Overall coverage is close (union IoU high), but individual
  instance boundaries drift — the per-instance metric is where fp16 loses.
- [`ecseg-m-fp16-typical.png`](img/ecseg-m-fp16-typical.png) — a typical image where M fp16 matches FP32
  (union IoU 1.0). fp16's damage is concentrated on a minority of images, not uniform.

### 6.4 Cross-runtime & cross-browser correctness

The FP32 baseline and the lossless graphopt return the **same instances** in ORT-web/WASM as in Python
onnxruntime (17 on the S reference image, 18 on M), confirming the harness is faithful and the WASM CPU EP
matches the reference. The broken INT8 variants return **0 instances in both** runtimes — a consistent
(if useless) result, not a runtime discrepancy.

**Cross-browser (WebKit / Safari engine, single-thread WASM, ECSeg-S).** Every Chrome finding reproduces on
WebKit — the conclusions are not a Blink quirk:

| variant | WebKit warm p50 | instances | vs Chrome |
|---|--:|--:|---|
| fp32 | 1360 ms | 17 | same behavior (Chrome 1299 ms) |
| fp16 | 1455 ms (**+7%** vs its own fp32) | 17 | slower, same as Chrome |
| int8-dynamic | **does not load** (`session.create` fails) | — | same as Chrome |
| int8-static | 1704 ms (**+25%**) | **0** | slower + empty, same as Chrome |

---

## 7. Limitations

- **Quality proxy, not full COCO AP.** The decision metric is agreement-vs-FP32 (FP32 is the reference for a
  drop-in replacement) on a 47-image held-out set, plus a 50-image COCO calibration set. True mask/box AP
  against COCO ground truth (with pycocotools) is not computed here; the quality budget (≤0.5 AP drop) is
  therefore evaluated via strict proxies (mask IoU vs FP32, near-threshold decision flips), and any verdict
  resting on the proxy is marked accordingly.
- **One machine, two browser engines.** All numbers are Apple M4 Max; Chrome (Blink) is primary and WebKit
  (Safari engine) confirms the four decisive S cases ([§6.4](#64-cross-runtime--cross-browser-correctness)).
  No Windows / Android / low-end-device numbers — but the verdict rests on *relative* deltas (smaller-but-
  slower, won't-load, 0-instances) that are architectural, not device-specific, so they are unlikely to
  invert on other hardware.
- **Multi-thread WASM could not be measured** for the ECSeg graph (it hard-hangs `session.create`); see
  [§6.1](#61-loads-and-runs-in-onnxruntime-webwasm-the-gate). Single-thread is the config that runs, and is
  what Desktop + iOS ship. Whether the pure-browser multi-thread path works in production is a separate,
  pre-existing question independent of this optimization decision.
- **Because no variant qualified, no adoption/rollback path was exercised.** The registry
  (`custom-checkpoints.ts`), IndexedDB save/load, curated-import verification, Test flow and real inference
  were left on FP32 (the ECSeg jest suites — 63 tests — still pass; repo type-check is green).

---

## 8. Verdicts

### ECSeg-S — **REJECT**

No variant is simultaneously smaller, no-slower, and quality-neutral in the target runtime:

| candidate | size | warm latency | quality | loads/runs | why not |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| graphopt | **+2% (larger)** | ≈ equal | bit-exact | yes | no size or latency win; only ~90 ms cheaper create |
| fp16 / fp16-hi | 51% | **+5.2% slower** | mask IoU 0.985–0.988 mean but 0.0 min-inst / 0.67 worst-img, 14% flips | yes | slower **and** occasional fully-wrong masks; over the 5% budget |
| int8-dynamic | 41% | — | — | **NO** (`ShapeInferenceError`) | does not create a session in ort-web 1.24.3 |
| int8-static | 32% | **+17% slower** | **0 instances** | yes (but useless) | head collapses; slower too |
| int8-static-selective | 35% | **+15% slower** | **0 instances** | yes (but useless) | head collapses; slower too |

Keep the FP32 checkpoint. The only lossless option is larger; every smaller option is slower and/or
broken.

### ECSeg-M — **REJECT**

Same picture, and fp16's quality is **worse** on M than on S (larger logits degrade more under fp16):

| candidate | size | warm latency | quality | loads/runs | why not |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| graphopt | +1% (larger) | ≈ equal | bit-exact | yes | no win |
| fp16 / fp16-hi | 49% | **+4.0% slower** | mask IoU 0.976 mean but 0.0 min-inst / **0.55 worst-img**, 13% flips | yes | slower **and** worse masks than S; a segmentation-quality regression the product should not ship for a size-only gain |
| int8-dynamic | 42% | — | — | **NO** (`ShapeInferenceError`) | does not create a session |
| int8-static | 29% | **+14% slower** | **0 instances** | yes (but useless) | head collapses; slower too |
| int8-static-selective | 32% | **+12% slower** | **0 instances** | yes (but useless) | head collapses; slower too |

M fp16 sits just inside the 5% latency budget, so it is the single "closest" candidate — but it buys a 49%
storage cut with a **latency regression and a measurable mask-quality regression** (worst-image mask IoU
0.55, occasional IoU-0 instances), and AnnotateIt weights annotation quality and latency above compression.
Not worth adopting, even as a device-conditional OPTIONAL. Keep the FP32 checkpoint.

### Why every path failed — root cause

The ECSeg head is a DETR-style deformable-attention segmentation head (12 `GridSample`, `Einsum`, dynamic
`TopK`, `GatherElements`). Three independent facts fall out of that one design:

1. **It won't run on the threaded WASM pool or WebGPU** — only single-thread CPU/WASM. (Already why the app
   pins `['cpu']`.)
2. **Its mask logits have a wide dynamic range** (errors up to ~670 in M), so **fp16 loses real precision**
   exactly where it matters — near the mask-logit=0 decision boundary — flipping pixels.
3. **Its score/box heads have low-rank / near-constant weight tensors**, so **static-INT8 MinMax
   calibration produces zero-scale quantizers** that collapse the output to nothing.

And because the graph is ~98% weights with almost no INT8-friendly large-matmul structure that ort-web has
fast kernels for, the QDQ/cast overhead makes the quantized graphs **slower**, not faster, on WASM. Smaller
file, more runtime work: the exact anti-pattern the study was asked to rule out.

---

## 9. Reproduce

See [`scripts/model-optimization/README.md`](../../scripts/model-optimization/README.md) for the exact
commands (download+verify, build variants, correctness, browser benchmark, aggregate).