{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Research shows that restrictive immigration policies and practices are associated with poor health, but far less is known about the relationship between inclusive immigration policies and health. Using data from the United States natality files, we estimate associations between state laws granting undocumented immigrants access to driver's licenses and perinatal outcomes among 4,047,067 singleton births to Mexican and Central American immigrant birthing people (2008-2021). Fitting multivariable log binomial and linear models, we find that the implementation of a license law is associated with improvements in low birthweight and mean birthweight. Replicating these analyses among U.S.-born non-Hispanic White birthing people, we find no association between the implementation of a license law and birthweight. These findings support the hypothesis that states' extension of legal rights to immigrants improves the health of the next generation.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 0}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Extant literature has established the adverse effect of high costs of capital on the levelized costs of electricity (LCOEs) for RETs9, CO2 abatement cost7,10 and RET deployment in integrated assessment models11. Consequently, high costs of capital are considered major obstacles to RET deployment12,13. By the same logic, low costs of capital can contribute to the observed cost reductions for solar PV and wind energy14-16. Financial markets thus have a constraining or enabling role in the low-carbon energy transition17-20.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 1}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Sociologists have long struggled to explain the minority mental health paradox: that racial-ethnic minorities often report better mental health than non-Hispanic whites despite social environments that seem less conducive to well-being. Using data from the 2008-2013 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), this study provides a partial explanation for the paradox rooted in a very different disparity. Evidence from MEPS indicates that non-Hispanic whites consume more pharmaceuticals than racial-ethnic minorities for a wide variety of medical conditions. Moreover, non-Hispanic whites consume more pharmaceuticals that although effective in treating their focal indication, include depression or suicide as a side effect. In models that adjust for the use of such medications, the minority advantage in significant distress is reduced, in some instances to statistical nonsignificance. Although a significant black and Hispanic advantage in a continuous measure of distress remains, the magnitude of the difference is reduced considerably. The relationship between the use of medications with suicide as a side effect and significant distress is especially large, exceeding, for instance, the relationship between poverty and significant distress. For some minority groups, the less frequent use of such medications is driven by better health (as in the case of Asians), whereas for others, it reflects a treatment disparity (as in the case of blacks), although the consequences for the mental health paradox are the same. The implications of the results are discussed, especially with respect to the neglect of psychological side effects in the treatment of physical disease as well as the problem of multiple morbidities.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 2}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Cities are now taking the lead in implementing just urban transitions\u2014fair and equitable transitions toward low-carbon and resilient urban societies1,2. Given the global push towards urbanization into metropolitan areas3, and the devolution of some authority in climate decision-making to subnational actors, cities have been leaders in climate  action for over two decades4-6. More recently, city governments have been increasingly recognizing the connections between climate change and social justice, and making headway with the integration of justice and equity concerns into climate plans and policy implementation tools7-9. However, these efforts have been met with questions about whether and how cities will take just climate action from planning  into practice.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 3}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Here we combine information about SBTi-certified company emission reduction targets with data on REC purchases to assess the effect of RECs on the alignment of companies' reported scope 2 emission trajectories with the Paris temperature goal. We use the climate change disclosures of 115 companies, which represents the subset of companies with SBTs that have also disclosed data which can be used to assess the contribution of RECs to their reported (2015-2019) and potential future emission reductions. Importantly, it was necessary that all companies in our sample reported their past emissions using both market- and location-based emission accounting methods (Box 1). We also distinguish here between RECs and power purchase agreements (PPAs), which represent a long-term commitment by a company to purchase power from a particular renewable energy project. Although empirical evidence is still needed, we have adopted here the common assumption that PPAs do lead to additional renewable energy production and real emission reductions, as the long-term power price de-risks new projects and allows access to project finance14,15,17,18 (Box 1). By contrast, we assume that RECs and similar market-based instruments are non-additional, that is, not leading to additional renewable generation capacity or real emissions reductions, and we use the term RECs to refer to all non-PPA instruments for that reason (see Methods for details on these market-based instruments and terminology). Although existing literature suggest that RECs are non-additional due to their low and uncertain prices11-18, some claim that RECs may still contribute to the generation of more renewable energy in the longer term by, in aggregation, signaling to the market that there is a demand for renewable energy9,23. Analyses so far do not find evidence to support the existence of such an indirect market effect, and we consequently do not consider this potential effect here. We acknowledge, however, the possibility that such longer-term indirect effects may become evident in future analyses.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 4}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    At the same time, attention has also focused on the role of the institutional arrangements of welfare state policies as generalized social determinants of  health, often due to their effects on SES (Beckfield et al. 2015; \u00d3lafsd\u00f3ttir and Beckfield 2020; Reynolds 2021). To assess the effects of policy, we utilize spending effort as an operational indicator of policy differences, recognizing that policies may exist with varying levels of funding and that the hypothetical presence of a policy without supportive spending is likely to have little to no effect (Castles 2008). Recent reviews demonstrate that the spending effort in general areas of social policy is associated with SES differences in mental health, where increases in spending generally reduce SES differences both between (McAllister et al. 2018) and within countries (Simpson et al. 2021). Between-country differences highlight the importance of contextual differences in policy environments for SES inequalities in mental health, averaged over time, whereas within-country analysis demonstrate changes in either the direction or magnitude of specific policy effects over a given period. Between-country studies find greater levels of active labor market (Niedzwiedz et al. 2016) and sickness benefit spending (van der Wel et al. 2015) reduce educational differences in mental health. Within-country analyses demonstrate that SES inequalities are impacted by the direction of spending effort so that increases reduce and reductions increase inequalities across family policies (Lebihan and Mao Takongmo 2018; Milligan and Stabile 2011), social assistance (Herbst 2013), and old age security (Carrino, Glaser, and Avendano 2020).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 5}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Temperature extremes are likely to act as a risk multiplier, worsening energy insecurity for those at greatest risk as 'vulnerable households typically live in poorer quality housing, and have least resource or opportunity to invest in improvements to its efficiency and heating technology'6. The importance of access to energy has prompted governments worldwide to implement policies maintaining this access, many with special attention to reducing the health effects of heat and cold7,26,27.The climate of the Northern Territory (NT) ranges from equatorial and tropical regions in the north to hot dry grassland regions in Central Australia (Fig. 1a). Remote Indigenous communities in the NT are mostly off-grid and unregulated by the guidelines of the Australian Energy Regulator28. In a situation unusual in Australia, remote living residents prepay for access to electricity and regularly experience disconnection on non-payment. Distant from Australia's urban centres and major electricity grids, these communities have long relied on diesel and gas-fired generators. In recent years, there has been incremental integration of renewable energy into these isolated, high-cost electricity networks.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 6}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Across many industrialized economies, climate policies are increasingly focused on the transportation sector, which lags behind the level and pace of decarbonization observed in other sectors. Indeed, between 2010 and 2019, while non-transportation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have fallen by 6% across Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries, GHG emissions from transportation have risen by 6% (ref. 1). Today, the transportation sector is responsible for the largest share of GHG emissions  in the United States and the European Union at 28% and 24%, respectively, and an even larger share in California (40%), the region of focus in this study1,2.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 7}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The EU emissions trading system (EU ETS) is a central pillar of the European Union's decarbonization strategy. It covers the electricity sector, large-scale industrial installations, aviation and maritime transport and hence controls above 40% of the European Union's total greenhouse gas emissions1. Over a period with two major reforms of the ETS and notably a substantial tightening of the cap, the carbon market underwent a remarkable transition: carbon prices increased tenfold within four years, with a first rise in 2018 from below \u20ac10 tCO2-1 to a plateau at \u20ac20-30 tCO2-1 in 2019-2020 and then a second, even sharper, rise during which prices repeatedly reached almost \u20ac100 tCO2-1 in 2021 and 20222. The question of why prices have risen so steeply is still unanswered, though, and a subject of debate among the scientific and policy community.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 8}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The connections between education and health are one of the most widely studied and empirically robust in the field of medical sociology (Adler et al. 1994; Conti, Heckman, and Urzua 2010). Education has been associated with assorted morbidities, mortality risk, disability, general health, mental health, and an array of health-related behaviors linked to various health outcomes (Adams 2002; Arendt 2005; Cutler and Lleras-Muney 2010; Lleras-Muney 2005; Turner and Lloyd 1999). One important question about the links between education and health that remains unanswered, however, is whether these links are robust for individuals who pursued schooling at a stage of the life course when education has normatively been completed (as reflected in formal definitions of nontraditional students, as well as institutional expectations and structures): prior to having children (Macmillan 2005; Marini1984). This question of whether \u201cout-of-sequence\u201d education can promote greater health is particularly salient for women with children, who (based on estimates from 2015 to 2016), represent over 15% of all students enrolled in college and 70% of all student parents (Cruse et al. 2019).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 9}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The costs of electricity networks are mainly determined by their capacity, the maximum amount of energy that the grid is dimensioned to stand at any given point in time. Despite this, volumetric tariffs, which do not directly reflect the nature of these costs, are still widely applied. In the past, when load profiles of residential users were approximately homothetic, the application of tariffs with a dominant volumetric charge was well justified. Nowadays, there is increasing diversity in daily load profiles, and part of this development is due to the increase of distributed generation, the advent of low-capacity storage (for example, in-home batteries for storing photovoltaic-produced electricity), the arising prospect of an increasing number of electric vehicles, and the vision of house-tohouse electricity trading to balance the overproduction from owngeneration without the need (of higher levels) of the power grid2-5\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 10}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The European Union and United Kingdom have adopted targets of net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for all sectors to comply with the Paris Agreement targets21,22. To achieve such targets, residual emissions, such as methane emissions in agriculture, need to be offset by carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere, where BECCS and DACCS emerge as key options for technical CDR23-25.Biomass is a limited resource and its use for energy can be associated with a range of positive and negative environmental, social and economic effects that are context specific and depend on land type and climatic region, prior land use and how bioenergy feedstock and management regimes are shaped26-33. Due to concerns about possible environmental impacts, insufficient emissions reductions and competition with the food sector, EU policy has capped biofuels from food and feed crops and increasingly emphasizes lignocellulosic biomass, especially residues and waste34,35, and prioritizes the biomass usage to  energy applications where other alternatives are currently difficult to find or considered to be too costly. All of the possible biomass usage options face competition from electricity-derived energy carriers and fossil fuels (Extended Data Fig. 1). A full systems analysis of biomass allocation to different energy uses therefore requires broad coverage of options and sectors. Such analyses have been carried out with global integrated assessment models (IAMs), with a large variety in results, but with biomass in the longer term generally ending up being used for electricity and/or liquid fuels production36, coupled with carbon capture and storage (CCS)37,38. The potential value of negative emissions from BECCS has been found to be very high, enabling the achievement of more ambitious climate targets37,39-41 or delayed phase-out of fossil fuels if temperature overshoot is permitted40,41. The latter raises concerns over risks in relyingion future technology deployment to compensate for earlier emissions and over intergenerational equity42-45.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 11}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    To meet its dual carbon targets, China needs to implement these policies in tandem8. On the basis of the portfolios of mitigation policies, China is projected to successfully achieve its dual carbon targets, with cumulative gross domestic product (GDP) losses of ~1.7-5.7%  (refs. 9-11). However, simply aggregating the (seemingly ideal) effects of multiple policies does not accurately reflect the actual policy outcome, as the trade-offs and synergies between policies can weaken or strengthen their effects12,13. Combining and sequencing policy implementation can largely impact the efficiency, stringency and externality of mitigation policies14-16. Nevertheless, most studies on achieving China's dual carbon targets have focused on the effectiveness and economic costs of mitigation policies17-19, while the interactions between mitigation policies and their impacts on attaining China's carbon neutrality have been overlooked.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 12}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Despite empirical support linking individual levels of social integration to mental health outcomes (Turner and Turner 2013), as well as research demonstrating how contextual levels of social integration can influence individual outcomes such as suicidal ideation (e.g., Maimon and Kuhl 2008; Winfree and Jiang 2010), there is much less direct evidence for the consequences of societal change for integration and subsequent effects on mental health. One of the primary areas of empirical evidence comes from periods of economic turmoil (Cockerham 2017), as increasing rates of foreclosure and unemployment were associated with spikes in suicide rates following the Great Recession (Houle and Light 2014; Phillips and Nugent 2014). Closer to individual outcomes, meso-level changes in foreclosure rates following the recession were also inversely associated with individual mental health (Houle 2014; Settels 2020). An additional line of research linking social change to integration has argued that increases in birth cohort size and births to unwed mothers are causative agents in declining levels of social integration that affect suicide rates (O'Brien and Stockard 2006; Stockard and O'Brien 2002). It is notable, however, that much of this research is conducted purely at a contextual level and does not clearly tie rapid social change to individual experiences of social isolation. The current study therefore builds on this body of evidence to demonstrate whether increases in perceptions of social isolation contributed to a rise in psychological distress following the onset of the pandemic.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 13}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In the United States, birth attendants are afforded great discretion in decision-making, guidelines for IOL are not well defined, and risk assessments of pregnancy and labor often use highly subjective indications (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists [ACOG] 2007, 2019a, 2019b; Marconi 2019). Combined, U.S. obstetric environments likely allow implicit biases and obstetric racism to influence IOL decisions (Davis 2019; Liese et al. 2021; Vedam et al. 2019). More broadly, systemic and cultural racism shape social conditions and practices that generate racial inequities in health care access and heath policies (Cogburn 2019). These racialized processes likely shape obstetric practices in the United States. As a result, it is possible that rising IOL rates among pregnancies to White women are partly responding to changes in the health and risk factors of this childbearing population. By contrast, rising IOL rates among U.S. Black and Latina women may not have occurred because of the changes or needs in these childbearing populations but, rather, because of the standardization of U.S. obstetric care practices based on the changes and  needs among White women. In short, obstetric racism and the failure to center U.S. obstetric care at the margins likely has produced more \u201cinterventions without explanation\u201d among Black and Latina women than among White women (Davis 2019:569).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 14}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Understanding the extent to which these prices are real, sustainable and reproducible is critical for setting energy strategies to encourage the continued rapid PV deployment that will be needed over the next decade and beyond to achieve energy system decarbonization at the rate required by climate agreement targets17. In this analysis, we draw on a range of publicly available data on PV system costs and performance, along with local knowledge of the region, with the aim of answering the questions: how did electricity from PV get so cheap so fast? Can these ultralow prices be sustained and extended to other markets? And how much lower could they get?\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 15}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Under a warming climate, wildfires are becoming more frequent and severe. Multicountry studies evaluating associations between wildfire fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and respiratory hospitalizations are lacking. Here we evaluate the short-term effects of wildfire-specific PM2.5on respiratory hospitalizations from 1,052 communities across Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, Vietnam, Thailand and Taiwan, during 2000-2019. A 1 \u00b5g m-3 increase in wildfire-specific PM2.5was associated with increased hospitalization risks for all-cause respiratory, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute upper respiratory infection, influenza and pneumonia by 0.36%, 0.48%, 0.38%, 0.42%, 0.79% and 0.36%, respectively. Higher risks were observed among populations \u226419 or \u226560 years old, from low-income or high non-wildfire PM2.5communities, and residing in Brazil, Thailand, Taiwan and Vietnam. Australia and New Zealand exhibited a greater hospitalization risk for asthma associated with wildfire-specific PM2.5. Compared with non-wildfire PM2.5, wildfire-specific PM2.5posed greater hospitalization risks for all respiratory diseases and a greater burden of asthma. Wildfire-specific PM2.5contributed to 42.4% of PM2.5-linked respiratory hospitalizations, dominating in Thailand.Overall, the substantial contribution of wildfire-specific PM2.5to respiratory hospitalizations demands continued mitigation and adaptation efforts across most countries. Intervention should be prioritized for influenza, children, adolescents, the elderly and populations in low-income or high-polluted communities.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 16}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In the United States, state and local governments are primarily responsible for land-use and zoning decisions, but federal policies also play important roles in shaping development. Federal investments in roads, utilities and other infrastructure lay the groundwork for population growth. Other government programmes, such as the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), which offers flood insurance at subsidized rates in most locations, and disaster assistance programmes, which provide funding for disaster recovery, also affect location decisions. By partially shifting disaster costs from property owners to the government, these programmes reduce the financial disincentives to development in risky areas. Whether withdrawing some of these financial incentives would curb development, lower the costs of disasters and help communities prepare for climate change is unclear. Many factors affect development decisions and federal incentives are only some of the factors at play. Empirical research into this question is limited because few policy experiments exist where a clear comparison can be made of 'treatment' settings, where incentives for development have been removed, and 'control' settings, similar areas where such incentives remain.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 17}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    A regression analysis of corporate tax rate cuts and changes in carbon emissions at the country level suggests a negative correlation between them. This analysis controlled for population, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and energy use per unit of GDP, and encompasses 56 countries over a 10-year period (Supplementary Information 1). Results suggest that corporate tax competition could hinder climate cooperation and present challenges to climate change mitigation efforts2. Corporate tax competition influences the geographical distribution of production and global emissions by influencing foreign investment flows and trade flows, which are the two main channels of international carbon transfer. Intuitively, a corporate tax cut in one country would increase the net profits of firms located in this country and attract more multinational production (MP) activities, which may further stimulate more exports. Meanwhile, changes in corporate tax rates also affect government revenue, which in turn can have an impact on a country's consumption patterns and overall output. The production allocation would further change global and regional CO2 emissions. To comprehensively quantify the emission effect of the global corporate tax changes, we build a multi-country multi-industry general equilibrium model by incorporating MNEs, international trade flows and corporate tax. We calibrate the model and quantify the economic and emission impacts of two global corporate tax shocks: the global corporate tax competition and the global minimum tax policy approved by OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries in 2021.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 18}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The bias shown towards high-carbon assets identified in this paper probably emerges from the backward-looking nature of risk estimates. That is, it is the outcome of using models that rely on the historical relationship between a firm's financial performance and past risk as a predictor of future risk. As discussed in the literature and by policymakers, such models are useful but may not be well suited to capturing uncertain macro-economic outcomes when there are structural breaks or non-marginal changes in the system, such as the clean energy transition. In these risk-based models, the creditworthiness of firms is often  estimated through financial ratios measuring profitability (for example, Earnings Before Interest, Taxes (EBIT)/Revenue), solvency (for example, Debt/Asset, Interest/EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciations and Amortizations)) and liquidity (for example, short-term debt/ working capital). If these ratios have been historically favourable for high-carbon firms, as previous research has highlighted37, risk models will probably produce favourable outcomes for this type of investment. This phenomenon might arguably limit investments in green assets if their past risk estimates have been relatively high.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 19}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    We examined the projected role of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) for the 18 Annex I countries that offer estimations  of residual emissions at net zero to understand whether countries projected that this sector would compensate for residual emissions. The plans for future LULUCF vary in their concreteness and detail; some include several scenarios specifying amounts of future LULUCF while others offer only vague ideas about future mitigation through LULUCF. Most countries expect to enhance or maintain the removal capacity  of the LULUCF sector (Table 3). For many of the countries that plan for enhanced removals from the LULUCF sector, these removals will equal or surpass their expected residual emissions by the point of net zero. This is the case for, among others, Finland, Iceland, Hungary,  Latvia, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden. However, for the biggest emitters in the sample, expected LULUCF removals fall far short of residuals. This is the case for Australia, Canada, France, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Taken together, these six countries comprise 96% of the total residuals of the sample. As these countries comprise the majority of residuals, their plans will be decisive for the overall amount of residuals that will have to be removed through means other than the LULUCF sector.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 20}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    To mitigate climate change, electricity grids need to integrate large shares of renewable generation. Some renewables, such as solar, are variable and cannot be generated according to market needs, which creates challenges in matching supply with demand. Demand-side response (DSR) measures are gaining prominence as a way to align demand with non-dispatchable supply. The residential sector accounts for 30-40% of electricity consumption across the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries, which makes it a prime target for DSR1. Decision makers, such as the California Public Utilities Commission, are enacting policies that require default enrolment in DSR programmes2, which can yield participation rates that exceed 80% (ref. 3); other entities may follow4. Thus, DSR is poised to soon reach millions of households, which highlights the need to understand whether the costs and benefits of DSR are distributed evenly across sociodemographic groups.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 21}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Previous research suggests that alternative solar products can expand access to solar. Specifically, the development of solar leasing models with minimal up-front costs has driven a more equitable expansion of rooftop solar12,13 and the recent emergence of solar loans may similarly address up-front cost barriers. However, rooftop solar remains largely inaccessible to renters and families living in multifamily housing14,15. Another alternative class of solar products in the United States is community solar, wherein multiple customers buy output from a single solar system16. As with leasing, community solar typically entails no or minimal up-front costs. Unlike rooftop solar, community solar poses no specific barriers to adoption for renters or multifamily building occupants. As a result, community solar is often theorized to promote more equitable solar access15,17-22 and is increasingly integrated into US solar adoption equity policies11. The federal Inflation Reduction Act includes tax credits for projects serving LMI communities or customers, and at least 17 states have incentives or regulations that promote LMI community solar23-25.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 22}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Investments via the financial system are essential for fostering the green transition. However, the role of existing financial regulations in influencing investment decisions is understudied. Here we analyse data from the European Banking Authority to show that existing financial accounting frameworks might inadvertently be creating disincentives for investments in low-carbon assets. We find that differences in the provision coverage ratio indicate that banks must account for nearly double the loan loss provisions for lending to low-carbon sectors as compared with high-carbon sectors. This bias is probably the result of basing risk estimates on historical data. We show that the average historical financial risk of the oil and gas sector has been consistently estimated to be lower than that of renewable energy. These results indicate that this bias could be present in other model-based regulations, such as capital requirements, and possibly impact the ability of banks to fund green investments.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 23}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Following Russia's military attack on Ukraine, the European Union (EU) and United States have imposed a large number of sanctions on Russia1,2. The attack has also led to a negative supply shock of oil, partly because Russia's ability to export has been hampered by the lack of will to insure Russian ships3, but also due to industry preparation for the upcoming EU oil import ban4. Together with surging post-pandemic demand, this has led to very high prices of transport fuels5,6. In response, a large number of European countries are either discussing or have already implemented a reduction in fuel taxes to help consumers cope with high prices. These include Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Romania and Sweden (see the Methods section 'Fuel price and taxes' and, for example, refs. 7-9 for details). Such tax reductions have problematic consequences since they increase demand, thus making current supply even more scarce. Some of the tax reduction will be attenuated by an increase in the underlying oil price, leading to increased profits for oil producers. Here, we assess the magnitude of this effect using basic theory and empirical estimates from the oil sector. We ask: 'How much does the oil income in Russia increase following fuel-tax reductions in the EU?' Knowing the answer to this question is highly relevant to policy as Russia's oil profits may undermine the geopolitical interests of the EU, reduce the effectiveness of the EU's sanctions and ultimately improve the ability of Russia to wage war.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 24}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    However, the effect of an ADHD diagnosis may not be uniformly positive (Owens and Jackson 2017). Situating ADHD within the broader literature on negative stereotypes surrounding children with disabilities (Pescosolido et al. 2008), diagnosed children may experience negative feelings of being unlike their peers (Hinshaw 2005) and increased scrutiny and lower expectations from teachers (Eisenberg and Schneider 2007). Depending on how these positives and negatives balance out, processes like labeling and stigma can produce negative perceived self-competence and ultimately, higher levels of the school behavior problems diagnosis is include to address.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 25}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    One strategy to address these challenges is peer referral. We define peer referral narrowly to mean when existing programme participants provide names to the programme provider of others who might enrol; we exclude informal word-of-mouth. Compared with other outreach strategies, peer referral can more efficiently find programme participants20,21: referrers know eligibility requirements and can more readily identify qualified peers. Peer referral also leverages social influence, a widely recognized driver of energy technology adoption22,23 that may be especially influential among low-to-moderate income (LMI) households16,24. Since individuals often know who referred them, a peer's nomination may signal endorsement for the programme, reduce distrust of the provider and ultimately increase participation. And in contrast to other peer-based strategies (for example, ambassador programmes25), peer referral programmes may be easier to scale: there is no need to identify and train individuals willing to become ongoing  programme advocates. Asking existing clients for nominations instead of word-of-mouth referrals also removes the onus of convincing peers to contact the programme provider.Despite its potential benefits, methods to increase peer referral for social benefit programmes have received little attention. The few studies so far test the efficacy of referral incentives for subsidized health programmes, with mixed results and sometimes limited sample sizes19,26. Most studies aimed at improving programme uptake instead focus on directly recruiting new participants\u2014overlooking the potential benefits of tapping existing programme beneficiaries to reach their peers.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 26}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Clean cooking energy transitions away from solid fuels present a major public policy challenge for the Global South1,2. About 2.9 billion people lack access to clean cooking fuels such as gas and electricity and burn solid fuels in open fires and other simple devices3. Exposure to household air pollution from solid fuel combustion is associated with 1.6 million avoidable deaths each year4 and results in a global welfare loss of roughly US$1.5 trillion5. Worldwide, ~30% of wood fuels burnt for cooking are not sustainably harvested. This contributes to forest degradation and global emissions of  1.0-1.2 GtCO2 e6. Women often engage in solid fuel collection, thereby  limiting their economic and educational opportunities7,8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 27}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    India is in the midst of the largest household energy transition to date, with about one hundred million households acquiring a liquified petroleum gas (LPG) connection since 20161. In 2011, three-fifths of Indian households\u2014primarily in rural areas\u2014relied on solid fuels to meet their daily cooking and heating needs2, resulting in substantial negative impacts on health3, the economy4 and the environment5. The Government of India's flagship cooking energy programme\u2014Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)\u2014has sought to alleviate the public health burden of household air pollution by providing a subsidy and loan for the upfront cost of adopting an LPG connection, which typically includes a double-burner gas stove, a 14.2-kilogram gas cylinder, a gas regulator and a hose pipe. Although over 80 million households have benefited from PMUY6, steep recurring expenses and the poor availability of LPG in rural areas continue to hinder the extent to which households use LPG for all cooking needs7,8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 28}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Empirical work on health lifestyles lags behind theory in crucial ways. Despite a growing consensus that lifestyles likely extend beyond behaviors, extant (mostly quantitative) research has measured only health behaviors. Furthermore, although it has long been understood that health lifestyles are collective (Cockerham, R\u00fctten, and Abel 1997; Frohlich and Potvin 1999), empirical research has examined them in individuals. Importantly, health lifestyles are theorized to be contextually specific (Cockerham et al. 2004), but almost all research has used national or geographically dispersed samples. Finally, Cockerham (2005:61) theorized, but empirical work has not yet shown, that people \u201calign their goals, needs, and desires with their probabilities for realizing them and choose a lifestyle according to their assessments of the reality of their resources and class circumstances.\u201d This \u201cinterplay between life choices and life chances\u201d (Cockerham 2005:60), in which people choose lifestyles from among available options, is fundamental to health lifestyles theory but has not been empirically documented. We seek to address these gaps through a study that situates families within community collectivities and creates space for new understandings of health, health behaviors, and health lifestyles to arise from the data.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 29}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Rates of childhood ADHD diagnoses are high across social class groups, ranging from 13% among children from families earning below the federal poverty level to 10% of those earning 1 to 3.9 times the poverty level and 9% of those earning at least 4 times the poverty level (Xu et al. 2018). In spite of relatively high rates of diagnosis across social class groups, our understanding of the relationship between social class privilege and diagnosed children's well-being remains limited.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 30}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Most studies analysing global climate change mitigation pathways using integrated assessment models (IAMs) consider an idealized climate policy framework putting a uniform carbon-equivalent price on GHG emissions from all sectors, sources and countries8. This policy mitigates carbon emissions from the LU sector, including those caused by bioenergy production. Under such a highly idealized policy framework, bioenergy can be treated as carbon neutral in the energy sector, since the associated emissions are regulated in the LU sector. However, in the current real-world situation, energy and LU policies are regionally and sectorally fragmented. While many countries have already started to implement GHG emission pricing in the energy sector, institutional capacity building is much less developed in the agricultural and forestry sectors26, leaving a regulatory gap of emissions in the LU sector27. The implicit assumption in IAMs of institutional feasibility of LU mitigation has been criticized28, because the regulatory gap can lead to substantial emission leakage from regulated to unregulated regions29,30 or sectors18,31,32 involving excess bioenergy production.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 31}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Rapid emissions reductions, including reductions in deforestation-based land emissions, are the dominant source of global climate mitigation potential in the coming decades. However, carbon dioxide removal (CDR) will also have an important role to play. Despite this, it remains unclear whether current national proposals for CDR align with temperature targets. Here we show the 'CDR gap', that is, CDR efforts proposed by countries fall short of those in integrated assessment model scenarios that limit warming to 1.5 \u00b0C. However, the most ambitious proposals for CDR are close to levels in a low-energy demand scenario with the most-limited CDR scaling and aggressive near-term emissions reductions. Further, we observe that many countries propose to expand land-based removals, but none yet commit to substantively scaling novel methods such as bioenergy carbon capture and storage, biochar or direct air carbon capture and storage.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 32}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Given the wide adoption of communication campaigns that rely on social information to promote behavioural change among both policymakers and private firms, it is important to understand how different programme features interact in real-world settings16. Indeed, impact evaluations of similar programmes find that they are effective in fostering energy savings, but that effect sizes vary widely across contexts and individuals17. Prominent explanations for such differential responses rely on the heterogeneity of consumers' traits, such as beliefs18,19, misperceptions of one's compliance with the social norm20 or personal values21,22.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 33}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In this study we explored clean cooking access until 2050 under reference scenarios of socioeconomic and demographic change, ambitious climate mitigation policy scenarios and a slow economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic scenario (see Methods for scenario details). We applied existing microdata-based cooking choice and demand models that explicitly consider fuel stacking and represent affordability constraints for urban and rural  populations, capturing heterogeneity in household preferences across the entire income distribution21,22. We find that a slow recovery from the pandemic and fuel price changes because of ambitious climate mitigation policy could substantially retard progress in achieving universal clean cooking access if additional policies related to energy access and poverty alleviation are not simultaneously pursued. Those most at risk of not being able to afford to transition to clean cooking are low-income households in sub-Saharan Africa (AFR), developing Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAM). A faster transition to clean cooking fuels can attenuate future growth in cooking energy demand, especially in regions that currently depend largely on biomass and other solid fuels.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 34}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Yet despite the apparent importance of CDR, there are few dedicated efforts to track real-world deployments, commitments, policies or related developments in the sector2,4. By contrast, tracking is widely available for emissions reductions5-7. In particular, none have evaluated the removal component of the 'emissions gap'\u2014a science-policy device for assessing progress towards the Paris Agreement temperature goal, published each year in the Emissions Gap Report7 and supported by an underlying evidence base8-10. So far, the emissions gap has been formulated in terms of net GHG emissions, with no distinction having been made between gross emissions and removals (Fig. 1). This simplifies the assessment to a single aggregated gap and recognizes certain empirical realities: most countries do not distinguish emissions and removals in their targets, and integrated assessment model (IAM) reporting has tended to combine emissions and removals on managed land as a single net indicator. However, there are several compelling reasons why CDR should be distinguished in the gap analysis.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 35}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    One of the most cost-effective ways to reduce carbon emissions is by eliminating fossil fuel subsidies1,2. These subsidies boost the consumption of fossil fuels and, hence, slow the transition to renewable energy3; increase road traffic, air pollution and road fatalities, all of which damage public health4,5; and can have a crippling impact on government revenues6. Yet, they are also difficult to abolish. Many intergovernmental organizations\u2014including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Energy Agency\u2014have urged governments to eliminate these subsidies. At the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow, Scotland, governments pledged to phase down 'inefficient fossil fuel subsidies'. But political leaders are often wary of reform, realizing that higher fuel prices are unpopular and could lead to protests that could threaten their government7,8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 36}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Finally, racial and ethnic minorities face procedural injustices in the form of discrimination in areas such as housing, employment and credit30, in addition to a lack of informed consent for energy projects, lack of representation in the decision-making and lack of access to information14,31. Distributional injustices arise from these procedural injustices, and racial minorities are more likely to live in inefficient housing that necessitates higher energy bills to control indoor temperatures compared to the non-minority counterparts32,33. Racial and ethnic minorities may also face greater health impacts tied to inability to cool homes; the likelihood of death during an extreme heat event in the United States is linked to sociodemographic vulnerability, defined partly by ethnic minority and Latino immigrant status15,34\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 37}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    At the same time, recent assessments such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report 'Global Warming of 1.5 \u00b0C' emphasize the urgency of ambitious action to prevent irreversible climate change13. While some jurisdictions have committed to phasing out coal, such as Canada and the United Kingdom who launched the Powering Past Coal Alliance in November 2017, many others are not delivering policies ambitious enough to meet the climate challenge. Germany, the largest energy consumer in the European Union, the world's largest producer of lignite and one of the top-ten coal-burning countries in the world4, has recently started to organize its departure from coal.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 38}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Novel marine-climate interventions are now being rapidly implemented to address both the causes and consequences of warming oceans. However, the governance implications of proposed upscaling of such interventions are uncertain. We conduct a survey of 332 intervention practitioners, revealing five types and 17 sub-types of interventions proposed or deployed in 37 marine systems globally. Most (71%) report marine-climate interventions aimed at supporting species and ecosystem adaptation, with 29% aimed primarily at climate mitigation and societal adaptation. Perceptions of climate benefits vary widely, with low consensus across practitioners on the climate goals of specific interventions. Intervention decision-making also remains focused on technical feasibility to meet minimum permitting requirements, with limited appraisal and management of broader ecological, cultural and social risks and benefits of intervention. Practitioners also warn that many marine-climate interventions are currently being tested and deployed in an under-regulated pseudo-scientific bubble.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 39}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In industrial societies, demographic, economic, and cultural transformations have made employment trajectories unpredictable, with critical factors such as occupational stress (Chandola et al. 2007), resource accumulation (Lantz et al. 2005; Read, Grundy, and Foverskov 2016), and social network development (Grundy and Sloggett 2003) impacting mental health. Concurrently, family formation has evolved with trends such as increasing cohabitation (Heuveline and Timberlake 2004), higher divorce rates (Schoen and Canudas-Romo 2006), remarriage (Coleman, Ganong, and Fine 2000), and the rise of single-parent families (Heuveline, Timberlake, and Furstenberg 2003) affecting mental well-being.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 40}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In this paper, we structure and analyse the past and future challenges of the nascent green hydrogen industry by introducing and quantifying the green hydrogen ambition and implementation gap. This builds on the well-established concepts of emissions gaps21 and recent extensions towards a carbon dioxide removal gap22. Looking back, we define the past implementation gap as the difference between announced and eventually realized capacity in 2022 and 2023 (Fig. 1a). Looking ahead to 2030, we define the ambition gap as the difference  between 1.5 \u00b0C scenario requirements and announced projects and find that it has been gradually closing in the past 3 years for most scenarios (Fig. 1b). However, this has been accompanied by a widening future implementation gap, which we define as the difference between announced projects and projects that are backed by policies in 2030 (Fig. 1b). Analysing the competition between green hydrogen (and hydrogen-based electrofuels) and incumbent fossil competitors across 14 end-use sectors, we estimate that realizing all green hydrogen projects would require subsidies, or alternative policies such as end-use quotas, for at least another decade, even with ambitious carbon pricing and potentially indefinitely without. This paper is structured around these three gaps and concludes with a discussion of policy implications to safeguard climate targets against uncertain green hydrogen supply.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 41}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Flooding is a devastating natural hazard, causing an average >US$100 billion of damage every year1. Recent events of coastal and river flooding in Europe and Asia have shown the huge impact of such events on communities and policy-makers are struggling with how to anticipate future increase in flood risk due to climate change and population growth2. Without adaptation investments under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and shared socio-economic pathway (SSP) 2 scenarios, fluvial flood risk for the USA is expected to increase from about US$27 billion to US$66 billion per year (refs. 3,4), while coastal flood risk cost is expected to increase from US$1.8 billion to US$189 billion5. In the USA, the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) is the main program for managing flood risk. The NFIP provides almost 5 million policies to homeowners and businesses in the USA, covering US$1.2 trillion in assets and making it the largest flood insurance market worldwide6. The program requires households in a participating community with a bank-backed mortgage living within a 100-year flood zone to purchase mandatory flood insurance coverage. It also requires that new developments in these zones meet certain building codes. These low-lying flood zones are mapped by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). However, the program has a US$20.5 billion debt due to, amongst other things, the setting of premiums on the basis of national averages that do not reflect local risk, new development in flood-impacted areas, and the lack of incentives for homeowners to implement flood adaptation measures other than building elevation7.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 42}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Eighty per cent of the world's coal reserves must stay in the ground to reach the target of limiting global warming to well below 2 \u00b0C compared with pre-industrial levels1. In 2008, climate scientists had called for a complete divestment from coal-fired electricity by 20302, a proposition reiterated by a recent roadmap for rapid decarbonization3. Yet despite the strong growth of renewable energies, coal still accounted for 28% of the world's primary energy supply in 20174. As Pfeiffer et al.5 point out, coal-fired power plants \u201cwill need to be underutilized, retired early, or retrofitted [\u2026] or\u2014in short\u2014stranded\u201d if countries are serious about reaching the targets set in Paris.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 43}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Several trends are bringing to the fore the importance of understanding the influence of renewable technologies on the volatility of power prices. In a context where investments in renewable electricity outpace all other forms of capacity additions, understanding how renewables will shape the stability (or volatility) of prices has important repercussions in the functioning of electricity markets, affecting issues such as the investment strategies of power generators, the hedging of financial risks by suppliers, demand strategies of users of electricity, the design of capacity mechanisms or the development of exceptional measures to contain electricity price spikes, among others.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 44}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Energy use in buildings accounts for a significant proportion of urban greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly in high-density cities1. For example, New York City's (NYC's) most recent carbon inventory estimates that building energy use is responsible for approximately 67% of citywide emissions2. Given the substantial contribution of the built environment to global GHG emissions, city policymakers have made increasing building energy efficiency a central component of long-term sustainability goals. As new construction represents a small fraction of the building stock of a given city in any year, city energy policies are increasingly focused on ways to improve the efficiency of existing buildings3. Informational energy regulations, which are premised on the idea that an absence of data and transparency causes suboptimal investment in energy efficiency4, have become popular policy instruments to encourage market-based interventions for energy use reductions. More than 20 cities in the United States, including Austin, Chicago and San Francisco, have adopted energy informational policies in recent years, and the pace of adoption continues to increase5.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 45}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Here we focus on heterogeneity in the stringency of policy efforts made by each state. For ease, we will represent those policy efforts as state-varying prices on carbon, although in practice no enterprise uses only simple price instruments\u2014a variety of other mechanisms, such as renewable portfolio standards, low-carbon fuel standards and industrial policies are the norm13,14. Our approach, by design, allows us to assess the long-term dynamics that arise when states vary in their willingness to act and when the country, as a whole, varies the national decarbonization targets it might pursue. We see this long-term view of heterogeneity in action as a complement to studies that have focused on much nearer-term policy heterogeneity and thus been able to look more granularly at specific policy instruments15. (See Supplementary Note 2 for a comparison with America's Pledge study that examines nearer-term policies13.)\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 46}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Although randomized controlled trials eliminate most threats to the internal validity of studies15-17, the external validity of the results may still be compromised if the people who choose to participate in a study differ from the study's intended population7. The vast majority of feedback programmes on energy consumption use opt-in recruitment strategies, where participants actively register to take part in those programmes7,9. There is increasing evidence that individuals who sign up for energy efficiency studies or demand-side management programmes are indeed different from the general population: participation rates are higher among households with high levels of education and income18,19, among more altruistic and environmentally concerned individuals18 and among those with a higher interest and expertise in energy topics than the general population9,20. Most behavioural programmes do not even provide information about the number of households initially contacted, and those that do, report participation rates in the range of 4-8%6,20-23. These numbers have raised concerns that the results of opt-in studies may be largely biased by an already-motivated subgroup of the general population ('energy enthusiasts' or 'positive greens'), who represent only a small fraction of the population9,24. The response of these volunteers to the treatments may not be very indicative for the response of the  general population (volunteer selection bias). On the one hand, it is conceivable that those individuals are already more aware of effective energy conservation measures and have already taken action before the intervention, making it more difficult for them to realize additional savings in those studies25. On the other hand, it is likely that they are particularly open and receptive to these interventions, thus inflating estimates of intervention effectiveness26.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 47}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    International trade can be an important adaptation mechanism6,7.Trade links countries with a food deficit with countries with a foodsurplus and raises consumption possibilities through specializationaccording to comparative advantage. Climate change affects regionsand crops differently8, possibly shifting regional comparativeadvantages and altering trade patterns. Studies report that restricting trade exacerbates the impact of climate change on agriculturalproduction, whereas liberalizing trade alleviates it9-14. However, thecurrent literature is incomplete in its scenario design and does notcomprehensively assess whether and\u2014if so, why\u2014the role of tradebecomes larger under climate change (see Methods; SupplementaryText). The 'adaptation illusion hypothesis' argues that many farmpractices are wrongly identified as adaptation because they haveequal beneficial impacts with or without climate change15,16. Herewe investigated the case of adaptation through trade, and revealwhether climate change alters the pattern of comparative advantageand increases the impact of trade integration on hunger. With theemerging integration between climate and trade policy agendas17,a better understanding is needed to guide international policies toreduce hunger.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 48}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Previous decarbonization studies employ either Integrated Assessment Models, which are combined energy, economy and climate models13,14, or macro energy-system models15-17 that model regional energy systems. These models typically simulate or optimize energy infrastructure investments and retirements to meet certain GHG emissions-reduction targets by assuming that fossil fuel extraction will be phased out and replaced by cleaner alternatives. Such models typically do not explicitly consider how specific supply-side policies (other than a carbon tax) can yield different decarbonization outcomes for fossil fuel extraction. Furthermore, most energy or economic models lack the fine spatial resolution needed to examine the distributional outcomes of alternative policies over time. For example, existing studies on the distributional and equity consequences of phasing fossil fuel production including oil extraction use only the petroleum basin or county level and not the oil-field and census-tract-level representation for fuel production and air pollution exposure, respectively15,18, which is critical to accurately estimate energy production, health effects and equity outcomes of decarbonization pathways.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 49}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The term 'Blue C' entered the lexicon in 2009 and refers to organic C (OC) that is captured and stored by vegetated coastal ecosystems (VCEs, including seagrass meadows, tidal marshes and mangrove forests)2,3. Recently, tidal mudflats have also entered the Blue C discourse4. The importance of implementation of Blue C strategies\u2014expanding and restoring Blue C ecosystems\u2014to cope with climate crisis, biodiversity loss and natural hazards3 has now reached a consensus in the international community. However, there are few empirical studies on the negative effects of Blue C strategies5.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 50}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    On December 11, 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued the first emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for COVID-19 in individuals 16 years of age and older in the United States. Eight days later, a second vaccine, Moderna, was approved for use in individuals ages 18 and older. However, distribution of the vaccine has been a logistical hurdle necessitating extremely low temperature cold storage and personnel needs, all while having to maintain COVID-19  safety protocols. For example, unpunctured vials of the vaccines must be kept between -90\u00b0C and -60\u00b0C for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine and between -50\u00b0C and -15\u00b0C for the Moderna vaccine, well below the temperature of a standard freezer. An obvious question that has emerged is how to do this equitably, especially when vaccine supply is low. Roughly following guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC; 2020a), in the case of Texas, which is focus of this analysis, Phase 1A of the rollout was reserved for frontline health care workers, residents of long-term nursing facilities for the elderly, and workers in those same facilities. Phase 1B included people ages 65 and above and people ages 16 and above with at least one comorbidity defined by the state as being particularly vulnerable for the disease, such as cancer, type 2 diabetes, obesity, chronic heart disease, and so on. Although the goal was to equitably distribute vaccine doses to reach the vulnerable, the question remains whether this goal was met.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 51}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The literature so far identifies various factors as playing a potential role in carbon price developments in general: (1) regulatory changes (such as the introduction of the Market Stability Reserve (MSR) or changes in the linear reduction factor)3-5, (2) actors' behaviour (foresight horizon, hedging or participation in trade)6,7 and (3) speculation and external financial investors8-10. However, most work focuses on one of those aspects, provides only qualitative assessments and covers only the period before the recent reforms and price increases.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 52}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Assuming that free deforestation alerts reduce the cost to policymakers of monitoring forests, thereby reducing the cost of implementing deforestation policy, we examine two questions: whether making these alerts available affected deforestation rates, and whether areas that were actively monitored by subscribers using the system saw a change in deforestation trends. Recent work8 in Brazil has shown the substantial contributions of the government's own real-time monitoring system to the reduction in national deforestation trends. However, it is not known whether providing deforestation monitoring information freely via a platform unaffiliated with any governmental institution and accessible from anywhere on the globe could have an impact on land-use trends. Here we show that under certain conditions, it can.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 53}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Policy mechanisms shaping population health take numerous forms, from behavioral prohibitions to mandates for action to surveillance. rising drug overdoses undermined the state's ability to promote population-level health. using the case of prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs), we contend that PDMP implementation highlights state biopower operating via mechanisms of surveillance, whereby prescribers, pharmacists, and patients perceive agency despite choices being constrained. We consider whether such surveillance mechanisms are sufficient or if prescriber/dispenser access or requirements for use are necessary for population health impact. We test whether PDMPs reduced overdose mortality while considering that surveillance may require time to reach effectiveness. PDMPs reduced opioid overdose mortality 2 years postimplementation and sustained effects, with similar effects for prescription opioids, benzodiazepines, and psychostimulants. Access or mandates for action do not reduce mortality beyond surveillance. Overall, PDMP effects on overdose mortality are likely due to self-regulation under surveillance rather than mandated action.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 54}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Human activities have increased the atmospheric concentration of GHGs, leading to warming of the Earth's land, atmosphere and ocean1-4. Global initiatives such as the Paris Agreement5 and the Sustainable Development Goals6 aim to reduce the impacts of climate change by limiting the rise in global temperature and stepping up adaptation efforts. However, the global mean temperature continued to rise over the past two decades, from 0.89 \u00b0C in 2001-2010 to 1.09 \u00b0C in 2011-2020 above pre-industrial conditions1. The Nile Basin (Fig. 1) faces the threat of climate change alongside water scarcity, rapidly rising pressures on water resources due to population and economic growth, and a politically complex transboundary water management system. The Nile Basin is located in northeastern Africa, occupies around 10% of the continent's area and extends over 11 countries. Supplementary Section 1 provides further information on the Nile geography\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 55}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In recent years, over 3,500 US economists, including 27 Nobel prize winners1, and 1,600 European economists2 have signed public statements advocating carbon taxation. As a policy tool, carbon taxes offer theoretical cost effectiveness, price stability and administrative simplicity. However, these potential economic advantages can come with a steep political price. Carbon taxes have been rejected in referenda and elections3-7, been reversed after political backlash8,9, been opposed by a substantial proportion of the public10-12 and generated political controversy whenever debated across advanced democracies9,11,13-16. Scholars have identified diverse barriers to public acceptance of carbon taxes, including perceptions that the policy will not reduce emissions, that it is too costly, that it is regressive and that it might undermine economic prosperity10,11,17-20\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 56}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Even though the positive effect of public R&D grants to companies has been highlighted in recent studies, we still know little about how specific government R&D programmes impact cleantech innovation\u2014especially programmes that provide more than just the financial resources, such as R&D grants and tax credits, offered by traditional subsidy programmes. ARPA-E was designed in the model of the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), with expert programme staff who are hired on short-term rotation and empowered to craft solicitations in an area of technical need, select proposals and actively manage projects24,25. Based on DARPA's long track record of accomplishments, this funding model was expected to produce breakthrough innovations with the potential to transform the energy market. In the case of ARPA-E, which has become the often-discussed poster child of mission-oriented innovation in the US and abroad26,27, it is important to understand whether and how ARPA-E has supported innovation, for the sake of learning and informing future initiatives28,29.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 57}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Although cities purportedly continue to underdeliver on climate action and justice, the politics and dynamics of policy implementation\u2014the process through which city governments translate goals and plans into operational and enforceable programs\u2014remain understudied14,15,26. Rather than recognizing the complexities of operationalizing climate action, existing theory suggests that either unique \u201cconfigurations\u201d of enabling factors16 or the mere removal of barriers should enable cities to successfully implement climate policies19,27. This thinking obscures the \u201cpolitics and contested nature of low carbon urbanism\u201d28 and hinders the analysis of policy implementation through political and justice lenses15,27, with scholars ultimately failing to address how the \u201crecognition of socially vulnerable groups either carries through or drops out of the policy implementation process\u201d18\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 58}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Nor is the 2007-2008 spike and collapse the first time that prices seem to move away from a trading range implied by market fundamentals. Between the second quarters of 1973 and 1974, nominal oil prices nearly triple, from about US$3.50 to US$10 per barrel. This increase coincides with production reductions and embargoes by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) that reduce net production by about 3.1 million barrels per day (mbd), which represents about 5.5% of total output. But historical perspectives suggest that these reductions are not the primary driver of the price increase, \u201cit was not loss of supply, but fear of possible loss that drove up the price\u201d (ref. 3).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 59}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Mass incarceration has increasingly been recognized as a pressing public health challenge. Nearly 6.5 million adults\u20141 in 40\u2014are under correctional supervision in the United States (Maruschak and Minton 2020). More than 2.1 million are currently serving sentences in prisons and jails. An additional 4.9 million individuals in the population were formerly imprisoned (Shannon et al. 2017). This decades-long expansion of the penal system has occurred without the structures in place to facilitate reintegration. Although the policies of mass incarceration have been far-reaching, their imprint has been concentrated among marginalized groups. Black adults account for 33% of individuals incarcerated in prisons\u2014almost triple their share of the adult population\u2014and they are incarcerated at rates that are three to five times higher than whites (Carson 2020; Zeng 2020). Noting these disparities, some scholars have argued that incarceration is so concentrated among disadvantaged groups that it \u201chas become a normal stage of the life course\u201d (Wildeman and Wang 2017:1465).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 60}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    These figures represent median estimates derived from a review of 'bottom-up' assessments of individual demand-side mitigation options found in existing literature. However, the reliance on bottom-up approaches faces limitations due to potentially inconsistent assumptions regarding the effects of individual measures, varying  baselines and the challenge of capturing interactions between multiple strategies. System interactions that need to be considered include the complementarity or overlap between options8 (for example, the electrification of the vehicle fleet limits the potential for emissions reductions through improving combustion engine efficiency), the interactions between energy-supply decarbonization and end-use transformations9-11 and possible 'rebound effects' (when efficiency measures lead to unintended increase of the demand for energy services that can partly counterbalance the potential of activity-oriented mitigation options)12,13. These interactions and system impacts can either improve or reduce the effectiveness of individual strategies and have yet to be assessed in transformation pathways that require adequate modelling tools for doing so.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 61}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Failure to center U.S. obstetric care at the margins has likely produced unequal care and discriminatory services in obstetric settings (Davis 2019, 2020; Liese et al. 2021; Logan et al. 2022; Vedam et al. 2019). Indeed, \u201cobstetric racism\u201d (Davis 2019, 2020) is likely partly responsible for high rates of poor maternal and neonatal health outcomes among U.S. Black and Latina populations, such as elevated risks of maternal mortality and infant mortality (Mathews, MacDorman, and Thoma 2015; Petersen et al. 2019).1 In her studies of obstetric racism, Davis (2019, 2020) documents callous medical treatment of Black women during pregnancy and highlights multiple instances in which they are disrespected and their birthing preferences are discounted and ignored. The racialized experiences of people during prenatal and obstetric care are documented further in an emerging body of literature that implicates systemic and interpersonal racism as drivers of inadequate care for obstetric patients of color (Chantarat, Van Riper, and Hardeman 2022; Janevic et al. 2020; Logan et al. 2022).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 62}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    However, there has been no objective evaluation of the extent to which PMUY has actually induced a transition away from solid fuels15. Assessments of LPG use, beyond just acquisition, are critical, as the health, social, economic and environmental benefits of a transition2 are conditional on the extent to which solid fuels are replaced by LPG16. Typically, a clean cooking transition starts with the purchase of an LPG starter kit and partial fuel stacking. For a successful transition, this needs to be followed by sustained and growing LPG use17, and eventually, complete solid fuel displacement by LPG18,19.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 63}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Beyond market fundamentals, oil prices may respond to geopolitical events4,5 and structural changes6. The structure of the oil market changes when the 'Seven Sisters', a group of seven international oil companies that dominated the world oil market between the 1940s and the early 1970s, sign 50-50 profit-sharing agreements with producing countries and changes again when producing countries nationalize properties owned by the Seven Sisters. But analyses that focus on such changes largely ignore market fundamentals, which they represent by assuming that prices revert to a constant mean or follow a deterministic trend.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 64}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The deployment of renewable energy in the residential sector has increasingly severe repercussions on electricity grids; for a growing share of consumers, the connection to the public grid will largely serve as a backup option, rather than being the primary source for their electricity acquisition6,7. For such consumers, the volumes of electricity consumed from the grid will be subordinate and likewise will their contribution to the financing of the grid be low in the case of volumetric tariffs8-11. These trends will inevitably lead to a reallocation of the burdens of grid-cost recovery12-14\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 65}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Studies of the relationship between income inequality and life expectancy often speculate about the role of policy, but direct empirical research is limited. Drawing on the neo-materialist perspective, we examine whether the longitudinal association between income inequality and life expectancy is mediated and moderated by policy liberalism in U.S. states (2000-2014). More liberal policy contexts are characterized by greater efforts to regulate the economy, redistribute income, and protect vulnerable groups and lesser efforts to penalize deviant social behavior. We find that state-level income inequality is inversely associated with policy liberalism and life expectancy. The association between income inequality and life expectancy was not mediated by policy liberalism but was moderated by it. The association is attenuated in states with more liberal policy contexts, supporting the neo-materialist perspective. This finding illustrates how states like New York and California (with liberal policy contexts) can exhibit high income inequality and high life expectancy.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 66}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Here we focus on the varying effect of specific features of these messages, and particularly on how the salience, strength and consistency of the feedback they contain differ, and thus affect behaviour differently, across users. This could inform a more effective design and targeting of messages and provide more specific and nuanced guidance to prevent similar information campaigns from backfiring16. First, we exploited the features of the standard design of home energy reports and isolate the impact of changes in injunctive  feedback. Specifically, we examined whether reinforcing the injunctive feedback has different effects on electricity use if it is accompanied by consistent descriptive feedback\u2014as is the case for those who use more energy (high energy users), for whom both the injunctive and descriptive information encourage energy conservation\u2014or contrasting descriptive feedback\u2014as is the case for low energy users, for whom conforming with the descriptive feedback entails consumption increases, at odds with the injunctive feedback that praises energy saving. Second, we randomized descriptive or injunctive information that primes a social norm of energy conservation, and evaluated the effect of strengthening the injunctive feedback in the presence of either the descriptive or the injunctive prime.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 67}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Previous literature analysing scenarios for achieving universal access to modern energy services have focused predominantly on electricity supply to assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative options to provide connections11-14. There is a paucity of studies analysing clean cooking scenarios, particularly at a global scale15,16. Existing studies that focus on cooking access scenarios are limited in their representation of multiple cooking fuel use (fuel stacking), population heterogeneity and affordability constraints, which are critical to understanding whether people will regularly use new fuels or stoves after they acquire them17-19. The limited existing evidence, preceding the pandemic, suggests that the world is far off the mark of the SDG 7 goal, with nations in sub-Saharan Africa projected to not achieve this target even in 20505,20.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 68}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    We build on prior work by exploring an unexamined source of medical uncertainty: the political context of care. We use the case of abortion in Ohio, a state with one of the most restrictive legislative contexts in the United States prior to the  overturning of Roe (Guttmacher Institute 2018), to show how the political context of care produces uncertainty. The political context of care includes (1) cultural politicization, such as stigma; (2) the legal, regulatory, and policy contexts; and (3) the economic organization of health care. We focus on how an influx of laws and regulations that are often unclear and incongruent with evidence-based medicine necessitate and complicate the interpretive work of institutions and providers. Frequent policy changes disrupt standards and practices, economic and legal penalties stigmatize abortion care, and variation in policies across institutions and states limits information seeking to address uncertainty. This politicized climate as a source of uncertainty is what we seek to understand.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 69}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As the international community responds to these calls for ratcheting ambition, there is a strong need to understand both the long-term temperature outcomes of ratcheting ambition in 2030 and beyond and what this ratcheting implies for sectoral and regional emissions. To address this need, we explore a suite of high ambition emissions pathways\u2014developed using the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM; Methods)14\u2014in which countries are assumed to use various combinations of three strategies to ratchet ambition: (1) increasing near-term actions through 2030, (2) accelerating post-2030 emissions reductions and (3) moving forward the timing of dates that countries pledge to hit net-zero emissions. We then use a reduced-form climate model (Hector)15 to compute the end-of-century and peak temperature change implications of the emissions pathways. Our study builds off and extends previous modelling studies that have explored high ambition emissions pathways6,8,16-20. In doing so, our study makes a timely contribution by exploring pathways that take the 2021 pledges made until  the end of COP26 as a starting point and providing important insights on the long-term temperature change and sectoral and regional emissions implications of ratcheting ambition beyond those pledges (see Supplementary Section 1 for a detailed literature review).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 70}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Since the inception of liberalized electricity markets in the late 1990s, merchant investment into new generation capacity in the United States has been dominated by gas-fired units. \n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 71}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Approximately 11% of the world population in 2017, or 821million people, suffered from hunger1. Undernourishment hasbeen increasing since 2014 due to conflict, climate variability and extremes, and is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa(23.2% of population), the Caribbean (16.5%) and Southern Asia(14.8%)1. Climate change is projected to raise agricultural prices2and to expose an additional 77million people to hunger risks by2050 (ref. 3), thereby jeopardizing the UN Sustainable DevelopmentGoal to end global hunger4. Adaptation policies to safeguard foodsecurity range from new crop varieties and climate-smart farmingto reallocation of agricultural production2,5.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 72}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Cost-effective reduction of deforestation should be a cornerstone in the suite of climate change mitigation strategies. Land-use change accounts for 6-17% of global carbon emissions1. At any reasonable carbon price, avoided deforestation provides 7.2-9.6 times the abatement potential of reforestation2. There are a range of strategies for accomplishing this\u2014protected areas3, payments for ecosystem services4 and supply-chain initiatives5, among others. However, all of these strategies require monitoring of deforestation activities. Given that deforestation rates are often highest in low- and middle-income countries with limited resources to create effective monitoring systems6, the availability of low-cost monitoring technologies may be an important support to policy aimed at avoiding deforestation.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 73}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Australia, home to one of the oldest continuing cultures in the world, is expected to play a key role in energy transition globally9, yet the geographies of disparity in the present day regulations governing consumer electricity retail are largely invisible. Australia is assumed to have achieved the goal of universal access to energy for all, with an electricity rate of 100% (ref. 10), but this presumed ubiquity belies persistent disparity in who experiences energy insecurity and where they reside11-19. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (prepay) customers in Australia's remote Northern Territory (NT) are more likely to experience 'self-disconnection' during temperature extremes, which climate change only makes more frequent19. As seen during the COVID19 pandemic and recent cost-of-living crises, regulatory difference shapes access to financial support for essential home energy services such as refrigeration and space cooling20-22.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 74}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Yet, while early feedback intervention studies in which people were provided with information about their energy consumption reported large savings effects of 5-15%5,6 with small convenience samples, spurring the large-scale roll-out of smart meters in many countries, those savings have not materialized in larger field trials7-9. The most widespread form of feedback intervention is 'home energy reports': periodic mailings that compare the electricity use of individual households with similar homes in the neighbourhood, thus tapping into social norms3. Deployed at population level (households can opt out, but few do), those programmes typically yield electricity savings of 2%3,10. Other programmes use digital technologies, delivering feedback on electricity use via web portals or in-home displays; studies with large opt-in samples report electricity savings in the range of 1-5%8,11-13\u2014far less than the savings reported by earlier studies with smaller samples and a higher degree of involvement from study administrators6,14.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 75}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Local energy projects delivered by community groups could potentially play a pivotal role in realizing the transition to a low-carbon energy future. Community energy schemes offer an alternative to large-scale energy provision, with various forms of community energy already found across Europe, North America and elsewhere1-5. In the UK, the term 'community energy' is generally associated with small civil society organizations and/or social enterprises running projects that encourage energy saving and efficiency, or that generate renewable electricity. These projects are typically grounded in the motivation to accelerate decarbonization through both decentralization and democratization of the energy system, and address issues such as fuel poverty and energy justice6-11.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 76}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    While individual investors know their cost of capital (CoC), typically this information remains unavailable to researchers21,22, especially concerning developments over time. This paper addresses this gap, by analysing the German solar PV and onshore wind power financing market, which has a particularly long investment history23. We exploit the fact that utility-scale renewable energy investments in Germany are almost exclusively realized in project finance structures24 (see Supplementary Note 1 for a description), in which the costs of capital reveal unbiased information about the underlying investment projects and technologies25. We proceed in four steps. First, using newly compiled project data, we depict the CoC and its components and analyse the changes over 18 years. Second, we use qualitative insights from in-depth interviews with 41 investment professionals to identify the drivers of the observed changes in financing conditions. Third, we quantify an experience effect within the renewable energy finance industry, leading to lower costs of capital. Fourth, we quantify the effect of the observed changes in costs of capital on LCOEs. The methods are structured along the same four steps. We find that the CoC declined by 69% for solar PV and by 58% for wind onshore projects between the early period of the RET finance industry (2000-2005) and 2017. For both technologies, the cost of debt decreased more than the cost of equity. Focusing on the cost of debt, we identify and estimate a financing experience curve. For each doubling of cumulative investment, the debt margins (see Supplementary Table 1 for definitions of financial terms) decreased by 11% for both technologies. During the same time, we observe a decline in the general interest rate resulting in lower costs of capital that had a substantial effect on the economic attractiveness of RETs. Finally, we estimate that 41% of total solar PV LCOE reductions and 40% of wind onshore LCOE reductions between 2000-2005 and 2017 were due to lower financing costs. These result from three effects: lower capital expenditures (CAPEX) to be financed (strongest effect for solar PV), lower general interest rate (strongest effect for wind onshore), and financing experience. We conclude with implications for researchers and policymakers.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 77}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Compared to urban-sourced PM2.5, the higher submicronic particle content8 and distinct chemical composition of wildfire-specific PM2.5probably contribute to its increased toxicity at equivalent doses1, potentially posing a greater threat to human health, with respiratory complications as a particular concern6,9. Despite the substantial burden of wildfire-related health impacts on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)10, research investigating the health consequences of wildfire-specific PM2.5in these regions remains surprisingly limited. Previous investigations have largely been conducted in high-income countries, such as the United States and Canada, focusing on a specific local area or fire event9,11-17. This focus potentially hinders the generalizability of findings to other countries disproportionately burdened by wildfires, such as Chile and Brazil. Furthermore, studies in LMICs are imperative to inform targeted intervention and resource allocation directed towards areas with the greatest need, ultimately contributing to global health equity. To date, only two multicountry studies have investigated the impacts of wildfire-specific PM2.5on respiratory health. One investigated a single outcome (acute respiratory infection) within a specific population (children)18 and the other one focused solely on all-cause respiratory mortality19, without covering other major types of respiratory diseases.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 78}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The inverse relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and mental health is a cornerstone of the general argument linking social inequality to wellbeing (Adler et al. 1994; Aneshensel 2009; Pearlin 1989; Thoits 2010). The SES-mental health association is also one of the most consistent in social science (Thoits 2010), spanning over a century of research (Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend 1969; Faris and Dunham 1939; Hollingshead and Redlich 1958; Jarvis 1855; Srole et al. 1962) and continuing to the present day (Miech and Shanahan 2000; Warren 2009). This consistency within countries, predominantly estimated in the North American context, supports a social causation interpretation, net of social selection (Warren 2009; Wheaton 1978), indicating SES as a primary social determinant of mental health. However, cross-national comparisons across countries demonstrate that the strength of the association between SES indicators, such as education, occupation, and income, and mental health outcomes differs (Rai et al. 2013), implying contextual social determinants may be driving differences in the effect of SES between countries while also demonstrating the generality of the existence of this association across very different national contexts (Pr\u00e4g, Mills, and Wittek 2016).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 79}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    While some studies have emphasized the difficulties involved in decarbonizing transport4,8, there is robust evidence that battery electric vehicles (BEVs) will form the backbone of future low-carbon road transport2,5. Accordingly, BEVs prevail in the future portfolios of car manufacturers9,10 and several European countries will enforce 100% zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) sales for cars by at least 20359-11, banning large-scale sales of conventional vehicles as sufficient quantities of sustainable fuels are unlikely11. Other key markets, such as the United States and China, have also set ambitious ZEV targets from the 2030s9,11.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 80}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Modifying attitudes and behaviours related to climate change is difficult. Attempts to offer information, appeal to values and norms or enact policies have shown limited success. Here we examine whether participation in a climate prediction market can shift attitudes by having the market act as a non-partisan adjudicator and by prompting participants to put their 'money where their mouth is'. Across two field studies, we show that betting on climate events alters: (1) participants' concern about climate change, (2) support for remedial climate action and (3) knowledge about climate issues. While the effects were dependent on participants' betting performance in Study 1, they were independent of betting outcomes in Study 2. Overall, our f indings suggest that climate prediction markets could offer a promising path to changing people's climate-related attitudes and behaviour.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 81}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Scholars have repeatedly criticized the gaps between the rhetoric and reality of urban climate action10-13, which we define here as policies and programs to mitigate and adapt to climate change. However, existing literature has focused primarily on either analysing the development of plans, policies and targets or evaluating the post-facto outcomes of cities' programs2,11,12,14-18. This collective scholarship has revealed multiple barriers to urban climate action, from funding constraints and limited capacities to lack of political will and issues of authority16,19,20. These barriers result in, at best, insufficient reductions in greenhouse gas emissions21 and, at worst, the exacerbation of climate vulnerabilities and injustice in cities22-25.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 82}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Understanding the role of different investors and their interactions is essential to effectively incentivize innovation. However, analyses on climate-tech startups tend to focus on public agencies10,11 or financially motivated venture capital (VC)2,5 in isolation, without considering the combined effects of different investors. For example, public funding agencies can de-risk technologies when securing traditional investment is difficult12 or support technologies relevant for strategic national goals13. Traditional VC investors aim for high financial returns from startups exiting through an initial public offering (IPO) or acquisition. Climate-impact investors have emerged as a subset of profit-focused investors, with a focus on supporting climate tech while still pursuing financial returns. Corporations, in contrast, are strategic investors that may seek to increase profits but also to achieve goals related to long-term business plans and competitive standing9,14-19. They can help startups build commercial capacity and credibility20, increase innovation output21 and provide learning benefits22, but they can also leave startups at risk for predatory acquisitions that undercut competition and misappropriate intellectual property19,22. The motivations of these different investors collectively determine how investments flow to technology areas and risk levels12. These investments, in turn, can have distinct effects on startup outcomes. However, policymakers currently have limited empirical evidence on how different investors shape startup outcomes, which could enable more effective strategies to address the threat of climate change.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 83}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In light of these facts, sociologists interested in explaining the racial-ethnic minority advantage have focused less on stress exposure and more on protective factors. These efforts, however, have not been entirely successful. Research has uncovered some important protective factors, to be sure, but these factors are not always relevant or suitable to explaining the minority paradox. They either apply only to coping with certain forms of stress, have highly complex and contingent associations with mental health, or are not uniformly more common among racial-ethnic minorities (Ellison, Musick, and Henderson 2008; Jackson, Knight, and Rafferty 2010; Odom, Garrett-Peters, and Vernon-Feagans 2014; Phinney and Haas 2003). As an alternative explanation for the paradox, some scholars have turned to measurement biases in common measures of mental health (Sue et al. 2012). Yet here, too, such explanations are limited, at least for purposes of explaining the paradox. Measurement differences between groups are generally not large or consistent enough to explain the paradox altogether (Alegr\u00eda and McGuire 2003). Mixed findings of this sort have prompted some to argue that the literature on minority mental health, no matter how well developed, still has more questions than answers (Williams and Earl 2007).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 84}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Coal-fired power plants provide a large amount of electricity worldwide. In 2015, they produced six trillion megawatt (MW) hours and 25% of the global supply1. Simultaneously, coal-fired power plants emit air pollution, which included 63% of the US economy-wide sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) emissions in 20142, as well as nitrogen oxides (NOx ), PM2.5 (particulate matter less than 2.5 \u03bcm in diameter) and PM10 (particulate matter between 2.5 and 10 \u03bcm in diameter), mercury, acid gases, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds3. Such pollutants are associated with increased asthma symptoms, emergency room visits (ERVs), hospitalizations and mortality4-8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 85}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The changes utilities make to survive in low-carbon transitions can also change the consumer energy contract15. New consumer contracts are emerging that integrate decentralized renewables9,16, move to energy-as-a-service as opposed to pay-per-kilowatt tariffs17,18, and reward consumer behaviour change19-21. The energy transition in liberalized markets is shaped by these trends22. However, little has been done to understand consumer preferences for these new business models and how these consumer preferences could affect  the transition.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 86}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Here, we show that an EU-wide fuel-tax cut equivalent to \u20ac0.20 l-1 would increase Russia's oil profits by \u20ac36 million per day in the first month, \u20ac8.4 million per day during the rest of the first year and \u20ac8.2 million per day beyond the first year. The additional profits are equivalent to 0.2% of Russia's gross domestic product (GDP) and 5% of its defence spending. The fiscal cost to the EU would be \u20ac170 million per day during the first year. An alternative policy with an equivalent fiscal cost is studied as well: providing EU citizens with cash transfers. Such a policy yields a fraction of the tax cut's profits to Russia and is ultimately more flexible for citizens as they can use the cash on anything  they please.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 87}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Tracking progress towards the Global Goal on Adaptation requires documentation of countries' intentions, against which future progress can be measured. The extent to which existing national policy documents provide adequate baselines is unclear. We evaluated the adequacy of African Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) (N = 53) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) (N = 15) against three criteria\u2014coverage, consistency and robustness\u2014mapped to the adaptation cycle. Fifty-three percent of NAPs and 8% of NDCs cover all elements needed for providing sufficient baselines for tracking adaptation progress. Only 40% and 9% of the NAPs and NDCs, respectively, provide consistent links between climate risk assessment, planning, implementation and tracking. No document provided fully robust indicators to operationalize tracking. Notable efforts towards adequacy exist, especially in NAPs. The findings illustrate continental-scale advances and shortcomings for tracking progress, and emphasize opportunities in upcoming NDC revisions and NAP processes to enhance their coverage, consistency and robustness for future adaptation tracking.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 88}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    However, these models ignore the possibility that the revenues from a carbon tax could be used in a progressive way that generates immediate net benefits for the current poor. A large literature has now investigated the implications of these 'revenue recycling' opportunities and identified an equal per capita refund of the revenues as a salient option8-18. The evidence indicates that an equal per capita refund typically makes immediate net beneficiaries out of most citizens and is often more progressive and potentially more feasible than other salient options for using revenues19-21.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 89}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The COVID-19 pandemic has been one of the most disruptive world events in modern times in terms of health and fundamentally reshaping the economy and people's social lives. Moreover, this impact has not been equally shared. Some people, because of existing social and economic resources, have been better able to shield themselves from transmission of the disease and the various negative consequences reverberating from the pandemic. In  particular, Black, Latino, and Native American  populations in the United States have experienced higher rates of infection and, when infected, have been more likely to experience severe disease and death (Millett et al. 2020; Peek et al. 2021; Ramos and Zamudio 2020). Other work has shown how the effects of the pandemic are also spaced and placed, with poor and minority neighborhoods suffering disproportionately from the disease and having limited access to care sites and testing locations (McMinn et al. 2020; Yang, Choi, and Sun 2021). In this analysis, we focus on racial-ethnic disparities in access to the vaccine in the United States specifically as it relates to racial-ethnic residential segregation.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 90}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In view of the shift described in the previous paragraph, our goal is to understand how renewables would affect the properties of power prices that are more relevant for macroeconomic stability: their annual volatility and their sensitivity to fluctuations in the price of natural gas. We simulate future European markets and find that faster deployment of renewables would improve (that is, reduce) both parameters, even when accounting for the additional influence of weather factors. We then show how this stabilization would be expected to lead to a potentially large reduction in the social welfare costs of macroeconomic volatility, hence creating a large insurance value of renewable investments.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 91}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As U.S. health disparities widen and the intergenerational transmission of advantage in families and communities strengthens, increasing attention is being paid to the processes underlying these trends. Of particular interest is early life, when children are influenced by previous generations in ways that will be consequential for decades to come. Sociological research has pinpointed the shaping of children's everyday lives by parents in ways that foster children's long-term health and socioeconomic wellbeing as one important mechanism of the intergenerational transmission of advantage. Notions of children as agents in their own lives, rather than passive, innocent receptacles of socialization (see Pugh 2014), and research on the importance of local norms and institutions (Brown-Saracino 2015) contextualize families within communities as a site for reproducing inequalities.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 92}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Researchers have established the presence of bias in American health care with considerable work focusing on provider bias within the clinical encounter. Indeed, medical providers demonstrate bias on par with the general population, even among those who self-identify as holding nondiscriminatory beliefs (Burgess et al. 2007; van Ryn and Fu 2003; Zestcott, Blair, and Stone 2016). Understanding such bias is important because it contributes to the profound health disparities seen in the United States. For instance, providers counsel and treat patients differently depending on patient characteristics, which often disproportionately affects marginalized populations, who consistently experience worse health outcomes (see Bao, Fox, and Escarce 2007; Schulman et al. 1999; van Ryn et al. 2006). Yet beyond recognizing the presence of bias in providers' patient counseling and decision-making, minimal research has explored how providers then navigate bias in their care to minimize its effects. By exploring this process, we demonstrate the ways that various provider approaches to reduce bias reflect and reproduce this inequality in care. Elucidating these coping strategies simultaneously reveals not only providers' individually held biases but also the social forces that engender such discrimination and disparities within their clinical encounters.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 93}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In response to this opposition, interest has grown in deploying carbon tax revenues to boost public support. Carbon tax revenues can be directed towards environmental spending4,6,7,17,21-30 or can be paired with tax cuts, although this latter approach may be less effective than green spending at reducing public opposition23,24,28,30,31 or only effective for some voters22,32,33. However, earmarking through either spending or tax cuts may lack high visibility6,34, and voters  may distrust that governments will deliver or maintain these benefits23,33,35,36. Instead, it has been suggested that highly visible lump-sum rebates or 'dividends' could be more effective in winning public support and reinforcing that support over time as beneficiaries become accustomed to regular dividends37. The hypothetical potential of climate rebates to increase public carbon pricing support has been shown in the United States4,17,20,21,29, Canada38, Norway35, Switzerland39, the United Kingdom4,30, Australia4, Germany17, Turkey27, France40 and India4. These studies offer strong reasons to expect that bundling carbon taxes with lump-sum rebates could increase public acceptance.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 94}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Climate change is increasing the likelihood of flooding1,2, with oftendisastrous impacts, particularly in urban areas3,4. Flood-related globaleconomic losses reached a staggering $651 billion (US dollars) between2000 and 20195. The United States has been particularly impacted, withfloods causing 1,782 fatalities and damages exceeding $102 billion,affecting 99% of US counties since 20006-8. The growing impacts offlood events across the United States and globally will continue torise, with losses projected to soar by a factor of 20 by the end of thetwenty-first century9. These increasing impacts are driven not onlyby the increasing severity of extreme rainstorms, but also by rapidurbanization10, booming population densities and the dramatic expansion of highly connected transportation and infrastructure networks inflood-prone areas11,12. Rapid urbanization has substantially altered thenatural water cycle through the proliferation of impervious surfaces,inhibiting rainfall infiltration and resulting in elevated surface runoff13.The disruption of natural drainage pathways has rendered urban areasincreasingly susceptible to inundation. Consequently, numerous majorcities globally have witnessed a rise in the frequency and severity offlood events, as urbanization outpaces upgrades to flood mitigationinfrastructure (often referred to as stormwater systems)10.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 95}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Between 2000 and 2015 in the United States, 49.5 GW of capacity from coal-fired generators retired at 146 coal-fired power plants1,20 and many generating units installed flue-gas desulfurization systems (alternatively, SO2 emission 'controls') to comply with regulations from the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and individual states, which include the Acid Rain Program, the Clean Air Interstate Rule and Mercury and Air Toxics Standards2. The discrete nature of these energy transitions and the ensuing abrupt changes in emissions present circumstances for a 'natural experiment' to study related changes in health in the time frame and population exposed to emissions from the coal-fired power plants21,22. The key feature is that the transition-induced change in exposure occurs for reasons unrelated to a health investigation and produce exposure changes that more closely resemble an experiment than a typical observational study. Such a natural experiment supports the study of the influence of coal-fired power plant emissions on asthma outcomes more directly, without relying on exposure-response functions estimated with different populations across time and space with varying levels of pollution exposure23. Previous studies framed in this manner used a steel mill closure24, a ban on coal sales25, the Olympic Games26,27 and the Nitrogen Oxides Budget Program28 to study the relationship between air pollution and respiratory-related medication expenditures, hospitalizations and death.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 96}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Biomass is a diverse and versatile renewable energy source that can be used for various purposes1-3. In the electricity system, it can complement the variable renewable energy (VRE) sources of solar and wind power4-7 and provide dispatchable (firm) generation to meet demand even in periods of supply shortage in a VRE-based energy system8,9. If used for combined heat and power (CHP), it can provide flexible energy, which may be especially important during so called cold-dark doldrums, when space heat demand is high and electricity supply from wind and solar is low10,11. Biomass can also supply hydrocarbons to sectors that are challenging to electrify and where renewable alternatives are scarce, such as aviation and marine transport12-14, or plastics and high-value chemicals15-17. Also, it can be used to provide process heat for industry18,19. All of these options can to some extent be combined with carbon capture (BECC) to provide carbon for further usage (BECCU), or negative emissions through geological sequestration (BECCS)4,6,18,19. In contrast to direct air capture (DAC), which requires a substantial electricity and heat input to extract CO2from the atmosphere20, BECC captures more concentrated CO2in exhaust and waste streams and provides net energy output along with the carbon capture.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 97}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Countries use various instruments to report planned adaptation targets, actions and support needed to the UNFCCC. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)\u2014pledges for national climate action\u2014are political documents that outline country priorities, needs and committements18. National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) provide details on implementation including goals, objectives and actions, and support the operationalization of the adaptation components outlined in NDCs9,19,20. NAPs are increasingly accompanied by monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems to track implementation9. Adaptation progress can then be intentionally reported through National Communications, Adaptation Communications (Adcoms) and/or Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs)18. While the first BTRs are due at the end of 2024, stand-alone Adcoms deliver partial information on countries' adaptation actions and programmes but less on their results8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 98}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    However, IAMs lack the spatio-temporal detail needed to capture the variability of, for instance, VRE and electrolysis, and the interplay of these technologies with biomass options, such as dispatchable bioelectricity. In addition, the costs of VRE have often been overestimated in IAM-based analyses46,47 and carbon sequestration capacities may be more limited than what has been assumed48,49; both of these factors risk exaggerating the role of CCS for meeting climate targets48,50. Moreover, IAMs have until now not included carbon capture and utilization (CCU) or electrofuels11,47, leaving biofuels as the only non-fossil-fuel option, and until recently also not included DAC as an alternative CDR option47,51,52. Most or all of these limitations apply also to previous IAM analyses focusing specifically on biomass and/or BECCS36,37,39-41,53-59, leading to potential biases in the cost effectiveness of biomass usage, BECCS and different biomass utilization pathways.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 99}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Historically, global IAMs have predominantly emphasized supply- side measures in global mitigation scenarios24,25, which has limited their capacity to address demand-side pathways effectively. This has been complicated by the complexity of consumer groups and behaviour, diverse sectors, services and technologies that depend on local circumstances, climate and socio-economic conditions, infrastructures and technological development. However, in recent years, IAMs have improved their representation of energy-demand sectors, particularly in the buildings and transport sectors. These advancements are driven by rapid technological advancements, such as electric mobility and heat pumps, necessitating ongoing model updates. The improvements encompass various aspects, including alternative electrification pathways in transport26,27, more diverse building types and expanded options for renovations in buildings28-30 and improvements in the representation of international transport31-34. Moreover, gradual advancements  have been made in modelling behavioural transitions within IAMs35,36.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 100}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Electricity use in modern societies is critical for many aspects of well-being23-26, and differences in regulatory protections can have substantial social impacts including by reinforcing marginalization of historically oppressed or colonized communities27. Literature mapping spatial differences in existing energy protections has begun to demonstrate the extent of these disparities, including mapping differences in disconnection protections in both the United States and European Union28-30. Yet, nationwide mapping of regulations across more granular geographies remains underexplored. Interview-based work has identified that peripheral locations in Wales face challenges accessing energy services31 and that electricity governance arrangements in Rio de Janeiro are negotiated and permitted to vary based in part on perceived commercial risk within different parts of the city32. Existing geospatial studies regularly focus on single metrics28, with an emerging focus on intersectionality related to: material precarities33, energy and transport insecurity34, internet and energy insecurity35 and remedial policy during times of crisis36-38.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 101}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Despite media coverage and numerous legal commentaries on the topic of the criminalization of pregnant substance users, there are few empirical accounts of this process (Paltrow and Flavin 2013; Stone 2015). This study elucidates a process about which we currently know little: how criminal-legal logics guide medical actors' decision-making processes in  hypermedicalized perinatal care settings. Drawing on insights from medical sociology and socio-legal studies, this research examines an important site of transformation where the lines between medical care and legal intervention significantly blur, resulting in a loss of rights and protections for patients and foreclosing a site of possible institutional support for women who use substances.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 102}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Repowering has historically been viewed as a means to increase the productivity of existing projects, with improved profitability as the primary decision driver4,6. Although the motivation behind much repowering activity is an improved business case for an existing facility, repowering offers an array of benefits when compared with greenfield development, which include lower implementation barriers through existing grid connections, long-term empirical understanding of the available wind resource at a given site, relatively well-known environmental impacts and accustomed neighbours. Further, subsidy schemes and short-term market incentives may encourage repowering, and include incentive programmes directed at repowering (Supplementary Note 1), market premiums for new projects6 or favourable tax policy. Recent repowering in the United States, for example, was predominantly driven by the ability to requalify for full value and tenure of the production tax incentive programme5.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 103}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Traditionally, analysis of the costs of cutting greenhouse gas emissions has assumed that governments would implement idealized, optimal policies such as uniform economy-wide carbon taxes. Yet actual policies in the real world, especially in large federal governments, are often highly heterogeneous and vary in political support and administrative capabilities within a country. While the benefits of heterogeneous action have been discussed widely for experimentation and leadership, little is known about its costs. Focusing on the United States, we represent plausible variation (by more than a factor of 3) in the stringency of state-led climate policy in a process-based integrated assessment model (GCAM-USA). For a wide array of national decarbonization targets, we find that the nationwide cost from heterogeneous subnational policies is only one-tenth higher than nationally uniform policies. Such results hinge on two critical technologies (advanced biofuels and electricity) for which inter-state trade ameliorates the economic efficiencies that might arise with heterogeneous action.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 104}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Over the past two decades, an increasing number of countries have been engaging in a 'race to the bottom' on corporate tax rates. Some countries have even implemented a zero tax rate to attract international capital inflows. Multinational enterprises (MNEs) may take advantage of differing tax regimes between jurisdictions and effectively avoid paying taxes. To prevent this, a global minimum tax, the second pillar of the overall global tax reform agreement, was approved by over 130 countries and jurisdictions in October 2021. The reform is designed to ensure that MNEs are subject to a minimum tax rate of 15% in every country of operation starting in 2023. As MNEs play a central role in shaping countries' production patterns, the global race to the bottom in corporate tax and the global minimum tax reform may reshape the global production network, adversely impacting economic and environmental development. Corporate tax-cutting may even offset the burden of climate regulations and challenge CO2 mitigation. For instance, developing countries,  which usually have greater carbon intensity and lower corporate  tax rates, tend to be tax havens1. Consequently, the global tax race has led to more production moving to developing countries and reshaping the global production network, which could increase global carbon emissions.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 105}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    An abundance of evidence indicates that the drug overdose epidemic in the United States is a national public health emergency (Gomes et al. 2018; Hedegaard, Mini\u00f1o, and Warner 2018; Kariisa et al. 2019). In 2017, 70,237 drug overdose deaths occurred in the United States, with opioids involved in 67.8% of these fatal poisonings (Scholl et al. 2019). The U.S. drug-related mortality rate (age-adjusted) increased from 6.1 per 100,000 people in 1999 to 21.7 in 2017 (Hedegaard et al. 2018). From 1999 to 2006, the average annual increase in the drug-related mortality rate was 10%, and that rate has risen over time. From 2006 to 2014, the average increase was 3%, which subsequently jumped to 16% from 2014 to 2017 (Hedegaard et al. 2018).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 106}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    To reach the CO2-emission reduction targets of the Paris Agreement's Nationally Determined Contributions, a growing number of countries are considering implementing domestic carbon taxes. These would increase the price on fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, end-use electricity and petroleum) to decrease fossil fuel consumption (for example, Coalition of Finance Ministers). However, and repeatedly recognized during both the 26th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP26) meeting in Glasgow and the recently finalized COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh, many countries currently have policies that keep end-user prices artificially low through subsidies. This encourages increases in both production and consumption of fossil fuels and thus effectively counteracts the intended objective of carbon pricing. In addition, subsidies represent a burden on the governments' fiscal budgets through deficits and revenue losses. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that tax breaks and spending programmes (fossil fuel support) in the G20 countries, linked to both the production and use of coal, oil, gas and other petroleum products, had risen to US$190 billion in 2021, a level that is higher than in previous years (30% higher than in 2020)1. The OECD and International Energy Agency (IEA) have also estimated that governments in 51 countries provided US$697.2 billion in fossil fuel subsidies in 2021, doubling the amount from 20202, an amount that is three times the annual amount needed to eradicate global extreme poverty3.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 107}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Childhood diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have increased 41% in the United States over the past decade alone, with 6.4 million (11%) American children ages 4 to 17 having been diagnosed as of 2016 (Xu et al. 2018). ADHD is today's most commonly diagnosed childhood mental health disorder, surpassing anxiety, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and autism spectrum disorders (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2019). Without proper treatment, ADHD can lead to more behavior problems, poorer social relationships, and lower academic performance (Hinshaw and Scheffler 2014).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 108}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, there has been a surge in transport fuel prices. Consequently, many European Union (EU) countries are cutting taxes on petrol and diesel to shield consumers. Using standard theory and empirical estimates, here we assess how such tax cuts influence the oil income in Russia. We find that an EU-wide tax cut of \u20ac0.20 l-1 increases Russia's oil profits by around \u20ac8 million per day in the short and long term. This is equivalent to \u20ac3,100 million per year, 0.2% of Russia's gross domestic product or 5% of its military spending. We show that a cash transfer to EU citizens\u2014with a fiscal burden equivalent to the tax cut\u2014reduces these side effects to a fraction.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 109}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    There is increasing focus on the role of the private sector in meeting global climate goals1-3. To this end, science-based targets (SBTs) intend to align voluntary company-level emission reduction targets with the global temperature goal of the Paris Agreement4-6. So far SBTs have been set by more than 1,000 companies, including many multinationals7,8. When reporting scope 2 emissions, that is, emissions associated with the generation of purchased energy (primarily electricity, but also including steam, heat and cooling), the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) allows companies to use renewable energy certificates (RECs) to claim the use of renewably generated electricity. Companies can then report zero emissions for each unit of electricity consumption covered by purchased RECs9, regardless of the actual emissions produced by the electricity grid at their location; however, RECs do not reflect the physical electricity flow supplied to the companies purchasing them10, and there is evidence that RECs are unlikely to lead to additional renewable energy generation11-18. Consequently, company-level emission reductions reported through RECs are unlikely to reflect real reductions of global emissions, which has the potential to compromise the alignment of SBTs with the Paris temperature goal19,20. In recognition of this issue, several emission accounting standards21,22 restrict or do not endorse the use of RECs, but RECs are nevertheless permitted by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol9 that forms the basis of SBTi's requirements.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 110}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Following a surge of enthusiasm, the green hydrogen market and associated expectations have recently entered a phase of consolidation16 as high costs17,18, limited demand19 and lagging implementation of support policies1 are hampering deployment. Shortfalls in the announced deployment of electrolysers, the key component for green hydrogen production, are representative of the systemic challenges of scaling up supply, demand and infrastructure at the same time. In 2022, instead of the 2.8 GW electrolysis capacity initially announced, eventually only 0.62 GW was realized on time (Fig. 1a). Similarly, in 2023, of the 7.1 GW initially announced, only an estimated 0.92 GW was realized and operational. In stark contrast to these recent setbacks, announced future growth rates of green hydrogen have increased substantially over the past 3 years, indicating a backlog of projects as well as further increasing ambition (Fig. 1b). This raises questions such as whether recent failure rates and the looming 'valley of death'20 can be overcome to meet updated project announcements, whether the expected role of hydrogen in ambitious climate change mitigation scenarios has changed and what plausible implementation pathways exist given currently announced hydrogen support policies.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 111}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Considering that these innovations are more likely to happen first among a subgroup of the population owning single-family dwellings (as most of these innovations require property rights for installation), a significant social imbalance induced from shifting the burdens of financing the grid towards lower-income classes may arise15,16. This can hamper the public acceptance of these innovations. Moreover, some even envision a possible 'death spiral scenario'17-20, where higher network tariffs will be charged to poorer customers, which eventually threatens to collapse the whole electricity supply system. Other recent studies (see for example refs 21,22) consider such worries overblown, but still call for a timely and careful revision of tariffs to avoid free-riding behaviour.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 112}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    To combat bias, researchers have recommended numerous interventions, such as patient-centered care, cultural competency training, organizational reform, and diversifying medical schools and  reforming their curriculum (Beach et al. 2005; Betancourt et al. 2003; Higgins, Kramer, and Ryder 2016; Metzl and Hansen 2014). However, few, if any, are evidence based, and most address providerheld biases while neglecting the structural nature of the inequality that informs such exchanges (Metzl and Hansen 2014; Zestcott et al. 2016). Moreover, because little is known about how providers manage this bias within their patient interactions, recommendations for improving these encounters may inevitably fall short. Indeed, the patient-provider relationship is central to the provision of health care. Patients are, overall, more active consumers than in the past, and the provider-patient relationship has become less paternalistic as a result. However, because of how U.S. health care is structured and the rise of disease nationwide, the clinical encounter is pivotal to health outcomes because providers guide downstream access to care (Boyer and Lutfey 2010). As such, the quality of these exchanges must be continuously assessed.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 113}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As scholars are increasingly emphasizing, the concept of \u201chealth lifestyles\u201d is useful for understanding how social and health inequalities play out in individuals' everyday lives (Cockerham 2005; Krueger, Bhaloo, and Rosenau 2009; Weber [1922] 1978). Cockerham (2005:55) defined health life styles as \u201ccollective patterns of health-related behavior based on choices from options available to people according to their life chances.\u201d Understandings of health lifestyles in early life and as part of the intergenerational reproduction of inequalities are still nascent. Furthermore, although a long theoretical tradition suggests that multiple lifestyle options are available to people with similar social  class, most research has treated class-based parenting and its implications for children as relatively monolithic within class (e.g., Lareau 2011). With a health lifestyles approach, scholars can articulate variation within social categories and multilevel conceptualizations of contexts to understand how children's everyday lives and health are shaped by parents, children, and communities in ways that may reinforce future inequalities\u2014a phenomenon about which not enough is yet known in childhood (Pugh 2014).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 114}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As a persistent and ubiquitous global pollutant, Hg deposition of any species and concentration poses potential risks to humans and ecosystems1. Compared with terrestrial environments, coastal environments have many physical, ecological and biogeochemical characteristics that increase the accumulation of Hg and the production, release, bioaccumulation and risk of neurotoxic methylmercury (MMHg, the methylated form of Hg) (refs. 6\u201310). Therefore, Hg stored in coastal ecosystems poses more serious risks to human health and ecosystem safety10. Field measurements show that OC-rich coastal sediments are generally accompanied by elevated Hg concentrations since sedimentary OC provides a large surface area and strong binding sites for divalent Hg (Hg(II)) (ref. 9). However, the sample size, spatial distribution and ecosystem type of coastal sediments in existing studies are extremely limited9,11-13. More critically, no attempt has been made to estimate the Hg stock in global coastal sediments, which is one of the fundamental constraints on determining Hg risks in global coastal ecosystems.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 115}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Ample research suggests that the links between higher education and heath are robust and growing in strength. This research, however, tends to assume education was completed prior to assuming other adult roles. Importantly, the life course framework raises the question of whether \u201cout-of-sequence\u201d college completion conveys similar health returns. I investigate this question among a population for whom outof-sequence schooling has grown more common: lower-educated mothers. This focus is also important given the growing education gap in women's health and the links between maternal and child health. Data come from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,898). Analyses involve random intercept and fixed effects models and diverse health measures. Findings suggest that postsecondary education does not improve mother's health, except for reduced smoking among mothers with high school degrees or less that earned bachelor's degrees. These findings inform health policy debates and theories linking education to health.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 116}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    NYC has been a leader in this regard, and has implemented two informational regulations in its efforts to reduce building energy use and cut GHG emissions. The first, set forth in Local Law 84 of 2009 (LL84), requires property owners of large buildings to release annual energy consumption data used to benchmark building energy performance. The second, known as Local Law 87 (LL87), introduced a mandatory energy audit requirement for buildings larger than 50,000 ft2. Each covered property must conduct an audit, also referred to as an Energy Efficiency Report, once every 10 years and report its findings, which include detailed energy end-use information and recommended energy conservation measures (ECMs). Roughly 10% of regulated buildings have been required to conduct an audit each year since 2013, and annual deadlines are randomly assigned based on the last digit of the property's Borough-Block-Lot (BBL) tax parcel identifier. LL87 also requires owners to implement certain retrocommissioning measures to 'tune-up' existing systems at the time of audit, such as to ensure that light fixtures are clean and water pumps are operating as designed6.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 117}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Here we assess how revenues from winterization compare to its cost for power companies. Technically, we combine estimates of temperature-dependent load with a model of power plant outages, taking into account 71 years (1950-2021) of past climate from reanalysis data. Subsequently, we discuss the 2021 event in detail, analyse the long-term frequency of such events and determine revenues from and cost of winterization. Furthermore, we discuss potential reasons for under-investment.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 118}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Keeping climate change within safe limits and achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement require fast and ample redirection of financial flows towards low-carbon technologies1-3. As approximately two-thirds of global greenhouse gas emissions stem from the energy sector4, the rapid deployment of low-carbon energy technologies, such as renewable energy technologies (RETs), is crucial for emissions reductions5. Solar photovoltaics (PVs) and wind will probably play central roles in this transition6. Importantly, as RETs are more capital intensive than fossil fuel technologies, large portions of their life-cycle cost are incurred upfront and need to be financed7,8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 119}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Prevailing trade barriers may affect the adaptation potential oftrade. Border protection is widespread and has an important influence on agrifood trade18,19. Despite substantial liberalization effortsunder the ongoing Doha Round, tariffs remain high for agriculturalproducts20. We investigated the impact of pre-Doha tariff levels aswell as further liberalization of agricultural tariffs. Other trade costsassociated with infrastructure, logistics and custom procedures arehigh, particularly in agricultural trade and in developing countries21.Reducing such barriers could create larger trade gains than reductions in border protection18. We compared the adaptation potentialof trade liberalization, through the reduction in tariff barriers, andtrade facilitation, through the reduction in other trade costs\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 120}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Anthropogenic emissions of both carbon dioxide (CO2) and mercury (Hg) are long-term stressors for the global environment and human society1. The global community is seeking common and coordinated actions, such as the Paris Agreement on Climate Change (https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement) and the Minamata Convention on Mercury (https://minamataconvention.org/en), to reduce their emissions and associated adverse effects, although both treaties still are in the early stages of implementation.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 121}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    A broad range of studies have investigated LUC and ILUC emissions induced by bioenergy production at different locations. They have identified vastly different emission factors (EFs) ranging from 0 to 100 kg CO2 GJbiofuel -1 (refs. 19-22), potentially exceeding the EF of fossil diesel (74 kg CO2 GJ-1; ref. 23). This broad uncertainty reflects the heterogeneity of land types22, characterized by stored carbon content and crop yield rates24,25. Yet, these studies do not reflect the interplay between future global climate policies and the allocation of land areas for bioenergy and food production. Given that stringent climate policies are projected to be the main driver for bioenergy demand4, however, it is crucial to link the assessment of EFs to the  future transformation pathways of the energy system and the climate policy framework. Our study assesses bioenergy EFs under a range of alternative climate change mitigation policies and thereby closes this gap in the literature.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 122}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    However, the speed at which prices have fallen has prompted suspicion that these prices are attained only via hidden government subsidies; that they are not intended to make money at all but are a consequence of a 'race to the bottom' driven by the PPA auction model; or are 'loss leaders', strategic moves by large forward-looking companies seeking to establish a foothold in a young industry poised to grow11-13. Despite these concerns, low-priced PV projects have spread across the world in the intervening two years14-16\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 123}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Nearly four million residential electricity customers had adopted rooftop solar photovoltaics in the United States by the end of 2022  (ref. 1). Rooftop solar adopters tend to be more affluent than the  general population, are less likely to rent and are less likely to self identify as a racial minority2-5. Rooftop solar adoption inequity reflects unequal access to solar across different demographic groups6. Various barriers restrict solar access for low- and moderate-income (LMI) households (for example, high up-front costs to purchase solar systems outright), for renters (for example, split incentives) and for multifamily building occupants (for example, shared ownership of rooftop spaces)7. Whereas adoption inequity is common among emerging technologies8, rooftop solar adoption inequity could pose unique challenges to clean energy transitions and grid decarbonization9,10. A growing number of policies seek to expand solar access11, that is, increase adoption among demographic groups historically underserved by rooftop solar.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 124}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Many countries and other non-national actors announced new climate ambition, actions and targets ahead of the Twenty-Sixth Conference of Parties (COP26), held in Glasgow in November 2021. COP26 provided the first real demonstration of the 2015 Paris Agreement's mechanism to regularly revisit and enhance national climate strategies1. By the end of COP26, 151 countries submitted updated and new nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining plans to cut GHG emissions by 20302. Many countries also communicated official or unofficial long-term strategies (LTSs) that outline emission reduction strategies through the mid-century3 and net-zero emissions targets4. Although the updated and new 2030 pledges suggest higher ambition compared to the 2015 Paris pledges5,6, limiting global warming below 1.5 \u00b0C this century\u2014the aspirational goal of the Paris Agreement\u2014will require countries to further ratchet or increase ambition in 2030 and beyond6-12. Importantly, recognizing the need for countries to ratchet their ambition beyond their current pledges, Article IV of the Glasgow Climate Pact accelerates the previously expected timeline for revising these NDCs and calls for countries \u201cto revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their nationally determined contributions \u2026 to align with the Paris Agreement temperature goal by the end of 2022\u201d13. In addition, the Pact calls for countries that have \u201cnot yet done so to communicate new or updated nationally determined contributions and long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies to net-zero emissions by or around mid-century\u201d. The Pact also \u201cemphasizes the urgent need for Parties to increase their efforts to collectively reduce emissions through accelerated action\u201d.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 125}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The higher involvement of corporate investors in climate tech is relatively recent compared with traditional VC investors. The first wave of investment, known as Cleantech 1.0 (2005-2011; Supplementary Note 1), resulted in many failures that scholars attribute in large part to the poor fit with traditional VC models that expect exits within ten years2,23,24. In response to these failures, traditional venture capital initially shifted to less risky software-based climate-tech investments2. However, after 2015, new investment models emerged, and corporations in particular became increasingly involved as investors9. By 2020, an estimated 34% of climate-tech startups received investment from corporations (representing 24% of investment dollars), compared with 57% from venture capital representing 31% of investment dollars9. This indicates that corporations make fewer investments, but these investments are larger and thus potentially more influential for shaping innovation9. Whereas other investors such as traditional VC firms have been increasingly analysed in literature2,5, scholars and policymakers have limited quantitative evidence on the effects of growing corporate funding in climate tech and the interactions and synergies between corporate investment and public and other private funding sources.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 126}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    People with disabilities face higher rates of energy poverty10. Compared to the general population, people with disabilities may need more energy to realize a range of essential capabilities24. Illness or disability can limit freedom of movement, which raises energy costs due to people being at home more8. Although previous work has not found disability to predict mortality during heat events29, financial pressure to curtail electricity use may contribute to poorer health outcomes. The energy needs of those with disabilities vary greatly depending on the individual and disability, but are likely to involve a higher energy use. Yet, the needs of individuals with disabilities are often systematically disregarded by decision makers (recognition and procedural injustices14).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 127}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Between the second quarters of 2007 and 2008, the nominal price for a barrel of crude oil rises from US$65 to US$124. Nine months and a financial crisis later, the same barrel sells for about US$43. Such rapid changes suggest a speculative bubble, which the US Commodity Futures Trading Commission defines as a rapid run-up in prices caused by excessive buying that is unrelated to any of the basic, underlying factors affecting the supply or demand for a commodity (https://www.cftc.gov/ConsumerProtection/ EducationCenter/CFTCGlossary/glossary_s.html). But empirical evidence for a speculative bubble is mixed1,2.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 128}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Whereas previous research shows that union membership is associated with improved health, static measurements have been used to test dynamic theories linking the two. We construct a novel measure of cumulative unionization, tracking individuals across their entire careers, to examine health consequences in older adulthood. We use data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (1970-2019) and predict self-rated health, functional limitations, and chronic health conditions in ages 60 to 79 using cumulative unionization measured during respondents' careers. Results from growth models show that unionized careers are associated with .25 SD to .30 SD improvements in health among older adults across all measures. Analyses of life course mechanisms reveal heterogeneous effects across unionization timing, age in older adulthood, and birth cohort. Moreover, subgroup analyses reveal unionization to partially, but not fully, ameliorate disparities based on privileged social positions. Our findings reveal a substantial and novel mechanism driving older adulthood health disparities.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 129}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Adoption of a clean cooking fuel like LPG is a necessary first step in ensuring smoke-free kitchens and reducing the drudgery of biomass collection. However, both sustained use of cleaner fuels16,17 and cessation of solid fuel use are required18 to achieve the stated health outcomes of PMUY. Many households simultaneously use multiple  fuels\u2014termed fuel stacking\u2014rather than moving step-by-step along an energy ladder towards cleaner fuels19. Using panel data collected from the rural areas of six major energy access-deprived states in India in 2014-2015 and 2018, we assess the determinants of upward shifts in LPG use\u2014from use as a minority fuel for cooking only, to the primary fuel and then as the exclusive cooking fuel. By examining dynamic fuel stacking instead of LPG consumption, this study identifies factors that help households to transition away from solid fuel use and towards cleaner fuels. We report a number of important findings. First, PMUY beneficiaries have considerably lower odds of primary and exclusive use of LPG than general customers. Second, the village-level penetration of LPG as a primary fuel and the age of the LPG connection are both positively associated with sustained use. Third, we find that easy access to free-of-cost biomass is a major deterrent to the exclusive use of LPG. Finally, households depending on agriculture and labour as the primary source of income have much lower odds of increased use of LPG.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 130}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Although many studies have explored cost-reduction potentials using qualitative or quantitative methods20,21, such as literature-based projections, expert elicitation, detailed cost breakdowns or learning and experience curves, results are limited to the respective application category and system configuration22,23. For example, studies emphasizing private passenger car electrification have shown that costs for key components such as batteries are expected to fall substantially and quickly24-26, with increasing evidence that battery-electric vehicles will constitute the primary technology1,27. However, electrifying heavy commercial trucks, such as US Class 7/8 or European N2/N3, still poses a tremendous challenge, particularly due to altered requirements limiting the transferability of passenger car findings. This can be ascribed to inherently versatile operating characteristics from urban delivery to international long haul, distinct utilization schedules, versatile value-adding duties from cargo transport to ancillary power- or energy-intensive services, greater lifetime mileage even beyond 1 million km, high reliability and longevity and an even more pronounced cost sensitivity13,16,18,28. Hence, accurate and comprehensive data on current and projected ZET acquisition costs are essential to assess the future roles of these technologies. However, data are scarce and heterogeneous, whereas a holistic overview assessing multiple components for heavy ZETs within a consistent scope and comparative method is missing. Thus, we address the following research question: what are the most likely future cost developments of central ZET components until 2050?\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 131}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Wind energy has emerged as a mainstream electricity production technology. Although globally it accounts for approximately 10% of electricity production capacity, it now has a leading market share in some pioneering countries1,2. As technology rapidly improves and operating facilities increase in age, the modernization of wind facilities becomes increasingly relevant. Repowering, that is, the combined activity of dismantling or refurbishing and commissioning of wind turbines, has been an active segment of the industry since the 1990s, when the first commercial wind farms (commissioned in the late 1970s and early 1980s) began to require substantial reinvestments and modernization, but the scale and impact of repowering on the global wind industry is expected to grow substantially in the next decade. Moreover, although repowering activity to date has been concentrated in a few markets and driven by relatively unique policy incentives, by the late 2020s repowering could become a primary source of business activity for the wind industry across Europe, North America and China, and a key to optimizing wind energy utilization in the context of energy transition. Today, only a few countries have wind energy fleets that support substantial repowering activity2. In this context, empirically derived insights from repowering activities are increasingly informative. Denmark is a prime case for analysis: wind energy has emerged as the primary electricity production technology, having reached a 47% market share in 20193, and it features the oldest wind turbine fleet in the world1,4 (Table 1). Further factors that contribute to a robust repowering market in Denmark are the size of the country, with its consequent space limitations, and its continued desire to expand wind energy production5.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 132}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    To promote an equitable energy transition1, many governments have enacted policies to provide energy technologies at reduced or zero cost to low-income households. In Western countries, these policies often take the form of subsidies for home retrofits2-6, heating-system and efficiency upgrades3,4,7,8, and solar panels3,7,9\u2014with some policies, such as the US Inflation Reduction Act, covering 100% of costs for households below certain income thresholds. However, even when goods and services are 'free', attracting qualified households can be difficult. Studies show that low-income individuals often fail to take advantage of the social benefits programmes for which they qualify10, including cash11 and food assistance programmes12, and subsidized healthcare13,14. Indeed, research on low-income energy programmes finds that participation rates can be quite low1,15, owing to non-economic barriers such as lack of information, high transaction costs1,15, the need for home repair, and distrust of programme providers1,16,17. Eligible households may also question the need for unfamiliar technologies (for example, heat pumps) when their homes already provide the same services (that is, heat)18. Further complicating matters, administrators of social benefits programmes often have incomplete information about which individuals qualify for services10,19, leading budgets to be spent inefficiently on outreach.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 133}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Current greenhouse gas accounting standards allow companies to use renewable energy certificates (RECs) to report reductions in emissions from purchased electricity (scope 2) as progress towards meeting their science-based targets. However, previous analyses suggest that corporate REC purchases are unlikely to lead to additional renewable energy production. Here we show that the widespread use of RECs by companies with science-based targets has led to an inflated estimate of the effectiveness of mitigation efforts. When removing the emission reductions claimed through RECs, companies' combined 2015-2019 scope 2 emission trajectories are no longer aligned with the 1.5 \u00b0C goal, and only barely with the well below 2 \u00b0C goal of the Paris Agreement. If this trend continues, 42% of committed scope 2 emission reductions will not result in real-world mitigation. Our findings suggest a need to revise accounting guidelines to require companies to report only real emission reductions as progress towards meeting their science-based targets.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 134}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In 2022 alone, foundations linked to private donors such as Google and Facebook pledged almost US$1 billion to advance the research and development of negative emissions technologies (NETs)1. In a world of insufficient climate mitigation efforts, these technologies can help the decline of CO2 emissions, offset hard-to-abate emissions and aid recovery from temperature overshoot2. Although they are criticized for being currently immature or speculative3,4, as well as for the possibility of crowding out emission reductions5-7, there is consensus that NETs will be needed at scale to achieve the Paris Agreement targets. Therefore, research and development on these technologies is necessary to reduce the uncertainty about their cost, potential and scalability, and to build an effective and efficient portfolio of options to reach net-zero or net-negative emissions. However, leaving this effort exclusively to the private sector could pose additional challenges.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 135}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    This paper analyses projected costs for five crucial BET and/or FCET components based on an extensive literature record: whereas we find limited cost reductions for the three adjacent components (that is, electric traction motors, power electronics and high-voltage system (PE&HV) components and hydrogen tanks), costs for battery and fuel cell (FC) systems are primed to decline much faster than expected and due in course. Despite inevitable uncertainty, a rapid ZET market diffusion associated with ambitious learning rates (LRs) at the required breakthrough costs seems within reach soon. Yet, prospects for BETs as primary technology seem more favourable at higher confidence, with faster availability and achieving cost effectiveness as of today, thus supporting an optimistic view on the fast decarbonization of road freight transport.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 136}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Our analysis of the 50 LT-LEDS shows that there is no consistent definition or use of the concept of residual emissions. A majority of LT-LEDS do not explicitly mention the concept of residual emissions, despite having a net-zero target. Few countries provide an explicit definition or elaborate how residual emissions amounts are arrived at, explain what criteria were used to determine them or specify what greenhouse gases make up the residual emissions. The examples in Table 2 illustrate the variance in how countries describe residual emissions in LT-LEDS. Countries such as Switzerland and Norway suggest an absolute limit on abatement options by describing residual emissions as those that 'cannot' be completely eliminated. By contrast, France and Nepal exemplify a more fluid understanding, where the need for residual emissions owes to 'the current state of knowledge' and with the expectation that technological advancement might change this. Sweden explicitly mentions the ambition to minimize residual emissions as much as possible, suggesting at least some political leverage over the amount of residual emissions allowed in LT-LEDS. Finally, some countries make explicit reference to economic considerations in their description of residual emissions.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 137}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The simplest explanation for this trend points to marked improvements in the efficiency of combined-cycle plants along with, more recently, low natural gas prices brought about by the shale revolution. Without attempting to compare the magnitude of the two effects, we propose a second explanation: distortions brought about by capacity markets in the absence of more complete risk trading.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 138}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The gradual adjustment of fertility and retirement policies in China has social benefits in terms of coping with population aging. However, the environmental consequences of these policies remain ambiguous. Here we compile environmentally extended multiregional input-output tables to estimate household carbon footprints for different population age groups in China. Subsequently, we estimate the age-sex-specific population under different fertility policies up to 2060 and assess the impacts of fertility and retirement policies on household carbon footprints. We find that Chinese young people have relatively higher household carbon footprints than their older counterparts due to differences in income by age group. Relaxing fertility policies and delaying retirement age are associated with an increase in population (and labour supply) and thus increases in household carbon footprints, with the majority of these increases from the fertility side. These results may help policymakers understand interactions among those measures targeting population aging and climate action.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 139}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The uncertainties around the hydrological and socio-economic implications of climate change pose a challenge for Nile River system management, especially with rapidly rising demands for river-system-related services and political tensions between the riparian countries. Cooperative adaptive management of the Nile can help alleviate some of these stressors and tensions. Here we present a planning framework for adaptive management of the Nile infrastructure system, combining climate projections; hydrological, river system and economy-wide simulators; and artificial intelligence multi-objective design and machine learning algorithms. We demonstrate the utility of the framework by designing a cooperative adaptive management policy for the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam that balances the transboundary economic and biophysical interests of Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt. This shows that if the three countries compromise cooperatively and adaptively in managing the dam, the national-level economic and resilience benefits are substantial, especially under climate projections with the most extreme streamflow changes.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 140}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Controlling bioenergy-induced land-use-change emissions is key to exploiting bioenergy for climate change mitigation. However, the effect of different land-use and energy sector policies on specific bioenergy emissions has not been studied so far. Using the global integrated assessment model REMIND-MAgPIE, we derive a biofuel emission factor (EF) for different policy frameworks. We find that a uniform price on emissions from both sectors keeps biofuel emissions at 12 kg CO2 GJ-1. However, without land-use regulation, the EF increases substantially (64 kg CO2 GJ-1 over 80 years, 92 kg CO2 GJ-1 over 30 years). We also find that comprehensive coverage (>90%) of carbon-rich land areas worldwide is key to containing land-use emissions. Pricing emissions indirectly on the level of bioenergy consumption reduces total emissions by cutting bioenergy demand but fails to reduce the average EF. In the absence of comprehensive and timely land-use regulation, bioenergy thus may contribute less to climate change mitigation than assumed previously.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 141}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    For more than a century, governments have designed policies intended to address drug use, dependence, and mortality (Musto 1999). Through what Foucault (1991) termed governmentality, policies may induce institutions to foster individual-level behavioral choices that cohere with the aims of the government. Throughout the twentieth century, governmental policy regarding drug supply increasingly focused on the criminal justice system (MacCoun and Reuter 2001). By relying on policies that define certain drugs as illicit, there is a natural reliance by the state on the criminal justice system to curb supply. According to Foucault (1982), however, use of policing to influence individual-level behavior is inefficient and often counterproductive. Surveillance systems that induce self-governing behavior rather than direct coercion are more efficient because they reduce the resources required to align behavior with governmental aims (Foucault 1995). Policies may employ influence on behavior across a continuum from the tacit forms of behavioral persuasion akin to Foucault's panopticon through direct mandates for action. In this regard, coercion may occur not only through explicit mandates but also in implicit forms that give the appearance of choice as well. Surveillance systems within the scope of the health care system may appear, at face value, to be less coercive.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 142}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As governments get serious about decarbonization, political leaders in large and politically diverse countries need to grapple with huge variations in political and administrative feasibility within their countries. That heterogeneity in interests and capabilities has led many federal governments to encourage or tolerate large internal variations in policy effort. Diverse studies have pointed to the benefits of heterogeneous approaches for experimentation and learning1-4. Yet these realities in climate politics have not been well represented in leading modelling frameworks, which typically assume nationally uniform policy efforts5-8. This gap in modelling work also reflects the widely held assumption by policymakers that heterogeneous subnational policy efforts will be a lot more costly than nationally uniform efforts9\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 143}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The United States continues to have unenviable population health. U.S. life expectancy stagnated for five years (2010 to 2014) and subsequently declined for another three (2015 to 2017)\u2014an unheralded decline among high-income nations (Crimmins and Zhang 2019; Woolf and Schoomaker 2019). Underneath these troubling trends are substantial and increasing disparities across U.S. states (Montez et al. 2020; Wilmoth, Boe, and Barbieri 2011; Woolf and Schoomaker 2019). For instance, in 2018, the difference in life expectancy between West Virginia (74.7) and Hawaii (81.9) was a marked 7.2 years\u2014up from 4.3 in 2000. To understand why the United States is fairing so poorly, scholars are increasingly pointing toward macrolevel structural explanations (e.g., Beckfield and Bambra 2016; Gutin and Hummer 2021; Torche and Rauf 2021). Income inequality and public policy represent two such structural factors because both mirror national trends in life expectancy, are strongly tied to population health, and exhibit wide differences across states (e.g., Kaufman et al. 2020; Montez et al. 2020; Pickett and Wilkinson 2015; Venkataramani, O'Brien, and Tsai 2021).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 144}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Being widely available and replenishable, wastes and biomass residues from agricultural, dairy, forestry and household activities seem to contain the basic attributes of a sustainable energy resource, in stark contrast to bioenergy from food crops13-15. The US Department of Energy 2016 Billion-Ton Study estimates an annual availability of 233 million tonnes (Mt) of dry waste16. To put this in perspective, the approximately 60 billion litres of corn ethanol produced in the United States in 2017 required about 150 Mt of corn (assuming a yield of 402 l ethanol per Mt). Furthermore, wastes and biomass residues can be used to derive a number of alternative energy products, including electricity along with heat, biomethane (or renewable natural gas), ethanol, renewable diesel or bio jet fuel, each through various conversion pathways, which currently are at different stages of technical and economic maturity14,15,17-21. Beyond energy production and mitigation of climate change, efficient use of wastes and residues is integral to the achievement of sustainable development22, and to redesigning our economies to minimize material and energy throughput, that is, towards becoming a circular economy23,24. However, at the same time, sustainable use of this resource hinges on overcoming some challenges. The collection, transport and storage of biomass feedstocks are costly and could account for over 50% of total cost in the supply chain of bioenergy products25. The composition of wastes also varies from one location to another, and their processing requires substantial energy inputs. In addition, national-scale policies tend to ignore local trade-offs, leading to suboptimal use of scarce resources26. Harnessing the full energetic and environmental potential of this resource, therefore, requires a holistic assessment of alternative competing pathways to their utilization taking into account the spatial distribution of each specific type of waste and the local conditions under which the wastes will be processed. The majority of previous life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies have focused on either a smaller number of waste types14,27-35, certain types of bioenergy product15,19,20,36-38 or certain conversion technologies29,31,37,39-45. Comparing the effectiveness and environmental impacts of all feasible conversion pathways for all types of waste from a systems perspective is necessary for policies that address the best use of wastes and biomass residues.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 145}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Regarding battery demand, electrified transport is widely recognized as the key driver12 and catalyst for battery advances13. However, any projection of battery demand is highly uncertain and scenario-dependent, generally based on concealed models and subject to unclear assumptions. Hence, global demand projections for 2030 cover a wide spectrum, typically 3-6 TWh yr-1 and up to almost 9 TWh yr-1, with European projections at around 0.7-1.4 TWh yr-1 (for an overview, see Supplementary Table 2).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 146}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    At the same time, while renewables have long been known to be critical to the achievement of climate goals and a key topic in regulation, in recent times renewable investments have become a driver of macroeconomic policies and, in this context, their contribution to achieving more stable power prices has gained increasing relevance. In September of 2022, President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen referred to renewables as 'our energy insurance for the future'1, and this consideration has played a critical consideration in the design of the European Green Deal. In the United States, the largest fiscal support package in recent times has been structured around support for low-carbon technologies and included as part of the Inflation Reduction Act, which was passed in June 2022, explicitly emphasizing the connection among renewables, energy prices and broader price stability2. The United Nations has also frequently stressed renewables' role in the path to stable power prices3. Overall, these justifications suggest renewables are increasingly seen in the context of energy security, which the International Energy Agency defines as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price4.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 147}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Weather extremes such as storms can strongly affect the reliability of power systems1. The increasing use of variable renewable energies additionally exposes power systems to hazards caused by weather extremes2,3. However, recently a gas-power-dominated system was deeply impaired by a weather extreme: a cold spell over Texas between 10 February and 20 February 2021 with temperatures far below 0 \u00b0C caused a failure of large parts of the Texan power system. The combination of extraordinarily high winter electricity demand and more importantly the failure of substantial power generation capacities, both due to low temperatures, resulted in up to 4.5 million Texans being cut off from their electricity supply4.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 148}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    From a societal perspective, repowering may offer environmental and social improvements through the replacement of older (faster-rotating and noisier) turbines with fewer and more efficient newer turbines\u2014although the new (taller) turbines may introduce new negative impacts, largely related to visibility over longer distances7. It is further suggested that birds and bats benefit from repowering, although challenges remain in the monitoring and assessment of bird fatalities and collision rates before and after repowering8. Repowering is also particularly relevant in offering the potential to increase wind energy production from a limited area of available land, so that even when \u201cvirtually all the good wind resource sites have been taken\u201d (using the words of a representative from the Danish wind industry)9, increases in wind energy production may still be facilitated.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 149}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Mitigating climate change and coping with population aging are  both critical goals for China in achieving sustainable development1,2. As the world's largest carbon emitter, China aims to have a carbon emissions peak before 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 20603. Currently, China is turning towards more sustainable development, with the deceleration of China's annual carbon emissions growth from 10% (2000-2010) to 2% (2010-2020)4. However, China remains an important driver of global carbon emissions due to its large population and growing household consumption over the past 20 years. To better explore the drivers of carbon emissions, the household carbon footprint (the sum of direct and indirect carbon emissions of household consumption along the supply chain) has received increasing attention recently1,5,6. In addition, China is one of the most populous countries in the world, with a population that is nearing its peak and aging rapidly7. In 2020, China's total fertility rate was only 1.3 births per woman, which is far below the replacement level (2.1) needed for a stable population8. It is projected that China's population will peak at 1.45 billion in 2029 (with a range of 1.42 to 1.48 billion from 2025 to 2035)2,9, after which contraction is expected. At the same time, China is aging rapidly, with the proportion aged 65 years and above doubling from 7% in 2000 to 14% in 202010.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 150}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    A familiar theme from research on climate policy and economic development is that there is an important trade-off between climate action and near-term poverty reduction; this literature is based in part on results from existing cost-benefit climate policy models1-5, which assume that the burden of a nation's climate mitigation must fall to some extent on the poor. If this assumption were correct, some trade-off between climate action and poverty alleviation would be inevitable. The key question would then be to what extent benefitting the future poor through avoiding future climate damages can justify (from a development or equity perspective) reduced near-term development for the current poor6,7.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 151}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Despite growing attention to the links between state immigration policies and health, we have a   limited understanding of whether and to what extent the enactment of inclusive immigration policies at the state level can improve health. Extant scholarship largely focuses on the deleterious health effects of restrictive state-level immigration policies (Hardy et al. 2012; Torche and Sirois 2019; Wang and Kaushal 2019; Young, Crookes, and Torres 2022) or on the health effects of states' immigration policy climate, a measure that captures a range of immigration-related policies enacted in a given state (Dondero and Altman 2020; Hatzenbuehler et al. 2017; Schut and Boen 2022; Stanhope et al. 2019; Sudhinaraset et al. 2021; Young et al. 2019). Among the studies that examine how specific state-level inclusive immigration policies impact health, the focus has primarily been on policies that extend access to public health insurance to immigrants (for notable exceptions, see Koball, Kirby, and Hartig 2022; Potochnick, May, and Flores 2019; Schut and Boen 2022). How nonhealth-related inclusive immigration policies shape the health and well-being of immigrants and their children remains far less clear. Additionally, to what extent individual inclusive policies can positively affect health independent of states' broader policy climate is also not well understood.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 152}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Early studies indicate that energy disclosure is correlated with meaningful reductions in building energy use7-9, although recent evidence suggests that there are differential impacts of the policy10. Yet few, if any, studies have examined the effect of a mandatory audit policy on energy use in commercial and multifamily residential buildings. This is an important omission: if information gained from the required energy audits leads property owners to invest in energy efficiency improvements that they would not otherwise implement, policymakers may be justified in expanding audit requirements to a broader range of properties and other cities may consider these requirements in their carbon-reduction-policy toolkit. A positive effect of mandatory audits on energy efficiency may also provide support for requiring more rigorous audits, including the consideration of 'deep energy retrofits', which will be necessary to achieve citywide 80%, and greater, carbon emissions reduction targets. However, if mandatory audits\u2014which can be quite costly and time-consuming for property owners, especially of smaller buildings11\u2014do not meaningfully influence behaviour or investment decisions, policymakers may do well to simply adopt an energy performance standard and allow the market to determine the optimal way to meet the requirement. Notably, in April 2019 NYC passed a law that caps the amount of fossil-fuel based energy that large buildings can consume without paying a fine12. This law, which effectively established performance standards for the buildings it covers, may obviate the need for additional mandates.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 153}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Two decades ago, over a dozen national academies of sciences urged policymakers to take prompt action to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases1. Although scholars have continued to assess the numerous ways in which climate change affects humans2,3, animals4,5 and plants6,7 on Earth, governments have been hesitant to pursue policies able to successfully reduce emissions8,9 because of a costs-participation dilemma: to be effective, climate policy must raise the price of carbon and include most countries of the world. Realizing both of these objectives is challenging because climate action is voluntary and existing studies demonstrate that publics are averse to costs10-13. A potential response to this problem is the 'ramping-up principle', that is, the idea that the price of carbon should be gradually increased to give publics time to adjust to stricter regulations8. Although intuitively appealing, it is not clear whether publics do indeed prefer increasing cost paths over alternative cost schedules or whether they simply favour climate policies with average low costs. Previous work has explored the willingness of individuals to invest in energy efficiency improvements14,15 and public approval of costly climate policy initiatives16-20. So far, there exists no systematic evidence on which intertemporal cost paths maximize public support for climate action.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 154}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Drug testing in clinical settings has emerged outside of the jurisdiction of federal regulations that guide employment testing. Clinical drug testing is notably less sophisticated and less transparent than workplace testing (SAMHSA 2012; Warner, Walker, and Friedmann 2003). In clinical settings, forensic standards like \u201cchain of custody\u201d protocol (i.e., protocol for handling biological specimens to meet legal evidentiary standards) are not routinely followed, patients are often not informed that their biological material will be tested, and confirmatory testing is rarely carried out to rule out testing errors (Jarvis et al. 2017; Warner et al. 2003). Unlike federal workplace drug testing standards, there are no widely applied standards governing clinical drug testing that ensure that clinical testing is nondiscriminatory, well regulated, consensual, or confidential (Jarvis et al. 2017; SAMHSA 2012; Warner et al. 2003).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 155}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    First, although most countries have committed to net-zero targets, they still provide little information on what role CDR will play in reaching them. Within the NDCs, ambiguities and a lack of transparency lead to wide ranging assessments of not only the land-use flux and implied removals, but also overall emissions levels27,28. These problems are even more apparent with the long-term strategies, which lack any common reporting structure and where underlying scenarios are illustrative rather than formal commitments13. As of COP28, only 68 countries (42 when excluding EU countries) have actually submitted a long-term strategy. Further, not all pledges have an associated climate law in their home jurisdictions10.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 156}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    After decades on the fringes, solar energy has arrived as a major player in the electricity generation sector. While just five years ago, conventional wisdom grouped solar with the impractical and subsidy-dependent 'alternative' energy technologies, today every few months there are announcements of new largescale solar projects around the globe promising electricity prices equal to or lower than what can be achieved with fossil fuels1,2, as shown in Fig. 1a. While the well-publicized steep learning curve of photovoltaic (PV) modules3 has played a large role in bringing us to this point, other factors are now beginning to drive price reductions as modules have dropped to just over a third of total system prices, with the remainder represented by inverters, sun trackers (if used) and other components for balance of system, as well as the cost of labour and various 'soft costs' related to regulation, taxes, developer expenses and grid connection, accounted for in Fig. 1b based on data from the United States4,5. Particularly noteworthy and illustrative of this trend have been a number of announcements of low-priced utility-scale PV projects from the Middle East, especially the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia6-9, where power purchase agreement (PPA) auction bids below 3\u00a2 kWh-1 have become the norm. If sustainable, these cheap projects would represent the achievement of the US SunShot pricing goals for 203010 more than a decade ahead of schedule. As these targets represent the expectation that unsubsidized solar overtakes fossil fuels on cost, this development would have significant implications for the world's energy systems. It would make solar the economic favourite for new-generation capacity, accelerating the transition to a renewable-based energy future.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 157}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Since the mid-2010s, many governments have pledged to reduce their subsidies for fossil fuels. Yet, it is unclear whether these reforms have been implemented, with prior studies showing conflicting results. Here we collect original monthly data on the 21 countries with the largest gasoline subsidies in the 2003-2015 period and evaluate their reform efforts from 2016 to 2023. Since 2016, there has been an increase in the frequency and ambition of subsidy reforms but a drop in their durability: just 30% of the reforms survived for 12 months, and only 9% survived for 36 months. Subsidies rose for 12 countries in our sample and were virtually unchanged in the other 9. This pattern calls into question the effectiveness of recent strategies for reducing fossil fuel subsidies.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 158}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Among populations that live near coal-fired power plants and fossil fuel refineries, some, though not all9,10, epidemiological studies found a relationship between higher SO2 levels and uncontrolled asthma11, respiratory symptoms12-15 and respiratory-related hospitalizations16. Residential proximity to such facilities alone, without assessed air quality, was also identified as a risk factor for asthma exacerbation17-19. Prior scholarship related to asthma and coal-fired power plant exposures often consisted of observational and cross-sectional studies that considered single air pollutants (usually SO2 ) and hospitalizations, pulmonary function or symptoms alone. Studies of symptoms lacked objective measures and usually relied on participant diaries. Some studies overcame a portion of these limitations; for example, Smargiassi et al.16 used a case-crossover design to evaluate the relationship between SO2 concentrations and ERVs and hospitalizations among young children who lived near a refinery. To build on these prior studies, we incorporate improved exposure and outcome assessment and capitalize on recent abrupt changes in coal-fired power plant emissions.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 159}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Two primary considerations arise when evaluating supply-side policies. The first is the relative effectiveness of each policy type in reducing oil production and associated GHG emissions, which to date, has received limited empirical analysis10-12. The second pertains to the ancillary benefits and costs of each policy and how they are distributed across different communities. In particular, oil extraction tends to be highly spatially concentrated in certain areas, employing a local workforce and generating air pollution impacting nearby residents. Depending on how oil extraction is spatially located in relation to workers and households, different supply-side policies can have different aggregate and distributional consequences in terms of health benefits and labour-market impacts. For example, for the same overall GHG emissions target, a policy that phases out more labour-intensive oil fields may have higher lost worker compensation than other policies. Likewise, a policy that bans oil fields near where disadvantaged households reside may generate larger overall health benefits and health equity gains. Quantifying such potential consequences is critical for informing the design of supply-side policies. More broadly, there is a need to understand if and how effectiveness in GHG emissions reductions and distributional consequences trade off across different oil supply-side policies.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 160}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Negative emissions technologies are attracting the interest of investors in the race to make them effective and profitable. When deployed at scale, they will be financed through public funds, reducing the fiscal space for a socially inclusive climate transition. Moreover, if the private sector owns negative emissions technologies, potentially large profits would disproportionally benefit investors and equity holders. Here we quantify the inequality repercussions of direct air capture of CO2 in a 1.5 \u00b0C scenario, using a regional integrated assessment model that features within-country income heterogeneity. We find that, under a single carbon market, financing negative emissions technologies could double the increase in income inequality of climate policy. The effects are highest around the time of net zero and in scenarios with carbon budget overshoot. We identify the drivers of the inequality increase and discuss policy provisions to mitigate the equity concerns of CO2 removal strategies.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 161}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Regarding battery production, electrification requires industrial transformation and the establishment of new battery ecosystems alongside the entire value chain from raw material extraction to end-of-life, and including concepts of circularity, such as second use or recycling14,15. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic and other geopolitical tensions have created awareness of vulnerable economic dependencies and spurred the development of modern concepts such as technological sovereignty16,17 and resilience14,15. In response, the European Union (EU) recently finalized the Net-Zero Industry Act18, intending to ensure ample capacity for strategic net-zero technologies by 2030, including a target to satisfy at least 90% of its battery demand from domestic cell production18. Global battery production capacity is \n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 162}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Many studies have estimated the effect of population aging on carbon emissions in China, finding that population aging may reduce18, increase19,20 or have nonlinear effects on carbon emissions21. However, no study has assessed the impacts of policies that address population aging\u2014including fertility (particularly the three-child policy) and retirement policies\u2014on carbon emissions or household carbon footprints. Thus, we aim to address this gap in the literature. In this Article, we first investigate age-based household carbon footprints in China and its provinces by compiling a global multiregional input-output (MRIO) table and employing a large-scale household survey. We further estimate the age distribution of the population in China and its provinces up to 2060 by using a cohort-component method and then assess the impacts of fertility and retirement policies on household carbon footprints.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 163}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Three alternative paradigms govern investments in generation capacity: vertical integration, energy-only markets and installed capacity (ICAP) markets1. In traditional vertically integrated systems, investors are guaranteed a rate of return by a regulatory process, which effectively shifts most risk to ratepayers and creates the incentive for excess investment. One goal behind deregulation was to encourage a more efficient allocation of this risk2. The theoretically ideal competitive market provides the basis for a second paradigm, energy-only markets. Under the energy-only design, generators earn all their revenue through the sale of energy and ancillary services. Prices rise substantially during times of scarcity, which allows generators to recover their fixed costs. In practice, a lack of price-responsive demand, combined with inconsistencies between the market clearing process and actions taken by operators on the grounds of reliability, hampered the formation of efficient scarcity prices3,4. An administrative response is to introduce an operating reserves demand curve that reflects the probability that the system operator will need to take emergency actions (for example, voltage reductions or rolling blackouts) to prevent a cascading failure5. As the probability of such actions approaches one, the price grows to an estimated value of the lost load, which is typically two orders of magnitude larger than average prices (for example, US$9,000 MWh-1 for the Electric Reliability Council of Texas). With the exception of the Electric Reliability Council of Texas, wholesale market operators in the United States opted for the third paradigm. Under the ICAP design, load-serving entities are required to either supply or procure an administratively determined level of capacity. Energy prices in these markets are capped at a much lower level (for example, US$2,000 MWh-1 or lower), and revenue from the sale of energy and ancillary services is supplemented by payments for capacity. The intent of these capacity payments is to balance the 'missing money' that results from the cap and other price-suppressing actions to restore the outcomes that would be achieved in an ideal energy-only market6-8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 164}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Despite important advances in recent years, this body of literature remains in a nascent stage owing to several substantive and methodological challenges (Massoglia and Remster 2019). First, the possibilities of selection bias and statistical confounding complicate efforts to isolate the causal effects of incarceration exposure on health outcomes. Second, the extent to which physical health is affected by witnessing or experiencing interpersonal violence while detained has received scant attention in the quantitative empirical research. This is an important omission because periods of confinement often involve unwanted, uncontrollable, and threatening experiences that conceivably govern the effects of incarceration on postrelease health (Porter 2019). As such, prior work has largely considered incarceration a homogeneous experience, thus ignoring the effects of varied experiences. It is therefore important to assess whether specific stress-inducing experiences during incarceration are differentially related to poor health.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 165}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Understanding variations in mental well-being has become a globally salient health challenge (Lesthaeghe 1995; Van de Kaa 1987). The \u201csecond demographic transition\u201d has led to significant shifts in work and family dynamics, creating complex life trajectories that warrant an examination of their impacts on mental health, especially among women who face unique stressors due to societal gender roles and expectations (Caballero et al. 2022; Zagel and Van Winkle 2020).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 166}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    All these mentioned costs are, however, only the direct costs of the subsidies themselves. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), including also indirect costs (the contribution of fossil fuels to global warming, local air pollution and other externalities, and foregone consumption tax) would increase the figure for annual fossil fuel subsidies by around US$6 trillion, or 6.5% of global GDP3,4. They also find that 45% of the benefits from direct fossil fuel subsidies goes to the richest quintile, while only 7% goes to the poorest 20% of the population5.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 167}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The relationship between work, family, and health necessitates understanding how life course trajectories, particularly for women, influence later life mental health (Chen et al. 2018; Dannefer 2003). Women, especially those with social  disadvantages, often experience greater health risks, including hypertension, depression, disability, and heart disease (Anand, Esposito, and Villase\u00f1or 2018; Diaz-Toro et al. 2018; Engels et al. 2019; Land\u00f6s et al. 2018; Leupp 2017; Lucumi  et al. 2017).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 168}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Insufficient appreciation of flood connectivity can be demonstrated by outdated and oversimplified stormwater system designguidelines22,27. For example, the American Society of Civil Engineers(ASCE) stormwater design guidelines were last revised in 2006(GUIDE2006 hereafter)28. While offering an extensive set of drainagenetwork design criteria, the GUIDE2006 guidelines do not adequately reflect the ways in which drainage system interconnectednesscan create vulnerabilities through the aggregate 'network effects'of localized engineering solutions. Additionally, modeling toolsemployed in engineering design practices are outdated and lack thecapability to describe the coupled dynamics between flows over theland surface, through natural and artificial surface channels, andthrough sewer systems. Similar deficiencies in design practices canbe found worldwide28-33, and exist despite the availability of moremodern modeling tools that are capable of performing sophisticatedsimulations. These practices have impacted scientific research focusing on the optimization of drainage systems, as most studies have reliedsolely on simplified one-dimensional (1D) models that simulate waterconveyance within sewer systems, while neglecting interactions withsurface water (see Group 3 in Supplementary Table 1, which contains arelevant literature review). Such model limitations may result in poorlyinformed design of drainage systems and may compromise urban floodresilience and prevention capacities4,34,35\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 169}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Racial-ethnic inequities in health care have been widely reported in the United States whereby the care and treatment of White people is often prioritized more than that of marginalized populations (Institute of Medicine [IOM] 2003). Evidence for discrimination and unequal care in the United States has been documented in numerous settings (e.g., Daw 2015; Geiger 2003; Lewey and Choudhry 2014; Morris et al. 2010). Unequal treatment in health care operates through multiple mechanisms, including policy creation and enforcement (Krieger 2001, 2012), the organization of U.S. health care systems (Popescu et al. 2010; Williams and Jackson 2005), medical training and culture (Cogburn 2019; Good et al. 2003), and interpersonal interactions between patients and providers (Hoffman et al. 2016). Combined, evidence suggests that systemic racism creates and maintains health care  systems that underserve and harm communities of color in the United States. That is, the U.S. medical system has a history of centering care on the needs of dominant or majority populations (i.e., White patients) rather than centering care \u201cat the margins\u201d or considering the care needs of marginalized populations (Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil 2016).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 170}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    ARPA-E was established in the US Department of Energy (DOE) in 2009, in recognition of the urgent need for accelerating energy technology innovation. The agency was created to fund breakthrough energy research with greater flexibility to overcome the stovepiping that afflicts traditional DOE funding offices1-3. For over two decades, experts have called for increased government spending on energy research and development (R&D)4-7 and for stronger mission-oriented innovation support policies, including government action to create and shape markets8,9. It is well known that market failures due to knowledge spillovers lead to underinvestment in research by the private sector10,11. In addition, experimentation is fundamental to innovation and entrepreneurship, which are characterized by high uncertainty and low success rates12,13, and thus, public intervention can be essential for encouraging radical innovation when the cost of experimentation is high14. Particularly for cleantech, where societal benefits are generally high compared to private returns because of the environmental externalities of air pollution and climate change, governments can be seen as a risk-tolerant investor with the ability to de-risk or shape markets for new technology9.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 171}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Despite the need for more stringent climate policies to achieve the Paris climate targets, many countries seem reluctant to ratchet up their mitigation efforts. This might be partly because the costs of mitigation are incurred domestically and immediately, whereas most of its benefits will be reaped globally and in the future. In addition, more ambitious climate action might be hindered by concerns about the limited effectiveness of nations' domestic efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions if other countries do not do make similar changes. This consideration is especially pertinent in relatively small countries. Indeed, in 2021 the smallest 90% of emitters contributed only about 20% of global GHG emissions. Such a narrow perspective, however, neglects the fact that international leadership in climate change mitigation can yield substantial benefits beyond domestic emission reductions1,2. For example, stringent climate policies at home can support the international diffusion of technological innovations that reduce mitigation costs in other countries3,4. Furthermore, domestic climate policies can show the political feasibility and certain benefits of carbon pricing5, and they can create incentives related to trade6 and diplomacy7 that can nudge other countries to adopt the same or similar policies. This latter process whereby adoption of a policy in one country increases the probability of adoption in other countries is usually referred to as policy diffusion8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 172}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    At the beginning of the new millennium, energy insecurity, global climate change and stagnant rural economies led to policies supporting domestic biofuels as a renewable alternative fuel in more than 60 countries worldwide1. As a consequence, global production of ethanol and biodiesel combined almost quadrupled (from about 35 billion litres to 135 billion litres) in the short span from 2005 to 2016 (ref. 2). However, these policies had two major flaws. First, appropriation of edible crops for biofuel (mainly corn and sugarcane for ethanol, and soybean, canola and palm for biodiesel) was an important factor responsible for food price inflation alongside other factors such as rising income that drove rapid growth in food demand (especially meat demand), rising energy prices, adverse weather shocks, currency fluctuations and trade policies1,3-6, the consequences of which were particularly severe for poorer households in developing countries7. Second, these crops required intensive use of land, water, nitrogen and other farm chemicals, which meant low, and in the worst case uncertain, net environmental benefits8-12.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 173}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Health disparities between women and men in the United States are well documented. Women experience a higher incidence of chronic conditions, functional limitations, depression, and disability compared to men (Case and Paxson 2005; Leveille et al. 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema 2001), and rates of maternal morbidity and mortality in the United States have increased over the past several decades (Creanga et al. 2014). Women also experience more barriers to health care access (Ng et al. 2010; Rustgi, Doty, and Collins 2009), which may exacerbate gender gaps in health. Women are more likely to be adversely affected by barriers to health care access, in part, because women have greater need for health care services to manage chronic conditions and reproductive care (Case and Paxson 2005; Doyal 2000; Owens 2008). Unmet health care need is associated with higher rates of morbidity and mortality for women and higher infant mortality (Atrash et al. 2006; Kent, Patel, and Varela 2012).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 174}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    There is a widespread consensus among scientists1-5, industry and increasingly also policymakers that green hydrogen, produced from renewable electricity via electrolysis, is critical for reducing emissions in end-use applications that defy straightforward electrification. Additionally, hydrogen is a promising candidate for long-duration energy storage of renewables8,9 and the precursor to all electrofuels10, which are highly versatile yet costly11. Consequently, policy measures to stimulate the ramp-up of the hydrogen market are gaining momentum as more than 40 governments have already adopted hydrogen strategies1,7. Prominent examples are the supply-side subsidies implemented through the the US Inflation Reduction Act12 and the EU Hydrogen Bank13. Such policy support is urgently required: to meet the median ambition in 1.5 \u00b0C scenarios, namely, 350 GW by 2030, green hydrogen production needs to grow 380-fold, more than doubling each year. However, implementation is not going according to plan.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 175}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In 2021, governments of 51 countries spent US$697 billion on subsidizing fossil fuels. Removing fossil fuel subsidies is crucial not only for reducing CO2 emissions and making carbon pricing more effective, but also for making more valuable use of government funds. Currently, however, scientific evidence on the scale and scope of public attitudes towards  fossil fuel subsidy-removal policies is lacking, yet it is instrumental for gauging political feasibility. Furthermore, previous studies tend to focus  on carbon pricing in the developed world only. Here we present a comparative analysis of attitudes towards both carbon taxation and fossil fuel subsidy removal, focusing on five developing countries across four continents. It is found that (1) removing fossil fuel subsidies is not more undesirable than introducing carbon taxation and (2) the public has more-positive attitudes towards subsidy removal if optimal use of the saved f iscal revenues is specified.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 176}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Raising concern about climate change and support for remedial action at the individual and collective level is challenging for numerous reasons. First, it is difficult to attribute a specific climate-related incident to a single cause. Second, remedial actions taken by one individual or collective often do not yield visible outcomes. Third, the cost of action is immediate whereas the benefits are distributed over long time horizons13. Specifically, while climate change will adversely impact future generations, for most people there is no immediate cost to rejecting its occurrence on ideological grounds14. Compounded by the brain's challenges in thinking about temporally or spatially distant events15-17, these factors make it difficult to change sceptics' views on the topic and garner support for corrective action.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 177}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Women have long been targeted as a special population in law and drug policy and are often subject to distinct forms of coercive disciplining for their substance use (Campbell 2002). Pregnant substance users are uniquely exposed to competing medical and legal responses while receiving pregnancyrelated health care. Despite recent, louder prescriptions to treat addiction as a disease (Pew Research Center 2014), pregnant and postpartum substance users continue to experience extraclinical interventions such as criminal prosecution and child welfare interventions (Paltrow and Flavin 2013). State mandatory reporting laws and child abuse statutes that codify substance use during pregnancy as child maltreatment create a statutory environment that empowers practitioners to investigate their patients for suspected illegal activity. Recent estimates indicate that tens of thousands of women a year are subject to child welfare investigations after medical staff identify and report them to the state for prenatal substance use (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2021).1 This article examines the blending of medical and legal approaches in perinatal care through an analysis of medical professionals' justifications and rationales for drug testing pregnant patients. Expanding current understandings of the relationship between medicalization and criminalization processes, this study reveals the mechanisms that enable medical providers to engage in investigatory work in the clinic. I also discuss the consequences of medico-legal hybridity, whereby criminal-legal logics get taken up in medical practice in such a way that medical routines, practices, and interactions become a form of criminalization.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 178}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    In the early 2010s, international organizations stepped up their advocacy work for fossil fuel subsidy reform, sponsoring new initiatives, reports and conferences9. The IMF began to emphasize subsidy reform in its policy recommendations10. Subsidy reforms were directly incorporated into the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 12.c) in September 2015, and 15 countries included fossil fuel subsidy reforms in their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions for the December 2015 Paris conference11. It is unclear whether these initiatives led to a reduction in subsidies. One study found that, from 2015 to 2020, 41 countries reformed consumer fossil fuel subsidies12; yet, according to the International Energy Agency, from 2015 to 2022 these subsidies rose from US$183 billion to US$343 billion (ref. 13). The reform of fossil fuel subsidies is difficult to study in part because they are hard to measure. In many countries, subsidies rise and fall over time owing to a mixture of market forces and government policies that can be hard to disentangle. Governments often provide unreliable information about their own policies: they may announce reforms but fail to implement them or, conversely, adopt reforms quietly in an effort to avoid protests.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 179}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Here, we determine the net energy gain and the global warming potential (GWP) of energy recovery from waste; which pathways simultaneously maximize renewable energy production, net energy gain and climate benefits for each type of waste and how this varies given the spatial distribution of their availability (specifically, in the contiguous United States); and what are the aggregate energy and climate benefits when all available wastes and biomass residues across the contiguous United States are dedicated for a specific policy objective such as maximizing renewable energy production, maximizing net energy gain or maximizing climate benefits. These questions are aimed at deriving both general insights on the optimal use of wastes and biomass residues, and also illustrating their overall climate-change mitigation potential in the context of a large country, specifically the United States. To this end, we quantify life-cycle GHG emissions and net energy gain for 15 conversion pathways (detailed description in Table 1) and 29 waste feedstocks with spatially explicit estimates of waste potential for the United States. We find that the source of electricity consumed during processing and the environmental footprint of the displaced products are key in determining the best use of wastes and biomass residues. The utilization of all available wastes and residues in the contiguous United States can generate 3.1-3.8 EJ of renewable energy, but deliver only 2.4-3.2 EJ of net energy gain, and displace 103-178 Mt of CO2-equivalent (MtCO2 e) GHG emissions. For any given waste feedstock, looking across all US counties where it is available, except in rare instances, no single conversion pathway simultaneously maximizes renewable energy production, net energy gain and GHG mitigation.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 180}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Preventive health care use can reduce the risk of disease, disability, and death (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS] 2022). For example, sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy screenings are important tools in reducing deaths from colorectal cancer (Brenner, Stock, and Hoffmeister 2014), flu shots decrease the risk of serious illness if infected (Ferdinands et al. 2021), and COVID-19 vaccinations prevented an estimated 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths worldwide during the first year of use (Watson et al. 2022). \u201cPreventive care\u201d generally includes spending on programs for public health information, education, and counseling; immunization, early disease detection, and healthy condition monitoring programs (e.g., for monitoring pregnancy, child growth and development, general health checkups); epidemiological surveillance; and emergency preparedness and disaster response (Kamal and Hudman 2020). Despite the clear health benefits preventive care offers, the majority of U.S. adults do not receive all recommended clinical preventive services (Borsky et al. 2018). Thus, understanding and addressing the determinants of preventive care use is critical to reducing preventable deaths, which are higher in the United States than all other OECD countries, and vital for improving population health (Kamal and Hudman 2020).\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 181}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    However, other studies offer more sobering assessment. Surveys measuring public support for hypothetical policies may overestimate voters' support when confronted with real-world costs. For example,  polling overestimated voter support for failed carbon tax referenda in Washington state5 and Switzerland39. Voters' perceptions  of rebate costs and benefits may also be shaped by competing partisan and interest-group narratives5,40,41. More broadly, voters are often unaware they receive even high-profile government benefits42.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 182}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Preventive health care use can reduce the risk of disease, disability, and death. Thus, it is critical to understand factors that shape preventive care use. A growing body of research identifies structural sexism as a driver of population health, but it remains unknown if structural sexism is linked to preventive care use and, if so, whether the relationship differs for women and men. Gender performance and gendered power and resource allocation perspectives lead to competing hypotheses regarding these questions. This study explores the relationship between structural sexism and preventive care in gender-stratified, multilevel models that combine data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System with state-level data (N = 425,454). We find that in states with more structural sexism, both men and women were less likely to seek preventive care. These findings support the gender performance hypothesis for men and the gendered power and resource allocation hypothesis for men and women.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 183}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The achievement of China's carbon neutrality is crucial for the 1.5 \u00b0C target of the Paris Agreement and must involve the implementation of various mitigation policies. However, these efforts are hindered by poor knowledge of the interactions between policies. Here we use a dynamic computable general equilibrium model of China (CEEGE model) and create a policy portfolio area of 1,295 scenarios covering four major mitigation strategies (carbon pricing, energy efficiency, renewable energy and electrification of end uses). When the interactions between mitigation policies are considered, the percentage of scenarios in which the carbon neutrality target is reached by 2060 decreases by 84%, with the years in which these scenarios are achieved being delayed by 5-6 years. Only the combinations with renewable energy and electrification of end uses generate synergetic effects on both economic and mitigation impacts. Our work can inform the formulation of more efficient mitigation policy portfolios by emphasizing policy interactions.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 184}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Net-zero targets imply that continuing residual emissions will be balanced by carbon dioxide removal. However, residual emissions are typically not well defined, conceptually or quantitatively. We analysed governments' long-term strategies submitted to the UNFCCC to explore projections of residual emissions, including amounts and sectors. We found substantial levels of residual emissions at net-zero greenhouse gas emissions, on average 18% of current emissions for Annex I countries. The majority of strategies were imprecise about which sectors residual emissions would originate from, and few offered specific projections of how residual emissions could be balanced by carbon removal. Our findings indicate the need for a consistent definition of residual emissions, as well as processes that standardize and compare expectations about residual emissions across countries. This is necessary for two reasons: to avoid projections of excessive residuals and correspondent unsustainable or unfeasible carbon-removal levels and to send clearer signals about the temporality of fossil fuel use.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 185}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    A first retrospective analysis of the event by Busby et al.5 discusses the magnitude of the event and its causes, indicating that the total economic loss amounted to US$130 billion and that the outage of gas power plants was mainly responsible for the high deficits in power generation capacity. Wu et al.6 provide a power grid simulation to conduct a very detailed analysis of the 2021 event, and Doss-Gollin et al.7 have shown that lower temperatures than those in February 2021 have been observed in the past 71 years, and heating demand predicted from temperature data would also have been higher in the past, although the 2021 freeze event was comparably long. These previous studies indicate a striking gap between the occurrence probability of such an event, its large-scale economic and social cost and the lack of winterization efforts. However, none of these studies assessed whether the economic incentives for power companies to invest in winterization have been sufficient, when the 2021 event is put into a long-term climatic context. As winterization was not strongly enforced by regulation in Texas, power generators had to rely on the incentives provided by the energy-only market to arrive at investment decisions. These incentives consist mainly of regulated price spikes at the spot market when generation capacity is scarce8.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 186}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    With a view on understanding what has driven prices in the recent period, the following puzzle arises. It is economically straightforward that a tightening of the long-term cap should increase current and expected prices. However, past research suggests that market participants in the ETS are myopic7,11. Whereas myopia can always have an impact on energy sector investments, it is especially relevant when the power sector is covered by an intertemporal emissions trading system with a cap that strongly tightens over time, so that future certificate scarcities can influence current investments. If most market actors were myopic, a long-term tightening of the cap should thus only have modest effects on current prices, much lower than the observed increase after the reforms.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 187}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    We find that direct benefits to communities, including the creation of permanent, union-wage jobs and cooperative community ownership, increase support for energy projects. Pennsylvanians prefer solar projects over wind, nuclear and natural gas power plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Local elected officials, however, misperceive the preferences of their constituents, underestimating support for renewable energy and the importance of job loss and creation. The public and local elected officials have similar opinions of foreign-owned products, which is associated with the greatest reductions in support. Importantly, we find limited partisan differences in preferences for large-scale renewable energy project characteristics, suggesting a promising path towards building bipartisan support for such projects. Given the role of local elected officials as key decision-makers regarding energy infrastructure development, their preferences and how they perceive their constituents' preferences may be important predictors of which projects come to fruition and what benefits they provide to local communities, offering opportunities to realize just energy transitions.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 188}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Over the last decade, central banks have taken on a role in examining and managing transition risks as well as physical climate risks8. These risks are not only firm-level risks but can amount to systemic risks. After the financial crisis of 2008-2009, central banks have grown more occupied with financial and macroeconomic stability, and finance is the transmission belt of transition risks9-11. Climate activists have welcomed the expansion of central banks' activities to facilitate decarbonization, hoping that central banks could substitute for the lack of strong national climate action. Monetary conservatives, instead, have been alarmed by mission creep among central banks12,13 (B. Bremer and J. Chwieroth, manuscript in preparation). Since first movers, such as the Bank of England, began to explore the issue, central banks across the globe have started to assess and manage climate risks. New global fora foster learning and co-operation among central banks, such as the Network for Greening the Financial System14,15.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 189}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Several reforms have been introduced to solve some of the issues. These include the new Risk Rating 2.0 program, which more accurately sets premiums that reflect yearly risk for individual buildings8. While the reforms are expected to increase mean insurance uptake and solve financial burden on the program, they are also likely to put pressure on affordability for low-income households living in high-risk flood zones. Moreover, there is uncertainty how the NFIP will perform under future climate change conditions. However, existing studies on NFIP reforms only focus on a specific region or on individual elements of the program  and are limited to assessing the current conditions. Recent debates on the restoration of aging infrastructure and studies on flood management suggest that complementary government-based investments in large-scale flood protection infrastructure (for example, dikes) are required to anticipate future climate risks and the increasing exposure of assets in flood-prone areas2,3,9,10. There is a lack of a comprehensive US-scale analysis of the NFIP that addresses how policy-holders will be impacted in the future by reforms, investments in governmental flood infrastructure and the ability of the NFIP to cope with climate change.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 190}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    One of the most consequential changes in the American labor market in the past half-century is the demise of the labor movement (Farber et al. 2018; Rosenfeld 2014). Whereas one third of private sector workers were union members in the 1950s, today, about 6% of the private sector is unionized. Although most research on the consequences of union decline focuses on its economic impact, a growing literature has addressed the consequences of union membership for health and wellbeing (Leigh and Chakalov 2021; Reynolds and Brady 2012). Through the improvement of workplace and occupational conditions (Donado 2015; Hagedorn et al. 2016; Keune 2013), higher earnings (VanHeuvelen 2018; Western and Rosenfeld 2011), expanded access to fringe benefits (Rosenfeld 2014), and broad sociopsychological advantages (Blanchflower and Bryson 2020; Flavin and Shufeldt 2016), union membership has been shown to influence multiple dimensions of physical and mental health and well-being\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 191}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Individuals' choices and behaviour are a key lever influencing energy consumption, along with the technical energy efficiency of the products and infrastructure used1. To tackle environmental challenges, it is important to put people at the centre of energy research, and to empirically validate how to promote sustainable decision-making among individual consumers. Energy consumption is a low-involvement topic for most people; many consumers are unaware of the energy efficiency of their homes and devices2, or underestimate the long-term benefits of potential investments into energy efficiency upgrades3.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 192}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The growth of the sector in the UK has been driven by a combination of the decreasing cost of renewable energy technologies and government policies1,4 (see Table 1). However, more recently, government support for small-scale renewables has been substantially scaled back1,12. Most notably, Feed-in Tariff scheme (FITs) rates fell more than 50% from 2015 to 2016 for many technologies (see Supplementary Table 2) and the scheme is now closed to new projects. In this challenging low-subsidy environment, project development and investment have slowed significantly13.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 193}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    The global COVID-19 pandemic presented a threatto rival the Spanish influenza pandemic, more than a hundred years before (Sly 2020). In many nations, public health measures intended to prevent the spread of the virus and \u201cflatten the curve\u201d in terms of the rate of transmission resulted in extreme changes to norms of social contact (Lai 2020; Morgan 2020). In Canada, public gatherings were banned and citizens were urged to stay at home as much as possible (Government of Alberta 2020; Loewen 2020; Public Health Agency of Canada 2020). The purpose of the current study is to apply a synthesis of Durkheimian and life course perspectives to examine whether the social estrangement created by these public health measures resulted in an increase in psychological distress in the Canadian public, as well as whether social estrangement and consequent psychological distress were more predominant in older respondents.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 194}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Despite over a decade of negotiations, there is still disagreement and political tension between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt on the GERD's initial filling and long-term operation. A milestone in the tripartite GERD negotiations was a series of meetings held from November 2019 to February 2020, with the United States administration and the World Bank as observers18. These meetings produced a proposal for the dam's initial filling and long-term operation (hereon referred to as the Washington draft proposal)19, but the proposal was unacceptable to Ethiopia, which opined that the proposal would limit power generation from the dam and restrain future development20. Alongside this changing political landscape, the quantity and intensity of rainfall and streamflow in the Nile Basin have changed over the past two decades and are expected to continue to change due to climate change. However, the direction and magnitude of future changes to the Nile climate are uncertain, stemming from different scenarios, modelling and downscaling choices21,22. In the Nile context, these inconsistencies in climate projections diminish the value of using one projection or a multi-model ensemble mean in climate adaptation planning22,23.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 195}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Findings from studies of revenue recycling have not been incorporated into optimal policy analyses at the global level, including to model possible synergies with other development goals, for example sustainable development goals (SDGs)22-24. This is an important oversight, as many of the arguments that there are trade-offs between climate action and poverty alleviation or other SDGs depend on the premise that climate action must harm the current poor25,26. Indeed, because the possibility of progressive revenue recycling is not taken into account in existing optimal climate policy calculations, these models have a built-in bias against mitigation, since they imply that mitigation must entail costs for the poorest citizens within regions in the coming decades and, more generally, imply an intergenerational trade-off in well-being27,28.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 196}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As private markets will not spur such necessary developments on their own, government policies play an important role in phasing out coal6,7. However, in democratic countries, such policies may face public opposition. While several studies suggest that the global energy transition (that is, shifting from non-renewable to renewable energies) is likely to lead to net job creation in most economies8, the closure of coal mines and coal-fired power plants may lead to temporary and regionally concentrated job losses. The anticipation of negative employment effects could lead to opposition by those working in the sector9. Moreover, the coal industry has become an identity-shaping symbol deeply engrained in the culture of some communities and countries, such as in the German region of Lusatia10, Silesia in Poland11 or Appalachia in the United States12. Opposition to a phase-out of coal is also likely to be fuelled by the economic actors that have to bear parts of the costs, such as utilities whose business models depend on coal, and labour unions representing coal workers. Given their desire to be re-elected, democratic governments may be responsive to these concerns.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 197}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    As natural disasters grow in frequency and intensity with climate change, limiting the populations and properties in harm's way will be key to adaptation. This study evaluates one approach to discouraging development in risky areas\u2014eliminating public incentives for development, such as infrastructure investments, disaster assistance and federal flood insurance. Using machine learning and matching techniques, we examine the Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS), a set of lands where these federal incentives have been removed. We find that the policy leads to lower development densities inside designated areas, increases development in neighbouring areas, reduces flood damages and alters local demographics. Our results suggest that the CBRS generates substantial savings for the federal government by reducing flood claims in the National Flood Insurance Program, while increasing the property tax base in coastal counties.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 198}
{"query": "You are given a passage from a scientific paper that describes part of the policy problem motivating the research.\n\n    Summarize the specific issue mentioned in the passage using policy-brief style sentences. Your output should:\n    - Highlight the problem or challenge described\n    - Use accessible, non-technical language (technical terms are allowed when necessary)\n    - Focus only on what is present in the passage\n\n    Scientific Text:\n    Internationally there is a movement to achieve a just transition to renewable energy sources, where just transition encompasses broad elements of energy justice beyond employment outcomes1,2. Calls for a just transition necessarily recognize that new energy systems will be built on and potentially reproduce the winners and losers of existing energy systems3. Within current energy systems, groups at the spatial periphery are at high risk of having their energy needs under-recognized and procedurally neglected4,5. Many communities hosting new renewable energy developments, particularly Indigenous communities, face procedural injustices in the form of limited access to decision-making procedures for developments on their lands6-8. There is a need to better understand the spatial and socio-demographic characteristics of communities facing non-recognition in protections afforded by present day electricity retail regulations, wherein non-recognition refers to the needs of certain groups being neglected or ignored4.\n\n    Summary:", "answer": "None (Use GPT-o3 as the judge).", "id": 199}