README.md

---

tags:
- sentence-transformers
- sentence-similarity
- feature-extraction
- generated_from_trainer
- dataset_size:900
- loss:MultipleNegativesRankingLoss
base_model: sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2
widget:
- source_sentence: 'Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship

    between gene compaction and locus volume in genomic loci?





    A) Increased locus volume correlates with higher gene compaction.





    B) A high level of compaction is associated with a high volume of the genomic

    locus.





    C) Gene compaction is directly proportional to locus volume.





    D) Loci with low volume exhibit high levels of compaction.





    **Correct Answer: D) Loci with low volume exhibit high levels of compaction.**'
  sentences:
  - 'The QoS negotiation is supported by the PRACK request, that starts resource reservation

    in the calling party network, and it is answered by a 2XX response code. Once

    this response has been sent, the called party has selected the codec too, and

    starts resource reservation on its side. Subsequent UPDATE requests are sent to

    inform about the reservation progress, and they are answered by 2XX response codes.

    In a typical offer/answer exchange, one UPDATE will be sent by the calling party

    when its reservation is completed, then the called party will respond and eventually

    finish allocating the resources. It is then, when all the resources for the call

    are in place, when the caller is alerted.



    If the individual has undergone stenting, an anticoagulant will be a necessity

    to prevent build-up around the stent(s), as the body will perceive the foreign

    body as a wound and attempt to heal it. Some patients who had alternate corrective

    surgery, such as the Mustard or Senning procedure, may have issues with SA and

    VA nodal transmissions in later life. Typical symptoms include palpitations and

    problems with low heart rates. This is commonly solved with a Pacemaker unit,

    providing scar tissue from the original operation does not block its functionality.

    More recently, ACE inhibitors have been prescribed to patients in the hope of

    relieving stress on the heart.



    Using this method which results in a relatively high control of size and shape,

    semiconductor nanostructures could be synthesized in the form of dots, tubes,

    wires and other forms which show interesting optic and electronic size-dependent

    properties. Since the synergistic properties resulting from the intimate contact

    and interaction between the core and shell, CSSNCs can provide novel functions

    and enhanced properties which are not observed in single nanoparticles.The size

    of core materials and the thickness of shell can be controlled during synthesis.

    For example, in the synthesis of CdSe core nanocrystals, the volume of H2S gas

    can determine the size of core nanocrystals.'
  - 'In mathematics, the Chang number of an irreducible representation of a simple

    complex Lie algebra is its dimension modulo 1 + h, where h is the Coxeter number.

    Chang numbers are named after Chang (1982), who rediscovered an element of order

    h + 1 found by Kac (1981). Kac (1981) showed that there is a unique class of regular

    elements σ of order h + 1, in the complex points of the corresponding Chevalley

    group. He showed that the trace of σ on an irreducible representation is −1, 0,

    or +1, and if h + 1 is prime then the trace is congruent to the dimension mod

    h+1. This implies that the dimension of an irreducible representation is always

    −1, 0, or +1 mod h + 1 whenever h + 1 is prime.



    Mosquito bite allergies are informally classified as 1) the skeeter syndrome,

    i.e., severe local skin reactions sometimes associated with low-grade fever; 2)

    systemic reactions that range from high-grade fever, lymphadenopathy, abdominal

    pain, and/or diarrhea to, very rarely, life-threatening symptoms of anaphylaxis;

    and 3) severe and often systemic reactions occurring in individuals that have

    an Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease, Epstein-Barr virus-negative

    lymphoid malignancy, or another predisposing condition such as eosinophilic cellulitis

    or chronic lymphocytic leukemia. The term papular urticaria is commonly used for

    a reaction to mosquito bites that is dominated by widely spread hives.'
  - 'All LIRR bilevel passenger rail cars have two wide quarter-point doors on each

    side, for high level platforms only. The bilevel cars used by NJ Transit and Exo

    have four doors on each side, two quarter-point doors at high level platform height

    and one at each end vestibule, with traps used to reach low level platforms. The

    bilevel cars used by MBTA have side doors with traps at each end vestibule.



    For 128 bits of security and the smallest signature size in a Rainbow multivariate

    quadratic equation signature scheme, Petzoldt, Bulygin and Buchmann, recommend

    using equations in F 31 {\displaystyle \mathbb {F} _{31}} with a public key size

    of just over 991,000 bits, a private key of just over 740,000 bits and digital

    signatures which are 424 bits in length.



    A 2020 study identified a habitat-specific and relatively abundant core microbiome

    in the manuka phyllosphere, which was persistent across all samples. In contrast,

    non-core phyllosphere microorganisms exhibited significant variation across individual

    host trees and populations that was strongly driven by environmental and spatial

    factors. The results demonstrated the existence of a dominant and ubiquitous core

    microbiome in the phyllosphere of manuka.



    It seems that weak polarizations are ordinarily unable to form a component of

    a vector soliton. However, due to the cross-polarization modulation between strong

    and weak polarization components, a "weak soliton" could also be formed. It thus

    demonstrates that the soliton obtained is not a "scalar" soliton with a linear

    polarization mode, but rather a vector soliton with a large ellipticity.



    The GAMtools command gamtools compaction can be used to calculate an estimation

    of chromatin compaction. Compaction is a value assigned to a gene that represents

    how large the gene is. The level of compaction is inversely proportional to the

    locus volume. Genomic loci with a low volume are said to have a high level of

    compaction, and loci with a high volume have a low level of compaction.'
- source_sentence: "What condition must be satisfied for the observation of Landau\

    \ levels in a system?\n\nA) The mean thermal energy must be greater than the energy\

    \ level separation, kT > ħωc.  \nB) The mean thermal energy must be equal to the\

    \ energy level separation, kT = ħωc.  \nC) The mean thermal energy must be smaller\

    \ than the energy level separation, kT ≪ ħωc.  \nD) The mean thermal energy must\

    \ be independent of the energy level separation, kT ≠ ħωc.  \n\n**Correct Answer:\

    \ C) The mean thermal energy must be smaller than the energy level separation,\

    \ kT ≪ ħωc.**"
  sentences:
  - 'The effects of Landau levels may only be observed when the mean thermal energy

    kT is smaller than the energy level separation, kT ≪ ħωc, meaning low temperatures

    and strong magnetic fields. Each Landau level is degenerate because of the second

    quantum number ky, which can take the values where N is an integer. The allowed

    values of N are further restricted by the condition that the center of force of

    the oscillator, x0, must physically lie within the system, 0 ≤ x0 < Lx. This gives

    the following range for N, For particles with charge q = Ze, the upper bound on

    N can be simply written as a ratio of fluxes, where Φ0 = h/e is the fundamental

    magnetic flux quantum and Φ = BA is the flux through the system (with area A =

    LxLy).



    The study of X-ray astronomy continued to be carried out using data from a host

    of satellites that were active from the 1980s to the early 2000s: the HEAO Program,

    EXOSAT, Ginga, RXTE, ROSAT, ASCA, as well as BeppoSAX, which detected the first

    afterglow of a gamma-ray burst (GRB). Data from these satellites continues to

    aid our further understanding of the nature of these sources and the mechanisms

    by which the X-rays and gamma rays are emitted. Understanding these mechanisms

    can in turn shed light on the fundamental physics of our universe. By looking

    at the sky with X-ray and gamma-ray instruments, we collect important information

    in our attempt to address questions such as how the universe began and how it

    evolves, and gain some insight into its eventual fate.'
  - 'In a centrosymmetric ligand field, such as in octahedral complexes of transition

    metals, the arrangement of electrons in the d-orbital is not only limited by electron

    repulsion energy, but it is also related to the splitting of the orbitals due

    to the ligand field. This leads to many more electron configuration states than

    is the case for the free ion. The relative energy of the repulsion energy and

    splitting energy defines the high-spin and low-spin states. Considering both weak

    and strong ligand fields, a Tanabe–Sugano diagram shows the energy splitting of

    the spectral terms with the increase of the ligand field strength.



    In nature, limonene is formed from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclization of a

    neryl carbocation or its equivalent as shown. The final step involves loss of

    a proton from the cation to form the alkene. The most widely practiced conversion

    of limonene is to carvone. The three-step reaction begins with the regioselective

    addition of nitrosyl chloride across the trisubstituted double bond. This species

    is then converted to the oxime with a base, and the hydroxylamine is removed to

    give the ketone-containing carvone.



    {\displaystyle x_{1}y_{1},\,x_{1}y_{2},\,x_{2}y_{1},\,x_{2}y_{2},\,x_{1}/x_{2}.}

    All the above conjectures and theorems are consequences of the unproven extension

    of Baker''s theorem, that logarithms of algebraic numbers that are linearly independent

    over the rational numbers are automatically algebraically independent too. The

    diagram on the right shows the logical implications between all these results.'
  - 'Over 50% of the languages tracked have 100% UTF-8 use. Many standards only support

    UTF-8, e.g. JSON exchange requires it (without a byte order mark (BOM)). UTF-8

    is also the recommendation from the WHATWG for HTML and DOM specifications, and

    stating "UTF-8 encoding is the most appropriate encoding for interchange of Unicode"

    and the Internet Mail Consortium recommends that all e‑mail programs be able to

    display and create mail using UTF-8.



    The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from

    a surface, and it depends on the material''s ability to absorb or emit heat, or

    its emissivity. The mean radiant temperature depends on the temperatures and emissivities

    of the surrounding surfaces as well as the view factor, or the amount of the surface

    that is “seen” by the object. So the mean radiant temperature experienced by a

    person in a room with the sunlight streaming in varies based on how much of their

    body is in the sun.



    In the American Saddlebred show ring, the gait is performed with speed and action,

    appearing unrestrained, while the slow gait is expected be performed with restraint

    and precision. The rack is also closely associated with the Racking Horse breed.The

    rack, like other intermediate gaits, is smoother than the trot because the hooves

    hitting the ground individually rather than in pairs minimizes the force and bounce

    the horse transmits to the rider. To achieve this gait the horse must be in a

    "hollow position".



    Ultrasensitivity can be achieved through several mechanisms: Multistep mechanisms

    (examples: cooperativity) and multisite phosphorylation Buffering mechanisms (examples:

    decoy phosphorylation sites) or stoichiometric inhibitors Changes in localisation

    (such as translocation across the nuclear envelope) Saturation mechanisms (also

    known as zero-order ultrasensitivity) Positive feedback Allovalency Non-Zero-Order

    Ultrasensitivity in Membrane Proteins Dissipative Allostery'
- source_sentence: "What is the primary significance of the process described in the\

    \ reduction of sulfate to sulfide in relation to sulfur isotopes?\n\nA) It indicates\

    \ that sulfate-reducing microorganisms can thrive in high-temperature environments.\

    \  \nB) It demonstrates how sulfur disproportionation can lead to the enrichment\

    \ of seawater sulfate.  \nC) It provides evidence for the historical burial of\

    \ reduced sulfur in the Earth's crust.  \nD) It explains the mechanisms by which\

    \ sulfate is converted to organic matter in marine environments.  \n\n**Correct\

    \ Answer: C) It provides evidence for the historical burial of reduced sulfur\

    \ in the Earth's crust.**"
  sentences:
  - 'Scoring. Score each element from left to right, top to bottom in the matrix,

    considering the outcomes of substitutions (diagonal scores) or adding gaps (horizontal

    and vertical scores).



    This set of ionic and electrical functional alterations thus generates the fields

    of electromagnetic potentials or electromagnetic dipoles. These can be defined

    also as single equivalent dipoles. == References ==



    A double pendulum is a simple pendulum hanging under another one; the epitome

    of the compound pendulum system. It shows abundant dynamic behavior. The motion

    of a double pendulum seems chaotic.



    This is a fully journaled, distributed file system used by Isilon. OneFS uses

    FlexProtect and Reed–Solomon encodings to support up to four simultaneous disk

    failures.



    Subclassing of Class is disallowed. Following the standard definition of metaclasses

    we can conclude that Class and Struct are the only metaclasses in Ruby.



    Nile University - master''s The American University in Cairo - master''s Zewail

    City of Science and Technology - B.Sc Cairo University - Faculty of Engineering

    - Masters of Science



    In mechanical engineering, the cylinders of reciprocating engines are often classified

    by whether they are single- or double-acting, depending on how the working fluid

    acts on the piston.



    A clock constraint defines a set of valuations. Two kinds of such sets are considered

    in the literature. A zone is a non-empty set of valuations satisfying a clock

    constraint.



    This might sound paradoxical but becomes clear when one takes into account that

    POC increases during the period of PI. In summary, all these findings are consistent

    with POC-theory.



    Austria has only daylight QRA readiness. Austrian Air Force Air Surveillance Command

    is located at Salzburg. Fighter Squadron 1 & 2 with Eurofighter Typhoon are at

    Zeltweg Air Base.



    Data for 126,251 water points across 37 countries that are being monitored with

    Akvo FLOW in 2015 show that 20% are not functional, and 10% are functional but

    have problems.



    If conditions are not corrected, the cycle will usually repeat. This is called

    surge. Depending on the engine this can be highly damaging to the engine and creates

    worrying vibrations for the crew.'
  - 'In the Liber Abaci, Fibonacci says the following introducing the affirmative

    Modus Indorum (the method of the Indians), today known as Hindu–Arabic numeral

    system or base-10 positional notation. It also introduced digits that greatly

    resembled the modern Arabic numerals. As my father was a public official away

    from our homeland in the Bugia customshouse established for the Pisan merchants

    who frequently gathered there, he had me in my youth brought to him, looking to

    find for me a useful and comfortable future; there he wanted me to be in the study

    of mathematics and to be taught for some days. There from a marvelous instruction

    in the art of the nine Indian figures, the introduction and knowledge of the art

    pleased me so much above all else, and I learnt from them, whoever was learned

    in it, from nearby Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily and Provence, and their various

    methods, to which locations of business I travelled considerably afterwards for

    much study, and I learnt from the assembled disputations.



    This is because sulfate''s reduction to sulfide is typically accompanied by a

    negative isotope effect, which (depending on the sulfate-reducing microorganism''s

    enzymatic machinery, temperature, and other factors) can be tens of per mille.

    This effect can be compounded through sulfur disproportionation, a process by

    which some microbes reduce sulfate to sulfides and thiosulfate, both of which

    can be 34S-depleted by tens of per mille relative to the starting sulfate pool.

    Depleted sulfides and thiosulfate can then be repeatedly oxidized and reduced

    again, until the final, total sulfide pool that is measured has δ34S values of

    -70 or -80‰. The formation of a "lighter" S-isotope pool leaves behind an enriched

    pool, and so the enrichment of seawater sulfate is taken as evidence that some

    large amount of reduced sulfur (in the form, perhaps, of metal-sulfide minerals)

    was buried and incorporated into the crust.'
  - 'In clinical trials SPINA-GT was significantly elevated in patients with Graves''

    disease and toxic adenoma compared to normal subjects. It is also elevated in

    diffuse and nodular goiters, and reduced in untreated autoimmune thyroiditis.

    In patients with toxic adenoma it has higher specificity and positive likelihood

    ratio for diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis than serum concentrations of thyrotropin,

    free T4 or free T3. GT''s specificity is also high in thyroid disorders of secondary

    or tertiary origin.Calculating SPINA-GT has proved to be useful in challenging

    clinical situations, e.g. for differential diagnosis of subclinical hypothyroidism

    and elevated TSH concentration due to type 2 allostatic load (as it is typical

    for obesity and certain psychiatric diseases). For this purpose, its usage has

    been recommended in sociomedical assessment.



    Relevant concepts: (geodesic, exponential map, injectivity radius) The exponential

    map exp: TpM → Mis defined as exp(X) = γ(1) where γ: I → M is the unique geodesic

    passing through p at 0 and whose tangent vector at 0 is X. Here I is the maximal

    open interval of R for which the geodesic is defined. Let M be a pseudo-Riemannian

    manifold (or any manifold with an affine connection) and let p be a point in M.

    Then for every V in TpM there exists a unique geodesic γ: I → M for which γ(0)

    = p and γ ˙ ( 0 ) = V . {\displaystyle {\dot {\gamma }}(0)=V.} Let Dp be the subset

    of TpM for which 1 lies in I.'
- source_sentence: "Which of the following statements accurately describes a characteristic\

    \ of chlorins in organic chemistry?\n\nA) Chlorins are stable compounds that do\

    \ not react with oxygen.  \nB) Chlorins are derived from porphyrins through a\

    \ process of complete hydrogenation.  \nC) The parent chlorin compound undergoes\

    \ air oxidation to form porphine.  \nD) Chlorins do not have any structural similarities\

    \ to chlorophyll.  \n\nCorrect Answer: C) The parent chlorin compound undergoes\

    \ air oxidation to form porphine."
  sentences:
  - 'In 2000, Gurtej Singh Sandhu and Trung T. Doan of Micron Technology initiated

    the development of atomic layer deposition high-κ films for DRAM memory devices.

    This helped drive cost-effective implementation of semiconductor memory, starting

    with 90-nm node DRAM. Intel Corporation has reported using ALD to deposit high-κ

    gate dielectric for its 45 nm CMOS technology.ALD has been developed in two independent

    discoveries under names atomic layer epitaxy (ALE, Finland) and molecular layering

    (ML, Soviet Union). To clarify the early history, the Virtual Project on the History

    of ALD (VPHA) has been set up in summer 2013. it resulted in several publications

    reviewing the historical development of ALD under the names ALE and ML.



    During the dry period (late gestation, non-lactating), dairy cattle have relatively

    low calcium requirements, with a need to replace approximately 30 g of calcium

    per day due to utilization for fetal growth and fecal and urinary losses. At parturition,

    the requirement for calcium is greatly increased due to initiation of lactation,

    when mammary drainage of calcium may exceed 50g per day. Due to this large increase

    in demand for calcium, most cows will experience some degree of hypocalcemia for

    a short period following parturition as the metabolism adjusts to the increased

    demand. When the mammary drain of plasma calcium causes hypocalcemia severe enough

    to compromise neuromuscular function, the cow is considered to have clinical milk

    fever.



    In probability theory and statistics, a Gaussian process is a stochastic process

    (a collection of random variables indexed by time or space), such that every finite

    collection of those random variables has a multivariate normal distribution, i.e.

    every finite linear combination of them is normally distributed. The distribution

    of a Gaussian process is the joint distribution of all those (infinitely many)

    random variables, and as such, it is a distribution over functions with a continuous

    domain, e.g. time or space. The concept of Gaussian processes is named after Carl

    Friedrich Gauss because it is based on the notion of the Gaussian distribution

    (normal distribution). Gaussian processes can be seen as an infinite-dimensional

    generalization of multivariate normal distributions.'
  - 'The Tutte polynomial factors into connected components. If G {\displaystyle G}

    is the union of disjoint graphs H {\displaystyle H} and H ′ {\displaystyle H''}

    then T G = T H ⋅ T H ′ {\displaystyle T_{G}=T_{H}\cdot T_{H''}} If G {\displaystyle

    G} is planar and G ∗ {\displaystyle G^{*}} denotes its dual graph then T G ( x

    , y ) = T G ∗ ( y , x ) {\displaystyle T_{G}(x,y)=T_{G^{*}}(y,x)} Especially,

    the chromatic polynomial of a planar graph is the flow polynomial of its dual.

    Tutte refers to such functions as V-functions.



    If a periodic function is instead represented using the quotient space domain

    R / ( P Z ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} /(P\mathbb {Z} )} then one can write: φ

    P: R / ( P Z ) → R {\displaystyle \varphi _{P}:\mathbb {R} /(P\mathbb {Z} )\to

    \mathbb {R} } φ P ( x ) = ∑ τ ∈ x s ( τ ) . {\displaystyle \varphi _{P}(x)=\sum

    _{\tau \in x}s(\tau )~.} The arguments of φ P {\displaystyle \varphi _{P}} are

    equivalence classes of real numbers that share the same fractional part when divided

    by P {\displaystyle P} .'
  - 'In mathematics, the Goncharov conjecture is a conjecture introduced by Goncharov

    (1995) suggesting that the cohomology of certain motivic complexes coincides with

    pieces of K-groups. It extends a conjecture due to Zagier (1991).



    The renewal effect is seen when a participant is first conditioned in a context

    (context A) and then shows extinction in another context (B). Returning to context

    A may renew the conditioned response. This evidence demonstrates that appropriate

    responses underlying extinction may be linked to contextual information.



    Modern measurement systems are characterized by multi-channeling, synchronicity,

    and accuracy. Due to the advanced protocol features of EtherCAT, efficient synchronous

    data throughput is assured. The network features based on Ethernet enable a measurement

    network with distributed measurement modules.



    These rules reverse the conversion described above. They convert from a let expression

    to a lambda expression, without altering the structure. Not all let expressions

    may be converted using these rules. The rules assume that the expressions are

    already arranged as if they had been generated by de-lambda.



    In organic chemistry, chlorins are tetrapyrrole pigments that are partially hydrogenated

    porphyrins. The parent chlorin is an unstable compound which undergoes air oxidation

    to porphine. The name chlorin derives from chlorophyll.



    So by the lemma, we have for some partial isometry U, which is unique if Ker(A*)

    ⊂ Ker(U). Take P to be (A*A)1/2 and one obtains the polar decomposition A = UP.



    MISRA C:1998, C:2004, C:2012, C++:2008. Klocwork by Rogue Wave Software (now owned

    by Perforce Software). MISRA C:2012, C:2012 Amendment 1, C++:2008.



    Transmitters usually have directional devices installed along with the filters

    that block any reflected power in the event the antenna malfunctions. The antenna

    must have a power rating that will handle the sum of energy of all connected transmitters

    at the same time. Transmitter combining systems are lossy.'
- source_sentence: "Which of the following statements accurately describes a key implication\

    \ of the parameter μ in population dynamics?\n\nA) If μ equals 1, the population\

    \ will certainly grow indefinitely.  \nB) If μ is less than 1, the population\

    \ will face a high probability of extinction.  \nC) If μ is greater than 1, the\

    \ population will go extinct with certainty.  \nD) If μ is equal to 0, the population\

    \ will persist indefinitely.\n\n**Correct Answer: B) If μ is less than 1, the\

    \ population will face a high probability of extinction.**"
  sentences:
  - 'The input is two reduced divisors D 1 = ( u 1 , v 1 ) {\displaystyle D_{1}=(u_{1},v_{1})}

    and D 2 = ( u 2 , v 2 ) {\displaystyle D_{2}=(u_{2},v_{2})} in their Mumford representation

    of the hyperelliptic curve C: y 2 + h ( x ) y = f ( x ) {\displaystyle C:y^{2}+h(x)y=f(x)}

    of genus g {\displaystyle g} over the field K {\displaystyle K} . The algorithm

    works as follows Using the extended Euclidean algorithm compute the polynomials

    d 1 , e 1 , e 2 ∈ K  {\displaystyle d_{1},e_{1},e_{2}\in K} such that d 1 = gcd

    ( u 1 , u 2 ) {\displaystyle d_{1}=\gcd(u_{1},u_{2})} and d 1 = e 1 u 1 + e 2

    u 2 {\displaystyle d_{1}=e_{1}u_{1}+e_{2}u_{2}} . Again with the use of the extended

    Euclidean algorithm compute the polynomials d , c 1 , c 2 ∈ K  {\displaystyle

    d,c_{1},c_{2}\in K} with d = gcd ( d 1 , v 1 + v 2 + h ) {\displaystyle d=\gcd(d_{1},v_{1}+v_{2}+h)}

    and d = c 1 d 1 + c 2 ( v 1 + v 2 + h ) {\displaystyle d=c_{1}d_{1}+c_{2}(v_{1}+v_{2}+h)}

    .'
  - 'Micro-encapsulation allows for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small

    molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it. The main advantages

    of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased solubility of

    the cargo and decreased immune responses. Notably, artificial cells have been

    clinically successful in hemoperfusion.



    If μ < 1, then the expected number of individuals goes rapidly to zero, which

    implies ultimate extinction with probability 1 by Markov''s inequality. Alternatively,

    if μ > 1, then the probability of ultimate extinction is less than 1 (but not

    necessarily zero; consider a process where each individual either has 0 or 100

    children with equal probability.



    The decision to tolerate up to 10 μg/liter of “nonrelevant” metabolites in groundwater

    and drinking water is politically highly contentious in Europe. Some consider

    the higher limit acceptable as no imminent health risk can be proven, whereas

    others regard it as a fundamental deviation from the precautionary principle.

    == References ==



    Informally, dynamical systems describe the time evolution of the phase space of

    some mechanical system. Commonly, such evolution is given by some differential

    equations, or quite often in terms of discrete time steps. However, in the present

    case, instead of focusing on the time evolution of discrete points, one shifts

    attention to the time evolution of collections of points.



    Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) is a human spaceflight development program

    that is funded by the U.S. government and administered by NASA. CCDev will result

    in US and international astronauts flying to the International Space Station (ISS)

    on privately operated crew vehicles. Operational contracts to fly astronauts were

    awarded in September 2014 to SpaceX and Boeing.



    To do so, one needs precise disease definitions and a probabilistic analysis of

    symptoms and molecular profiles. Physicists have been studying similar problems

    for years, utilizing microscopic elements and their interactions to extract macroscopic

    states of various physical systems. Physics inspired machine learning approaches

    can thus be applied to study disease processes and to perform biomarker analysis.



    During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to

    capture and reduce carbon dioxide. Most organisms that use oxygenic photosynthesis

    use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use

    shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.Some organisms employ

    even more radical variants of photosynthesis.'
  - 'Structuring elements are particular cases of binary images, usually being small

    and simple. In mathematical morphology, binary images are subsets of a Euclidean

    space Rd or the integer grid Zd, for some dimension d. Here are some examples

    of widely used structuring elements (denoted by B): Let E=R2; B is an open disk

    of radius r, centered at the origin. Let E=Z2; B is a 3x3 square, that is, B={(-1,-1),(-1,0),(-1,1),(0,-1),(0,0),(0,1),(1,-1),(1,0),(1,1)}.

    Let E=Z2; B is the "cross" given by: B={(-1,0),(0,-1),(0,0),(0,1),(1,0)}.In the

    discrete case, a structuring element can also be represented as a set of pixels

    on a grid, assuming the values 1 (if the pixel belongs to the structuring element)

    or 0 (otherwise). When used by a hit-or-miss transform, usually the structuring

    element is a composite of two disjoint sets (two simple structuring elements),

    one associated to the foreground, and one associated to the background of the

    image to be probed. In this case, an alternative representation of the composite

    structuring element is as a set of pixels which are either set (1, associated

    to the foreground), not set (0, associated to the background) or "don''t care".'
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
library_name: sentence-transformers
metrics:
- cosine_accuracy@1
- cosine_accuracy@3
- cosine_accuracy@5
- cosine_accuracy@10
- cosine_precision@1
- cosine_precision@3
- cosine_precision@5
- cosine_precision@10
- cosine_recall@1
- cosine_recall@3
- cosine_recall@5
- cosine_recall@10
- cosine_ndcg@10
- cosine_mrr@10
- cosine_map@100
model-index:
- name: SentenceTransformer based on sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2
  results:
  - task:
      type: information-retrieval
      name: Information Retrieval
    dataset:
      name: baseline
      type: baseline
    metrics:
    - type: cosine_accuracy@1
      value: 0.68
      name: Cosine Accuracy@1
    - type: cosine_accuracy@3
      value: 0.78
      name: Cosine Accuracy@3
    - type: cosine_accuracy@5
      value: 0.78
      name: Cosine Accuracy@5
    - type: cosine_accuracy@10
      value: 0.8
      name: Cosine Accuracy@10
    - type: cosine_precision@1
      value: 0.68
      name: Cosine Precision@1
    - type: cosine_precision@3
      value: 0.25999999999999995
      name: Cosine Precision@3
    - type: cosine_precision@5
      value: 0.15599999999999994
      name: Cosine Precision@5
    - type: cosine_precision@10
      value: 0.07999999999999999
      name: Cosine Precision@10
    - type: cosine_recall@1
      value: 0.68
      name: Cosine Recall@1
    - type: cosine_recall@3
      value: 0.78
      name: Cosine Recall@3
    - type: cosine_recall@5
      value: 0.78
      name: Cosine Recall@5
    - type: cosine_recall@10
      value: 0.8
      name: Cosine Recall@10
    - type: cosine_ndcg@10
      value: 0.7440207339387845
      name: Cosine Ndcg@10
    - type: cosine_mrr@10
      value: 0.7256944444444444
      name: Cosine Mrr@10
    - type: cosine_map@100
      value: 0.7280566718520438
      name: Cosine Map@100
---


# SentenceTransformer based on sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2

This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model finetuned from [sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2) on the json dataset. It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 384-dimensional dense vector space and can be used for semantic textual similarity, semantic search, paraphrase mining, text classification, clustering, and more.

## Model Details

### Model Description
- **Model Type:** Sentence Transformer
- **Base model:** [sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2) <!-- at revision c9745ed1d9f207416be6d2e6f8de32d1f16199bf -->
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 256 tokens
- **Output Dimensionality:** 384 dimensions
- **Similarity Function:** Cosine Similarity
- **Training Dataset:**
    - json
<!-- - **Language:** Unknown -->
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->

### Model Sources

- **Documentation:** [Sentence Transformers Documentation](https://sbert.net)
- **Repository:** [Sentence Transformers on GitHub](https://github.com/UKPLab/sentence-transformers)
- **Hugging Face:** [Sentence Transformers on Hugging Face](https://huggingface.co/models?library=sentence-transformers)

### Full Model Architecture

```

SentenceTransformer(

  (0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 256, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: BertModel 

  (1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 384, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': True, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})

  (2): Normalize()

)

```

## Usage

### Direct Usage (Sentence Transformers)

First install the Sentence Transformers library:

```bash

pip install -U sentence-transformers

```

Then you can load this model and run inference.
```python

from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer



# Download from the 🤗 Hub

model = SentenceTransformer("amene-gafsi/minilm-finetuned-embedding")

# Run inference

sentences = [

    'Which of the following statements accurately describes a key implication of the parameter μ in population dynamics?\n\nA) If μ equals 1, the population will certainly grow indefinitely.  \nB) If μ is less than 1, the population will face a high probability of extinction.  \nC) If μ is greater than 1, the population will go extinct with certainty.  \nD) If μ is equal to 0, the population will persist indefinitely.\n\n**Correct Answer: B) If μ is less than 1, the population will face a high probability of extinction.**',

    "Micro-encapsulation allows for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it. The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased solubility of the cargo and decreased immune responses. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in hemoperfusion.\nIf μ < 1, then the expected number of individuals goes rapidly to zero, which implies ultimate extinction with probability 1 by Markov's inequality. Alternatively, if μ > 1, then the probability of ultimate extinction is less than 1 (but not necessarily zero; consider a process where each individual either has 0 or 100 children with equal probability.\nThe decision to tolerate up to 10 μg/liter of “nonrelevant” metabolites in groundwater and drinking water is politically highly contentious in Europe. Some consider the higher limit acceptable as no imminent health risk can be proven, whereas others regard it as a fundamental deviation from the precautionary principle. == References ==\nInformally, dynamical systems describe the time evolution of the phase space of some mechanical system. Commonly, such evolution is given by some differential equations, or quite often in terms of discrete time steps. However, in the present case, instead of focusing on the time evolution of discrete points, one shifts attention to the time evolution of collections of points.\nCommercial Crew Development (CCDev) is a human spaceflight development program that is funded by the U.S. government and administered by NASA. CCDev will result in US and international astronauts flying to the International Space Station (ISS) on privately operated crew vehicles. Operational contracts to fly astronauts were awarded in September 2014 to SpaceX and Boeing.\nTo do so, one needs precise disease definitions and a probabilistic analysis of symptoms and molecular profiles. Physicists have been studying similar problems for years, utilizing microscopic elements and their interactions to extract macroscopic states of various physical systems. Physics inspired machine learning approaches can thus be applied to study disease processes and to perform biomarker analysis.\nDuring the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide. Most organisms that use oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis.",

    'Structuring elements are particular cases of binary images, usually being small and simple. In mathematical morphology, binary images are subsets of a Euclidean space Rd or the integer grid Zd, for some dimension d. Here are some examples of widely used structuring elements (denoted by B): Let E=R2; B is an open disk of radius r, centered at the origin. Let E=Z2; B is a 3x3 square, that is, B={(-1,-1),(-1,0),(-1,1),(0,-1),(0,0),(0,1),(1,-1),(1,0),(1,1)}. Let E=Z2; B is the "cross" given by: B={(-1,0),(0,-1),(0,0),(0,1),(1,0)}.In the discrete case, a structuring element can also be represented as a set of pixels on a grid, assuming the values 1 (if the pixel belongs to the structuring element) or 0 (otherwise). When used by a hit-or-miss transform, usually the structuring element is a composite of two disjoint sets (two simple structuring elements), one associated to the foreground, and one associated to the background of the image to be probed. In this case, an alternative representation of the composite structuring element is as a set of pixels which are either set (1, associated to the foreground), not set (0, associated to the background) or "don\'t care".',

]

embeddings = model.encode(sentences)

print(embeddings.shape)

# [3, 384]



# Get the similarity scores for the embeddings

similarities = model.similarity(embeddings, embeddings)

print(similarities.shape)

# [3, 3]

```

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## Evaluation

### Metrics

#### Information Retrieval

* Dataset: `baseline`
* Evaluated with [<code>InformationRetrievalEvaluator</code>](https://sbert.net/docs/package_reference/sentence_transformer/evaluation.html#sentence_transformers.evaluation.InformationRetrievalEvaluator)

| Metric              | Value     |
|:--------------------|:----------|
| cosine_accuracy@1   | 0.68      |

| cosine_accuracy@3   | 0.78      |
| cosine_accuracy@5   | 0.78      |

| cosine_accuracy@10  | 0.8       |
| cosine_precision@1  | 0.68      |

| cosine_precision@3  | 0.26      |
| cosine_precision@5  | 0.156     |

| cosine_precision@10 | 0.08      |
| cosine_recall@1     | 0.68      |

| cosine_recall@3     | 0.78      |
| cosine_recall@5     | 0.78      |

| cosine_recall@10    | 0.8       |
| **cosine_ndcg@10**  | **0.744** |

| cosine_mrr@10       | 0.7257    |

| cosine_map@100      | 0.7281    |



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## Training Details



### Training Dataset



#### json



* Dataset: json

* Size: 900 training samples

* Columns: <code>anchor</code> and <code>positive</code>

* Approximate statistics based on the first 900 samples:

  |         | anchor                                                                               | positive                                                                             |

  |:--------|:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|

  | type    | string                                                                               | string                                                                               |

  | details | <ul><li>min: 41 tokens</li><li>mean: 138.75 tokens</li><li>max: 256 tokens</li></ul> | <ul><li>min: 256 tokens</li><li>mean: 256.0 tokens</li><li>max: 256 tokens</li></ul> |

* Samples:

  | anchor                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                | positive                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |

  |:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|

  | <code>Which of the following milestones in tin smelting occurred in 1978?<br><br>A) The installation of a five tonne plant for recovering tin from slag at Associated Tin Smelters  <br>B) The construction of a four tonne per hour tin matte fuming pilot plant at the Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter  <br>C) The first sulfidic smelting test work in collaboration with Aberfoyle Limited  <br>D) The completion of the Port Kembla converter slag treatment trials  <br><br>Correct Answer: A) The installation of a five tonne plant for recovering tin from slag at Associated Tin Smelters</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                  | <code>The work then proceeded to smelting tin concentrates (1975) and then sulfidic tin concentrates (1977).MIM and ER&S jointly funded the 1975 Port Kembla converter slag treatment trials and MIM’s involvement continued with the slag treatment work in Townsville and Mount Isa.In parallel with the copper slag treatment work, the CSIRO was continuing to work in tin smelting. Projects included a five tonne ("t") plant for recovering tin from slag being installed at Associated Tin Smelters in 1978, and the first sulfidic smelting test work being done in collaboration with Aberfoyle Limited, in which tin was fumed from pyritic tin ore and from mixed tin and copper concentrates. Aberfoyle was investigating the possibility of using the Sirosmelt lance approach to improve the recovery of tin from complex ores, such as its mine at Cleveland, Tasmania, and the Queen Hill ore zone near Zeehan in Tasmania.The Aberfoyle work led to the construction and operation in late 1980 of a four t/h tin matte fumi...</code>       |

  | <code>Which of the following conditions is necessary for the application of Theorem GF3 in the context of the product defined recursively by \( f_n(z) = z(1 + g_n(z)) \)?<br><br>A) \( |z g_n(z)| \leq C \beta_n \) and \( \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \beta_k < \infty \)  <br>B) \( |z g_n(z)| \geq C \beta_n \) and \( \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \beta_k < \infty \)  <br>C) \( |z g_n(z)| \leq C \beta_n \) and \( \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \beta_k = \infty \)  <br>D) \( |z g_n(z)| \geq C \beta_n \) and \( \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \beta_k = \infty \)  <br><br>Correct Answer: A) \( |z g_n(z)| \leq C \beta_n \) and \( \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \beta_k < \infty \)</code>                                                                                                                                                            | <code>The product defined recursively by f n ( z ) = z ( 1 + g n ( z ) ) , | z | ⩽ M , {\displaystyle f_{n}(z)=z(1+g_{n}(z)),\qquad |z|\leqslant M,} has the appearance G n ( z ) = z ∏ k = 1 n ( 1 + g k ( G k − 1 ( z ) ) ) . {\displaystyle G_{n}(z)=z\prod _{k=1}^{n}\left(1+g_{k}\left(G_{k-1}(z)\right)\right).} In order to apply Theorem GF3 it is required that: | z g n ( z ) | ≤ C β n , ∑ k = 1 ∞ β k < ∞ . {\displaystyle \left|zg_{n}(z)\right|\leq C\beta _{n},\qquad \sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\beta _{k}<\infty .}</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |

  | <code>Which of the following statements correctly describes the relationship between axonometry and axonometric projection?<br><br>A) Axonometry and axonometric projection refer to the same concept in parallel projection techniques.<br><br>B) Axonometric projection is a broader term that includes all types of axonometric representations.<br><br>C) Axonometry is a technique used to measure along axes, while axonometric projection refers specifically to a type of pictorial representation.<br><br>D) Axonometric projection relies solely on orthographic images where rays are perpendicular to the image plane.<br><br>**Correct Answer: C) Axonometry is a technique used to measure along axes, while axonometric projection refers specifically to a type of pictorial representation.**</code> | <code>Images drawn in parallel projection rely upon the technique of axonometry ("to measure along axes"), as described in Pohlke's theorem. In general, the resulting image is oblique (the rays are not perpendicular to the image plane); but in special cases the result is orthographic (the rays are perpendicular to the image plane). Axonometry should not be confused with axonometric projection, as in English literature the latter usually refers only to a specific class of pictorials (see below).<br>This is the case if and only if the unit vector bases of ℓ M {\displaystyle \ell _{M}} and ℓ N {\displaystyle \ell _{N}} are equivalent. ℓ M {\displaystyle \ell _{M}} can be isomorphic to ℓ N {\displaystyle \ell _{N}} without their unit vector bases being equivalent. (See the example below of an Orlicz sequence space with two nonequivalent symmetric bases.)<br>The main involution is the map that "flips" the generators: α ( Γ a ) = i 2 Γ a {\displaystyle \alpha (\Gamma _{a})=i^{2}\Gamma _{a}} but leaves i...</code> |

* Loss: [<code>MultipleNegativesRankingLoss</code>](https://sbert.net/docs/package_reference/sentence_transformer/losses.html#multiplenegativesrankingloss) with these parameters:

  ```json

  {

      "scale": 20.0,

      "similarity_fct": "cos_sim"

  }

  ```



### Training Hyperparameters

#### Non-Default Hyperparameters



- `eval_strategy`: epoch

- `per_device_train_batch_size`: 32

- `gradient_accumulation_steps`: 8

- `learning_rate`: 1e-06

- `num_train_epochs`: 4

- `lr_scheduler_type`: cosine

- `warmup_ratio`: 0.1

- `bf16`: True

- `tf32`: True

- `load_best_model_at_end`: True

- `optim`: adamw_torch_fused

- `batch_sampler`: no_duplicates



#### All Hyperparameters

<details><summary>Click to expand</summary>



- `overwrite_output_dir`: False

- `do_predict`: False

- `eval_strategy`: epoch

- `prediction_loss_only`: True

- `per_device_train_batch_size`: 32

- `per_device_eval_batch_size`: 8

- `per_gpu_train_batch_size`: None

- `per_gpu_eval_batch_size`: None

- `gradient_accumulation_steps`: 8

- `eval_accumulation_steps`: None

- `torch_empty_cache_steps`: None

- `learning_rate`: 1e-06

- `weight_decay`: 0.0

- `adam_beta1`: 0.9

- `adam_beta2`: 0.999

- `adam_epsilon`: 1e-08

- `max_grad_norm`: 1.0

- `num_train_epochs`: 4

- `max_steps`: -1

- `lr_scheduler_type`: cosine

- `lr_scheduler_kwargs`: {}

- `warmup_ratio`: 0.1

- `warmup_steps`: 0

- `log_level`: passive

- `log_level_replica`: warning

- `log_on_each_node`: True

- `logging_nan_inf_filter`: True

- `save_safetensors`: True

- `save_on_each_node`: False

- `save_only_model`: False

- `restore_callback_states_from_checkpoint`: False

- `no_cuda`: False

- `use_cpu`: False

- `use_mps_device`: False

- `seed`: 42

- `data_seed`: None

- `jit_mode_eval`: False

- `use_ipex`: False

- `bf16`: True

- `fp16`: False

- `fp16_opt_level`: O1

- `half_precision_backend`: auto

- `bf16_full_eval`: False

- `fp16_full_eval`: False

- `tf32`: True

- `local_rank`: 0

- `ddp_backend`: None

- `tpu_num_cores`: None

- `tpu_metrics_debug`: False

- `debug`: []

- `dataloader_drop_last`: False

- `dataloader_num_workers`: 0

- `dataloader_prefetch_factor`: None

- `past_index`: -1

- `disable_tqdm`: False

- `remove_unused_columns`: True

- `label_names`: None

- `load_best_model_at_end`: True

- `ignore_data_skip`: False

- `fsdp`: []

- `fsdp_min_num_params`: 0

- `fsdp_config`: {'min_num_params': 0, 'xla': False, 'xla_fsdp_v2': False, 'xla_fsdp_grad_ckpt': False}

- `tp_size`: 0

- `fsdp_transformer_layer_cls_to_wrap`: None

- `accelerator_config`: {'split_batches': False, 'dispatch_batches': None, 'even_batches': True, 'use_seedable_sampler': True, 'non_blocking': False, 'gradient_accumulation_kwargs': None}

- `deepspeed`: None

- `label_smoothing_factor`: 0.0

- `optim`: adamw_torch_fused

- `optim_args`: None

- `adafactor`: False

- `group_by_length`: False

- `length_column_name`: length

- `ddp_find_unused_parameters`: None

- `ddp_bucket_cap_mb`: None

- `ddp_broadcast_buffers`: False

- `dataloader_pin_memory`: True

- `dataloader_persistent_workers`: False

- `skip_memory_metrics`: True

- `use_legacy_prediction_loop`: False

- `push_to_hub`: False

- `resume_from_checkpoint`: None

- `hub_model_id`: None

- `hub_strategy`: every_save

- `hub_private_repo`: None

- `hub_always_push`: False

- `gradient_checkpointing`: False

- `gradient_checkpointing_kwargs`: None

- `include_inputs_for_metrics`: False

- `include_for_metrics`: []

- `eval_do_concat_batches`: True

- `fp16_backend`: auto

- `push_to_hub_model_id`: None

- `push_to_hub_organization`: None

- `mp_parameters`: 

- `auto_find_batch_size`: False

- `full_determinism`: False

- `torchdynamo`: None

- `ray_scope`: last

- `ddp_timeout`: 1800

- `torch_compile`: False

- `torch_compile_backend`: None

- `torch_compile_mode`: None

- `include_tokens_per_second`: False

- `include_num_input_tokens_seen`: False

- `neftune_noise_alpha`: None

- `optim_target_modules`: None

- `batch_eval_metrics`: False

- `eval_on_start`: False

- `use_liger_kernel`: False

- `eval_use_gather_object`: False

- `average_tokens_across_devices`: False

- `prompts`: None

- `batch_sampler`: no_duplicates

- `multi_dataset_batch_sampler`: proportional



</details>



### Training Logs

| Epoch      | Step   | Training Loss | baseline_cosine_ndcg@10 |

|:----------:|:------:|:-------------:|:-----------------------:|

| -1         | -1     | -             | 0.7290                  |

| 0.8276     | 3      | -             | 0.7365                  |

| 1.8276     | 6      | -             | 0.7427                  |

| 2.8276     | 9      | -             | 0.7420                  |

| 3.2759     | 10     | 7.0507        | -                       |

| **3.8276** | **12** | **-**         | **0.744**               |

* The bold row denotes the saved checkpoint.

### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.12.8
- Sentence Transformers: 4.1.0
- Transformers: 4.51.3
- PyTorch: 2.7.0+cu126
- Accelerate: 1.3.0
- Datasets: 3.2.0
- Tokenizers: 0.21.0

## Citation

### BibTeX

#### Sentence Transformers
```bibtex

@inproceedings{reimers-2019-sentence-bert,

    title = "Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks",

    author = "Reimers, Nils and Gurevych, Iryna",

    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",

    month = "11",

    year = "2019",

    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",

    url = "https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.10084",

}

```

#### MultipleNegativesRankingLoss
```bibtex

@misc{henderson2017efficient,

    title={Efficient Natural Language Response Suggestion for Smart Reply},

    author={Matthew Henderson and Rami Al-Rfou and Brian Strope and Yun-hsuan Sung and Laszlo Lukacs and Ruiqi Guo and Sanjiv Kumar and Balint Miklos and Ray Kurzweil},

    year={2017},

    eprint={1705.00652},

    archivePrefix={arXiv},

    primaryClass={cs.CL}

}

```

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