# RWKV7 (Goose) Mechanism: Mathematical Derivation

Zhiyuan Li

>Special thanks to [Sonta](https://github.com/sustcsonglin) and [Beortust](https://github.com/Beortext), Sonta pointed out the correct notation for the outer product in the formulas, and Beortust corrected a considerable number of typos and also helped to improve the formatting.

## Introduction to RWKV-7 Architecture

RWKV-7 employs **Dynamic State Evolution** that transcends the fundamental TC0 expressivity limitations of attention/linear attention paradigms. RWKV-7 possesses NC1 expressivity, allowing it to solve many problems that attention mechanisms cannot.

In simple terms, traditional attention mechanisms (like Transformer's QKV-softmax-attention) store multiple $\{k,v\}$ (key and value vector pairs), matching queries ($q$ alias named $r$ in RWKV) against keys to retrieve corresponding values.

RWKV-7 takes a different approach - rather than directly storing $\{k,v\}$ pairs, it dynamically updates a state by learning relationships between keys and values from context. This updated state then processes new input queries ($q$, or $r$ in RWKV terminology) to produce outputs[^1].

[^1]: For a more detailed explanation of this approach, see the original article by the RWKV author: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/kC_Z3vuQ5B4PiRwZVeIvHQ

Specifically, RWKV-7 maintains an internal model $v \approx k^{\top} S$. It aims to fit a simple objective: for given vector sequences $\{k\}$ and $\{v\}$, use state $S$ to transform $k_i$ into $v_i$, making the output $v$ as close as possible to the target $v$.

For clarity on dimensions:

$S_t \in \mathbb{R}^{d_v \times d_k}$ is the state matrix

$k_t \in \mathbb{R}^{d_k}$ is the key vector

$v_t \in \mathbb{R}^{d_v}$ is the value vector

$q_t \in \mathbb{R}^{d_k}$ is the query vector (named $r$ in RWKV terminology)

To achieve this, during inference with an L2 loss function $L=\frac{1}{2} \left\Vert v − k^{\top} S \right\Vert^2$, RWKV-7 automatically simulates dynamic gradient descent to continuously train its internal model $v \approx k^{\top} S$.

The gradient of the L2 loss function with respect to the state matrix $S$ is: $\frac{\partial L}{\partial S} = S k k^{\top} - v k^{\top}$

Applying stochastic gradient descent (SGD) with this gradient yields a recurrent update formula that forms the foundation of RWKV-7's mechanism. In standard SGD, we would update the parameters by subtracting the gradient scaled by a learning rate:

$$
S_t = S_{t-1} - \eta_t \cdot \frac{\partial L}{\partial S} , \text{ where } L=L_t \quad S=S_{t-1}
$$

Incorporating weight decay factors $d_t = \exp(-\exp(w_t))$ as a form of time-dependent regularization and learning rate $\eta_t$, the gradient descent update becomes:

$$S_t = S_{t-1} \text{Diag}(d_t) - \eta_t \cdot (S_{t-1} k_t k_t^{\top} - v_t k_t^{\top})$$

This can be expanded and rearranged as follows:

$$S_t = S_{t-1} \text{Diag}(d_t) - \eta_t \cdot S_{t-1} k_t k_t^{\top} + \eta_t \cdot v_t k_t^{\top}$$

For notational simplicity, we denote $\text{Diag}(d_t)$ as $D_t$ (the diagonal decay matrix):

$$S_t = S_{t-1} D_t - \eta_t \cdot S_{t-1} k_t k_t^{\top} + \eta_t \cdot v_t k_t^{\top}$$

In the full RWKV-7 implementation, this update rule is generalized through several key transformations:

1. The diagonal decay term $D_t$ remains as a component-wise multiplication with $S_{t-1}$

2. The term $-\eta_t \cdot k_t k_t^{\top}$ is generalized to $\alpha_t \beta_t^{\top}$, where:

   - $\alpha_t$ can be initialized as $-k_t$
   - $\beta_t$ can be initialized as $\eta_t \cdot k_t$

3. The term $-\eta_t \cdot S_{t-1} k_t k_t^{\top}$ can be factorized and computed efficiently:

   - First compute $u_t = S_{t-1} k_t$ (matrix-vector product)
   - Then compute $-\eta_t \cdot u_t k_t^{\top}$ (scaled outer product)

4. The term $\eta_t \cdot v_t k_t^{\top}$ is directly implemented as the outer product between the value vector $v_t$ and key vector $k_t$, resulting in a rank-1 update matrix

This leads to the final recurrence equation[^2]:

$$
S_t = S_{t-1} D_t + S_{t-1} \alpha_t \beta_t^{\top} + v_t k_t^{\top} \in \mathbb{R}^{d_v \times d_k}
$$

The output at each timestep is computed as:
$o_t = S_t r_t$

Where $r_t \in \mathbb{R}^{d_k}$ is the query vector (named $r$ in RWKV terminology), typically scaled by a factor of $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_k}}$. This formulation allows RWKV-7 to continuously adapt its internal representation based on context, transcending the limitations of traditional attention mechanisms.

[^2]: For a more detailed explanation, see the triton codes. Note: In the optimized Triton implementation, `w` is already the log of the decay factor, so there's only one exponential operation needed. https://github.com/fla-org/flash-linear-attention/blob/main/fla/ops/rwkv7/fused_recurrent.py#L94

This formulation allows more flexibility in how the state evolves while maintaining the core gradient descent learning dynamics.

## 1. Forward Pass Recurrence Equation

In the implementation, the state update is defined as:

For each batch (bi) and head (hi), at time step t:

```python
w_t = torch.exp(-torch.exp(w[bi, hi, t]))  # shape [K]
sa = (state[bi, hi] * a_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)  # shape [V]
state[bi, hi] = w_t[None, :] * state[bi, hi] + sa[:, None] * b_t[None, :] + k_t[None, :] * v_t[:, None]
```

Where state[bi, hi] has shape [V, K], representing a state matrix that maps from K-dimensional keys to V-dimensional values.

## 2. Backward Pass Derivation

### 2.1 Gradient of Loss w.r.t. State

For time step t, if L is the loss function, dstate_curr = ∂L/∂state[bi, hi, t+1] is the gradient of the current state:

```
dstate_curr = dstate[bi, hi] + q_t[None, :] * doutput[bi, hi, t][:, None]
```

This includes gradients propagated from future time steps dstate[bi, hi] and gradients from the current output.

### 2.2 Gradient w.r.t. Query q_t

```
dq[bi, hi, t] = torch.matmul(doutput[bi, hi, t], curr_state) * scale
```

### 2.3 Gradient w.r.t. Decay Parameter w_t

For the gradient of w_t, we need to consider how it affects the state update:

1. For the `w_t[None, :] * state[bi, hi]` component of the state update:

First, compute the derivative of L with respect to w_t:

```
∂L/∂w_t[k] = ∑_v (dstate_curr[v,k] * prev_state[v,k])
```

This equation sums over the v dimension for each position k, resulting in a vector of shape [K].

Then, compute the derivative of w_t with respect to w:

```
∂w_t[k]/∂w[k] = -exp(w[k]) * exp(-exp(w[k])) = -exp(w[k]) * w_t[k]
```

Finally, apply the chain rule:

```
∂L/∂w[k] = ∂L/∂w_t[k] * ∂w_t[k]/∂w[k]
         = (∑_v dstate_curr[v,k] * prev_state[v,k]) * (-exp(w[k]) * w_t[k])
```

In code, this is expressed as:

```python
dw[bi, hi, t] += -torch.sum(dstate_curr * prev_state, dim=0) * torch.exp(w[bi, hi, t]) * w_t
```

Or equivalently:

```python
dw[bi, hi, t] += -torch.sum(dstate_curr * prev_state, dim=0) * torch.exp(w[bi, hi, t]) * torch.exp(-torch.exp(w[bi, hi, t]))
```

### 2.4 Gradient w.r.t. k_t and v_t

For the `k_t[None, :] * v_t[:, None]` component:

```python
dk[bi, hi, t] += torch.sum(dstate_curr * v_t[:, None], dim=0)
dv[bi, hi, t] += torch.sum(dstate_curr * k_t[None, :], dim=1)
```

### 2.5 Gradient w.r.t. α_t and β_t (a_t and b_t in code)

For the `sa[:, None] * b_t[None, :]` component, where `sa = (state[bi, hi] * a_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)`:

```python
db[bi, hi, t] += torch.sum(dstate_curr * sa[:, None], dim=0)
dsa = torch.sum(dstate_curr * b_t[None, :], dim=1)
da[bi, hi, t] += torch.sum(prev_state * dsa[:, None], dim=0)
```

### 2.6 Gradient w.r.t. Previous State S\_{t-1}

Finally, we compute the gradient of the previous state for backpropagation:

```python
dstate_from_sa = a_t[None, :] * dsa[:, None]
dstate_from_decay = dstate_curr * w_t[None, :]
dstate[bi, hi] = dstate_from_sa + dstate_from_decay
```

```python
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
from typing import Optional, Tuple

import torch

from fla.utils import autocast_custom_bwd, autocast_custom_fwd, input_guard


def naive_recurrent_rwkv7(
    q: torch.Tensor,
    k: torch.Tensor,
    v: torch.Tensor,
    w: torch.Tensor,
    a: torch.Tensor,  # Dynamic learning rate modulator
    b: torch.Tensor,  # State update modulator
    scale: float = 1.0,
    initial_state: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None,
    output_final_state: bool = True,
):
    """
    Naive recurrent implementation of RWKV-7 (Goose) attention mechanism.
    Modified from bo's code.
    https://github.com/BlinkDL/RWKV-LM/blob/main/RWKV-v7/rwkv_v7_demo.py#L170

    Args:
        q, k, v: Query, Key, and Value tensors
        w: Time decay weights
        a: Dynamic learning rate modulator, influences the in-context learning rate
        b: State update modulator, directly participates in state update calculation
        scale: Scaling factor for attention scores
        initial_state: Initial state for the recurrent computation
        output_final_state: Whether to output the final state

    Returns:
        Attention output and optionally the final state
    """
    torch_dtype = q.dtype if q.dtype in [torch.float64, torch.float] else torch.float
    orig_dtype = q.dtype
    B, H, L, N, V = q.shape[0], q.shape[1], q.shape[2], q.shape[3], v.shape[-1]
    q, k, v, w, a, b = (x.to(dtype=torch_dtype) for x in (q, k, v, w, a, b))
    # q, k, v, a, b, w,
    # shape: (B, H, L, D), (B, H, L, D), (B, H, T, V), (B, H, L, D), (B, H, L, D), (B, H, L, D)
    state = torch.zeros(B, H, V, N, dtype=torch_dtype, device=q.device)
    o = torch.zeros_like(v)

    if scale == -1.0:
        scale = N ** -0.5

    if initial_state is not None:
        state += initial_state.to(dtype=torch_dtype)

    for t in range(L):
        q_t = q[:, :, t] * scale
        k_t = k[:, :, t]
        v_t = v[:, :, t]
        a_t = a[:, :, t]
        b_t = b[:, :, t]

        # from bo's code
        sab = torch.einsum('bhik,bhk,bhj->bhij', state, a_t, b_t)
        state = state * torch.exp(-torch.exp(w[:, :, t, None, :])) + sab + torch.einsum('bhj,bhi->bhij', k_t, v_t)
        o[:, :, t] = torch.einsum('bhj,bhij->bhi', q_t, state)

    if not output_final_state:
        ht = None
    elif initial_state is not None:
        ht = state.to(initial_state.dtype)
    else:
        ht = state.to(orig_dtype)

    return o.to(orig_dtype), ht


def naive_recurrent_rwkv7_2(
    q: torch.Tensor,
    k: torch.Tensor,
    v: torch.Tensor,
    w: torch.Tensor,
    a: torch.Tensor,  # Dynamic learning rate modulator
    b: torch.Tensor,  # State update modulator
    scale: float = 1.0,
    initial_state: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None,
    output_final_state: bool = True,
):
    """
    Naive recurrent implementation of RWKV-7 (Goose) attention mechanism.

    Args:
        q, k, v: Query, Key, and Value tensors
        w: Time decay weights
        a: Dynamic learning rate modulator, influences the in-context learning rate
        b: State update modulator, directly participates in state update calculation
        scale: Scaling factor for attention scores
        initial_state: Initial state for the recurrent computation
        output_final_state: Whether to output the final state

    Returns:
        Attention output and optionally the final state
    """
    torch_dtype = q.dtype if q.dtype in [torch.float64, torch.float] else torch.float
    orig_dtype = q.dtype
    B, H, L, N, V = q.shape[0], q.shape[1], q.shape[2], q.shape[3], v.shape[-1]
    q, k, v, w, a, b = (x.to(dtype=torch_dtype) for x in (q, k, v, w, a, b))
    # q, k, v, a, b, w,
    # shape: (B, H, L, D), (B, H, L, D), (B, H, T, V), (B, H, L, D), (B, H, L, D), (B, H, L, D)
    state = torch.zeros(B, H, V, N, dtype=torch_dtype, device=q.device)
    o = torch.zeros_like(v)

    if scale == -1.0:
        scale = N ** -0.5

    if initial_state is not None:
        state += initial_state.to(dtype=torch_dtype)

    for t in range(L):
        for bi in range(B):
            for hi in range(H):
                q_t = q[bi, hi, t] * scale
                k_t = k[bi, hi, t]
                v_t = v[bi, hi, t]
                a_t = a[bi, hi, t]
                b_t = b[bi, hi, t]
                w_t = torch.exp(-torch.exp(w[bi, hi, t]))

                # h: [V, K], a_t [K] -> [1, K]
                # sa: [V]
                sa = (state[bi, hi] * a_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)

                state[bi, hi] = w_t[None, :] * state[bi, hi] + sa[:, None] * b_t[None, :] + k_t[None, :] * v_t[:, None]
                y = (state[bi, hi] * q_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)

                o[bi, hi, t] = y

    ht = state if output_final_state else None
    return o.to(orig_dtype), ht


@torch.no_grad()
def naive_recurrent_rwkv7_2_bwd(
    q: torch.Tensor,
    k: torch.Tensor,
    v: torch.Tensor,
    w: torch.Tensor,
    a: torch.Tensor,
    b: torch.Tensor,
    doutput: torch.Tensor,
    dh_t: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None,
    scale: float = 1.0,
    dtype: Optional[torch.dtype] = None
):
    """
    Backward pass for the naive_recurrent_rwkv7_2 implementation.

    Args:
        q, k, v, w, a, b: Original forward pass inputs
        doutput: Gradient of the loss with respect to the output
        dh_t: Gradient of the loss with respect to the final state (if any)
        scale: Scaling factor used in the forward pass
        dtype: Optional dtype for computation

    Returns:
        Gradients with respect to all inputs
    """
    torch_dtype = q.dtype if q.dtype in [torch.float64, torch.float] else torch.float
    q, k, v, w, a, b, doutput = (x.to(dtype=torch_dtype) for x in (q, k, v, w, a, b, doutput))
    if dh_t is not None:
        dh_t = dh_t.to(dtype=torch_dtype)

    B, H, L, N, V = q.shape[0], q.shape[1], q.shape[2], q.shape[3], v.shape[-1]

    # Initialize gradients
    dq = torch.empty_like(q)
    dk = torch.empty_like(k)
    dv = torch.empty_like(v)
    dw = torch.empty_like(w)
    da = torch.empty_like(a)
    db = torch.empty_like(b)

    # Initialize state gradients
    dstate = torch.zeros(B, H, V, N, dtype=torch_dtype, device=q.device)
    if dh_t is not None:
        dstate += dh_t

    if scale == -1.0:
        scale = N ** -0.5

    # First rebuild all states from forward pass
    states = []
    state = torch.zeros(B, H, V, N, dtype=torch_dtype, device=q.device)
    states.append(state.clone())

    # In practice, we don't recompute all states from the beginning.
    # Instead, we use checkpointing: we save states at regular intervals (e.g., every 16 tokens)
    # during the forward pass, then reconstruct intermediate states during the backward pass
    # by working backwards from the nearest checkpoint.
    #
    # For example, to get state[t-1] from state[t]:
    # state[t-1] = (state[t] - (sa * b_t + k_t * v_t)) / w_t
    #
    # This approach balances memory usage and computational efficiency:
    # - Reduces memory by not storing every state
    # - Maintains numerical stability by limiting the number of backward steps from each checkpoint
    # - Allows efficient gradient computation without recomputing the entire sequence
    for t in range(L):
        for bi in range(B):
            for hi in range(H):
                q_t = q[bi, hi, t] * scale
                k_t = k[bi, hi, t]
                v_t = v[bi, hi, t]
                a_t = a[bi, hi, t]
                b_t = b[bi, hi, t]
                w_t = torch.exp(-torch.exp(w[bi, hi, t]))

                sa = (state[bi, hi] * a_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)

                state[bi, hi] = w_t[None, :] * state[bi, hi] + sa[:, None] * b_t[None, :] + k_t[None, :] * v_t[:, None]
        states.append(state.clone())

    # Backward pass through time
    for t in range(L-1, -1, -1):
        for bi in range(B):
            for hi in range(H):
                q_t = q[bi, hi, t] * scale
                k_t = k[bi, hi, t]
                v_t = v[bi, hi, t]
                a_t = a[bi, hi, t]
                b_t = b[bi, hi, t]
                w_scalar = w[bi, hi, t]
                w_exp = torch.exp(w_scalar)
                w_t = torch.exp(-w_exp)

                curr_state = states[t+1][bi, hi]  # State after update [V, K]
                prev_state = states[t][bi, hi]    # State before update [V, K]

                dq[bi, hi, t] = (doutput[bi, hi, t][:, None] * curr_state).sum(dim=0) * scale

                dstate_from_out = q_t[None, :] * doutput[bi, hi, t][:, None]  # [V, K]

                dstate_curr = dstate[bi, hi] + dstate_from_out

                sa = (prev_state * a_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)  # [V]

                # state[bi, hi] = w_t[None, :] * prev_state + ...
                dw[bi, hi, t] = -torch.sum(dstate_curr * prev_state, dim=0) * \
                    w_t * w_exp

                # k_t[None, :] * v_t[:, None] -> [V, K]
                dk[bi, hi, t] = torch.sum(dstate_curr * v_t[:, None], dim=0)
                dv[bi, hi, t] = torch.sum(dstate_curr * k_t[None, :], dim=1)

                # sa[:, None] * b_t[None, :] -> [V, K]
                db[bi, hi, t] = torch.sum(dstate_curr * sa[:, None], dim=0)
                dsa = torch.sum(dstate_curr * b_t[None, :], dim=1)  # [V]

                # sa = (prev_state * a_t[None, :]).sum(dim=1)
                da[bi, hi, t] = torch.sum(prev_state * dsa[:, None], dim=0)
                dstate_from_sa = a_t[None, :] * dsa[:, None]  # [V, K]

                # w_t[None, :] * prev_state
                dstate_from_decay = dstate_curr * w_t[None, :]  # [V, K]

                dstate[bi, hi] = dstate_from_sa + dstate_from_decay

    return dq, dk, dv, dw, da, db, dstate


class NativeRecurrentRWKV7Function(torch.autograd.Function):
    @staticmethod
    @input_guard
    @autocast_custom_fwd
    def forward(ctx, q, k, v, w, a, b, scale, initial_state,
                training: bool = True, dtype: Optional[torch.dtype] = None,
                state_ckpt_interval: int = 16):
        o, ht = naive_recurrent_rwkv7_2(q, k, v, w, a, b, scale=scale, initial_state=initial_state)
        if training:
            ctx.save_for_backward(q, k, v, w, a, b)
            ctx.scale = scale
            ctx.dtype = dtype
            ctx.ckpt_interval = state_ckpt_interval
            ctx.use_initial_state = initial_state is not None
        return o, ht

    @staticmethod
    @autocast_custom_bwd
    def backward(ctx, do, dht):
        q, k, v, w, a, b = ctx.saved_tensors
        dq, dk, dv, dw, da, db, dh = naive_recurrent_rwkv7_2_bwd(
            q, k, v, w, a, b, do, dht, ctx.scale, dtype=ctx.dtype)
        dh = dh if ctx.use_initial_state else None
        return dq, dk, dv, dw, da, db, None, dh, None, None


def recurrent_rwkv7(
    q: torch.Tensor,
    k: torch.Tensor,
    v: torch.Tensor,
    w: torch.Tensor,
    a: torch.Tensor,
    b: torch.Tensor,
    scale: float = 1.0,
    initial_state: torch.Tensor = None,
    output_final_state: bool = True,
    cu_seqlens: Optional[torch.LongTensor] = None,
    head_first: bool = True
) -> Tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor]:
    """
    Args:
        r (torch.Tensor):
            r of shape `[B, H, T, K]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, K]`.
        k (torch.Tensor):
            k of shape `[B, H, T, K]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, K]`.
        v (torch.Tensor):
            v of shape `[B, H, T, V]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, V]`.
        a (torch.Tensor):
            a of shape `[B, H, T, K]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, K]`.
        b (torch.Tensor):
            b of shape `[B, H, T, K]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, K]`.
        w (torch.Tensor):
            decay of shape `[B, H, T, K]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, K]`, kernel
            will apply log_w = -torch.exp(w)
        log_w (torch.Tensor):
            log decay of shape `[B, H, T, K]` if `head_first=True` else `[B, T, H, K]`.
        scale (float):
            scale of the attention.
        initial_state (Optional[torch.Tensor]):
            Initial state of shape `[N, H, K, V]` for `N` input sequences.
            For equal-length input sequences, `N` equals the batch size `B`.
            Default: `None`.
        output_final_state (Optional[bool]):
            Whether to output the final state of shape `[N, H, K, V]`. Default: `False`.
        cu_seqlens (torch.LongTensor):
            Cumulative sequence lengths of shape `[N+1]` used for variable-length training,
            consistent with the FlashAttention API.
        head_first (bool):
            whether to use head first. Recommended to be False to avoid extra transposes.
    """
    assert cu_seqlens is None
    assert head_first is True
    assert w is not None
    if scale == -1.0:
        scale = q.shape[-1] ** -0.5
    o, final_state = NativeRecurrentRWKV7Function.apply(q, k, v, w, a, b, scale, initial_state)

    return o, final_state


def test_autograd_function():
    """Test the custom autograd function implementation"""
    # Set random seed for reproducibility
    torch.manual_seed(42)

    # Define test dimensions
    B, H, T, D = 1, 1, 128, 64
    V = N = D
    device = 'cpu'
    dtype = torch.float64

    # Create random test inputs
    q = torch.empty(B, H, T, D, device=device).uniform_(-8, 8).to(dtype=dtype).requires_grad_(True)
    k = torch.empty(B, H, T, D, device=device).uniform_(-8, 8).to(dtype=dtype).requires_grad_(True)
    v = torch.empty(B, H, T, D, device=device).uniform_(-8, 8).to(dtype=dtype).requires_grad_(True)
    w = torch.empty(B, H, T, D, device=device).uniform_(-8, -6).to(dtype=dtype).requires_grad_(True)

    kk = torch.empty(B, H, T, D, device=device).uniform_(-8, 8)
    kk = torch.nn.functional.normalize(kk, dim=-1).to(dtype=dtype)

    a = -kk.clone().requires_grad_(True)  # -kk
    a_scale = torch.empty(B, H, T, D, device=device).uniform_(0, 0.1).to(dtype=dtype)
    b = (kk * a_scale).requires_grad_(True)  # kk*a

    # Create initial state
    initial_state = torch.zeros(B, H, V, N).to(torch.float64)

    # Clone inputs for the two paths we're testing
    q1, k1, v1, w1, a1, b1 = q.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), k.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), v.clone().detach().requires_grad_(
        True), w.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), a.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), b.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True)
    q2, k2, v2, w2, a2, b2 = q.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), k.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), v.clone().detach().requires_grad_(
        True), w.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), a.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True), b.clone().detach().requires_grad_(True)

    # Path 1: Using naive implementation with autograd

    output1, state1 = naive_recurrent_rwkv7(q1, k1, v1, w1, a1, b1, initial_state=initial_state.clone())

    output2, state2 = recurrent_rwkv7(q2, k2, v2, w2, a2, b2, 1.0, initial_state.clone())

    # Check forward pass equivalence
    output_diff = torch.max(torch.abs(output1 - output2)).item()
    state_diff = torch.max(torch.abs(state1 - state2)).item()

    print(f"\nAutograd Function test (forward):")
    print(f"  Max output difference: {output_diff:.6e}")
    print(f"  Max state difference: {state_diff:.6e}")

    # Create loss function to test backward pass
    def compute_loss(output, state):
        return output.sum()  # + state.sum()

    # Compute loss and gradients for both paths
    loss1 = compute_loss(output1, state1)
    loss1.backward()

    loss2 = compute_loss(output2, state2)
    loss2.backward()

    # Compare gradients
    grad_diffs = {
        'q': torch.max(torch.abs(q1.grad - q2.grad)).item(),
        'k': torch.max(torch.abs(k1.grad - k2.grad)).item(),
        'v': torch.max(torch.abs(v1.grad - v2.grad)).item(),
        'w': torch.max(torch.abs(w1.grad - w2.grad)).item(),
        'a': torch.max(torch.abs(a1.grad - a2.grad)).item(),
        'b': torch.max(torch.abs(b1.grad - b2.grad)).item(),
    }

    print(f"\nAutograd Function test (backward):")
    for param, diff in grad_diffs.items():
        print(f"  Max {param} gradient difference: {diff:.6e}")


test_autograd_function()
```