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Locatelli, Binet, Kairo, King, Madden, Patenaude, Upton and Huxham Published 2014 in Ambio DOI 10.1007/s13280-014-0530-y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TURNING THE TIDE: HOW PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (PES) MIGHT HELP SAVE MANGROVE FORESTS 1.
INTRODUCTION: Slowing and reversing tropical forest loss has long been a conservatio... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 145 |
Traditional concerns over the loss of habitat have been amplified by a growing awareness of the role of forests in the global carbon cycle and as carbon sinks, with tropical deforestation accounting for 8-20% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Solomon, 2007). | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 64 |
Payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes are emerging as new market-based approaches for forest conservation, with advocates hoping that they will address some of the underlying economic and political drivers of forest loss and provide direct 10 economic incentives for conservation.
Reduced Emissions from Defores... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 104 |
Whilst the REDD+ programs currently being developed 13 and implemented in more than 40 countries often allow only marginal roles for local communities 14 there are many opportunities for such projects to reflect principles of social justice and local control 15 (Danielsen et al.
2013).
16 Mangrove forests should be l... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 84 |
Despite their limited extent 17 (approximately 0.7% of tropical forests) they are globally important carbon sinks because of their 18 efficiency in carbon assimilation and below-ground storage (Donato et al., 2011).
The gap between 19 the economic value of intact mangrove ecosystems and the value captured by standard ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 120 |
21 Mangroves are recognized as providing a wide-range of provisioning, regulating, supporting and 22 cultural services that could be combined with carbon sequestration in marketing ‘high value’ carbon 23 payments in putative PES projects.
Because these services matter most to the poor – typically 24 marginalized subsi... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 111 |
Despite the well- 26 documented ecological, economic and social benefits they provide, mangroves continue to suffer 27 high rates of degradation and destruction, with global losses of 1-2% per annum exceeding those of 28 terrestrial tropical forests (Spalding et al., 2010).
Traditional conservation instruments appear ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 93 |
30 The large majority of PES forestry projects, either running or in development, concern terrestrial 31 habitats (Warren-Rhodes et al., 2011).
The recognition of the importance of coastal habitats as 32 major carbon sinks has led to calls for ‘blue carbon’ to be considered under international 33 agreements (Mcleod et... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 94 |
Whilst one small mangrove-based PES project exists (‘Mikoko 34 Pamoja’; see www.eafpes.org) and larger ones are under development (including controversial cases 35 such as in the Rufiji delta in Tanzania; Beymer-Farris and Bassett, 2011), considerable technical, 36 social, political and economic barriers remain before ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 155 |
Our aim here is to consider the potential for 39 carbon-focused PES in mangroves and to explore some of the current and possible impediments and 40 objections with a “from local to global” approach.
Many of the scientific uncertainties specific to 41 mangroves, concerning measurement of above and below-ground carbon a... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 136 |
(2012).
Hence we focus primarily on regulatory, 44 market and social issues as well as on comparing mangroves as targets for carbon-focused PES with 45 other forest types. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 49 |
Our decision to focus primarily on mangroves’ potential for PES based on carbon 46 storage and sequestration, rather than on the other services that they provide, reflects the current 47 and likely future dominance of the carbon market as a source of revenue for mangrove 48 conservation; this is particularly true in po... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 85 |
Forestry projects continue to grow in importance in the Voluntary Carbon Market (Peters- 50 Stanley and Yin, 2013; see section 3.1 below) and a “carbocentric” approach allows for comparison 51 of benefits and risks with non-forestry carbon projects such as those centered on renewable energy 52 sources (Wara, 2007).
Ca... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 134 |
Although carbon 54 is therefore the focal ecosystem service here, the challenges we address apply equally to other 55 services such as fisheries provision and coastal protection.
56 57 We have three key objectives: 1) To compare the relevant biophysical characteristics, including vulnerability to natural hazards and p... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 107 |
2) To review the current options for trading in carbon and how these might relate to mangroves.
3) To consider issues of local control and environmental justice in PES schemes as pertaining to mangrove systems.
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 2.
OBJECTIVE 1: BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 68 2.1 Vulnerability to natural ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 138 |
Estimating the risks 70 these pose to forestry-based PES initiatives over the expected life-time of a project is a requirement 71 for accreditation.
At present this is very difficult for mangroves, partly because of the site-specific 72 nature of most threats but also because of a lack of data that allow comparison of... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 124 |
75 The main natural threats to forests worldwide are wind, snow, fire and pests, including insect 76 outbreaks, bacterial and fungal pathogens (Hoffmann et al., 2003; Seidl et al., 2008).
Like other 77 forests, mangroves can suffer serious damage (Alongi, 2008; Cochard et al., 2008; Gilman et al., 78 2008) but their h... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 160 |
80 Snow and fire, two of the largest sources of forest damage worldwide, are irrelevant to mangroves, 81 whilst wave action and sea-level rise are uniquely pertinent.
82 Table 1 83 2.1.1 Wind 84 In temperate biomes, wind is the main abiotic hazard to forests (Hanewinkel et al., 2011).
Wind 85 damage to trees includes... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 155 |
88 Comparing wind damage between studies is difficult due to the different scales and units used, but it 89 is nevertheless informative to report some figures across various areas.
Wind damage to European 90 forests has been extensive, with estimates of almost 19 million m3 of timber lost annually in the 91 second hal... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 122 |
For example 93 the storm Lothar caused the loss of 200 million m3 of European timber in 1999, mainly in central 94 Europe (Blennow et al., 2010).
In 2005, 75% of the 100 million m3 of European timber losses 95 occurred in Sweden, where the equivalent of a year’s harvest was lost overnight (ibid.). | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 102 |
Beyond 96 Europe, New Zealand lost more than 8 million m3 due to wind over the last half century (Moore and 97 Quine, 2000), whilst timber losses in Japan exceeding 30 million m3 over five years were attributed 98 to typhoon events (Kamimura and Shiraishi, 2007).
The scale of wind damage in the US, particularly 99 in ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 115 |
Hurricane Hugo in 1989 100 damaged almost 37 million m3 of coastal forest timber in the State of South Carolina alone, whilst 101 Hurricanes Katrina and Rita were responsible for an estimated 63 million m3 of timber losses in the 102 coastal forests of the Gulf of Mexico (Stanturf et al., 2007).
In total, Hurricane Ka... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 144 |
In South America, carbon losses in the Manau region of the Brazilian Amazon forest 105 after a single squall line event in 2005 were almost a quarter of the Amazonian mean annual carbon 106 accumulation (Negron-Suarez et al., 2010).
Whilst there are few African studies, Munishi and 107 Chamshama (1994) report incidenc... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 139 |
These studies 109 demonstrate that wind damage is a major and widespread threat to terrestrial forests, particularly 110 to upland conifer plantations and in hurricane affected areas, with single storm events having 111 frequently destroyed more than 10% of a country’s annual timber production.
112 The literature on w... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 116 |
This relative paucity may 114 indicate a smaller average risk but could also reflect the smaller total area of mangroves or a relative 115 neglect of tropical coastal habitats in the literature.
Due to their location the main wind threat to 116 mangroves arises from coastal storms, typhoons and hurricanes.
Most relev... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 135 |
Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal show a 119 similar average 29 year periodicity (Singh et al., 2000).
Hurricanes and cyclones can certainly cause 120 large-scale destruction of mangrove forests; Cahoon et al.
(2003) cite papers showing that “powerful 121 storms have caused mass mortality of at least 10 Caribbean mangrov... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 154 |
Following Hurricanes Frances and Jeanne in 124 2004, the area of mangroves that was disturbed was much smaller than that of other coastal forest 125 types (~14 and ~95% respectively) in Florida (Vogt et al., 2011).
After 4 ½ years, 51% of lost mangrove 126 canopy cover had regenerated, compared with 2.4% in the other ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 171 |
Mangroves were the most affected, especially in their juvenile 129 plants, but also the most efficient in terms of re-establishment of their population and basal area.
130 Interspecific differences are found in mangroves’ susceptibility to wind damage (e.g.
Baldwin et al., 131 2001); this may contribute to their rela... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 133 |
; Piou et al.
2006).
Following Hurricane Wilma in 2005, mangrove 133 sites in the Florida Everglades took 2 to 4 years to approximate pre-disturbance levels of albedo, CO2 134 net fluxes and soil elevation (Barr et al., 2012).
135 The vast majority of studies on hurricane and typhoon damage to forests, including man... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 167 |
Investors in REDD+ and A/R 138 projects may need to identify areas that are less prone to extreme events, especially in a changing 139 climate.
Recent model simulations predict a decline in the global frequency of hurricanes but an 140 increase in intensity, with increasing damage in North America and Asia, a minor in... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 118 |
In summary, mangroves are probably less vulnerable than other forest types to any given 143 wind speed, but their coastal habitat may expose them to particularly high winds from hurricanes.
144 Hence mangroves in areas at low hurricane or cyclone risk are likely to be at lower risk from wind 145 damage than other fore... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 80 |
146 2.1.2 Fire 147 Fire is the second major abiotic disturbance to temperate forests, being responsible for the annual 148 loss of 0.5 million ha of forested land in the Mediterranean basin alone, and is related to latitude, 149 local climate (e.g.
wind, temperature and humidity) and forest management, with low levels... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 118 |
Numerous studies have 151 discussed the increasing risk of fire damage in forests worldwide under IPCC climate change 152 scenarios because of increasing predicted temperature (e.g.
Hanewinkel et al., 2011).
High relative 153 moisture levels generally protect tropical rainforests from fire, although areas at the fore... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 129 |
There are no published reports of large scale fire damage in 156 mangroves, presumably because of their permanently wet, and regularly inundated, soils.
157 2.1.3 Pests 158 Insect outbreaks and diseases caused by microbial and fungal pathogens are common to all forest 159 types and are a major concern for forest manag... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 135 |
Hanewinkel et al., 2011).
161 Reports of mass tree death following total defoliation are common in terrestrial forests, particularly 162 plantations.
Such reports are much rarer from mangroves; we know of only three papers. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 67 |
In their 163 study in Southwest Florida, Rehm and Humm (1973) reported a high incidence of wood-boring 164 crustaceans feeding on prop roots of Rhizophora mangle, which were then affected by bacterial and 165 fungal attack, causing a reduction in forest area and an increase in wind and wave damage.
In their 166 study ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 143 |
Whilst damage 168 from folivores seems to be comparatively small in mangrove forests wood borers may have a much 169 greater impact in natural systems.
R. mangle forests in Belize can suffer more than 50% canopy 170 damage from wood boring insects, with important implications for small scale gap formation and 171 ecos... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 133 |
However the current paucity of 173 reports of large scale tree death or defoliation resulting from pest infestation in mangroves, in 174 comparison with other forest types, does suggest that this risk is relatively smaller.
175 2.1.4 Sea-level rise 176 Mangroves are the forest type at greatest risk from sea level rise... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 89 |
They may adapt by shifting further 177 inland, but this will only be possible in areas where human settlements and agriculture occur at 178 some distance from the coastline (Gilman et al., 2008).
Alternatively they may maintain surface 179 elevation through soil building and sediment accretion, but such a response req... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 109 |
Where adaptation is impossible the 181 habitat available to mangrove forests will shrink and the remaining forest may become less 182 ecologically resistant and/or resilient (Alongi, 2008).
Soil quality, salinity levels, and the tolerance 183 and reproductive quality of particular mangrove species are expected to infl... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 103 |
185 2.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY MANGROVES 186 Mangroves provide an extensive range of ecosystem services in addition to carbon sequestration, 187 including nutrient cycling, water purification, provision of nursery habitats, coastal erosion control, 188 moderation of extreme events and biodiversity reserves (Rui... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 129 |
There are therefore many opportunities for PES schemes to market “high value” 190 carbon credits which reflect these additional services.
As well as documented examples, nursery 191 areas for fisheries, water treatment, and coastal protection are discussed here.
192 2.2.1 Fisheries services 193 By providing a refuge ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 132 |
Rönnbäck, 1999).
Kenya represents a fitting 195 example, as most families of commercial species are present in Kenyan mangroves and mangrove- 196 fringed habitats (Kimani et al., 1996).
Overall fish biomass production estimates for mangroves range 197 from 8.2 t km-² yr-1 for Queensland in Australia (Blaber et al., 1... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 151 |
The fisheries value of mangroves has been estimated in various regions of the 199 World and shows high values that compare well with most productive ecosystems, such as coral 200 reefs: 2,800 USD km-² yr-1 in Belize (Cooper et al., 2009), 7,800 USD km-² yr-1 in Philippines (Janssen 201 and Padilla, 1996), 8,300 USD km-... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 174 |
A review of the size and value of commercial and subsistence fisheries 203 in mangrove areas can be found in Walters et al.
(2008).
204 The sale of local fishing licenses could help finance conservation actions and regulate access to 205 mangrove areas.
However, because a substantial part of fishing by local populat... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 124 |
Rather, the commercial exploitation of offshore 208 fisheries of species that spend part of their life cycle in mangroves is more likely to be a source of 209 PES.
In the case of Kenyan EEZ fisheries, this link could lead to the establishment of PES for an 210 increase of fishing opportunities to be paid by shrimp fis... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 126 |
The funds are used to construct fish landing spots as well as pay fish scouts who survey 213 illegal fishing activities.
In Tanzania on the other hand, the Marine Legacy Fund of Tanzania is 214 revenue derived from commercial fishing licenses and paid to coastal communities to protect 215 mangroves and other key habit... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 92 |
216 2.2.2 Water and waste treatment services 217 Mangroves are able to assimilate pollutants such as heavy metals (Lacerda and Abrao, 1984), 218 nutrients (in particular nitrogen and phosphorus) as well as suspended solids (UNEP-WCMC, 2006), 219 playing an important role in coastal water purification and waste water tr... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 137 |
The biofiltering 221 value of mangroves is estimated to range between US$ 1193 ha-1year-1 and US$5820 ha-1year-1 222 (Walters et al., 2008).
Biophysical and ecological properties of mangrove trees and their associated 223 soils and invertebrate communities contribute to these processes. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 99 |
224 While the coastal communities that benefit from mangroves’ water and waste treatment are 225 unlikely to financially contribute to PES schemes, commercial activities – including shrimp farms and 226 tourism - that require good quality water may voluntarily adhere to such PES to replace or avoid 227 costly artificia... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 102 |
One example concerns the Bonaire Marine Park in the Netherlands Antilles (Thur, 229 2010), where mangroves’ contribution to water treatment is recognized through payment for 230 protection from divers’ entrance fees. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 54 |
231 2.2.3 Coastal Protection 232 The idea that mangroves are effective in protecting coastal areas from extreme climatic events such 233 as tsunamis and typhoons came into prominence after the 2004 tsunami that devastatingly hit Asia, 234 although a review of 4 widely-cited post-disaster studies shows that the contribu... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 177 |
The intensity of the 2004 tsunami 238 was such that little protection could have been provided to the areas worst affected.
Afforestation 239 and effective management programs in mangrove stands in Bangladesh and Vietnam have 240 effectively reduced the costs of human-made protective structures such as sea dykes (ibid... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 79 |
Indeed, 241 local populations, whose ecological knowledge has been proposed as a vital component of sound 242 management practices (Walters et al., 2008), have historically planted mangroves to protect their 243 coastlines and stimulate sediment accretion (Cochard et al., 2008; Walters et al., 2008).
244 Mangroves the... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 139 |
246 Mangroves offer considerable advantages over terrestrial forests in this regard.
In terrestrial forests 247 maximizing carbon sequestration can lead to soil salinization, acidification and reduced stream-flow 248 (Jackson et al., 2005); none of these negative impacts come from mangroves.
249 Figure 1 250 3.
Obje... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 118 |
CARBON MARKETS AND RELEVANCE FOR MANGROVES 252 The forest carbon market is split between compliance schemes (created and regulated by mandatory 253 national and international agreements) and voluntary projects, in which companies and individuals 254 choose to invest in carbon offsets.
The development of regulatory fra... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 142 |
Hence there is enormous and growing potential to marshal funds into 257 mitigation projects, including those concerning forests.
258 However, forest credits are ineligible under the largest compliant trading scheme, the European 259 Union Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS).
While forests credits (for afforestation and... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 116 |
In 2009, only 0.2% of the total portfolio (4 out of 1665 registered 262 projects) was for A/R projects, representing a paltry 177.6 Million USD (Diaz et al., 2011), and none 263 of these concerned mangroves.
Key impediments to investment have been the cumbersome 264 bureaucracy and the risks of impermanence associated... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 113 |
The failure of the 265 compliance market to account for forest emissions has led to more than 90% of forest carbon 266 projects pursuing certification under the voluntary market instead (Morrison and Aubrey, 2010).
267 268 The total voluntary market, recently valued at 523.0.0 Million USD (Peters-Stanley and Yin. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 95 |
2013), is 269 an order of magnitude smaller than the compliance market, but forestry projects figure prominently 270 within it: circa 21% of market share is taken up by A/R, REDD or avoided conversion projects (OTC 271 values from 2012, Peters-Stanley and Yin, 2013).
Addressing climate change is becoming of increased ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 144 |
In the voluntary 274 carbon market, the private sector is responsible for 70% of market activity (Peters-Stanley et al.
275 2013).
Forest credits are not only visually compelling but are also much easier to communicate than 276 other types of credits. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 73 |
The top motivations behind corporate purchase of forestry credits include an 277 interest in communicating the social and environmental benefits that these projects generate, the 278 extent of deforestation, and the tangibility of carbon storage in tree biomass (Waage and Hamilton, 279 2011).
280 281 The voluntary mar... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 130 |
283 This allows the recognition of (and payments for) existing carbon, in contrast to A/R schemes which 284 require change in land use from non-forest to forested land.
Hence REDD+ could stimulate the 285 sustainable management of current forests and allow rapid payments to local people (without the 286 uncertainties ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 123 |
Hence the removal of mangroves may cause the rapid 288 release of large volumes of soil carbon, whilst new plantations will assimilate carbon at much slower 289 rates.
In 2011, REDD+ projects accounted for 29% of credits transacted in the voluntary carbon 290 market – a significant increase from the 7% observed the pr... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 108 |
2011).
291 292 The nineteenth Kyoto process ‘Conference of the Parties’ (COP19) delivered some progress in the 293 design of a framework for REDD+ action, including an agreement for tropical countries to receive 294 financing for both readiness and results on REDD+.
REDD+ will figure prominently in the 2015 global 29... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 150 |
Most observers 297 believe that the inclusion of REDD+ into the compliance markets is necessary before carbon 298 payments have a real chance of addressing global forest losses.
As Olander and Ebeling (2011) put it: 299 ‘Let’s face it, forest carbon markets will remain small, and limited to voluntary markets, until la... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 117 |
Whilst this is probably true, it does not preclude 302 carbon markets playing a significant role in mangrove conservation even if they are limited to 303 voluntary schemes.
The exceptional efficiency of carbon sequestration and storage combined with 304 multiple other ecosystem services provided by mangroves make them... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 94 |
306 307 Realizing this potential for voluntary investment in mangroves, and building the evidence and 308 arguments for the inclusion of mangroves in compliance schemes, requires the development of 309 methodologies and approaches suited to these ecosystems – ‘off the shelf’ approaches using 310 methods developed for l... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 120 |
The voluntary carbon market is proving a fertile testing ground for new approaches: there 313 are already more than 14 standards within the forestry sector.
Sophisticated approaches to address 314 the issue of non-permanence of forest ecosystems have been developed, including buffers and 315 insurance products.
Hence... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 117 |
FOREST STANDARDS 319 3.2.1 Accreditation challenges common to all forests 320 All carbon accreditation projects must demonstrate three characteristics: additionality – the carbon 321 sequestered (or saved from emission) must be additional to what would have been achieved under a 322 ‘business as usual’ scenario; perman... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 204 |
Although these requirements apply to all accredited projects the last two are usually 328 considered to be particularly challenging for forestry schemes.
Two approaches to addressing 329 impermanence include insurance products and risk buffers. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 49 |
The risk of impermanence in mangrove 330 schemes is arguably lower than that in other forest types given the importance of refractory below- 331 ground carbon – which might be stored for millennia - and the nature of the biophysical risks 332 experienced as described in Section 2.
Addressing leakage, however, remains ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 135 |
335 Any carbon offsetting project is subject to the risk of leakage although this is often perceived to be 336 higher for forestry schemes (Kindermann et al., 2008) due to the general lack of forestry data 337 compared to that available for other sectors (Wunder, 2008).
Monitoring leakage is complicated and 338 has be... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 130 |
A shift in activities releasing GHG to the atmosphere can happen 340 at various scales, from local, to national, to international (Edwards et al., 2010) and can also happen 341 between sectors, such as when forest products are substituted with others produced with processes 342 not limited by GHG caps (Kindermann et al... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 110 |
Most REDD+ schemes are being implemented at the project- 344 rather than national -level (Edwards et al., 2010), and while increasing the scale of a project would 345 likely reduce the probability of leakage, it would also increase the overall costs. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 63 |
346 3.2.2 Implications for mangroves 347 While issues of permanence are similar between terrestrial forests and mangroves, the generally 348 smaller scale of mangrove projects implies that some approaches suitable for terrestrial forests may 349 not be suitable for mangroves. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 77 |
For instance, larger schemes proposed to reduce leakage will reduce 350 the chances of small-scale community-based mangrove projects - often in densely populated areas 351 that deal with multiple users and stakeholders –achieving accreditation.
Leakage presents additional 352 challenges for the establishment of mangro... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 86 |
A/R projects provide carbon 353 benefits without displacing local communities, due to the fact that they are generally established on 354 degraded land, while reduced deforestation projects prevent land-use changes (Kindermann et al., 355 2008).
As a consequence, the provision of a number of forest products is prevent... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 112 |
An efficient mitigation strategy would be to combine REDD+ and A/R practices within a 358 project, so as to prevent the displacement of emissions (Wunder, 2008) such as in the Ban Sam 359 Chong Tai village in Southern Thailand, where tree planting and forest protection have proven 360 successful in protecting mangroves... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 110 |
362 Figure 2 363 The avoidance and management of leakage is and will remain a significant barrier for most 364 mangrove schemes.
Various certification schemes take different approaches to dealing with 365 anticipated leakage, with forest carbon projects required to develop risk profiles of leakage during 366 the desig... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 133 |
Typically a review of current forest 368 use in the project area and identification of ways to mitigate this is required.
These might include 369 timber plantations, fuel swappages (where use of biomass for cooking is a driver of deforestation) 370 and the implementation of alternative livelihood projects. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 75 |
A key issue in addressing leakage is 371 improving the governance and local ownership of a project; this is particularly pertinent to 372 mangroves since these are generally collectively owned and managed.
373 Achieving high confidence that no leakage will occur before the start of most projects is unlikely.
374 Howe... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 104 |
A common route is the allocation of a percentage of credits into a 376 buffer, or reserve account.
This acts as an insurance policy against unforeseen losses of carbon 377 stocks (Plan Vivo 2012; VCS 2012).
Hence the problem of leakage in mangrove projects is not 378 insuperable, although much useful further work cou... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 142 |
381 Table 2 382 4.
OBJECTIVE 3: LOCAL CONTROL AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE 383 4.1 LAND TENURE, COMMUNAL MANAGEMENT AND PES 384 Natural resource rights and access frequently underpin the livelihoods of the rural poor in 385 ‘developing’ country contexts, including most of those relying on mangrove ecosystems (Warren- 386... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 126 |
As such, the potential transformation of these rights through REDD+ and wider 387 PES schemes are critical issues in shaping prospects not only for biodiversity conservation, but also 388 for environmental justice and poverty/well-being.
In most cases mangrove PES projects will be 389 located on land which is collecti... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 84 |
Recent work in the Solomon Islands 390 highlights the complexity and diversity of communal tenure arrangements in mangroves, even 391 between adjacent villages (Warren-Rhodes et al, 2011).
Kenya provides another typically complex 392 example.
Here, officially landless ‘squatters’ are widespread on government owned la... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 109 |
De facto as 394 distinct from de jure practices illustrate complex and creative responses amongst local communities, 395 including land renting, leasing and sub leasing by official or unofficial ‘owners’, tree rental and 396 maintenance of communal use and access rights on de jure state owned land (Yahya and Swazuri, 3... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 89 |
Thus in coastal areas, as elsewhere in Kenya, access to land and resources typically relies on 398 complex formal and informal rights determined in some instances through formal land title, but 399 more often through locally variable claims to traditional rights and usage, entitlements and identity, 400 operationalized... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 72 |
Recent developments in Kenya, notably the Community 401 Land Bill currently under debate in parliament, may reshape and clarify access and entitlements in 402 the future, although the precise nature of impacts remain uncertain at present.
403 Existing complex communal management and tenure arrangements present undenia... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 93 |
Options for dealing 405 with this complexity include the privatization (temporary or permanent) of land or benefits, or the 406 development of effective mechanisms for collective sharing of benefits under the continuation of 407 communal arrangements.
Arguments for individualization of land tenure are often informed b... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 110 |
Much recent scholarship has challenged such beliefs, for 410 example through analysis of the often highly inequitable outcomes of land titling and privatization, 411 attendant conflicts and poverty (ibid).
Commons scholarship has also done much to highlight the 412 efficacy of communal resource management (e.g.
Agraw... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 85 |
Agrawal 2001).
However, communal management 413 and tenure is not immune to the critiques often leveled at land privatization programs; many 414 communal systems are inherently inequitable, often on grounds of gender, ethnicity and tribal/ 415 political affiliation (Peters, 2009).
One key challenge for mangrove PES s... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 130 |
Another may be to recognize that local social and resource 418 management/ tenure complexities may render PES schemes inappropriate in certain cases.
‘Local 419 participation’ in PES schemes is increasingly highlighted as means to redress early problems, but is 420 not a panacea and merits further examination, as do c... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 113 |
422 4.2 LOCAL INVOLVEMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE, PARTICIPATION AND PES 423 Where new economic values of resources, including land, come into play, institutional 424 transformations can move towards more exclusionary, inflexible access arrangements, often to the 425 detriment of poor local people. | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 85 |
In recent analyses of global land grabs, biodiversity conservation and 426 reforestation, including through REDD and comparable activities, often feature as well as more 427 familiar ‘culprits’ such as cultivation of biofuels (Vermeulen and Cotula, 2010). | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 72 |
Key considerations 428 include changes in inter-household power relations, norms of inclusion and resource rights in 429 participant communities, often driven by intensified resource commodification and the need for 430 clear, equitable ‘rules of engagement’ (ibid, Peters, 2009). | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 69 |
Questions have also been raised about 431 the extent and nature of community consultation, with common problems including nominal local 432 participation and consultation only/ primarily with elites, underscored by external assumptions 433 about representation and homogeneity of communities (Suiseeya and Caplow, 2013, ... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 117 |
436 An environmental justice framing offers valuable insights into these various issues, as they apply to 437 PES schemes.
Contemporary scholarship emphasises the trivalent nature of environmental justice, 438 encompassing not only concerns with distributive justice (resource rights and access) but also 439 procedural... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 78 |
These latter dimensions denote the importance of full, fair 440 participation in decision-making by affected parties and the acceptance and recognition of diverse 441 values, knowledges and cultural identities therein, not least in relation to PES (e.g.
Beymer-Farriss 442 and Bassett, 2012; Suiseeya and Caplow, 2013).... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 115 |
(2008) concur that typically 444 insecure land tenure for rural African communities enhances risks of their disenfranchisement in the 445 face of outside investment.
Where clear, formal recognition of customary or group rights is lacking, 446 evidence from East Africa suggests that prospects of increased value through... | Zambia | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1710279593438.pdf | https://napier-repository.worktribe.com/preview/175275/turning_the_tide_final.pdf | 111 |
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