Naruto.  Naruto[a] is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Masashi Kishimoto. It tells the story of Naruto Uzumaki, a young, socially isolated ninja who seeks recognition from his peers and dreams of becoming the Hokage, the leader of his village. The story is told in two parts: the first is set in Narutos pre-teen years (volumes 1–27), and the second in his teens (volumes 28–72). The series is based on two one-shot manga by Kishimoto: Karakuri (1995), which earned Kishimoto an honorable mention in Shueishas monthly Hop Step Award the following year, and Naruto (1997). Naruto was serialized in Shueishas shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from September 1999 to November 2014, with its 700 chapters collected in 72 tankōbon volumes. Viz Media licensed the manga for North American production and serialized Naruto in their digital Weekly Shonen Jump magazine. The manga was adapted into two anime television series by Pierrot and Aniplex, which ran from October 2002 to March 2017 on TV Tokyo. Pierrot also produced 11 animated films and 12 original video animations (OVAs). The franchise additionally includes light novels, video games, and trading cards. The story continues in Boruto, where Narutos son Boruto Uzumaki creates his own ninja path as opposed to of following his fathers. Naruto is one of the best-selling manga series of all time, having 250 million copies in circulation worldwide. It has become one of Viz Medias best-selling manga series; their English translations of the volumes have appeared on USA Today and The New York Timess bestseller list several times, and the seventh volume won a Quill Award in 2006. Naruto has been praised for its character development, storylines, and action sequences, though some felt the latter slowed the story down. Critics noted that the manga, which contains coming-of-age themes, often makes cultural references to Japanese mythology and Confucianism. A powerful fox known as the Nine-Tails attacks Konoha, the hidden leaf village in the Land of Fire, one of the Five Great Shinobi Countries in the Ninja World. In response, the leader of Konoha and the Fourth Hokage, Minato Namikaze, at the cost of his life, seals the fox inside the body of his newborn son, Naruto Uzumaki, making him a host of the beast.[i] The Third Hokage returns from retirement to become the leader of Konoha again. Naruto is often scorned by Konohas villagers for being the host of the Nine-Tails. Due to a decree by the Third Hokage forbidding any mention of these events, Naruto learns nothing about the Nine-Tails until 12 years later, when Mizuki, a renegade ninja, reveals the truth to him. Naruto defeats Mizuki in combat, earning the respect of his teacher, Iruka Umino.[ii]
Naruto (disambiguation). Naruto is a Japanese manga series. Naruto or Narutō may also refer to:
Title character. The title character in a narrative work is one who is named or referred to in the title of the work. In a performed work such as a play or film, the performer who plays the title character is said to have the title role of the piece. The title of the work might consist solely of the title characters name – such as Michael Collins[1] or Othello – or be a longer phrase or sentence – such as Alices Adventures in Wonderland or The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. The title character is commonly – but not necessarily – the protagonist of the story. Narrative works routinely do not have a title character and there is some ambiguity in what qualifies as one. Examples in various media include Figaro in the opera The Marriage of Figaro, Giselle in the ballet of the same name, the Doctor in the TV series Doctor Who, Dr. Gregory House of the TV series House, Mario and Luigi in the video game Super Mario Bros., Harry Potter in the series of novels and films,[2] and Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet in the play Romeo and Juliet.[3] There is no formal, prescriptive definition of a title character or title role, but there are general standards accepted by tradition. The title character need not be literally named in the title, but may be referred to by some other identifying word or phrase, such as Bilbo Baggins in The Hobbit,[4] Simba in The Lion King, Aang in Avatar: The Last Airbender, Idi Amin in The Last King of Scotland or more vaguely, as in the play An Ideal Husband, which ostensibly refers to the character Sir Robert Chiltern.[5] A title character is typically fictional, such as Alice in the book Alices Adventures in Wonderland, Robinson Crusoe in the book of the same name or Jean-Luc Picard in the TV series Star Trek: Picard; but can be a non-fictional dramatization, such as Annie Oakley in the musical Annie Get Your Gun,[6] Erin Brockovich in the film of the same name,[7] or Thomas More in the play A Man for All Seasons.[8]
Naruhito.  The EmperorThe Empress The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress Emerita Naruhito[a] (born 23 February 1960) is Emperor of Japan. He acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne following the abdication of his father, Akihito, on 1 May 2019, beginning the Reiwa era.[1] He is the 126th monarch, according to the traditional order of succession. Naruhito is the elder son of Emperor Emeritus Akihito and Empress Emerita Michiko. He was born during the reign of his paternal grandfather, Hirohito, and became the heir apparent following his fathers accession in 1989. He was formally invested as Crown Prince of Japan in 1991. He attended Gakushūin schools in Tokyo and later studied history at Gakushuin University and English at Merton College, Oxford. In June 1993, he married the diplomat Owada Masako. They have one daughter: Aiko, Princess Toshi.
Naruto Uzumaki.  Naruto Uzumaki (Japanese: うずまき ナルト, Hepburn: Uzumaki Naruto) (/ˈnɑːrutoʊ/) is the titular protagonist of the manga series Naruto, created by Masashi Kishimoto. He is a ninja from the fictional Hidden Leaf Village (Japanese: 木ノ葉隠れ, Hepburn: konohagakure). As a boy, Naruto is ridiculed and ostracized on account of the Nine-Tailed Demon Fox—a malevolent creature that attacked Konohagakure—that was sealed away in his body. Despite this, he aspires to become his villages leader, the Hokage, in order to receive their approval. His carefree, optimistic, and boisterous personality enables him to befriend other Konohagakure ninja, as well as ninja from other villages. Naruto appears in the seriess films and in other media related to the franchise, including video games and original video animations (OVA), as well as the sequel Boruto: Naruto Next Generations, where he is the Hokage, and his son, Boruto Uzumaki, is the protagonist. When creating Naruto for the initial part of the series, Kishimoto kept the character simple and stupid while giving him many attributes of an ideal hero. Kishimoto gave Naruto a dark side by adding tragedy to the characters past. He has revised Narutos image many times, providing the character with simple clothes to fit the young demography. Kishimoto changed his design for Part II of the storyline, which starts two-and-a-half years after Part I. Naruto is voiced by Junko Takeuchi in the original animated series and Maile Flanagan in the English adaptations. Merchandise based on Naruto includes figurines and keychains. Narutos character development has been praised by anime and manga publications and has drawn scholarly attention. Although some initially saw him as a typical manga and anime protagonist comparable to those in other shōnen manga, others have praised his personality and character development as he avoids stereotypes typically seen in similar media. The character has also been the subject of research in literature, making him stand out in fiction based on his traits and growth. During the 1990s, new manga author Masashi Kishimoto sought to write a one-shot chapter that would feature Naruto as a chef, but this version never made it to print. Kishimoto originally wanted to make Naruto a child who could transform into a fox, so he created a one-shot of Naruto for the summer 1997 issue of Akamaru Jump magazine based on the idea.[1] When comparing both the Naruto one-shot and his other work, Karakuri, Kishimoto realized that the formers title character was more appealing than the lead of Karakuri. Kishimoto reflects that Narutos honest smile was well received in contrast to the sly look the main character from Karakuri had. Following the success of another one-shot, Mario, Kishimoto started working on the Naruto series, where he wanted to reuse the title character from his earlier one-shot. Kishimoto wrote the first two chapters to show his appeal to the readers and then focus on the other protagonists despite difficulties. Following the second chapter, Kishimoto introduced the other protagonists, but with bad relationships, including with Sasuke Uchiha and Narutos constant rejected affections for Sakura Haruno. The manga story was planned to show Narutos coming-of-age through multiple fights, and he looked forward to seeing the conclusion.[2]
Naruto Strait. Naruto Strait (鳴門海峡, Naruto-kaikyō) is a strait between Awaji Island and Shikoku in Japan. It connects Harima Nada, the eastern part of the Inland Sea and the Kii Channel. A famous feature of the strait is the Naruto whirlpools. Ōnaruto Bridge, the southern part of the Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway, crosses over it. 34°14′29″N 134°39′04″E / 34.24139°N 134.65111°E / 34.24139; 134.65111  This Hyōgo Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This Tokushima location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Narutō, Chiba. Narutō (成東町, Narutō-machi) was a town located in Sanbu District, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. Narutō Town was established on April 1, 1889 within Musha District. Musha District became part of Sanbu District from April 1, 1897. On October 1, 1954 Narutō expanded through the annexation of the neighboring villages of Ōtomi and Nangō, and the village of Midorimi on July 1, 1955. On March 27, 2006, Narutō, along with the towns of Matsuo and Sanbu, and the village of Hasunuma (all from Sanbu District), was merged to create the city of Sanmu,[1] and thus no longer exists as an independent municipality. As of November 1, 2005, (the last census data prior to the merger) the town had an estimated population of 24,677 and a population density of 525 inhabitants per square kilometer (1,360/sq mi). The total area was 47.02 km2 (18.15 sq mi). 
Naruto whirlpools.  The Naruto whirlpools (鳴門の渦潮, Naruto no Uzushio) are tidal whirlpools in the Naruto Strait, a channel between Naruto in Tokushima and Awaji Island in Hyōgo, Japan.[1] The strait between Naruto and Awaji island has a width of about 1.3 km (0.81 miles). The strait is one of the connections between the Pacific Ocean and the Inland Sea, a body of water separating Honshū and Shikoku, two of the main islands of Japan. The tide moves large amounts of water into and out of the Inland Sea twice a day. With a range of up to  1.7 m (5.6 ft), the tide creates a difference in the water level of up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) between the Inland Sea and the Pacific. Due to the narrowness of the strait, the water rushes through the Naruto channel at a speed of about 13–15 km/h (8–9 mph) four times a day, twice flowing in and twice flowing out. During a spring tide, the speed of the water may reach 20 km/h (12 mph), creating vortices up to 20 m (66 ft) in diameter. The current in the strait is the fastest in Japan and the fourth fastest in the world after the Saltstraumen outside Bodø in Norway, which reaches speeds of 37 km/h (23 mph), the Moskenstraumen off the Lofoten islands in Norway (the original maelstrom) reaching 27.8 km/h (17.3 mph); and the Old Sow whirlpool in New Brunswick, Canada with up to 27.6 km/h (17.1 mph). The whirlpools can be observed from the shore on Awaji island, from tourist ships, or from the Uzunomichi Walkway of the 1985 Ōnaruto Bridge spanning the strait. The suspension bridge has a total length of 1,629 m (5,344 ft), with the center span over the strait having a length of 876 m (2,874 ft) and a height of 41 m (135 ft) above sea level. The whirlpools inspired the name for narutomaki surimi and the name of Naruto Uzumaki from the manga and anime Naruto, Uzumaki (うずまき) meaning whirlpool. The storyline starts with building the Great Naruto Bridge (なると大橋, Naruto Ōhashi) into The Land of Waves (波の国, Nami no Kuni) which is based on the Naruto Bridge spanning the Naruto Strait.
Naruto, Tokushima. Naruto (鳴門市, Naruto-shi) is a city located in Tokushima Prefecture, Japan.  As of 30 June 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 54,989 in 26,206 households and a population density of 410 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 191.11 square kilometres (73.79 sq mi). Naruto is located in the northeastern tip of Tokushima Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. It is bordered by the Seto Inland Sea to the north and the Kii Channel to the east and faces Awaji Island across the Naruto Strait, which is famous for its whirlpools. The city is located in the easternmost part of the Sanuki Mountains. Kagawa Prefecture Tokushima Prefecture Naruto has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Naruto is 16.2 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1637 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.7 °C, and lowest in January, at around 6.3 °C.[2] Due to the Seto Inland Sea climate, rainfall is low despite being in Tokushima Prefecture.On August 6, 1923, a temperature of 42.5 °C, which was the highest recorded temperature in Japan for many decades, was unofficially recorded in Naruto.
Naruto (TV series).  Naruto[f] is a Japanese anime television series based on Masashi Kishimotos 1999–2014 manga series Naruto. It follows Naruto Uzumaki, a young orphan ninja who seeks recognition from his peers and dreams of becoming the Hokage, the leader of the Village Hidden in the Leaves. Like the manga, the anime series is divided into two separate parts: the first series retains the original mangas title and is set in the world of ninjas. The second series, a direct sequel titled Naruto: Shippuden,[g] takes place during his teens. Both anime series were animated by Pierrot, produced by Aniplex, and licensed by Viz Media in North America. The first anime series aired on TV Tokyo and ran for 220 episodes from October 2002 to February 2007. An English dub produced by Viz Media aired on Cartoon Network and YTV from September 2005 to December 2009. The second series, Naruto: Shippuden, also aired on TV Tokyo and ran for 500 episodes from February 2007 to March 2017. The English dub of Naruto: Shippuden was broadcast on Disney XD in the United States from October 2009 to November 2011, airing the first 98 episodes before eventually switching over to Adult Swims Toonami programming block in January 2014 to September 2024, starting over from the first episode. After Disney XD removed the series from broadcast, Viz Media began streaming new English dubbed episodes on their streaming service Neon Alley in December 2012 starting at episode 99. The service aborted its run in March 2016 after 338 episodes due to its shutdown a month later. Besides the anime television series, Pierrot also developed 11 animated films and 12 original video animations. The anime series achieved significant commercial success, becoming one of Viz Medias top-earning franchise and being a cultural impact with the run of the series. It was the third most-watched series in the United States by 2020. Critically, it received mixed reception. Its adaptation of Kishimotos art style and story pacing was not received well. The fight scenes, character dynamics, and emotional depth received critical acclaim. Naruto: Shippuden was consistently ranked as one of the most-watched in Japan. It was lauded for its improved animation, more mature tone, well-crafted character interactions, and balanced storytelling. The first anime ranked 38th in IGNs Top 100 Animated Series and Shippuden earned a nomination from the Crunchyroll Anime Awards for Best Continuing Series. Viz Media sold over three million anime home video units by 2019. A powerful fox known as the Nine-Tails attacks Konoha, the hidden leaf village in the Land of Fire, one of the Five Great Shinobi Countries in the Ninja World. In response, the leader of Konoha and the Fourth Hokage, Minato Namikaze, at the cost of his life, seals the fox inside the body of his newborn son, Naruto Uzumaki, making him a host of the beast.[i] The Third Hokage returns from retirement to become the leader of Konoha again. Naruto is often scorned by Konohas villagers for being the host of the Nine-Tails. Due to a decree by the Third Hokage forbidding any mention of these events, Naruto learns nothing about the Nine-Tails until 12 years later, when Mizuki, a renegade ninja, reveals the truth to him. Naruto defeats Mizuki in combat, earning the respect of his teacher, Iruka Umino.[ii]
Michael Collins (film).  Michael Collins is a 1996 biographical historical drama film about Michael Collins, a leading figure in the early-20th-century Irish struggle for independence against the United Kingdom. It is written and directed by Neil Jordan and stars Liam Neeson in the title role, along with Aidan Quinn, Stephen Rea, Alan Rickman, and Julia Roberts. The film was distributed by Warner Bros. An international co-production between Ireland, the United States, and the United Kingdom, Michael Collins was one of the most expensive films ever produced in Ireland.[4] Filming took place in Dublin, and the score was composed by Elliot Goldenthal. Michael Collins won the Golden Lion at the 53rd Venice International Film Festival, with Neeson winning the Best Actor Award.[5] It was received a limited release in the United States on 11 October 1996, before going to a wide release on 25 October. It was released in Ireland on 8 November. It received generally positive reviews, and was nominated for Best Original Score and Best Cinematography at the 69th Academy Awards. At the close of the Easter Rising in 1916, the besieged Irish republicans surrender to the British Army at the republicans headquarters in Dublin. Several key figures of the Rising, including Patrick Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh, Tom Clarke and James Connolly, are executed by firing squad. Only Éamon de Valera is spared from execution due to his American citizenship, but is imprisoned alongside Michael Collins and Harry Boland.
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.  The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (also simply known as Tom Sawyer) is a novel by Mark Twain published on June 9, 1876, about a boy, Tom Sawyer, growing up along the Mississippi River. It is set in the 1830s-1840s in the town of St. Petersburg, which is based on Hannibal, Missouri, where Twain lived as a boy.[2] In the novel, Sawyer has several adventures, often with his friend Huckleberry Finn. Originally a commercial failure, the book ended up being the best-selling of Twains works during his lifetime.[3][4] Along with its 1885 sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the book is considered by many to be a masterpiece of American literature.[5] It was alleged by Mark Twain to be one of the first novels to be written on a typewriter.[6] Orphan Tom Sawyer (around 12 to 13 years old) lives with his Aunt Polly and his half-brother Sid in the town of St. Petersburg, Missouri, sometime in the 1830s-1840s. He frequently skips school to play or go swimming. When Polly catches him sneaking home late on a Friday evening and discovers that he has been in a fight, she makes him whitewash her fence the next day as punishment. Tom persuades several neighborhood children to trade him small trinkets and treasures for the privilege of doing his work, using reverse psychology to convince them of its enjoyable nature. Later, Tom trades the trinkets with students in his Sunday school class for tickets given out for memorizing verses of Scripture. He collects enough tickets to earn a prized Bible from the teacher, despite being one of the worst students in the class and knowing almost nothing of Scripture, eliciting envy from the students and a mixture of pride and shock from the adults. Tom falls in love with Becky Thatcher, a girl who is new in town. Tom wins the admiration of her father, the prominent Judge Thatcher, in the church by obtaining the Bible as a prize, but reveals his ignorance when he cannot answer basic questions about Scripture. Tom pursues Becky, eventually persuading her to get engaged by kissing her. Their romance soon collapses when she discovers that Tom was engaged to another schoolgirl, Amy Lawrence.
Heir presumptive.  An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of a person with a better claim to the position in question.[1][2] This is in contrast to an heir apparent, whose claim on the position cannot be displaced in this manner. Depending on the rules of the monarchy, the heir presumptive might be the daughter of a monarch if males take preference over females and the monarch has no sons, or the senior member of a collateral line if the monarch is childless or the monarchs direct descendants cannot inherit either because The subsequent birth of a legitimate child to the monarch may displace the former heir presumptive by creating an heir apparent or a more eligible heir presumptive. It is not assumed that the monarch and his or her consort are incapable of producing further children; on the day before Queen Elizabeth II ascended the throne, her father George VI was gravely ill and her mother was 51 years old, but Elizabeth was still the heir presumptive rather than the heir apparent. An heir presumptives position may not even be secure after they ascend their throne, as a posthumous child of the previous monarch could have a superseding claim. Following the death of William IV in 1837, he was succeeded by his niece Queen Victoria, whose accession proclamation noted her accession was only permanent so long as a child of William was not born in the following months to his widow, Adelaide, even though Adelaide was 44 years old and had last been pregnant 17 years earlier.[3][4] Such a situation occurred in Spain in 1885, when King Alfonso XII died and left behind a widow who was three months pregnant. His five-year-old daughter and heir presumptive, María de las Mercedes, was not declared queen because she would be displaced if a son was born, and instead there was a six-month interregnum until the birth of her brother Alfonso XIII, who assumed the throne as king immediately upon birth. Had the pregnancy been lost or resulted in another daughter, Mercedes would have become queen regnant and been retroactively recognized as such during the interregnum.[5][6] Heir presumptive, like heir apparent, is not a title or position per se. Rather, it is a general term for a person who holds a certain place in the order of succession. In some monarchies, the heir apparent bears, ipso facto, a specific title and rank (e.g., Denmark, Netherlands, United Kingdom), this also sometimes being the case for noble titleholders (e.g., Spain, United Kingdom), but the heir presumptive does not bear that title. In other monarchies (e.g., Monaco, Spain) the first in line to the throne bears a specific title (i.e., Hereditary Prince/Princess of Monaco, Prince/Princess of Asturias) by right, regardless of whether she or he is heir apparent or heir presumptive.
Junko Takeuchi. Junko Takeuchi (竹内 順子, Takeuchi Junko; born April 5, 1972) is a Japanese actress and voice actress employed by Ogipro The Next Co. Inc. & BQMAP. Taking a well-trod path by many voice actresses, she often voices young male characters, with generally very quirky and goofy personalities. One of her most well-known roles includes Naruto Uzumaki in the popular anime series Naruto. She has played Takuya Kanbara in Digimon Frontier, Rin Natsuki/Cure Rouge in Yes! PreCure 5, Metabee in Medabots, Mamoru Endou in Inazuma Eleven and Inazuma Eleven GO, Gon Freecss in the 1999 version of Hunter × Hunter, MrBeast in the Japanese dub of MrBeast,[1] and GingerBrave in the Japanese dub of Cookie Run: Kingdom. She is the youngest of three children. As a child she studied ballet and piano for seven and a half years. She enrolled in 1991 at Nihon University, College of Art but dropped out two years later. For several years she worked as a shoe salesperson and gave piano lessons at a private school in Tokyo. Originally she wanted to work in a bank office. In 1996 she joined BQ MAP Theater Company where she had several stage appearances. She met voice actor Kenji Hamada in 1999. They married in 2006. Their first child was born in 2012 and the other one in 2017. [citation needed]
List of minor planets: 94001–95000. The following is a partial list of minor planets, running from minor-planet number 94001 through 95000, inclusive. The primary data for this and other partial lists is based on JPLs Small-Body Orbital Elements[1] and data available from the Minor Planet Center.[2][3] Critical list information is also provided by the MPC,[2][3] unless otherwise specified from Lowell Observatory.[4] A detailed description of the tables columns and additional sources are given on the main page including a complete list of every page in this series, and a statistical break-up on the dynamical classification of minor planets. Also see the summary list of all named bodies in numerical and alphabetical order, and the corresponding naming citations for the number range of this particular list. New namings may only be added to this list after official publication, as the preannouncement of names is condemned by the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union.   
Narrative. A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences,[1][2] whether non-fictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller, novel, etc.).[3][4][5] Narratives can be presented through a sequence of written or spoken words, through still or moving images, or through any combination of these. Narrative is expressed in all mediums of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech, literature, theatre, dance, music and song, comics, journalism, animation, video (including film and television), video games, radio, structured and unstructured recreation, and potentially even purely visual arts like painting, sculpture, drawing, and photography, as long as a sequence of events is presented. The social and cultural activity of humans sharing narratives is called storytelling, the vast majority of which has taken the form of oral storytelling.[6] Since the rise of literate societies however, many narratives have been additionally recorded, created, or otherwise passed down in written form. The formal and literary process of constructing a narrative—narration—is one of the four traditional rhetorical modes of discourse, along with argumentation, description, and exposition. This is a somewhat distinct usage from narration in the narrower sense of a commentary used to convey a story, alongside various additional narrative techniques used to build and enhance any given story. The noun narration and adjective narrative entered English from French in the 15th century; narrative became usable as a noun in the following century.[7] These words ultimately derive from the Latin verb narrare (to tell), itself derived from the adjective gnarus (knowing or skilled).[8][9] A narrative is the telling of some actual or fictitious sequence of connected events to an audience, by a narrator in some cases (and in all cases of written narratives). A personal narrative is any narrative in prose in which the speaker or writer presents, usually informally and in a spontaneous moment, their own personal experiences, such as in casual face-to-face conversation or in text messaging. Narratives are to be distinguished from simple descriptions of qualities, states, or situations without any particular individuals involved. Narratives range all the way from the shortest accounts of events (for example, the simple sentence the cat sat on the mat or a brief news item) to the most extended works, in the form of long and complex series that contain multiple books, films, television episodes, etc.
List of regions of Japan.  Japan is often divided into regions, each containing one or more of the countrys 47 prefectures at large. Sometimes, they are referred to as blocs (ブロック, burokku), or regional blocs (地域ブロック, chiiki burokku) as opposed to more granular regional divisions. They are not official administrative units, though they have been used by government officials for statistical and other purposes since 1905. They are widely used in, for example, maps, geography textbooks, and weather reports, and many businesses and institutions use their home regions in their names as well, for example Kyushu National Museum, Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, and Tōhoku University. One common division groups the prefectures into eight regions. In this arrangement, of the four main islands of Japan, Hokkaidō, Shikoku, and Kyūshū, each form their own region, with Kyūshū also including the Satsunan Islands. The largest island, Honshū, is split into five regions. Okinawa Prefecture is usually considered part of Kyūshū, but it is sometimes treated as its own ninth region. Japan has eight High Courts, but their jurisdictions do not match the typical eight-region geographical division (see #Other regional divisions and Judicial system of Japan for details). This is a list of Japans major islands, traditional regions, and subregions, going from northeast to southwest.[10][11] The eight traditional regions are marked in bold.
Naruhito (given name). Naruhito is a masculine Japanese given name. Notable people with the name include:
Strait. A strait is a water body connecting two seas or water basins. The surface water is, for the most part, at the same elevation on both sides and can flow through the strait in either direction, although the topography generally constricts the flow somewhat. In some straits, there is a dominant directional current. Most commonly, the strait is a narrow channel that lies between two land masses. Straits are loci for sediment accumulation, with sand-sized deposits usually occurring on the two strait exits, forming subaqueous fans or deltas. Some straits are not navigable because, for example, they are too narrow or too shallow, or due to the presence of a reef or archipelago. The terms channel, pass, or passage can be synonymous and used interchangeably with strait, although each is sometimes differentiated with varying senses. In Scotland, firth or Kyle are also sometimes used as synonyms for strait. Many straits are economically important. Straits can be important shipping routes and wars have been fought for control of them. Numerous artificial channels, called canals, have been constructed to connect two oceans or seas over land, such as the Suez Canal.  Although rivers and canals often provide passage between two large lakes, and these seem to suit the formal definition of strait, they are not usually referred to as such. Rivers and often canals, generally have a directional flow tied to changes in elevation, whereas straits often are free flowing in either direction or switch direction, maintaining the same elevation. The term strait is typically reserved for much larger, wider features of the marine environment. There are exceptions, with straits being called canals; Pearse Canal, for example. Straits are the converse of isthmuses. That is, while a strait lies between two land masses and connects two large areas of ocean, an isthmus lies between two areas of ocean and connects two large land masses.
Maile Flanagan.  Maile Flanagan (/ˈmaɪli/; born May 19, 1965) is an American actress and comedian. She is best known as the voice of Naruto Uzumaki in the English dub of the Naruto franchise. Other prominent roles include voicing Piggley Winks in Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks (for which she received two nominations for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program and won once), and portraying Terry Perry in Lab Rats. Flanagans live-action film work include appearances in Phone Booth (2002), The Number 23 (2007), Evan Almighty (2007), 500 Days of Summer (2009) and Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011). She has also made guest appearances in several television series such as ER, Shameless, Bad Teacher, The Office and Greys Anatomy. She appeared on the ABC sitcom Not Dead Yet in a recurring capacity. As of 2023, she is the voice of Matthew Matt Hornsby on the Adult Swim animated sitcom Royal Crackers. Flanagan has numerous theater credits including working with writer/director Justin Tanner in his plays Oklahomo!, Wife Swappers, Pot Mom, and Zombie Attack! Flanagan was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. Her father worked for the U.S. military intelligence. In 1969, her family was stationed in Bangkok, Thailand and when she was ten, they moved to Germany.[1]
2019 Japanese imperial transition.  The 2019 Japanese imperial transition occurred on 30 April 2019 when the then 85-year-old Emperor Akihito of Japan abdicated from the Chrysanthemum Throne after reigning for 30 years,[1] becoming the first Emperor of Japan to do so since Emperor Kōkaku in 1817. This marked the end of the Heisei era and the inception of the Reiwa era, and saw numerous festivities leading up to the accession of his eldest son and successor, Emperor Naruhito.[2] The Enthronement Ceremony took place on 22 October 2019.[3] Akihitos younger son, Prince Akishino, is his brothers heir presumptive. The ceremony cost 16.6 billion yen.[4] The practice in the Imperial Family has been that the death of the Emperor called for events of heavy mourning, continuing every day for two months, followed by funeral events which continue for one year. These various events occur simultaneously with events related to the new era, placing a very heavy strain on those involved in the events, in particular, the family left behind. It occurs to me from time to time to wonder whether it is possible to prevent such a situation.[5] In 2010, Emperor Akihito informed his advisory council that he would eventually like to retire from his position. However, no action was taken by senior members of the Imperial Household Agency.[6] On 13 July 2016, national broadcaster NHK reported that the Emperor wished to abdicate in favour of his eldest son, Crown Prince Naruhito, within a few years.[7]
Prefectures of Japan.  Japan is divided into 47 prefectures (都道府県, todōfuken, [todoːɸɯ̥ꜜkeɴ] ⓘ), which rank immediately below the national government and form the countrys first level of jurisdiction and administrative division. They include 43  prefectures proper (県, ken), two urban prefectures (府, fu: Osaka and Kyoto), one regional prefecture (道, dō: Hokkaidō) and one metropolis (都, to: Tokyo).  In 1868, the Meiji Fuhanken sanchisei administration created the first prefectures (urban fu and rural ken) to replace the urban and rural administrators (bugyō, daikan, etc.) in the parts of the country previously controlled directly by the shogunate and a few territories of rebels/shogunate loyalists who had not submitted to the new government such as Aizu/Wakamatsu. In 1871, all remaining feudal domains (han) were also transformed into prefectures, so that prefectures subdivided the whole country. In several waves of territorial consolidation, todays 47 prefectures were formed by the turn of the century. In many instances, these are contiguous with the ancient ritsuryō provinces of Japan.[1] Each prefectures chief executive is a directly elected governor (知事, chiji). Ordinances and budgets are enacted by a unicameral assembly (議会, gikai) whose members are elected for four-year terms. Under a set of 1888–1890 laws on local government[2] until the 1920s, each prefecture (then only 3 -fu and 42 -ken; Hokkaidō and Okinawa-ken were subject to different laws until the 20th century) was subdivided into cities (市, shi) and districts (郡, gun) and each district into towns (町, chō/machi) and villages (村, son/mura). Hokkaidō has 14 subprefectures that act as  General Subprefectural Bureaus (総合振興局, sōgō-shinkō-kyoku, Comprehensive Promotion Bureau) and Subprefectural Bureaus (振興局, shinkō-kyoku, Promotion Bureau) of the prefecture. Some other prefectures also have branch offices that carry out prefectural administrative functions outside the capital. Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is a merged city-prefecture; a metropolis, it has features of both cities and prefectures. Each prefecture has its own mon for identification, the equivalent of a coat of arms in the West.
Kantō region.  The Kantō region (関東地方, Kantō Chihō; IPA: [kaꜜn.toː, kan.toː tɕiꜜ.hoː, kan.toː tɕi̥.hoꜜː]) is a geographical region of Honshu, the largest island of Japan.[2] In a common definition, the region includes the Greater Tokyo Area and encompasses seven prefectures: Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, Tochigi, and Tokyo. Slightly more than 45 percent of the land area within its boundaries is the Kantō Plain. The rest consists of the hills and mountains that form land borders with other regions of Japan. As the Kantō region contains Tokyo, the capital and largest city of Japan, the region is considered the center of Japans politics and economy. According to the official census on October 1, 2010 by the Statistics Bureau of Japan, the population was 42,607,376,[3] amounting to approximately one third of the total population of Japan. The Kantō regional governors association (関東地方知事会, Kantō chihō chijikai) assembles the prefectural governors of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamanashi, Nagano, and Shizuoka.[4][5] The Kantō Regional Development Bureau (関東地方整備局, Kantō chihō seibi-kyoku) of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in the national government is responsible for eight prefectures generally (Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamanashi) and parts of the waterways in two others (Nagano and Shizuoka).[6]
Chiba Prefecture. Chiba Prefecture (千葉県, Chiba-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [tɕiꜜ.ba, tɕi.baꜜ, tɕi.baꜜkeɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu.[3] Chiba Prefecture has a population of 6,278,060 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 5,157 km2 (1,991 sq mi). Chiba Prefecture borders Ibaraki Prefecture to the north, Saitama Prefecture to the northwest, and Tokyo to the west. Chiba is the capital and largest city of Chiba Prefecture, with other major cities including Funabashi, Matsudo, Ichikawa[4] and Kashiwa. Chiba Prefecture is located on Japans eastern Pacific coast to the east of Tokyo, and is part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the most populous metropolitan area in the world. Chiba Prefecture largely consists of the Bōsō Peninsula, which encloses the eastern side of Tokyo Bay and separates it from Kanagawa Prefecture. Chiba Prefecture is home to Narita International Airport, the Tokyo Disney Resort, and the Keiyō Industrial Zone. The name of Chiba Prefecture in Japanese is formed from two kanji characters. The first, 千, means thousand and the second, 葉 means leaf. The name first appears as an ancient kuni no miyatsuko, or regional command office, as the Chiba Kuni no Miyatsuko (千葉国造).[5] The name was adopted by a branch of the Taira clan, which moved to the area in present-day Chiba City in the late Heian period. The branch of the Taira adopted the name and became the Chiba clan, and held strong influence over the area of the prefecture until the Azuchi–Momoyama period. The name Chiba was chosen for the prefecture at the time its creation in 1873 by the Assembly of Prefectural Governors (地方官会議, Chihō Kankai Kaigi), an early Meiji-period body of prefectural governors that met to decide the structure of local and regional administration in Japan.[6] The compound word Keiyō (京葉), which refers to the Tokyo-Chiba region, is formed from the second character in Tokyo (京), and the second character in Chiba (葉), which can also be pronounced kei and yō respectively.[7] This compound is used in terms such as the Keiyō Line, Keiyō Road, Keiyō Rinkai Railway Rinkai Main Line, and the Keiyō Industrial Zone. Chiba Prefecture was settled in prehistoric times, as evidenced by the Jōmon period remains in every part of the region. The prefecture holds the largest kaizuka sea shell mounds in Japan, evidence of a large population in the prefecture that relied on the rich marine products of the Pacific Ocean and Tokyo Bay. Kofun burial mounds are found across the prefecture, with the largest group being in Futtsu along Tokyo Bay.[9]
Alices Adventures in Wonderland.  Alices Adventures in Wonderland (also known as  Alice in Wonderland) is an 1865 English childrens novel by Lewis Carroll, a mathematics don at the University of Oxford. It details the story of a girl named Alice who falls through a rabbit hole into a fantasy world of anthropomorphic creatures. It is seen as an example of the literary nonsense genre. The artist John Tenniel provided 42 wood-engraved illustrations for the book. It received positive reviews upon release and is now one of the best-known works of Victorian literature; its narrative, structure, characters and imagery have had a widespread influence on popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre.[1][2] It is credited as helping end an era of didacticism in childrens literature, inaugurating an era in which writing for children aimed to delight or entertain.[3] The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children.[4] The titular character Alice shares her name with Alice Liddell, a girl Carroll knew—scholars disagree about the extent to which the character was based upon her.[5][6] The book has never been out of print and has been translated into 174 languages. Its legacy includes adaptations to screen, radio, visual art, ballet, opera, and musical theatre, as well as theme parks, board games and video games.[7] Carroll published a sequel in 1871 entitled Through the Looking-Glass and a shortened version for young children, The Nursery Alice, in 1890. Alices Adventures in Wonderland was conceived on 4 July 1862, when Lewis Carroll and the Reverend Robinson Duckworth rowed up the river Isis with the three young daughters of Carrolls friend Henry Liddell:[8][9] Lorina Charlotte (aged 13; Prima in the books prefatory verse); Alice Pleasance (aged 10; Secunda in the verse); and Edith Mary (aged 8; Tertia in the verse).[10]
Masashi Kishimoto.  Masashi Kishimoto (岸本 斉史, Kishimoto Masashi; born November 8, 1974[1]) is a Japanese manga artist. His manga series, Naruto, which was in serialization from 1999 to 2014, has sold over 250 million copies worldwide in 46 countries as of May 2019.[2][3] The series has been adapted into two anime and multiple films, video games, and related media. Besides the Naruto manga, Kishimoto also personally supervised the two anime films, The Last: Naruto the Movie and Boruto: Naruto the Movie, and has written several one-shot stories. In 2019, Kishimoto wrote Samurai 8: The Tale of Hachimaru which ended in March 2020. From May 2016 through October 2020 he supervised the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations manga written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto. In November 2020 it was announced that he had taken over as writer on the series, replacing Kodachi.[4] A reader of manga from a young age, Kishimoto showed a desire to write his own manga, citing authors Akira Toriyama and Katsuhiro Otomo as his main influences. As a result, Kishimoto spent several years working to write his own shōnen manga for Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine which he was a fan of.[5] Masashi Kishimoto was born in Okayama Prefecture, Japan on November 8, 1974, as the older identical twin of Seishi Kishimoto.[1] His home was close to Hiroshima where his grandfather originated. Kishimotos grandfather often told him about stories of war and how it was related to grudges.[6] During his childhood, Kishimoto showed interest in drawing characters from the anime shows he watched, such as Dr. Slumps Arale and Doraemons titular protagonist.[7][8] In elementary school, Kishimoto started watching the Kinnikuman and Dragon Ball anime alongside his brother.[9] During the following years, Kishimoto started idolizing Dragon Balls creator Akira Toriyama, enjoying not only his series Dragon Ball and Dr. Slump, but also Dragon Quest, a series of role-playing video games for which Toriyama is the character designer. While he could not afford to buy Weekly Shōnen Jump where the Dragon Ball manga was published, he followed the series thanks to a friend from school who had subscribed to the magazine.[10][11] By high school, Kishimoto started losing interest in manga as he started playing baseball and basketball, sports he practiced at his school. However, upon seeing a poster for the animated film Akira, Kishimoto became fascinated with the way the illustration was made and wished to imitate the series creator Katsuhiro Otomos style.[12] Other series he enjoyed reading are Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade; Ninku; and Ghost in the Shell.[13]
Japanese language.  Japanese (日本語, Nihongo; [ɲihoŋɡo] ⓘ) is the principal language of the Japonic language family spoken by the Japanese people. It has around 123 million speakers, primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language, and within the Japanese diaspora worldwide. The Japonic family also includes the Ryukyuan languages and the variously classified Hachijō language. There have been many attempts to group the Japonic languages with other families such as Ainu, Austronesian, Koreanic, and the now discredited Altaic, but none of these proposals have gained any widespread acceptance. Little is known of the languages prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century AD recorded a few Japanese words, but substantial Old Japanese texts did not appear until the 8th century. From the Heian period (794–1185), extensive waves of Sino-Japanese vocabulary entered the language, affecting the phonology of Early Middle Japanese. Late Middle Japanese (1185–1600) saw extensive grammatical changes and the first appearance of European loanwords. The basis of the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region (modern Tokyo) in the Early Modern Japanese period (early 17th century–mid 19th century). Following the end of Japans self-imposed isolation in 1853, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, and words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with relatively simple phonotactics, a pure vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length, and a lexically significant pitch-accent. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, and sentence structure is topic–comment. Sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or form questions. Nouns have no grammatical number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person. Japanese adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a complex system of honorifics, with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener, and persons mentioned.
Awaji Island. Awaji Island (淡路島, Awaji-shima) is an island in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan, in the eastern part of the Seto Inland Sea between the islands of Honshū and Shikoku. The island has an area of 592.17 square kilometres (228.64 square miles).[1] It is the largest island of the Seto Inland Sea. As a transit between those two larger islands, Awaji originally means the road to Awa,[2] the historic province bordering the Shikoku side of the Naruto Strait, now part of Tokushima Prefecture. The island is separated from Honshū by the Akashi Strait and from Shikoku by the Naruto Strait. Since April 5, 1998, it has been connected to Kobe on Honshū by the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, the second longest suspension bridge in the world.[3] Since its completion, the Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway across the island has been the main eastern land link between Honshū and Shikoku. The Naruto whirlpools form in the strait between Naruto, Tokushima and Awaji.[4] The Nojima Fault, responsible for the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake, cuts across the island. A section of the fault was protected and turned into the Nojima Fault Preservation Museum in the Hokudancho Earthquake Memorial Park (北淡町震災記念公園) to show how the movement in the ground cuts across roads, hedges and other installations. Outside of this protected area, the fault zone is less visible.[5]  The Onaruto Bridge Memorial Museum (大鳴門橋記念館, Ōnarutokyō Kinenkan) and the Uzushio Science Museum (うずしお科学館, Uzushio Kagakukan) are located near Fukura.[6] According to the creation myth in Shinto, Awaji was the first of the ōyashima islands born from the kami Izanagi and Izanami.[7] Awaji constituted a province between the 7th and the 19th century, Awaji Province, and was a part of Nankaidō. Today the island consists of three municipalities: Awaji, Sumoto and Minamiawaji.
Othello.  The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice, often shortened to Othello,[a] is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare around 1603. Set in Venice and Cyprus, the play depicts the Moorish military commander Othello as he is manipulated by his ensign, Iago, into suspecting his wife Desdemona of infidelity. Othello is widely considered one of Shakespeares greatest works and is usually classified among his major tragedies alongside Macbeth, King Lear, and Hamlet. Unpublished in the authors life, the play survives in one quarto edition from 1622 and in the First Folio. Othello has been one of Shakespeares most popular plays, both among playgoers and literary critics, since its first performance, spawning numerous stage, screen, and operatic adaptations. Among actors, the roles of Othello, Iago, Desdemona, and Emilia (Iagos wife) are regarded as highly demanding and desirable. Critical attention has focused on the nature of the plays tragedy, its unusual mechanics, its treatment of race, and on the motivations of Iago and his relationship to Othello. Originally performed by white actors in dark makeup, the role of Othello began to be played by black actors in the 19th century. Shakespeares major source for the play was a novella by Cinthio, the plot of which Shakespeare borrowed and reworked substantially. Though not among Shakespeares longest plays, it contains two of his four longest roles in Othello and Iago. Roderigo, a wealthy and dissolute gentleman, complains to his friend Iago, an ensign, that Iago has not told him about the recent secret marriage between Desdemona, the daughter of Brabantio, a senator, and Othello, a Moorish general in the Venetian army. Roderigo is upset because he loves Desdemona and had asked her father, Brabantio, for her hand in marriage, which Brabantio denied him.
Shikoku. Shikoku (四国, Shikoku; pronounced [ɕi̥ꜜ.ko.kɯ, ɕi̥.koꜜ.kɯ] ⓘ, lit. four provinces) is the smallest of the four main islands of Japan. It is 225 kilometres (140 miles) long and between 50 and 150 kilometres (30 and 95 miles) at its widest. It has a population of 3.8 million, the least populated of Japans four main islands. It is south of Honshu and northeast of Kyushu.[1] Shikokus ancient names include Iyo-no-futana-shima (伊予之二名島), Iyo-shima (伊予島), and Futana-shima (二名島), and its current name refers to the four former provinces that make up the island: Awa, Tosa, Sanuki, and Iyo.[2] Shikoku Island, comprising Shikoku and its surrounding islands,[3] covers about 18,800 square kilometres (7,259 sq mi) and consists of four prefectures: Ehime, Kagawa, Kōchi, and Tokushima. Across the Seto Inland Sea lie Wakayama, Osaka, Hyōgo, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi Prefectures on Honshu. To the west lie Ōita and Miyazaki Prefectures on Kyushu. Shikoku is ranked as the 50th largest island by area in the world. Additionally, it is ranked as the 23rd most populated island in the world, with a population density of 193 inhabitants per square kilometre (500/sq mi). Mountains running east and west divide Shikoku into a narrow northern subregion, fronting on the Seto Inland Sea, and a southern part facing the Pacific Ocean. The Hydrangea hirta species can be found in these mountain ranges. Most of the 3.8 million inhabitants live in the north, and all but one of the islands few larger cities are located there. Mount Ishizuchi (石鎚山) in Ehime at 1,982 m (6,503 ft) is the highest mountain on the island. Industry is moderately well developed and includes the processing of ores from the important Besshi copper mine. Land is used intensively. Wide alluvial areas, especially in the eastern part of the zone, are planted with rice and subsequently are double-cropped with winter wheat and barley. Fruit is grown throughout the northern area in great variety, including citrus fruits, persimmons, peaches, and grapes. Because of wheat production, Sanuki udon (讃岐うどん) became an important part of the diet in Kagawa Prefecture (formerly Sanuki Province) in the Edo period. The larger southern area of Shikoku is mountainous and sparsely populated. The only significant lowland is a small alluvial plain at Kōchi, the prefectural capital. The areas mild winters stimulated some truck farming, specializing in growing out-of-season vegetables under plastic covering. Two crops of rice can be cultivated annually in the southern area. The pulp and paper industry took advantage of the abundant forests and hydroelectric power.
Akihito.   The EmperorThe Empress The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress Emerita Akihito[a] (born 23 December 1933) is the emperor emeritus of Japan. He reigned as the 125th emperor of Japan from 7 January 1989 until his abdication on 30 April 2019. The era of his rule was named the Heisei era, Heisei being an expression of achieving peace worldwide.[1]
Channel (geography). In physical geography and hydrology, a channel is a landform on which a relatively narrow body of water is situated, such as a river, river delta or strait. While channel typically refers to a natural formation, the cognate term canal denotes a similar artificial structure. Channels are important for the functionality of ports and other bodies of water used for navigability for shipping. Naturally, channels will change their depth and capacity due to erosion and deposition processes. Humans maintain navigable channels by dredging and other engineering processes. By extension, the term also applies to fluids other than water, e.g., lava channels. The term is also traditionally used to describe the waterless surface features on Venus. Channel initiation refers to the site on a mountain slope where water begins to flow between identifiable banks.[1] This site is referred to as the channel head and it marks an important boundary between hillslope processes and fluvial processes.[1] The channel head is the most upslope part of a channel network and is defined by flowing water between defined identifiable banks.[1] A channel head forms as overland flow and/or subsurface flow accumulate to a point where shear stress can overcome erosion resistance of the ground surface.[1] Channel heads are often associated with colluvium, hollows and landslides.[1] Overland flow is a primary factor in channel initiation where saturation overland flow deepens to increase shear stress and begin channel incision.[1] Overland flows converge in topographical depressions where channel initiation begins. Soil composition, vegetation, precipitation, and topography dictate the amount and rate of overland flow. The composition of a soil determines how quickly saturation occurs and cohesive strength retards the entrainment of material from overland flows.[1] Vegetation slows infiltration rates during precipitation events and plant roots anchor soil on hillslopes.[1]
Emperor of Japan.   Naruhito  Fumihito
Hiroshige.  Utagawa Hiroshige[a] (歌川 広重) or Andō Hiroshige[b] (安藤 広重), born Andō Tokutarō (安藤 徳太郎; 1797 – 12 October 1858), was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist, considered the last great master of that tradition. Hiroshige is best known for his horizontal-format landscape series The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō and for his vertical-format landscape series One Hundred Famous Views of Edo.  The subjects of his work were atypical of the ukiyo-e genre, whose typical focus was on beautiful women, popular actors, and other scenes of the urban pleasure districts of Japans Edo period (1603–1868).  The popular series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji by Hokusai was a strong influence on Hiroshiges choice of subject, though Hiroshiges approach was more poetic and ambient than Hokusais bolder, more formal prints. Subtle use of color was essential in Hiroshiges prints, often printed with multiple impressions in the same area and with extensive use of bokashi (color gradation), both of which were rather labor-intensive techniques. For scholars and collectors, Hiroshiges death marked the beginning of a rapid decline in the ukiyo-e genre, especially in the face of the westernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Hiroshiges work came to have a marked influence on western European painting towards the close of the 19th century as a part of the trend in Japonism. Western European artists, such as Manet and Monet, collected and closely studied Hiroshiges compositions: Vincent van Gogh, for instance, painted copies of some Hiroshige prints. Hiroshige was born in 1797 in the Yayosu Quay section of the Yaesu area in Edo (modern Tokyo).[4]  He was of a samurai background,[4] and is the great-grandson of Tanaka Tokuemon, who held a position of power under the Tsugaru clan in the northern province of Mutsu.  Hiroshiges grandfather, Mitsuemon, was an archery instructor who worked under the name Sairyūken.  Hiroshiges father, Genemon, was adopted into the family of Andō Jūemon, whom he succeeded as fire warden for the Yayosu Quay area.[4]
Woodblock printing in Japan. Woodblock printing in Japan (木版画, mokuhanga) is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e[1] artistic genre of single sheets, but it was also used for printing books in the same period. Invented in China during the Tang dynasty, woodblock printing was widely adopted in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1868). It is similar to woodcut in Western printmaking in some regards, but was widely used for text as well as images.  The Japanese mokuhanga technique differs in that it uses water-based inks—as opposed to Western woodcut, which typically uses oil-based inks. The Japanese water-based inks provide a wide range of vivid colors, glazes, and transparency. Woodblock printing was invented in China under the Tang dynasty, and eventually migrated to Japan in the late 700s, where it was first used to reproduce foreign literature.[2] In 764 the Empress Kōken commissioned one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a small woodblock scroll printed with a Buddhist text (Hyakumantō Darani).  These were distributed to temples around the country as thanks for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764. These are the earliest examples of woodblock printing known, or documented, from Japan.[3] By the eleventh century, Buddhist temples in Japan produced printed books of sutras, mandalas, and other Buddhist texts and images. For centuries, printing was mainly restricted to the Buddhist sphere, as it was too expensive for mass production, and did not have a receptive, literate public as a market.  However, an important set of fans of the late Heian period (12th century), containing painted images and Buddhist sutras, reveal from loss of paint that the underdrawing for the paintings was printed from blocks.[4] In the Kamakura period from the 12th century to the 13th century, many books were printed and published by woodblock printing at Buddhist temples in Kyoto and Kamakura.[3] A Western-style movable type printing-press was brought to Japan by the Tenshō embassy in 1590, and was first used for printing in Kazusa, Nagasaki in 1591. However, the use of the western printing press was discontinued after the ban on Christianity in 1614.[3][5] The printing press seized from Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshis forces in 1593 was also in use at the same time as the printing press from Europe. An edition of the Confucian Analects was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press, at the order of Emperor Go-Yōzei.[3][6] Tokugawa Ieyasu established a printing school at Enko-ji in Kyoto and started publishing books using a domestic wooden movable type printing press instead of metal from 1599. Ieyasu supervised the production of 100,000 types, which were used to print many political and historical books. In 1605, books using a domestic copper movable type printing press began to be published, but copper type did not become mainstream after Ieyasu died in 1616.[3]
Seto Inland Sea. The Seto Inland Sea (瀬戸内海, Seto Naikai), sometimes shortened to the Inland Sea, is the body of water separating Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, three of the four main islands of Japan. It serves as a waterway connecting the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan. It connects to Osaka Bay and provides a sea transport link to industrial centers in the Kansai region, including Osaka and Kobe. Before the construction of the Sanyō Main Line, it was the main transportation link between Kansai and Kyūshū. Yamaguchi, Hiroshima, Okayama, Hyōgo, Osaka, Wakayama, Kagawa, Ehime, Tokushima, Fukuoka, and Ōita prefectures have coastlines on the Seto Inland Sea; the cities of Hiroshima, Iwakuni, Takamatsu, and Matsuyama are also located on it. The Setouchi region encompasses the sea and surrounding coastal areas. The region is known for its moderate climate, with a stable year-round temperature and relatively low rainfall levels. The sea experiences periodic red tides caused by dense groupings of certain phytoplankton that result in the death of large numbers of fish. Since the 1980s, the seas northern and southern shores have been connected by the three routes of the Honshū–Shikoku Bridge Project, including the Great Seto Bridge, which serves both railroad and automobile traffic. The International Hydrographic Organizations definition of the limits of the Seto Inland Sea (published in 1953) is as follows:[1] On the West. The southeastern limit of the Japan Sea [In Shimonoseki-kaikyo. A line running from Nagoya Saki (130°49E) in Kyûsû through the islands of Uma Sima and Muture Simia (33°58,5N) to Murasaki Hana (34°01N) in Honsyû].
Hayato Date. Hayato Date (伊達 勇登, Date Hayato; born May 22, 1962) is a Japanese animation director[1] most known for the animated adaptations of Saiyuki and Naruto.  This article about one or more people who work in the anime industry is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article about a Japanese film director is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Adventure fiction. Adventure fiction is a type of fiction that usually presents danger, or gives the reader a sense of excitement. Some adventure fiction also satisfies the literary definition of romance fiction.[1] In the introduction to the Encyclopedia of Adventure Fiction, Critic Don DAmmassa defines the genre as follows: ..  An adventure is an event or series of events that happens outside the course of the protagonists ordinary life, usually accompanied by danger, often by physical action. Adventure stories almost always move quickly, and the pace of the plot is at least as important as characterization, setting, and other elements of creative work.[2] DAmmassa argues that adventure stories make the element of danger the focus; hence he argues that Charles Dickenss novel A Tale of Two Cities is an adventure novel because the protagonists are in constant danger of being imprisoned or killed, whereas Dickenss Great Expectations is not because Pips encounter with the convict is an adventure, but that scene is only a device to advance the main plot, which is not truly an adventure.[2] Adventure has been a common theme since the earliest days of written fiction. Indeed, the standard plot of Heliodorus, and so durable as to be still alive in Hollywood movies, a hero would undergo a first set of adventures before he met his lady. A separation would follow, with the second set of adventures leading to a final reunion.
Martial arts film. Martial arts films are a subgenre of action films that feature martial arts combat between characters. These combats are usually the films primary appeal and entertainment value, and often are a method of storytelling and character expression and development. Martial arts are frequently featured in training scenes and other sequences in addition to fights. Martial arts films commonly include hand-to-hand combat along with other types of action, such as stuntwork, chases, and gunfights.[1][2][3] Sub-genres of martial arts films include kung fu films, wuxia, karate films, and martial arts action comedy films, while related genres include gun fu, jidaigeki and samurai films. Notable actors who have contributed to the genre include Bruce Lee, Jet Li, Jackie Chan, Jean-Claude Van Damme, Tony Jaa, Sammo Hung, Chuck Norris, Toshiro Mifune, Donnie Yen, Gordon Liu, Robin Shou, and Wesley Snipes, among others.[4] Women have also played key roles in the genre, including such actresses as Cheng Pei-pei, Michelle Yeoh, Angela Mao, Zhang Ziyi, Josephine Siao, Cynthia Rothrock, and Kuo Hsiao-Chuang.[5][6][7][8][9] The first ever martial arts film was a Chinese film released in 1928, The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (also translated as The Burning of the Red Lotus Monastery), a silent film directed by Chinese film director Zhang Shichuan and produced by the Mingxing Film Company.[10] The film pioneered the martial arts film genre, and was the first kung fu action film ever created. The film is based on the popular Chinese novel The Romance of the Red Lotus Temple, which is set in the Qing Dynasty and tells the story of a group of martial artists who band together to defend their temple from raiders. The film is notable for its action sequences and fight scenes, which were groundbreaking for the time and helped establish the martial arts film genre.[11] Beginning in 1950 with Akira Kurosawas Rashomon, starring Toshiro Mifune, Japanese cinema produced a number of samurai films.[12] These films influenced the subsequent Hong Kong kung fu films of Bruce Lee. Asian films are known to have a more minimalist approach to film based on their culture. Some martial arts films have only a minimal plot and amount of character development and focus almost exclusively on the action, while others have more creative and complex plots and characters along with action scenes.[13] Films of the latter type are generally considered to be artistically superior films, but many films of the former type are commercially successful and well received by fans of the genre.[14][15] One of the earliest Hollywood movies to employ the use of martial arts was the 1955 film Bad Day at Black Rock, though the scenes of Spencer Tracy performed barely any realistic fight sequences, but composed mostly of soft knifehand strikes.[16][17][18][19]
Whirlpool.  A whirlpool is a body of rotating water produced by opposing currents or a current running into an obstacle.[1] Small whirlpools form when a bath or a sink is draining. More powerful ones formed in seas or oceans may be called maelstroms (/ˈmeɪlstrɒm, -rəm/ MAYL-strom, -⁠strəm). Vortex is the proper term for a whirlpool that has a downdraft.[2] In narrow ocean straits with fast flowing water, whirlpools are often caused by tides. Many stories tell of ships being sucked into a maelstrom, although only smaller craft are actually in danger.[3] Smaller whirlpools appear at river rapids[4] and can be observed downstream of artificial structures such as weirs and dams. Large cataracts, such as Niagara Falls, produce strong whirlpools. One of the earliest uses in English of the Scandinavian word malström or malstrøm was by Edgar Allan Poe in his short story A Descent into the Maelström (1841). The Nordic word itself is derived from the Dutch word maelstrom (pronounced [ˈmaːlstroːm] ⓘ; modern spelling maalstroom), from malen (to mill or to grind) and stroom (stream), to form the meaning grinding current or literally mill-stream, in the sense of milling (grinding) grain.[5] Saltstraumen is a narrow strait located close to the Arctic Circle,[6] 33 km (20 mi) south-east of the city of Bodø, Norway. It has one of the strongest tidal currents in the world.[7][6] Whirlpools up to 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter and 5 metres (16 ft) in depth are formed when the current is at its strongest.
Cities of Japan.  A city (市, shi) is a local administrative unit in Japan. Cities are ranked on the same level as towns (町, machi) and villages (村, mura), with the difference that they are not a component of districts (郡, gun). Like other contemporary administrative units, they are defined by the Local Autonomy Law of 1947.[1][2] Article 8 of the Local Autonomy Law sets the following conditions for a municipality to be designated as a city: The designation is approved by the prefectural governor and the Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications. A city can theoretically be demoted to a town or village when it fails to meet any of these conditions, but such a demotion has not happened to date. The least populous city, Utashinai, Hokkaido, has a population of 3,000, while a town in the same prefecture, Otofuke, Hokkaido, has over 40,000.
Neil Jordan.  Neil Patrick Jordan (born 25 February 1950) is an Irish filmmaker and writer. He first achieved recognition for his short story collection, Night in Tunisia, which won the Guardian Fiction Prize in 1979.[1][2] After a stint working at RTÉ, he made his directorial debut with the 1982 film Angel. Jordans best-known films include the crime thrillers Mona Lisa (1986) and The Crying Game (1992), the horror dramas Interview with the Vampire (1994) and Byzantium (2012), the biopic Michael Collins (1996), the black comedy The Butcher Boy (1997), the Graham Greene adaptation The End of the Affair (1999), the transgender-themed dramedy Breakfast on Pluto (2005), and the psychological thriller Greta (2018). Jordan also created the Showtime Network television series The Borgias (2011–2013) and Sky Atlantics Riviera (2017–2020). He is the recipient of numerous accolades for his film work, including an Academy Award, two BAFTA Awards, three IFTA Film & Drama Awards, a Golden Lion and a Silver Bear. In 1996, he was honoured with receiving the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres.[3] Jordan was born in Sligo, the son of Angela (née OBrien), a painter, and Michael Jordan, a professor.[4] He was educated at St. Pauls College, Raheny.  Later, Jordan attended University College Dublin, where he studied Irish history and English literature. He graduated in 1972 with a BA in History. He became involved in student theatre there, where he met Jim Sheridan, who was also later to become an important Irish film director. After graduation, in 1976 Jordan produced his first collection of short stories: Night in Tunisia and other Stories.[5]
Fantasy comedy. Fantasy comedy (also called comic fantasy) is a subgenre of fantasy that is primarily humorous in intent and tone. Typically set in imaginary worlds, fantasy comedy often involves puns on, and parodies of, other works of fantasy. The subgenre rose in the nineteenth century. Elements of fantasy comedy can be found in such nineteenth century works as some of Hans Christian Andersens fairy tales, Charles Dickens Christmas Books, and Lewis Carrolls Alice books.[1] The first writer to specialize in the subgenre was F. Anstey in novels such as Vice Versa (1882), where magic disrupts Victorian society with humorous results.[1] Ansteys work was popular enough to inspire several imitations, including E. Nesbits light-hearted childrens fantasies, The Phoenix and the Carpet (1904) and The Story of the Amulet (1906).[1] The United States had several writers of fantasy comedy, including James Branch Cabell, whose satirical fantasy Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice (1919) was the subject of an unsuccessful prosecution for obscenity.[2] Another American writer in a similar vein was Thorne Smith, whose works (such as Topper and The Night Life of the Gods) were popular and influential, and often adapted for film and television.[3] Humorous fantasies narrated in a gentlemans club setting are common; they include John Kendrick Bangs A House-Boat on the Styx (1895), Lord Dunsanys Jorkens stories, and Maurice Richardsons  The Exploits of Englebrecht (1950).[4] According to Lin Carter, T. H. Whites works exemplify fantasy comedy,[5] L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratts Harold Shea stories are early exemplars.  The overwhelming bulk of de Camps fantasy was comic.[6] Pratt and de Camp were among several contributors to Unknown Worlds, a pulp magazine which emphasized fantasy with a comedic element. The work of Fritz Leiber also appeared in Unknown Worlds, including his Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, a jocose take on the sword and sorcery subgenre.[1] In more modern times, Terry Pratchetts Discworld books, Piers Anthonys Xanth books, Robert Asprins MythAdventures of Skeeve and Aahz books, and Tom Holts books provide good examples,[1] as do many of the works by Christopher Moore. There are also comic-strips/graphic novels in the humorous fantasy genre, including Chuck Whelons Pewfell series and the webcomics 8-Bit Theater and The Order of the Stick. Other authors of the genre in modern times include C.K. McDonnell, Jasper Fforde, Neil Gaiman, Robert Rankin, John Brosnan, Craig Shaw Gardner, David Lee Stone and Esther Freisner, as well as countless independent authors. The subgenre has also been represented in television, such as in the television series I Dream of Jeannie, Kröd Mändoon. Examples on radio are the BBCs Hordes of the Things and ElvenQuest. Fantasy comedy films can either be parodies (Monty Python and the Holy Grail), comedies with fantastical elements (Being John Malkovich, Barbie) or animated (Shrek). It has also been used with fantasy as the primary genre and comedy as the secondary, as in the case of Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and its 2019 sequel.
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (disambiguation). The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is an 1876 novel by Mark Twain. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer may also refer to:
Stephen Rea.  Stephen Rea (/ˈreɪ/ ray; born October 31, 1946) is an Irish actor. Born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, he began his career as a member of Dublins Focus Theatre, and played many roles on the stage and on Irish television. He came to the attention of international film audiences in Irish filmmaker Neil Jordans 1992 film The Crying Game, and subsequently starred in many more of Jordans films, including Interview with the Vampire (1994), Michael Collins (1996), Breakfast on Pluto (2005), and Greta (2018). He also played a starring role in the Hugo Blick 2011 TV series The Shadow Line. As a stage actor, he is known for his performances at The Gate and Abbey theatres in Dublin, and the Royal Court Theatre in London. He is a co-founder of the Field Day Theatre Company with Brian Friel. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Crying Game (1992), and won a BAFTA Award for his role in The Honourable Woman in 2015. In 2020, The Irish Times ranked Rea the 13th greatest Irish film actor of all time. Rea was born in Belfast in 1946.[1] His father was a bus driver and his mother a housewife.[2] His family was Protestant but sympathetic to Irish nationalism.[3]
Stephen Woolley.  Stephen Woolley (born 3 September 1956) is an English filmmaker and actor. His career has spanned four decades, for which he was awarded the BAFTA award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema in February 2019.[2] As a producer, he has been Oscar-nominated for The Crying Game (1992), and has produced multi-Academy Award nominated films including Mona Lisa (1986), Little Voice (1998), Michael Collins (1996), The End of the Affair (1999), Interview with the Vampire (1994), and Carol (2016). He runs the production company Number 9 Films with his partner Elizabeth Karlsen.[3][4] Woolleys first film as a producer was The Company of Wolves (1984), but his career began after leaving Dame Alice Owens School in Islington, London.[5] In 1976 he became an usher at the venue Quentin Tarantino described as “the coolest cinema in London”, The Screen on the Green in Islington, run by Romaine Hart (OBE), at a time when its ushers wore hotpants.[6][7][8] He then joined the exhibition arm of film collective The Other Cinema in Charlotte Street in the West End of London, before going on to own and run his own repertory cinema, The Scala Cinema, on the same premises.[1][9][10] As part of his programming, Woolley developed Friday evenings for special events which in March and May 1980 included early live gigs by the pop group Spandau Ballet, school pals from Dame Alices, the second being filmed for London Weekend Televisions youth series 20th-Century Box.[11] In 1981 under Woolleys management the Scala relocated to near Kings Cross railway station.[7][8][12][13] At the same time he established Palace Video in partnership with Nik Powell, in the early 1980s to distribute the types of cult cinema and international art films that had been the core of his cinema programmes.[7][8][12][13] Palace Video titles included David Lynchs Eraserhead (1977), Derek Jarmans The Tempest (1979), and Werner Herzogs Fitzcarraldo (1982).[14] It later grew into a theatrical distribution company, retitled Palace Pictures, where Woolley was behind the UK releases of French cult film Diva (1981), Sam Raimis The Evil Dead (1981), Nagisa Ōshimas Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983), Wim Wenders’ Paris, Texas (1984), the Coen brothers Blood Simple (1984), Rob Reiners When Harry Met Sally (1988) – as well as films by John Cassavetes, John Waters, Mike Leigh, Ken Loach, Peter Greenaway, Fassbinder, and Bertolucci.[15] Palace Pictures moved into film production in 1984 with its first feature The Company of Wolves – directed by Neil Jordan (the first of many films Woolley and Jordan would later make together).[16][17][18] Palace Pictures would eventually expand their operations, opening an office in Los Angeles by 1986.[19] Many of Palace Pictures projects were first supported by Channel 4, and Woolley also helped establish many first-time directors including Michael Caton-Jones and Richard Stanley.[20] In 1987, the company decided to set up making American-based films, starting with Shag, which was funded by Hemdale Film Corporation with a $4.6 million budget, as well as the first miniseries and its horror picture, which became the firsts for the entire Palace Pictures organization.[21] Woolley established an association with Miramax, which distributed a number of Palace films in the United States, including Scandal (1989), A Rage in Harlem (1991), Hardware (1990) and The Crying Game (1992).[22] Woolley had established his reputation with a series of low budget but high production value releases, but began developing more ambitious projects. After some box-office disappointments and the recession which weakened Nik Powells parent company in 1992 Palace Pictures was forced to close.[23][24][25] A year later, The Scala Cinemas twelve-year lease expired simultaneously as its defeat in a court case caused by an illegal screening of A Clockwork Orange, whose screening rights had been withdrawn in the UK by Stanley Kubrick in 1971, and the financial collapse of Palace precipitated its closure in 1993.[26][27][28]
Ukiyo-e.  Ukiyo-e[a] (浮世絵) is a genre of Japanese art that flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; flora and fauna; and erotica. The term ukiyo-e (浮世絵) translates as picture[s] of the floating world. In 1603, the city of Edo (Tokyo) became the seat of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate. The chōnin class (merchants, craftsmen and workers), positioned at the bottom of the social order, benefited the most from the citys rapid economic growth. They began to indulge in and patronize the entertainment of kabuki theatre, geisha, and courtesans of the pleasure districts. The term ukiyo (floating world) came to describe this hedonistic lifestyle. Printed or painted ukiyo-e works were popular with the chōnin class, who had become wealthy enough to afford to decorate their homes with them. The earliest ukiyo-e works emerged in the 1670s, with Hishikawa Moronobus paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women. Colour prints were introduced gradually, and at first were only used for special commissions. By the 1740s, artists such as Okumura Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour. In the 1760s, the success of Suzuki Harunobus brocade prints led to full-colour production becoming standard, with ten or more blocks used to create each print. Some ukiyo-e artists specialized in making paintings, but most works were prints. Artists rarely carved their own woodblocks for printing; rather, production was divided between the artist, who designed the prints; the carver, who cut the woodblocks; the printer, who inked and pressed the woodblocks onto handmade paper; and the publisher, who financed, promoted, and distributed the works. As printing was done by hand, printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines, such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block. Specialists have prized the portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Torii Kiyonaga, Utamaro, and Sharaku that were created in the late 18th century. The 19th century also saw the continuation of masters of the ukiyo-e tradition, with the creation of Hokusais The Great Wave off Kanagawa, one of the most well-known works of Japanese art, and Hiroshiges The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō. Following the deaths of these two masters, and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868, ukiyo-e production went into steep decline.
List of sovereign states.   The following is a list providing an overview of sovereign states around the world with information on their status and recognition of their sovereignty. The 205 listed states can be divided into three categories based on membership within the United Nations System: 193 UN member states,[1] two UN General Assembly non-member observer states, and ten other states. The sovereignty dispute column indicates states having undisputed sovereignty (189 states, of which there are 188 UN member states and one UN General Assembly non-member observer state), states having disputed sovereignty (14 states, of which there are five UN member states, one UN General Assembly non-member observer state, and eight de facto states), and states having a special political status (two states, both in free association with New Zealand). Compiling a list such as this can be complicated and controversial, as there is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations concerning the criteria for statehood. For more information on the criteria used to determine the contents of this list, please see the criteria for inclusion section below. The list is intended to include entities that have been recognised as having de facto status as sovereign states, and inclusion should not be seen as an endorsement of any specific claim to statehood in legal terms.
Aidan Quinn.  Aidan Quinn (born March 8, 1959)[1] is an Irish-American actor. He made his film debut in Reckless (1984), and has starred in over 80 feature films, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), The Mission (1986), Stakeout (1987), All My Sons (1987), Avalon (1990), The Handmaids Tale (1990), Benny & Joon (1993), Legends of the Fall (1994), Mary Shelleys Frankenstein (1994), Michael Collins (1996), Practical Magic (1998), Song for a Raggy Boy (2003), Wild Child (2008) and Unknown (2011). He also played Captain Thomas Tommy Gregson on the CBS television series Elementary (2012–19). Quinn has received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for his performances in the television films An Early Frost (1985) and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (2007). Highly active in Irish cinema as well as in the United States, Quinn is a four-time Irish Film and Television (IFTA) Award nominee, winning Best Supporting Actor in a Film for the Conor McPherson film The Eclipse (2009). Quinn was born in Chicago, Illinois, to Irish Catholic parents.[2][3] He was raised in Chicago and Rockford, Illinois, as well as in Dublin and Birr, County Offaly, Ireland. His mother, Teresa, was a homemaker, but also worked as a bookkeeper and in the travel business, and his father, Michael Quinn, was a professor of English literature at Rock Valley College.[4][5][6] When he was nineteen and working as a roofer, Quinn realized he wanted to become an actor. He trained at the Piven Theatre Workshop.[7][8] He has three brothers and a sister. His older brother, Declan Quinn, is a cinematographer, and his younger sister, Marian, is an actress, director and writer.[9] His brother Paul, an actor and director, died in 2015 at the age of 55.[10]
Junki Takegami. Junki Takegami (武上 純希, Takegami Junki; born February 26, 1955) is a Japanese animation and tokusatsu screenwriter. His real name is Shōzō Yamazaki (山崎 昌三, Yamazaki Shouzou), he has also used the alias Keiji Tanimoto (谷本 敬次, Tanimoto Keiji) in the past.
Bildungsroman.  In literary criticism, a bildungsroman (German pronunciation: [ˈbɪldʊŋs.ʁoˌmaːn] ⓘ) is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth and change of the protagonist from childhood to adulthood (coming of age).[1][2][3][4][a] The term comes from the German words Bildung (formation or education) and Roman (novel). The term was coined in 1819 by philologist Johann Karl Simon Morgenstern in his university lectures, and was later famously reprised by Wilhelm Dilthey, who legitimized it in 1870 and popularized it in 1905.[5][6] The genre is further characterized by a number of formal, topical, and thematic features.[7] The term coming-of-age novel is sometimes used interchangeably with bildungsroman, but its use is usually wider and less technical. The birth of the bildungsroman is normally dated to the publication of Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1795–96,[8] or, sometimes, to Christoph Martin Wielands Geschichte des Agathon of 1767.[9] Although the bildungsroman arose in Germany, it has had extensive influence first in Europe and later throughout the world. Thomas Carlyles English translation of Goethes novel (1824) and his own Sartor Resartus (1833–34), the first English bildungsroman, inspired many British novelists.[10][11][12] In the 20th century, it spread to  France[13][14] and several other countries around the globe.[15] Barbara Whitman noted that the Iliad might be the first bildungsroman. It is not just the story of the Trojan War. The Trojan War is in effect the backdrop for the story of Achilles development. At the beginning Achilles is still a rash youth, making rash decisions which cost dearly to himself and all around him. (...) The story reaches its conclusion when Achilles has reached maturity and allows King Priam to recover Hectors body.[16]
Liam Neeson.  William John Neeson OBE (born 7 June 1952) is an actor from Northern Ireland.[3] He has received several accolades, including nominations for an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, three Golden Globe Awards, and two Tony Awards. In 2020, he was placed seventh on The Irish Times list of Irelands 50 Greatest Film Actors.[4] Neeson was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2000.[5] Neeson made his film debut in 1978 with  Pilgrims Progress followed by early roles in Excalibur (1981), The Bounty (1984), The Mission (1986), The Dead Pool (1988), and Husbands and Wives (1992). He rose to prominence portraying Oskar Schindler in Steven Spielbergs Holocaust drama Schindlers List (1993) for which he earned an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination. He played leading man roles in drama films such as Nell (1994), Rob Roy (1995), Michael Collins (1996), and Les Misérables (1998). He took blockbuster roles portraying Qui-Gon Jinn in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Ras al Ghul in Batman Begins (2005), and Aslan in  The Chronicles of Narnia trilogy (2005–2010). Neeson acted in films such as the historical drama Gangs of New York (2002), the romantic comedy Love Actually (2003), the biographical drama Kinsey (2004), the erotic thriller Chloe (2009), the religious drama Silence (2016), the fantasy film A Monster Calls (2016), the crime thriller Widows (2018), the anthology film The Ballad of Buster Scruggs (2018), and the romantic drama Ordinary Love (2019). Beginning in 2009, Neeson cemented himself as an action star with the action thriller series Taken (2008–2014), The A-Team (2010), The Grey (2011), Wrath of the Titans (2012), A Walk Among the Tombstones (2014), and Cold Pursuit (2019). He is known for his collaborations in the genre with the director Jaume Collet-Serra and starred in four of his films: Unknown (2011), Non-Stop (2014), Run All Night (2015), and The Commuter (2018). On stage, Neeson joined the Lyric Players Theatre in Belfast in 1976 for two years. On Broadway he earned two Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play nominations for his performances as Matt Burke in the revival of Eugene ONeills Anna Christie (1992) and John Proctor in the Arthur Miller revival of The Crucible (2002). He portrayed Oscar Wilde in David Hares The Judas Kiss (1998).
Heir Presumptive (novel).  Heir Presumptive is a 1935 mystery crime novel by the British writer Henry Wade.[1] It is largely an inverted detective story which reveals the killer early[2] but also features a murder in which he is beaten to it by someone else, with numerous potential suspects. Following news of an accident on the senior branch of a titled and very wealthy family, Eustace Hendel the head of the junior branch realises that he has now moved much closer to inheriting. Struggling financially and in love with an ambitious woman, he chooses to eliminate the remaining relatives who stand between him and the family fortune and a seat in the House of Lords.  This article about a crime novel of the 1930s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Picaresque novel. The picaresque novel (Spanish: picaresca, from pícaro,  for rogue or rascal) is a genre of prose fiction. It depicts the adventures of a roguish but appealing hero, usually of low social class, who lives by his wits in a corrupt society.[1] Picaresque novels typically adopt the form of an episodic prose narrative[2] with a realistic style. There are often elements of comedy and satire. The picaresque genre began with the Spanish novel Lazarillo de Tormes[3] (1554), which was published anonymously during the Spanish Golden Age because of its anticlerical content.  Literary works from Imperial Rome published during the 1st–2nd century AD, such as Satyricon[3] by Petronius and The Golden Ass by Apuleius had a relevant influence on the picaresque genre and are considered predecessors. Other notable early Spanish contributors to the genre included Mateo Alemáns Guzmán de Alfarache (1599–1604) and Francisco de Quevedos El Buscón (1626). Some other ancient influences of the picaresque genre include Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence. The Golden Ass by Apuleius nevertheless remains, according to various scholars such as F. W. Chandler, A. Marasso, T. Somerville and T. Bodenmüller, the primary antecedent influence for the picaresque genre.[4] Subsequently, following the example of Spanish writers, the genre flourished throughout Europe for more than 200 years and it continues to have an influence on modern literature and fiction. According to the traditional view of Thrall and Hibbard (first published in 1936), seven qualities distinguish the picaresque novel or narrative form, all or some of which an author may employ for effect:[5] In the English-speaking world, the term picaresque is often used loosely to refer to novels that contain some elements of this genre; e.g. an episodic recounting of adventures on the road.[6] The term is also sometimes used to describe works which only contain some of the genres elements, such as Miguel de Cervantes Don Quixote (1605 and 1615), or Charles Dickens The Pickwick Papers (1836–1837). The word pícaro first starts to appear in Spain with the current meaning in 1545, though at the time it had no association with literature.[7] The word pícaro does not appear in Lazarillo de Tormes (1554), the novella credited by modern scholars with founding the genre. The expression picaresque novel was coined in 1810.[8][9] Whether it has any validity at all as a generic label in the Spanish sixteenth and seventeenth centuries—Cervantes certainly used picaresque with a different meaning than it has today—has been called into question. There is unresolved debate within Hispanic studies about what the term means, or meant, and which works were, or should be, so called. The only work clearly called picaresque by its contemporaries was Mateo Alemáns Guzmán de Alfarache (1599–1604), which they considered El libro del pícaro (English: The Book of the Pícaro).[10]
Japan.   Japan[a] is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland, it is bordered to the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The Japanese archipelago consists of four major islands alongside 14,121 smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometers (145,937 sq mi). Divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions, about 75% of the countrys terrain is mountainous and heavily forested, concentrating its agriculture and highly urbanized population along its eastern coastal plains. With a population of over 123 million as of 2025, it is the 11th most populous country. The countrys capital and largest city is Tokyo. The first known habitation of the archipelago dates to the Upper Paleolithic, with the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic dating to c. 36,000 BC. Between the 4th and 6th centuries, its kingdoms were united under an emperor in Nara and later Heian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators known as shōgun and feudal lords called daimyō, enforced by warrior nobility named samurai. After rule by the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates and a century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by the Tokugawa shogunate, which implemented an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, an American fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meiji period, Japan pursued rapid industrialization and modernization, as well as militarism and overseas colonization. The country invaded China in 1937 and attacked the United States and European colonial powers in 1941, thus entering World War II as an Axis power. After being defeated in the Pacific War and suffering the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under Allied occupation. Afterwards, the country underwent rapid economic growth and became one of the five earliest major non-NATO allies of the U.S. Since the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in the early 1990s, it has experienced a prolonged period of economic stagnation referred to as the Lost Decades.
Primogeniture.  Primogeniture (/ˌpraɪməˈdʒɛnɪtʃər, -oʊ-/) is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn legitimate child to inherit all or most of their parents estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some children, any illegitimate child or any collateral relative. In most contexts, it means the inheritance of the firstborn son (agnatic primogeniture);[1] it can also mean by the firstborn daughter (matrilineal primogeniture), or firstborn child (absolute primogeniture). Its opposite analogue is partible inheritance. The common definition given is also known as male-line primogeniture, the classical form popular in European jurisdictions among others until into the 20th century. In the absence of male-line offspring, variations were expounded to entitle a daughter or a brother or, in the absence of either, to another collateral relative, in a specified order (e.g., male-preference primogeniture, Salic primogeniture, semi-Salic primogeniture). Variations have tempered the traditional, sole-beneficiary, right (such as French appanage) or, in the West since World War II, eliminate the preference for males over females (absolute male-preference primogeniture). Most monarchies in Europe have eliminated this, including: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The exceptions are Spain and Monaco (male-preference primogeniture) along with Liechtenstein (agnatic primogeniture). English primogeniture endures mainly in titles of nobility: any first-placed direct male-line descendant (e.g. eldest sons sons son) inherits the title before siblings and similar, this being termed by right of substitution for the deceased heir; secondly where children were only daughters they would enjoy the fettered use (life use) of an equal amount of the underlying real asset and the substantive free use (such as one-half inheritance) would accrue to their most senior-line male descendant or contingent on her marriage (moieties); thirdly, where the late estate holder had no descendants his oldest brother would succeed, and his descendants would likewise enjoy the rule of substitution where he had died. The effect of English primogeniture was to keep estates undivided wherever possible and to disinherit real property from female relations unless only daughters survived in which case the estate thus normally results in division. The principle has applied in history to inheritance of land as well as inherited titles and offices, most notably monarchies, continuing until modified or abolished.
Legitimacy (family law). Legitimacy, in traditional Western common law, is the status of a child born to parents who are legally married to each other, and of a child conceived before the parents obtain a legal divorce. Conversely, illegitimacy, also known as bastardy, has been the status of a child born outside marriage, such a child being known as a bastard, a love child, a natural child, or illegitimate. In Scots law, the terms natural son and natural daughter carry the same implications. The importance of legitimacy has decreased substantially in Western countries since the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s and the declining influence of Christian churches in family and social life. A 2009 report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated that in 2007 a substantial proportion of births in Western countries occurred outside marriage.[1] Englands Statute of Merton (1235) stated, regarding illegitimacy: He is a bastard that is born before the marriage of his parents.[2]  This definition also applied to situations when a childs parents could not marry, as when one or both were already married or when the relationship was incestuous.
Voice acting in Japan. Voice acting in Japan is an industry where actors provide voice-overs as characters or narrators in media including anime, video games, audio dramas, commercials, and dubbing for non-Japanese films and television programs. In Japan, voice actors (声優, seiyū) and actresses have devoted fan clubs due to a crossover with the idol industry, and some fans may watch a show merely to hear a particular voice actor.[1] Many voice actors have concurrent singing careers[2] and have also crossed over to live-action media. There are around 130 voice acting schools in Japan.[3] Broadcast companies and talent agencies often have their own troupes of vocal actors. Magazines focusing specifically on voice acting are published in Japan, with Voice Animage being the longest-running. The term character voice (abbreviated CV) has been commonly used since the 1980s by such Japanese anime magazines as Animec [ja] and Newtype to describe a voice actor associated with a particular anime or game character. A voice actor (声優, seiyū) provides voice-overs for characters and narration for various types of media, including anime, video games, audio dramas, live-action stunt and puppet shows, and commercials. A voice actor also provides dubbing for non-Japanese television programs and films. The initial term for voice actors in Japan was koe no haiyū (声の俳優), but was later shortened to a compound word to make the word seiyū (声優). While several voice actors[who?] opposed the term, believing it devalued their roles as actors, only after voice acting became more prominent[when?] did the word become more widespread.
Heir apparent. An heir apparent is a person who is first in the order of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person.[note 1] A person who is first in the current order of succession but could be displaced by the birth of a more eligible heir is known as an heir presumptive. Today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles (e.g. titles of nobility) or offices, especially when only inheritable by a single person. Most monarchies refer to the heir apparent of their thrones with the descriptive term of crown prince or crown princess, but they may also be accorded with a more specific substantive title:[note 2] such as Prince of Orange in the Netherlands, Duke of Brabant in Belgium, Prince of Asturias in Spain (also granted to heirs presumptive), or the Prince of Wales in England and Wales; former titles include Dauphin in the Kingdom of France, and Tsesarevich in Imperial Russia. The term is also applied metaphorically to an expected successor to any position of power, e.g. a political or corporate leader. This article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—it may be less applicable to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir (performed either while alive, e.g. crowning the heir as a rex iunior, or through the monarchs will). In a hereditary system governed by some form of primogeniture, an heir apparent is easily identifiable as the person whose position as first in the line of succession to a title or office is secure, regardless of future births. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be bumped down in the succession by the birth of somebody more closely related in a legal sense (according to that form of primogeniture) to the current title-holder.
Saitama Prefecture.  Saitama Prefecture (埼玉県, Saitama-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [saꜜi.ta.ma, sai.ta.maꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a landlocked prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu.[3] Saitama Prefecture has a population of 7,338,536 (January 1, 2020) and has a geographic area of 3,797 km2 (1,466 sq mi). Saitama Prefecture borders Tochigi Prefecture and Gunma Prefecture to the north, Nagano Prefecture to the west, Yamanashi Prefecture to the southwest, Tokyo to the south, Chiba Prefecture to the southeast, and Ibaraki Prefecture to the northeast. Saitama is the capital and largest city of Saitama Prefecture, with other major cities including Kawaguchi, Kawagoe, and Tokorozawa.[4] According to Sendai Kuji Hongi (Kujiki), Chichibu was one of 137 provinces during the reign of Emperor Sujin.[5] Chichibu Province was in western Saitama. The area that would become Saitama Prefecture in the 19th century is part of Musashi Province in the Ritsuryō (or ryō-system; ritsu stands for the penal code, ryō for the administrative code) Imperial administration of antiquity (see Provinces of Japan and the 5 (go) capital area provinces (ki)/7 (shichi) circuits (dō) system) which was nominally revived in the Meiji restoration but has lost much of its administrative function since the Middle Ages.[6] Saitama District (Saitama-gun) was one of Musashis 21 ritsuryō districts.
Primogeniture.  Primogeniture (/ˌpraɪməˈdʒɛnɪtʃər, -oʊ-/) is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn legitimate child to inherit all or most of their parents estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some children, any illegitimate child or any collateral relative. In most contexts, it means the inheritance of the firstborn son (agnatic primogeniture);[1] it can also mean by the firstborn daughter (matrilineal primogeniture), or firstborn child (absolute primogeniture). Its opposite analogue is partible inheritance. The common definition given is also known as male-line primogeniture, the classical form popular in European jurisdictions among others until into the 20th century. In the absence of male-line offspring, variations were expounded to entitle a daughter or a brother or, in the absence of either, to another collateral relative, in a specified order (e.g., male-preference primogeniture, Salic primogeniture, semi-Salic primogeniture). Variations have tempered the traditional, sole-beneficiary, right (such as French appanage) or, in the West since World War II, eliminate the preference for males over females (absolute male-preference primogeniture). Most monarchies in Europe have eliminated this, including: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The exceptions are Spain and Monaco (male-preference primogeniture) along with Liechtenstein (agnatic primogeniture). English primogeniture endures mainly in titles of nobility: any first-placed direct male-line descendant (e.g. eldest sons sons son) inherits the title before siblings and similar, this being termed by right of substitution for the deceased heir; secondly where children were only daughters they would enjoy the fettered use (life use) of an equal amount of the underlying real asset and the substantive free use (such as one-half inheritance) would accrue to their most senior-line male descendant or contingent on her marriage (moieties); thirdly, where the late estate holder had no descendants his oldest brother would succeed, and his descendants would likewise enjoy the rule of substitution where he had died. The effect of English primogeniture was to keep estates undivided wherever possible and to disinherit real property from female relations unless only daughters survived in which case the estate thus normally results in division. The principle has applied in history to inheritance of land as well as inherited titles and offices, most notably monarchies, continuing until modified or abolished.
Mark Twain.  Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), known by the pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, and essayist. He was praised as the greatest humorist the United States has produced,[1] with William Faulkner calling him the father of American literature.[2] Twains novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884),[3] with the latter often called the Great American Novel. He also wrote A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court (1889) and Puddnhead Wilson (1894) and cowrote The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today (1873) with Charles Dudley Warner. The novelist Ernest Hemingway claimed that All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn.[4] Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, which later provided the setting for both Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. He served an apprenticeship with a printer early in his career, and then worked as a typesetter, contributing articles to his older brother Orion Clemens newspaper. Twain then became a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River, which provided him the material for Life on the Mississippi (1883). Soon after, Twain headed west to join Orion in Nevada. He referred humorously to his lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise.[5] Twain first achieved success as a writer with the humorous story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, which was published in 1865; it was based on a story that he heard at the Angels Hotel in Angels Camp, California, where Twain had spent some time while he was working as a miner. The short story brought Twain international attention.[6] He wrote both fiction and non-fiction. As his fame grew, Twain became a much sought-after speaker. His wit and satire, both in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and Twain was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. Although Twain initially spoke out in favor of American interests in the Hawaiian Islands, he later reversed his position,[7] going on to become vice president of the American Anti-Imperialist League from 1901 until his death in 1910, coming out strongly against the Philippine–American War and American colonialism.[8][9][10] Twain published a satirical pamphlet, King Leopolds Soliloquy, in 1905 about Belgian atrocities in the Congo Free State.
Story. Story or stories may refer to:
Amuse Inc.. Amuse Inc. (株式会社アミューズ, Kabushikigaisha Amyūzu)[5] is a Japanese entertainment company that provides artist management services. The artists include idols,[6] musicians, and more. Amuse produces TV and radio programs, commercial films, and movies. Other interests are in publication, music software, and patent agent businesses. The private Amuse Museum, located in Asakusa, Tokyo, was owned by the company. It featured ukiyo-e and textile displays. Amuse Inc. was created in 1978 when it signed with the rock band Southern All Stars. Soon after in 1981, the company created its movie production and distribution subsidiary Amuse Cinema City Inc. and produced Morning Moon Wa Sozatsu Ni (starring Shin Kishida) that same year, followed by Aiko 16 sai (1983). In 1983, Amuse signed with the actress Yasuko Tomita. The next year, the firm opened its subsidiary in the United States.[7] Amuse Video Inc. was created in 1990 as the video software production and sales subsidiary of the company. In 1995, Amuse established Ayers Inc. through a joint venture with Bandai, and opened its first movie theater. In 2000, Amuse opened its Korean subsidiary, Amuse Korea Inc. On 20 September 2001, Amuse was listed on the Osaka Securities Exchange. Its distributed film The Pianist won the Palme dOr at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.[7] In 2004, Amuse opened its e-commerce site, Ambra. In 2007, it established its music label Taishita in joint venture with Victor Entertainment. In 2008, the group invested in Brussels Co. Ltd., a company that develops Belgian beer bars; and also formed the A-Sketch label in joint venture with KDDI Corporation. In 2009, the group launched its subsidiary Amuse Edutainment Inc. In 2012, Amuse Singapore was created. Amuse intended to give a second life to J-pop by promoting the bands Flumpool and Weaver.[8] In 2013, it produced and distributed the movie The Eternal Zero. In 2015, Amuse France Inc. was created.[7]
Narrative (disambiguation). A narrative is an account of events or experiences. Narrative may also refer to:
Satire.  Satire is a genre of the visual,  literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of exposing or shaming the perceived flaws of individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit to draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society. Satire may also poke fun at popular themes in art and film. A prominent feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—in satire, irony is militant, according to literary critic Northrop Frye—[2] but parody, burlesque, exaggeration,[3] juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This militant irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to question. Satire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, music, film and television shows, and media such as lyrics. The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant full, but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to miscellany or medley: the expression lanx satura literally means a full dish of various kinds of fruits.[4] The use of the word lanx in this phrase, however, is disputed by B.L. Ullman.[5]
Tale. Tale may refer to:
Oral literature. Oral literature, orature, or folk literature is a genre of literature that is spoken or sung in contrast to that which is written, though much oral literature has been transcribed.[1] There is no standard definition, as anthropologists have used varying descriptions for oral literature or folk literature. A broad conceptualization refers to it as literature characterized by oral transmission and the absence of any fixed form. It includes the stories, legends, and history passed through generations in a spoken form.[2] Pre-literate societies, by definition, have no written literature, but may possess rich and varied oral traditions—such as folk epics, folk narratives (including fairy tales and fables), folk drama, proverbs and folksongs—that effectively constitute an oral literature. Even when these are collected and published by scholars such as folklorists and paremiographers, the result is still often referred to as oral literature. The different genres of oral literature pose classification challenges to scholars because of cultural dynamism in the modern digital age.[3] Literate societies may continue an oral tradition — particularly within the family (for example  bedtime stories) or informal social structures. The telling of urban legends may be considered an example of oral literature, as can jokes and also oral poetry including slam poetry which has been a televised feature on Russell Simmons Def Poetry; performance poetry is a genre of poetry that consciously shuns the written form.[4] Furthermore, traditions demonstrating persistent orality can continue to thrive primarily through spoken or sung performance even within literate societies, adapting to new contexts and media. For example, Bhojpuri folk song traditions, carried by the Indian diaspora to places like Mauritius and Trinidad, demonstrate resilience and adaptation not primarily through print, but through continued performance in various settings (from weddings to public fêtes and carnivals) and circulation across multiple platforms, including commercial recordings, radio, film, and digital media like YouTube. This process often involves linguistic and musical creolisation (e.g., the development of Chutney music blending Bhojpuri elements with English lyrics and Caribbean rhythms) and the creation of what some scholars term soft texts—where familiar fragments, melodies, or evocative words maintain cultural resonance even as the original forms evolve.[5] Oral literatures forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do. The Ugandan scholar Pio Zirimu introduced the term orature in an attempt to avoid an oxymoron, but oral literature remains more common both in academic and popular writing.[6] The Encyclopaedia of African Literature, edited by Simon Gikandi (Routledge, 2003), gives this definition: Orature means something passed on through the spoken word, and because it is based on the spoken language it comes to life only in a living community. Where community life fades away, orality loses its function and dies. It needs people in a living social setting: it needs life itself. In Songs and Politics in Eastern Africa, edited by Kimani Njogu and Hervé Maupeu (2007), it is stated (page 204) that Zirimu, who coined the term, defines orature as the use of utterance as an aesthetic means of expression (as quoted by Ngũgĩ wa Thiongo, 1988). According to the book Defining New Idioms and Alternative Forms of Expression, edited by Eckhard Breitinger (Rodopi, 1996, page 78): This means that any oral society had to develop means to make the spoken word last, at least for a while. We tend to regard all the genres of orature as belonging to the homogeneous complex of folklore.
Kenji Hamada. Kenji Hamada (浜田 賢二, Hamada Kenji; born April 12, 1972) is a Japanese voice actor from Fukuoka, Japan who is an affiliate of Mausu Promotion. On adult works, he goes under the alias of Ken Akiresu (安芸怜須 ケン, Akiresu Ken). In 1996, Hamada enrolled at Ezaki Production school. Since 1998, he has been affiliated with Mausu Promotion. He has admitted that he has been a heavy smoker since high school, but as of 2014 he has quit smoking. Hamada has been married to fellow voice actress Junko Takeuchi since 2006 with whom he has two children.[citation needed]
Tōhoku region.  The Tōhoku region (東北地方, Tōhoku-chihō; IPA: [toːhokɯ̥ tɕiꜜhoː]), Northeast region, Ōu region (奥羽地方, Ōu-chihō), or Northeast Japan (東北日本, Tōhoku Nihon) consists of the northeastern portion of Honshu, the largest island of Japan. This traditional region consists of six prefectures (ken): Akita, Aomori, Fukushima, Iwate, Miyagi, and Yamagata.[2] Tōhoku retains a reputation as a remote, scenic region with a harsh climate. In the 20th century, tourism became a major industry in the Tōhoku region. In mythological times, the area was known as Azuma (吾妻, あづま) and corresponded to the area of Honshu occupied by the native Emishi and Ainu. The area was historically the Dewa and the Michinoku regions,[3] a term first recorded in Hitachi-no-kuni Fudoki (常陸国風土記) (654). There is some variation in modern usage of the term Michinoku.[4] Tōhokus initial historical settlement occurred between the seventh and ninth centuries, well after Japanese civilization and culture had become firmly established in central and southwestern Japan. The last stronghold of the indigenous Emishi on Honshu and the site of many battles, the region has maintained a degree of autonomy from Kyoto at various times throughout history.
Chūbu region. The Chūbu region (中部地方, Chūbu-chihō), Central region, or Central Japan (中部日本, Chūbu-nihon) is a region in the middle of Honshū, Japans main island. In a wide, classical definition, it encompasses nine prefectures (ken): Aichi, Fukui, Gifu, Ishikawa, Nagano, Niigata, Shizuoka, Toyama, and Yamanashi.[2] It is located directly between the Kantō region and the Kansai region and includes the major city of Nagoya as well as Pacific Ocean and Sea of Japan coastlines, extensive mountain resorts, and Mount Fuji. The region is the widest part of Honshū and the central part is characterized by high, rugged mountains. The Japanese Alps divide the country into the Pacific side, sunny in winter, and the Sea of Japan side, snowy in winter. Although Mie is part of Kinki/Kansai/Western Japan in traditional geographical regional divisions, Northern Mie is part of the metropolitan area around Nagoya, and Mie is in many practical contexts considered to be part of Tōkai/Chūbu/Central Japan. Including Mie, Chūbu had a population of 23,010,276 as of 1 June 2019. In the MLIT of the central government, the jurisdiction of the Chūbu regional development bureau (中部地方整備局, Chūbu-chihō seibi-kyoku; (ja)) extends to five prefectures: Gifu, Shizuoka, Aichi, Mie and the Southern part of Nagano.[3]
Literature.  Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, plays, and poems.[1] It includes both print and digital writing.[2] In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed.[3][4] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment. It can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role. Literary criticism is one of the oldest academic disciplines, and is concerned with the literary merit or intellectual significance of specific texts. The study of books and other texts as artifacts or traditions is instead encompassed by textual criticism or the history of the book. Literature, as an art form, is sometimes used synonymously with literary fiction, fiction written with the goal of artistic merit,[5][6] but can also include works in various non-fiction genres, such as biography, diaries, memoirs, letters, and essays. Within this broader definition, literature includes non-fictional books, articles, or other written information on a particular subject.[7][8] Developments in print technology have allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, while the digital era has blurred the lines between online electronic literature and other forms of modern media. Definitions of literature have varied over time.[9] In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. It can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions, so that cultural studies, for instance, include, in addition to canonical works, popular and minority genres. The word is also used in reference to non-written works: to oral literature and the literature of preliterate culture.[citation needed]
Naruhito Iguchi. Naruhito Iguchi (井口 成人, Iguchi Naruhito; born January 15, 1951) is a Japanese actor, reporter, and voice actor.  This biographical article about a Japanese voice actor is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Given name.  A given name (also known as a forename or first name) is the part of a personal name[1] that identifies a person, potentially with a middle name as well, and differentiates that person from the other members of a group (typically a family or clan) who have a common surname. The term given name refers to a name usually bestowed at or close to the time of birth, usually by the parents of the newborn. A Christian name is the first name which is given at baptism, in Christian custom. In informal situations, given names are often used in a familiar and friendly manner.[1] In more formal situations, a persons surname is more commonly used. In Western culture, the idioms on a first-name basis and being on first-name terms refer to the familiarity inherent in addressing someone by their given name.[1] By contrast, a surname (also known as a family name, last name, or gentile name) is normally inherited and shared with other members of ones immediate family.[2] Regnal names and religious or monastic names are special given names bestowed upon someone receiving a crown or entering a religious order; such a person then typically becomes known chiefly by that name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as Western name order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by European culture, including North and South America; North, East, Central and West India; Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines.
Japanese name.  Japanese names (日本人の氏名、日本人の姓名、日本人の名前, Nihonjin no shimei, Nihonjin no seimei, Nihonjin no namae) in modern times consist of a family name (surname) followed by a given name. Japanese names are usually written in kanji, where the pronunciation follows a special set of rules. Because parents when naming children, and foreigners when adopting a Japanese name, are able to choose which pronunciations they want for certain kanji, the same written form of a name may have multiple readings. In exceptional cases, this makes it impossible to determine the intended pronunciation of a name with certainty. Even so, most pronunciations chosen for names are common, making them easier to read. While any jōyō kanji (with some exceptions for readability) and jinmeiyō kanji may be used as part of a name, names may be rejected if they are believed to fall outside what would be considered an acceptable name by measures of common sense.[2] Japanese names may be written in hiragana or katakana, the Japanese language syllabaries for words of Japanese or foreign origin, respectively. As such, names written in hiragana or katakana are phonetic rendering and lack meanings that are expressed by names written in the logographic kanji. The majority of Japanese people have one surname and one given name, except for the Japanese imperial family, whose members have no surname. The family name precedes the given name. People with mixed Japanese and foreign parentage may have middle names.[3] Very few names are in use both as surnames and as given names (for example Mayumi (真弓), Izumi (泉), Masuko (益子), or Arata (新)). Therefore, to those familiar with Japanese names, which name is the surname and which is the given name is usually apparent, no matter in which order the names are presented. It is thus unlikely that the two names will be confused, for example, when writing in English while using the family name-given name naming order. However, due to the variety of pronunciations and differences in languages, some common surnames and given names may coincide when Romanized: e.g., Maki (真紀、麻紀、真樹) (given name) and Maki (真木、槇、牧) (surname).
Bachelor of Arts.  A Bachelor of Arts (abbreviated BA or AB; from the Latin baccalaureus artium, baccalaureus in artibus, or artium baccalaureus) is the holder of a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the liberal arts,[1] or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree course is generally completed in three or four years, depending on the country and institution.[citation needed] The Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree is an undergraduate postsecondary degree that puts a focus on liberal arts and studies.[6] In comparison, a Bachelor of Science (BS) has a greater focus on science, math, and engineering. The Bachelor of Arts degree is a type of baccalaureate degree.[7][8] A Bachelor of Arts degree is usually completed in four years: that is, it requires four years of full-time coursework during term time. However, just as with other degrees, some may require a longer time period. This is due to factors such as the students ability, motivation, and access to financial assistance to earn the degree. Just like other baccalaureate degrees, a Bachelor of Arts is historically offered only at public and private universities and colleges.[6][9][10] A Bachelor of Arts, just like other bachelors degrees, is an admission requirement for graduate and professional school. Beginning in the 1990s, junior colleges started to confer their own baccalaureate degrees. In addition to the standard BA degrees, there are career-specific Bachelor of Arts degrees, including Bachelor of Arts in Functional English, Bachelor of Arts in Administration, Bachelor of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies, and Regents Bachelor of Arts.[8] The Bachelor of Arts degree has been prominent in academics for centuries. It influenced universities to begin focusing on broad topics such as algebra, psychology, biology, art, history, and philosophy. This aspect of the BA degree has been consistent in its history. The Bachelor of Arts degree was formed out of the study of liberal arts.[6][7] Liberal art is a term that was applied to the study of many branches of learning such as grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.[7] The study of liberal arts started during the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, the term liberal art was meant to describe general studies more broadly.[6][7] This definition of liberal studies remains to this day.
Prince Kanin Naruhito. Prince Kanin Naruhito (閑院宮 愛仁親王, Kanin-no-miya Naruhito-ō; February 17, 1818 – October 20, 1842) was the 5th head of the Kanin-no-miya line of shinnōke cadet branches of the Imperial Family of Japan.[1] He became the 5th head in 1828 after the passing of Prince Kanin Tatsuhito. Because the prince had no heirs, the title of Prince Kanin lay dormant with his death. The 6th prince was Prince Kanin Kotohito, who was selected in 1872 from the branch Fushimi-no-miya. This biography of a member of the Imperial House of Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Chūgoku region. The Chūgoku region (Japanese: 中国地方, Hepburn: Chūgoku-chihō; [tɕɯꜜː.ɡo.kɯ, -ŋo.kɯ, tɕɯː.ɡo.kɯ̥ tɕiꜜ.hoː, -ŋo.kɯ̥-][3][a]), also known as the Sanin-Sanyō (山陰山陽地方, Sanin-Sanyō-chihō) region, is the westernmost region of Honshū, the largest island of Japan. It consists of the prefectures of Hiroshima, Okayama, Shimane, Tottori and Yamaguchi.[4] As of the 2020 census, it has a population of 7,328,339. Chūgoku literally means middle country, but the origin of the name is unclear. Historically, Japan was divided into a number of provinces called koku, which were in turn classified according to both their power and their distances from the administrative center in Kansai. Under the latter classification, most provinces are divided into near countries (近国, kingoku), middle countries (中国, chūgoku), and far countries (遠国, ongoku). Therefore, one explanation is that Chūgoku was originally used to refer to the collection of middle countries to the west of the capital. However, only five (fewer than half) of the provinces normally considered part of Chūgoku region were in fact classified as middle countries, and the term never applied to the many middle countries to the east of Kansai. Therefore, an alternative explanation is that Chūgoku referred to provinces between Kansai and Kyūshū, which was historically important as the link between Japan and mainland Asia. Historically, Chūgoku referred to the 16 provinces of Sanindō (山陰道) and Sanyōdō (山陽道), which led to the regions alternative name described below. However, because some of the easternmost provinces were later subsumed into prefectures based primarily in Kansai, those areas are, strictly speaking, not part of the Chūgoku region in modern usage. In Japanese, the characters 中国 and the reading Chūgoku are also used to mean China. The same characters are used in Chinese to refer to China, but pronounced Zhōngguó in Mandarin, lit. Middle Kingdom or Middle Country (Wade Giles: Chung1-kuo2). It is similar to the use of the West Country in English for a region of England. However, before the end of the Second World War, China was more commonly called shina (支那/シナ; which shares the same etymology of the word China in English) in order to avoid confusing the Chūgoku region. Due to the extensive use of this word during the Sino-Japanese War, the term shina has become an offensive word and was abandoned thereafter, and Chūgoku has since then been used instead of shina. In modern times, primarily in the tourism industry, for the same purpose, the Chūgoku region is also called the Sanin‐Sanyō region. Sanin (yin of the mountains) is the northern part facing the Sea of Japan. Sanyō (yang of the mountains) is the southern part facing the Seto Inland Sea. These names were created using the yin and yang‐based place‐naming scheme. The city of Hiroshima, the capital of the Chūgoku region, was rebuilt after being destroyed by an atomic bomb in 1945, and is now an industrial metropolis of more than one million people.
Kansai region. The Kansai region (関西地方, Kansai Chihō; [kaꜜɰ̃.sai, kaɰ̃.sai tɕiꜜ.hoː] ⓘ) or the Kinki region (近畿地方, Kinki Chihō; Japanese pronunciation: [kʲiꜜŋ.ki, kʲiŋ.ki̥ tɕiꜜ.hoː]) lies in the southern-central region of Japans main island Honshū.[3] The region includes the prefectures of Nara, Wakayama, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyōgo and Shiga, often also Mie, sometimes Fukui, Tokushima and Tottori. The metropolitan region of Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto (Keihanshin region) is the second-most populated in Japan after the Greater Tokyo Area. The terms Kansai (関西), Kinki (近畿), and Kinai (畿内) have their roots during the Asuka period. When the old provinces of Japan were established, several provinces in the area around the then-capital Yamato Province were collectively named Kinai and Kinki, both roughly meaning the neighbourhood of the capital. Kansai (literally west of the tollgate) in its original usage refers to the land west of the Osaka Tollgate (逢坂関), the border between Yamashiro Province and Ōmi Province (present-day Kyoto and Shiga prefectures).[4] During the Kamakura period, this border was redefined to include Ōmi and Iga Provinces.[4] It is not until the Edo period that Kansai came to acquire its current form.[5] (see Kamigata) While the use of the terms Kansai and Kinki have changed over history, in most modern contexts the use of the two terms is interchangeable. The term Kinai, once synonymous with Kinki, now refers to the Kyoto–Osaka–Kobe (Keihanshin) area at the center of the Kansai region. Like all regions of Japan, the Kansai region is not an administrative unit, but rather a cultural and historical one, which emerged much later during the Heian period after the expansion of Japan saw the development of the Kantō region to the east and the need to differentiate what was previously the center of Japan in Kansai emerged. The name Kinki is pronounced similarly to the English word kinky, which means twisted or perverted. This has become a problem due to internationalization, and some organizations have changed their name as a result.
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program. This is a list of winners of the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer In An Animated Program. The award was presented between 1995 and 2021. It recognized a continuing or single voice-over performance in a series or a special. The performance generally originated from a Childrens Animated, Special Class Animated Program. The youngest nominee in this category was Danica Lee, who was first nominated in 2007 at age 10 and again in 2008 at age 11. In November 2021, it was announced that all Daytime Emmy categories honoring childrens programming would be retired. This category in particular was broadened to three separate categories at the Childrens & Family Emmy Awards beginning in 2022: Outstanding Voice Performance in a Preschool Animated Program, Outstanding Voice Performance in an Animated Program and Outstanding Younger Voice Performer in an Animated or Preschool Animated Program.[1] 3 wins 2 wins
Hokkaido. Hokkaido (Japanese: 北海道, Hepburn: Hokkaidō; pronounced [hok.kaꜜi.doː] ⓘ, lit. Northern Sea Circuit; Ainu: Aynu Mosir, lit. Land of the Ainu)[2] is the second-largest and northernmost of Japans four main islands. Together with its surrounding islands, it comprises the largest and northernmost prefecture, making up its own region.[3] The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō from Honshu. The two islands are connected by railway via the Seikan Tunnel. The largest city on Hokkaido is its capital, Sapporo, which is also its only ordinance-designated city. Sakhalin lies about 43 kilometres (27 mi) to the north of Hokkaidō. To the east and northeast are the Kuril Islands, which are administered by Russia. The four most southerly are claimed by Japan. Hokkaidos position on the northern end of the Japanese archipelago results in a colder climate, with the island seeing significant snowfall each winter. Despite the harsher climate, it serves as an agricultural breadbasket for many crops. Hokkaido was formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso.[4] Although Japanese settlers ruled the southern tip of the island since the 16th century, Hokkaido was primarily inhabited by the Ainu people.[5] In 1869, following the Meiji Restoration, the entire island was annexed, colonized and renamed Hokkaido by Japan.[6][7][8][9][10][11] Japanese settlers dispossessed the Ainu of their land and forced them to assimilate.[5][9] In the 21st century, the Ainu are almost totally assimilated into Japanese society. As a result, the majority of Japanese people of Ainu descent have no knowledge of their heritage and culture.[12][13][14] When establishing the Development Commission, the Meiji government decided to change the name of Ezochi. Matsuura Takeshirō submitted six proposals, including names such as Kaihokudō (海北道) and Hokkaidō (北加伊道), to the government. The government eventually decided to use the name Hokkaidō, but decided to write it as 北海道, as a compromise between 海北道 and 北加伊道 because of the similarity with names such as Tōkaidō (東海道). According to Matsuura, the name was thought up because the Ainu called the region Kai. The kai element also strongly resembles the Onyomi, or Sino-Japanese, reading of the characters 蝦夷 (onyomi as [ka.i, カイ], kunyomi as [e.mi.ɕi, えみし]) which have been used for over a thousand years in China and Japan as the standard orthographic form to be used when referring to Ainu and related peoples; it is possible that Matsuuras kai was actually an alteration, influenced by the Sino-Japanese reading of 蝦夷 Ka-i, of the Nivkh exonym for the Ainu, namely Qoy or Gilyak pronunciation: [kʰuɣɪ].[15] In 1947, Hokkaidō became a full-fledged prefecture. The historical suffix 道 (-dō) translates to prefecture in English, ambiguously the same as 府 (-fu) for Osaka and Kyoto, and 県 (-ken) for the rest of the prefectures. Dō, as shorthand, can be used to uniquely identify Hokkaido, for example as in 道道 (dōdō, Hokkaido road)[16] or 道議会 (Dōgikai, Hokkaido Assembly),[17] the same way 都 (-to) is used for Tokyo. The prefectures government calls itself the Hokkaidō Government rather than the Hokkaidō Prefectural Government.
Honolulu.  Honolulu (/ˌhɒnəˈluːluː/ ⓘ HON-ə-LOO-loo;[8] Hawaiian: [honoˈlulu]) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, located in the Pacific Ocean. It is the county seat of the consolidated City and County of Honolulu, situated along the southeast coast of the island of Oʻahu. The population of Honolulu was 350,964 at the 2020 census,[a] while the Urban Honolulu metropolitan area has an estimated 1 million residents and is the 56th-largest metropolitan area in the nation.[5] Honolulu is Hawaiian for sheltered harbor[10] or calm port;[11] its old name, Kou, roughly encompasses the area from Nuʻuanu Avenue to Alakea Street and from Hotel Street to Queen Street, which is the heart of the present downtown district.[12] The citys desirability as a port accounts for its historical growth and importance in the Hawaiian archipelago and the broader Pacific region. Honolulu has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, firstly of the independent Hawaiian Kingdom, and since 1898 of the U.S. territory and state of Hawaii. The city gained worldwide recognition following the Empire of Japans attack on nearby Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which prompted the entry of the U.S. into World War II; the harbor remains a major U.S. Navy base, hosting the United States Pacific Fleet, the worlds largest naval command.[13] Honolulu is the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city as well as the westernmost and southernmost U.S. state capital. It is a major hub for business, finance, hospitality, and military defense in both the state and Oceania.[14][15] The city is characterized by a mix of various Asian, Western, and Pacific cultures, reflected in its diverse demography, cuisine, and traditions. Honolulus favorable tropical climate, rich natural scenery, and extensive beaches make it a popular global destination for tourists. With nearly 1.5 million visitors in 2024, Honolulu is among the ten most visited cities in the United States.[16] Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century.[17][unreliable source?] After Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikiki in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu. The capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812.
Minor Planet Center.  The Minor Planet Center (MPC) is the official body for observing and reporting on minor planets under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Founded in 1947, it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. The Minor Planet Center is the official worldwide organization in charge of collecting observational data for minor planets (such as asteroids), calculating their orbits and publishing this information via the Minor Planet Circulars. Under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, which is part of the Center for Astrophysics along with the Harvard College Observatory.[1] The MPC runs a number of free online services for observers to assist them in observing minor planets and comets.  The complete catalogue of minor planet orbits (sometimes referred to as the Minor Planet Catalogue) may also be freely downloaded. In addition to astrometric data, the MPC collects light curve photometry of minor planets. A key function of the MPC is helping observers coordinate follow up observations of possible near-Earth objects (NEOs) via its NEO web form and blog, the Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page.[2][3] The MPC is also responsible for identifying, and alerting to, new NEOs with a risk of impacting Earth in the few weeks following their discovery (see Potentially hazardous objects and § Videos).[1] The Minor Planet Center was set up at the University of Cincinnati in 1947, under the direction of Paul Herget.[4][5]: 63  Upon Hergets retirement on June 30, 1978,[5]: 67  the MPC was moved to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of Brian G. Marsden.[5]: 67  From 2006 to 2015,[6] the director of the MPC was Timothy Spahr,[7] who oversaw a staff of five. From 2015 to 2021, the Minor Planet Center was headed by interim director Matthew Holman.[8] Under his leadership, the MPC experienced a significant period of reorganization and growth, doubling both its staff size and the volume of observations processed per year. Upon Holmans resignation on February 9, 2021 (announced on February 19, 2021) Matthew Payne became acting director of the MPC.[9][10]
Critical-list minor planet. A critical-list minor planet (critical list numbered object or critical object) is a numbered minor planet for which existing measurements of the orbit and position are especially in need of improvement.[1] The IAUs Minor Planet Center (MPC) regularly publishes a list of these critical objects in their Minor Planet Electronic Circular.[2] The list typically contains asteroids that have been observed at a small number of apparitions, especially on opposition, or that have not been adequately observed for more than 10 years, while other observatories create their own, customized lists.[3] The MPC also lists currently observable critical objects on their website,[4] providing differently formatted lists of orbital elements to the worldwide astrometric community.[5] Lowell Observatory publishes their own critical list, distinctly different from the MPC, instead focusing on objects with high ephemeris uncertainty. Specifically, objects with computed ephemeris uncertainty greater than 2 arcseconds over the next 10 years, and objects whose orbits degrade significantly when temporally isolated observations are ignored, are included in the list.[3] As of December 2024[update], the MPC includes 650 objects in their observable critical list. The following list contains all critical objects within the first 100,000 numbered minor planets, the full list can be found in the MPL website:[4][6]
Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks.  Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks, or Jakers in Europe, is an animated childrens television series created and developed by Mike Young, Liz Young, Sindy McKay-Swerdlove and John Over based on an original idea by Denise Fitzpatrick and produced by Entara in association with Mike Young Productions with the animation provided by Crest Communications. The series was broadcast on PBS Kids in the United States, and on CBBC and CBeebies in the United Kingdom.[2] It was also broadcast in Australia on ABC Kids.[3] The series ran for three seasons and 52 episodes total from September 7, 2003, to January 23, 2007, with reruns airing through August 31, 2008. Reruns aired on the Qubo television network from June 30, 2012 to March 26, 2017. The show chronicles the boyhood adventures of Piggley Winks, an anthropomorphic pig from Ireland, and how he relates these stories to his grandchildren as a grandfather in the modern day.[4] Many of the stories takes place on the Winks familys farm, Raloo Farm, located in the village of Tara. Piggley and his father use the word “Jakers” express their delight when they discover something on their adventures. Notably, the show contains voiceover work by the actors Joan Rivers and Mel Brooks. Jakers! takes place in two different settings, in two different time periods. In the present time (the frame story), Piggley Winks (Peadar Lamb, Maile Flanagan as a young boy) lives in the United States and tells stories of his childhood in rural Ireland to his three grandchildren (Nika Futterman and Melissa Disney). In flashbacks, he is seen as a child, playing and adventuring with his friends such as Ferny Toro the bull (Russi Taylor) and Dannan O’Mallard (Tara Strong) and going to school in 1950s. Most of the main characters are anthropomorphic animals—including Piggley and his family, who are all pigs. However, there are normal, non-anthropomorphic animals in the show as well.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory.  The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) in La Cañada Flintridge, California, Crescenta Valley, United States.[1] Founded in 1936 by California Institute of Technology (Caltech) researchers, the laboratory is now owned and sponsored by NASA and administered and managed by Caltech.[2][3] The primary function of the laboratory is the construction and operation of planetary robotic spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN). Among the major active projects at the laboratory, some are the Mars 2020 mission, which includes the Perseverance rover; the Mars Science Laboratory mission, including the Curiosity rover; the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter; the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter; the SMAP satellite for Earth surface soil moisture monitoring; the NuSTAR X-ray telescope; and the Psyche asteroid orbiter. It is also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System bodies. JPLs Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks.[4]
Boston College.  Boston College (BC) is a private Catholic Jesuit research university in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1863 by the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order, the university has more than 15,000 total students.[7] Boston College was originally located in the South End of Boston before moving most of its campus to Chestnut Hill in 1907. Its main campus is a historic district and features some of the earliest examples of collegiate gothic architecture in North America. The campus is 6 miles west of downtown Boston. It offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctoral degrees through its nine colleges and schools. Boston College is classified as a Research 1: Very High Research Spending and Doctorate Production university by the Carnegie Classification.[8] Boston College athletic teams are the Eagles. Their colors are maroon and gold and their mascot is Baldwin the Eagle. The Eagles compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference in all sports offered by the ACC. The mens and womens ice hockey teams compete in Hockey East. Boston Colleges mens ice hockey team has won five national championships.[9] Alumni and affiliates of the university include governors, ambassadors, members of Congress, scholars, writers, medical researchers, Hollywood actors, and professional athletes.[10] Boston College alumni include three Rhodes, 22 Truman, and 171 Fulbright scholars.[11][12][13][14]
Japanese Paleolithic. The Japanese Paleolithic period (旧石器時代, kyūsekki jidai) is the period of human inhabitation in Japan predating the development of pottery, generally before 10,000 BC.[1] The starting dates commonly given to this period are from around 40,000 BC,[2] with recent authors suggesting that there is good evidence for habitation from c. 36,000 BC onwards.[3] The period extended to the beginning of the Mesolithic Jōmon period, or around 14,000 BC.[4] The study of the Paleolithic period in Japan did not begin until quite recently: the first Paleolithic site was not discovered until 1946, after the end of World War II.[1] Due to the previous assumption that humans did not live in Japan before the Jōmon period, excavations usually stopped at the beginning of the Jōmon stratum (14,000 BC), and were not carried on further. However, since that first Paleolithic find by Tadahiro Aizawa, around 5,000 Paleolithic sites have been discovered, some of them at existing Jōmon archaeological sites, and some dating to the Pleistocene era. Sites have been discovered from southern Kyushu to northern Hokkaido, but most are small and only stone tools have been preserved due to the high acidity of the Japanese soil. As the Paleolithic peoples probably occupied the wide coastal shelves exposed by lower sea levels during the Pleistocene, the majority of sites are most likely inundated.[1] The study of the Japanese Paleolithic period is characterized by a high level of stratigraphic information due to the volcanic nature of the archipelago: large eruptions tend to cover the islands with levels of Volcanic ash, which are easily datable and can be found throughout the country as a reference. A very important such layer is the AT (Aira-Tanzawa) pumice, which covered all Japan around 21,000–22,000 years ago. In 2000, the reputation of Japanese archaeology of the Paleolithic was heavily damaged by a scandal, which has become known as the Japanese Paleolithic hoax. The Mainichi Shimbun reported the photos in which Shinichi Fujimura, an amateur archaeologist in Miyagi Prefecture, had been planting artifacts at the Kamitakamori site, where he found the artifacts the next day. He admitted the fabrication in an interview with the newspaper. The Japanese Archaeological Association disaffiliated Fujimura from its members. A special investigation team of the Association revealed that almost all the artifacts which he had found were his fabrication. Since the discovery of the hoax, only a few sites can tentatively date human activity in Japan to 40,000–50,000 BC, and the first widely accepted date of human presence on the archipelago can be reliably dated c. 35,000 BC.[5] One of the most important sites dating to these times is Lake Nojiri, which dates to 37,900 years Before Present (~36,000 BC), which shows evidence of butchery of two of the largest extinct megafauna species native to Japan, the elephant Palaeoloxodon naumanni, and the giant deer Sinomegaceros yabei.[3]
Tokyo Skytree.  Tokyo Skytree (東京スカイツリー, Tōkyō Sukaitsurī; [toːkʲoː sɯ̥kaitsɯriː] ⓘ), also written as Tokyo Sky Tree, is a broadcasting and observation tower, located in Sumida, Tokyo, Japan. It has been the tallest tower in Japan since opening in 2012,[2] and reached its full height of 634 m (2,080 ft) in early 2011, making it the tallest tower in the world, displacing the Canton Tower,[3][4] and the third tallest structure in the world behind Merdeka 118 (678.9 m or 2,227 ft) and Burj Khalifa (829.8 m or 2,722 ft).[5][a] The tower is the primary television and radio broadcast site for the Kantō region; the older Tokyo Tower no longer gives complete digital terrestrial television broadcasting coverage because it is surrounded by high-rise buildings. Skytree was completed on Leap Day, 29 February 2012, with the tower opening to the public on 22 May 2012.[6] The tower is the centerpiece of a large commercial development funded by Tobu Railway (which owns the complex) and a group of six terrestrial broadcasters headed by NHK. Trains stop at the adjacent Tokyo Skytree Station and nearby Oshiage Station. The complex is 7 km (4.3 mi) northeast of Tokyo Station. Sumida Aquarium is in the Tokyo Solamachi complex. The towers design was published on 24 November 2006,[7] based on the following three concepts: The base of the tower has a structure similar to a tripod; from a height of about 350 m (1,150 ft) and above, the towers structure is cylindrical to offer panoramic views of the river and the city.[10] There are observatories at 350 m (1,150 ft), with a capacity of up to 2,000 people, and 450 m (1,480 ft), with a capacity of 900 people.[11] The upper observatory features a spiral, glass-covered skywalk in which visitors ascend the last 5 m (16 ft) to the highest point at the upper platform. A section of glass flooring gives visitors a direct downward view of the streets below.[12]
Lowell Observatory.   Lowell Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States. Lowell Observatory was established in 1894, placing it among the oldest observatories in the United States, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965.[2][3] In 2011, the Observatory was named one of The Worlds 100 Most Important Places by Time magazine.[4] It was at the Lowell Observatory that the dwarf planet Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh. The observatory was founded by astronomer Percival Lowell of Bostons Lowell family and is overseen by a sole trustee, a position historically handed down through the family. The first trustee was Lowells third cousin Guy Lowell (1916–1927). Percivals nephew Roger Putnam served from 1927 to 1967, followed by Rogers son Michael (1967–1987), Michaels brother William Lowell Putnam III (1987–2013), and current trustee W. Lowell Putnam. Multiple astronauts attended the Lowell Observatory in 1963 while the Moon was being mapped for the Apollo Program.[4]
Kanji.  Kanji (/ˈkændʒi, ˈkɑːn-/;[1] Japanese: 漢字, pronounced [kaɲ.dʑi] ⓘ) are logographic Chinese characters, adapted from Chinese script, used in the writing of Japanese.[2] They comprised a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese and are still used, along with the subsequently derived syllabic scripts of hiragana and katakana.[3][4] The characters have Japanese pronunciations; most have two, with one based on the Chinese sound. A few characters were invented in Japan by constructing character components derived from other Chinese characters. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan made its own efforts to simplify the characters, now known as shinjitai, by a process similar to Chinas simplification efforts, with the intention to increase literacy among the general public. Since the 1920s, the Japanese government has published character lists periodically to help direct the education of its citizenry through the myriad Chinese characters that exist. There are nearly 3,000 kanji used in Japanese names and in common communication. The term kanji in Japanese literally means Han characters.[5] Japanese kanji and Chinese hanzi (traditional Chinese: 漢字; simplified Chinese: 汉字; pinyin: hànzì; lit. Han characters) share a common foundation.[6] The significant use of Chinese characters in Japan first began to take hold around the 5th century AD and has since had a profound influence in shaping Japanese culture, language, literature, history, and records.[7] Inkstone artifacts at archaeological sites dating back to the earlier Yayoi period were also found to contain Chinese characters.[8] Although some characters, as used in Japanese and Chinese, have similar meanings and pronunciations, others have meanings or pronunciations that are unique to one language or the other. For example, 誠 means honest in both languages but is pronounced makoto or sei in Japanese, and chéng in Standard Mandarin Chinese. Individual kanji characters and multi-kanji words invented in Japan from Chinese morphemes have been borrowed into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese in recent times. These are known as Wasei-kango, or Japanese-made Chinese words. For example, the word for telephone, 電話 denwa in Japanese, was derived from the Chinese words for electric and conversation. It was then calqued as diànhuà in Mandarin Chinese, điện thoại in Vietnamese and 전화 jeonhwa in Korean.[9] Chinese characters first came to Japan on official seals, letters, swords, coins, mirrors, and other decorative items imported from China.[10] The earliest known instance of such an import was the King of Na gold seal given by Emperor Guangwu of Han to a Wa emissary in 57 AD.[11] Chinese coins as well as inkstones from the first century AD have also been found in Yayoi period archaeological sites.[7][8] However, the Japanese people of that era probably had little to no comprehension of the script, and they would remain relatively illiterate until the fifth century AD, when writing in Japan became more widespread.[7] According to the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki, a semi-legendary scholar called Wani was dispatched to Japan by the Kingdom of Baekje during the reign of Emperor Ōjin in the early fifth century, bringing with him knowledge of Confucianism and Chinese characters.[12]
List of minor planets.  The following is a list of minor planets in ascending numerical order. Minor planets are small bodies in the Solar System: asteroids, distant objects, and dwarf planets, but not comets. As of 2022, the vast majority (97.3%) are asteroids from the asteroid belt. Their discoveries are certified by the Minor Planet Center, which assigns them numbers on behalf of the International Astronomical Union. Every year, the Center publishes thousands of newly numbered minor planets in its Minor Planet Circulars (see index).[1][2] As of August 2025[update], the 847,427 numbered minor planets made up more than half of the 1,460,349 observed small Solar System bodies, of which the rest were unnumbered minor planets and comets.[3] The catalogs first object is 1 Ceres, discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801, while its best-known entry is Pluto, listed as 134340 Pluto. Both are among the 3.1% of numbered minor planets with names, mostly of people, places, and figures from mythology and fiction.[4] (4596) 1981 QB and 826631 Frascati are currently the lowest-numbered unnamed and highest-numbered named minor planets, respectively.[1][4] There are more than a thousand minor-planet discoverers observing from a growing list of registered observatories. The most prolific discoverers are Spacewatch, LINEAR, MLS, NEAT and CSS. It is expected that the upcoming survey by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory will discover another 5 million minor planets during the next ten years—almost a tenfold increase from current numbers.[5] While all main-belt asteroids with a diameter above 10 km (6.2 mi) have been discovered, there might be as many as 10 trillion 1 m (3.3 ft)-sized asteroids or larger out to the orbit of Jupiter; and more than a trillion minor planets in the Kuiper belt.[5][6] For minor planets grouped by a particular aspect or property, see § Specific lists. The list of minor planets consists of more than 700 partial lists, each containing 1000 minor planets grouped into 10 tables. The data is sourced from the Minor Planet Center (MPC) and expanded with data from the JPL SBDB (mean-diameter), Johnstons archive (sub-classification) and others (see detailed field descriptions below). For an overview of all existing partial lists, see § Main index.
Strait (surname). People with the surname Strait include:
Marine habitat.  A marine habitat is a habitat that supports marine life. Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that is in the sea (the term marine comes from the Latin mare, meaning sea or ocean). A habitat is an ecological or environmental area inhabited by one or more living  species.[1] The marine environment supports many kinds of these habitats. Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from as far as the tide comes in on the shoreline out to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal zones. Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish. Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish. Pelagic habitats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing. Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp, mangroves and seagrasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms. By volume the ocean provides most of the habitable space on the planet.[2]
Straits (disambiguation). Straits are waterways that connect two larger bodies of water. It may also refer to:
Mount Fuji.  Mount Fuji[a] (富士山・富士の山, Fujisan, Fuji no Yama[b]) is an active stratovolcano located on the Japanese island of Honshu, with a summit elevation of 3,776.24 m (12,389 ft 3 in). It is the highest mountain in Japan, the second-highest volcano on any Asian island (after Mount Kerinci on the Indonesian island of Sumatra), and seventh-highest peak of an island on Earth.[1] Mount Fuji last erupted from 1707 to 1708.[7][8] It is located about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Tokyo, from where it is visible on clear days. Its exceptionally symmetrical cone, which is covered in snow for about five months of the year, is a Japanese cultural icon and is frequently depicted in art and photography, as well as visited by sightseers, hikers, and mountain climbers.[9] Mount Fuji is one of Japans Three Holy Mountains (三霊山, Sanreizan) along with Mount Tate and Mount Haku. It is a Special Place of Scenic Beauty and one of Japans Historic Sites.[10] It was added to the World Heritage List as a Cultural Site on June 22, 2013.[10] According to UNESCO, Mount Fuji has inspired artists and poets and been the object of pilgrimage for centuries. UNESCO recognizes 25 sites of cultural interest within the Mount Fuji locality. These 25 locations include Mount Fuji and the Shinto shrine, Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha.[11] The current kanji for Mount Fuji, 富 and 士, mean wealth or abundant and man of status respectively. The origins of this spelling and the name Fuji continue to be debated. In Japanese, kanji characters are often applied by sound, and the meaning of the kanji may have nothing to do with the name of the mountain. Mt. Fuji was called Fuji before the kanji was applied to it.[12]
Strait of Gibraltar.  The Strait of Gibraltar[1] is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Europe from Africa. The two continents are separated by 7.7 nautical miles (14.2 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point.[2] Ferries cross between the two continents every day in as little as 35 minutes. The Straits depth ranges between 300 and 900 metres (980 and 2,950 feet; 160 and 490 fathoms).[3] The strait lies in the territorial waters of Morocco, Spain, and the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, foreign vessels and aircraft have the freedom of navigation and overflight to cross the strait of Gibraltar in case of continuous transit. The name comes from the Rock of Gibraltar, which in turn originates from the Arabic Jabal Ṭāriq (meaning Tariqs Mount),[4] named after Tariq ibn Ziyad. It is also known as the Straits of Gibraltar, the Gut of Gibraltar (although this is mostly archaic),[5] the STROG (STRait Of Gibraltar) in naval use.[6] Another Arabic name is Bāb al-maghrib (Arabic: باب المغرب), meaning Gate of the West or Gate of the sunset, and furthermore Gate of the Maghreb or Gate of Morocco.[citation needed] In the Middle Ages it was called in Arabic Az-Zuqāq (الزقاق the Passage), or bḥar az-zuqāq (بحر الزقاق the passage sea) and by the Romans Fretum Gaditanum (Strait of Cadiz).[7]
Alice in Wonderland (disambiguation). Alices Adventures in Wonderland (also known as Alice in Wonderland for short) is a 1865 novel by Lewis Carroll. Alice in Wonderland may also refer to:
History of Japan.  The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to the Paleolithic, around 38–39,000 years ago.[1] The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inventions were introduced from Asia. During this period, the first known written reference to Japan was recorded in the Chinese Book of Han in the first century AD. Around the 3rd century BC, the Yayoi people from the continent immigrated to the Japanese archipelago and introduced iron technology and agricultural civilization.[2] Because they had an agricultural civilization, the population of the Yayoi began to grow rapidly and ultimately overwhelmed the Jōmon people, natives of the Japanese archipelago who were hunter-gatherers.[3] Between the 4th and 9th centuries, Japans many kingdoms and tribes were gradually unified under a centralized government, nominally controlled by the Emperor of Japan. The imperial dynasty established at this time continues to this day, albeit in an almost entirely ceremonial role. In 794, a new imperial capital was established at Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), marking the beginning of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered a golden age of classical Japanese culture. Japanese religious life from this time and onwards was a mix of native Shinto practices and Buddhism. Over the following centuries, the power of the imperial house decreased, passing first to great clans of civilian aristocrats — most notably the Fujiwara — and then to the military clans and their armies of samurai. The Minamoto clan under Minamoto no Yoritomo emerged victorious from the Genpei War of 1180–85, defeating their rival military clan, the Taira. After seizing power, Yoritomo set up his capital in Kamakura and took the title of shōgun. In 1274 and 1281, the Kamakura shogunate withstood two Mongol invasions, but in 1333 it was toppled by a rival claimant to the shogunate, ushering in the Muromachi period. During this period, regional warlords called daimyō grew in power at the expense of the shōgun. Eventually, Japan descended into a period of civil war. Over the course of the late 16th century, Japan was reunified under the leadership of the prominent daimyō Oda Nobunaga and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After Toyotomis death in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu came to power and was appointed shōgun by the emperor. The Tokugawa shogunate, which governed from Edo (modern Tokyo), presided over a prosperous and peaceful era known as the Edo period (1600–1868). The Tokugawa shogunate imposed a strict class system on Japanese society and cut off almost all contact with the outside world. Portugal and Japan came into contact in 1543, when the Portuguese became the first Europeans to reach Japan by landing in the southern archipelago. They had a significant impact on Japan, even in this initial limited interaction, introducing firearms to Japanese warfare. The American Perry Expedition in 1853–54 ended Japans seclusion; this contributed to the fall of the shogunate and the return of power to the emperor during the Boshin War in 1868. The new national leadership of the following Meiji era (1868–1912) transformed the isolated feudal island country into an empire that closely followed Western models and became a great power. Although democracy developed and modern civilian culture prospered during the Taishō period (1912–1926), Japans powerful military had great autonomy and overruled Japans civilian leaders in the 1920s and 1930s. The Japanese military invaded Manchuria in 1931, and from 1937 the conflict escalated into a prolonged war with China. Japans attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to war with the United States and its allies. During this period, Japan committed various war crimes in the Asia-Pacific ranging from forced sexual slavery, human experimentation and large scale killings and massacres. Japans forces soon became overextended, but the military held out in spite of Allied air attacks that inflicted severe damage on population centers. Emperor Hirohito announced Japans surrender on 15 August 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.
Jōmon period. In Japanese history, the Jōmon period (縄文時代, Jōmon jidai) is the time between c. 14,000 and 300 BCE,[1][2][3] during which Japan was inhabited by the Jōmon people, a diverse hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist population united by a common culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. The name cord-marked was first applied by the American zoologist and orientalist Edward S. Morse, who discovered sherds of pottery in 1877 and subsequently translated straw-rope pattern into Japanese as Jōmon.[4] The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in the world.[5] The Jōmon period was rich in tools and jewelry made from bone, stone, shell and antler; pottery figurines and vessels; and lacquerware.[6][7][8][9] It is often compared to pre-Columbian cultures of the North American Pacific Northwest and especially to the Valdivia culture in Ecuador because in these settings cultural complexity developed within a primarily hunting-gathering context with limited use of horticulture.[10][11][12][13] Pottery may have originated earlier, as Jōmon period hunter-gatherers crafted the world’s oldest known ceramics around 14,500 BC.[14] The approximately 14,000-year Jōmon period is conventionally divided into several phases, progressively shorter: Incipient (13,750–8,500 BC), Initial (8,500–5,000), Early (5,000–3,520), Middle (3,520–2,470), Late (2,470–1,250), and Final (1,250–500).[15] The fact that this entire period is given the same name by archaeologists should not be taken to mean that there was not considerable regional and temporal diversity; the time between the earliest Jōmon pottery and that of the more well-known Middle Jōmon period is about twice as long as the span separating the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza from the 21st century. Dating of the Jōmon sub-phases is based primarily upon ceramic typology, and to a lesser extent radiocarbon dating.
Administrative division. Administrative divisions[1] (also administrative units,[2][3][4] administrative regions,[5] subnational entities, or constituent states, as well as many similar generic terms) are geographical areas into which a particular independent sovereign state is divided. Such a unit usually has an administrative authority with the power to take administrative or policy decisions for its area.[3] Administrative divisions are often used as polygons in geospatial analysis.[6] Usually, sovereign states have several levels of administrative division. Common names for the principal (largest) administrative divisions include: states (subnational states, rather than sovereign states), provinces, lands, oblasts and regions. These in turn are often subdivided into smaller administrative units known by names such as comarcas, raions or districts, which are further subdivided into municipalities, communes or communities constituting the smallest units of subdivision (the local governments). Some administrative division names (such as departments, cantons, prefectures, counties or governorates) can be used for principal, second-level, or third-level divisions. The levels of administrative divisions and their structure largely varies by country (and sometimes within a single country). Usually the smaller the country is (by area or population), the fewer levels of administrative divisions it has. For example, Vatican City does not have any administrative subdivisions, and Monaco has only one level (both are city-states), while such countries as France and Pakistan have five levels each. The United States is composed of states, possessions, territories, and a federal district, each with varying numbers of subdivisions. The principal administrative division of a country is sometimes called the first-level (or first-order) administrative division or first administrative level. Its next subdivision might be called second-level administrative division or second administrative level and so on.[1][4][7] An alternative terminology is provided by the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics which terms the principal division as the second level or NUTS-2. Administrative divisions are conceptually separate from dependent territories, with the former being an integral part of the state and the other being only under some lesser form of control. However, the term administrative division can include dependent territories as well as accepted administrative divisions (for example, in geographical databases).[citation needed]
Unitary state. A unitary state is a (sovereign) state governed as a single entity in which the central government is the supreme authority. The central government may create or abolish administrative divisions (sub-national or sub-state units). Such units exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. Although political power may be delegated through devolution to regional or local governments by statute, the central government may alter the statute, to override the decisions of devolved governments or expand their powers. The modern unitary state concept originated in France; in the aftermath of the Hundred Years War, national feelings that emerged from the war unified France. The war accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a unitary state. The French then later spread unitary states by conquests, throughout Europe during and after the Napoleonic Wars, and to the world through the vast French colonial empire.[1] Presently, prefects remain an illustration of the French unitary state system, as the representatives of the State in each department, tasked with upholding central government policies. Unitary states stand in contrast to federations, also known as federal states. A large majority of the UN member countries, 166 out of 193, have a unitary system of government, while significant population and land mass is under some kind of federation.[2] A unitary system of government can be considered to be the opposite of federalism. In federations, the provincial/regional governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments. This means that the sub-national units have a right to existence and powers that cannot be unilaterally changed by the central government.[3] Italics: States with limited recognition from other sovereign states or intergovernmental organizations.
Kagawa Prefecture.  Kagawa Prefecture (香川県, Kagawa-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [kaꜜ.ɡa.wa, -ŋa.wa, ka.ɡa.waꜜ.keɴ, -ŋa.waꜜ-][4]) is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Shikoku.[5] Kagawa Prefecture has a population of 949,358 (as of 2020)[2] and is the smallest prefecture by geographic area at 1,877 square kilometres (725 sq mi).[1] Kagawa Prefecture borders Ehime Prefecture to the southwest and Tokushima Prefecture to the south. Takamatsu is the capital and largest city of Kagawa Prefecture,[6] with other major cities including Marugame, Mitoyo, and Kanonji. Kagawa Prefecture is located on the Seto Inland Sea across from Okayama Prefecture on the island of Honshu, which is connected by the Great Seto Bridge. Kagawa Prefecture includes Shōdoshima, the second-largest island in the Seto Inland Sea, and the prefectures southern land border with Tokushima Prefecture is formed by the Sanuki Mountains. Kagawa was formerly known as Sanuki Province.[7] For a brief period between August 1876 and December 1888, Kagawa was made a part of Ehime Prefecture.[8]
Tottori Prefecture. Tottori Prefecture (鳥取県, Tottori-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [tot.to.ɾʲi, tot.to.ɾʲiꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region of Honshu.[3] Tottori Prefecture is the least populous prefecture of Japan at 538,525 (2023) and has a geographic area of 3,507.13 square kilometres (1,354.11 sq mi). Tottori Prefecture borders Shimane Prefecture to the west, Hiroshima Prefecture to the southwest, Okayama Prefecture to the south, and Hyōgo Prefecture to the east. Tottori is the capital and largest city of Tottori Prefecture, with other major cities including Yonago, Kurayoshi, and Sakaiminato.[4] Tottori Prefecture is home to the Tottori Sand Dunes, the largest sand dunes system in Japan, and Mount Daisen, the highest peak in the Chūgoku Mountains. The word Tottori in Japanese is formed from two kanji characters. The first, 鳥, means bird and the second, 取 means to get. Early residents in the area made their living catching the regions plentiful waterfowl. The name first appears in the Nihon shoki in the 23rd year of the Emperor Suinin (213 AD) when Yukuha Tana, an elder from the Izumo, visits the emperor. The imperial Prince Homatsu-wake was unable to speak, despite being 30 years of age. Yukuha Tana presented the swan to the emperor. Homatsu-wake no Mikoto played with this swan and at last learned to speak. Therefore, Yukaha Tana was liberally rewarded, and was granted the title of Tottori no Miyakko. (Aston, translation)[5] Tottori Prefecture was settled very early in the prehistoric period of Japan, as evidenced by remains from the Jōmon period (14,000 – 300 BC).[6] The prefecture has the remains of the largest known Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD) settlement in Japan, the Mukibanda Yayoi remains, located in the low foothills of Mount Daisen[7] in the cities of Daisen and Yonago.[8] Numerous kofun tumuli from the Kofun period (250 – 538) are located across the prefecture.[9] In 645, under the Taika reforms, the area in present-day Tottori Prefecture became two provinces, Hōki and Inaba.[10]
John Tenniel.  John Tenniel (/ˈtɛniəl/;[1] 28 February 1820 – 25 February 1914)[2] was an English illustrator, graphic humourist and political cartoonist prominent in the second half of the 19th century. An alumnus of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, he was knighted for artistic achievements in 1893, the first such honour ever bestowed on an illustrator or cartoonist. Tenniel is remembered mainly as the principal political cartoonist for Punch magazine for over 50 years and for his illustrations to Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (1871). Tenniels detailed black-and-white drawings remain the definitive depiction of the Alice characters, with comic book illustrator and writer Bryan Talbot stating, Carroll never describes the Mad Hatter: our image of him is pure Tenniel.[3] Tenniel was born in Bayswater, West London, to John Baptist Tenniel, a fencing and dancing master of Huguenot descent,[4][5] and Eliza Maria Tenniel. Tenniel had five siblings; two brothers and three sisters. One sister, Mary, was later to marry Thomas Goodwin Green, owner of the pottery that produced Cornishware. Tenniel was a quiet and introverted person, both as a boy and as an adult. He was content to remain firmly out of the limelight and seemed unaffected by competition or change. His biographer Rodney Engen wrote that Tenniels life and career was that of the supreme gentlemanly outside, living on the edge of respectability.[6] In 1840, Tenniel, while practising fencing, received a serious eye wound from his fathers foil, which had accidentally lost its protective tip. Over the years, Tenniel gradually lost sight in his right eye;[7] he never told his father of the severity of the wound, as he did not wish to upset him further.[8]
Literary nonsense.  Literary nonsense (or nonsense literature) is a broad categorization of literature that balances elements that make sense with some that do not, with the effect of subverting language conventions or logical reasoning.[1] Even though the most well-known form of literary nonsense is nonsense verse, the genre is present in many forms of literature. The effect of nonsense is often caused by an excess of meaning, rather than a lack of it. Its humor is derived from its nonsensical nature, rather than wit or the joke of a punch line.[2] Literary nonsense, as recognized since the nineteenth century, comes from a combination of two broad artistic sources. The first and older source is the oral folk tradition, including games, songs, dramas, and rhymes, such as the nursery rhyme Hey Diddle Diddle.[3] The literary figure Mother Goose represents common incarnations of this style of writing. The second, newer source of literary nonsense is in the intellectual absurdities of court poets, scholars, and intellectuals of various kinds. These writers often created sophisticated nonsense forms of Latin parodies, religious travesties, and political satire, though these texts are distinguished from more pure satire and parody by their exaggerated nonsensical effects.[4]
Time zone.   A time zone is an area which observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial and social purposes. Time zones tend to follow the boundaries between countries and their subdivisions instead of strictly following longitude, because it is convenient for areas in frequent communication to keep the same time. Each time zone is defined by a standard offset from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The offsets range from UTC−12:00 to UTC+14:00, and are usually a whole number of hours, but a few zones are offset by an additional 30 or 45 minutes, such as in India and Nepal. Some areas in a time zone may use a different offset for part of the year, typically one hour ahead during spring and summer, a practice known as daylight saving time (DST). In the table below, the locations that use daylight saving time (DST) are listed in their UTC offset when DST is not in effect. When DST is in effect, approximately during spring and summer, their UTC offset is increased by one hour (except for Lord Howe Island, where it is increased by 30 minutes). For example, during the DST period California observes UTC−07:00 and the United Kingdom observes UTC+01:00.
Kujūkuri Beach. Kujūkuri Beach (九十九里浜, Kujūkuri-hama) is a sandy beach that occupies much of the northeast coast of the Bōsō Peninsula in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.[1][2] Kujūkuri Beach is a popular swimming and surfing destination for inhabitants of Greater Tokyo.[3][4] The beach is protected as part of Kujūkuri Prefectural Natural Park.[1] The beach is approximately 60 kilometres (37 mi) long, making it the second longest beach in Japan.[5] Kujūkuri Beach extends in the shape of an arc from Cape Gyōbumi in Asahi to the north to Cape Taitō in Isumi, Chiba Prefecture to the south.[4][6] The beach is relatively straight, in contrast to the typically irregular coastlines of Japan.[7] The tides and the Kuroshio Current create sand deposits along the length of the beach which form sand dunes of 4 metres (13 ft) to 6 metres (20 ft).[1] Kujūkuri Beach has no reef.[7] The coastal region of the beach is the north-eastern end of Kuroshio Current influence in Japan. Kujūkuri Beach extends across ten municipalities in Chiba Prefecture. They include:
Keiyō Industrial Zone. Keiyō Industrial Zone (京葉工業地域, Keiyō Kōgyō Chiiki),[1] also known as the Keiyō Industrial Region, the Keiyō Industrial Area, or the Keiyō Industrial Belt, is an industrial zone on the northeastern coast of Tokyo Bay that crosses 8 cities in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. The zone spans from the western part of Urayasu in the northeast to Futtsu in the southeast of the region. The zone has no political or administrative status.[2] The name of the industrial zone is formed from two kanji characters. The first, 京, means capital city and refers to Tokyo. The second, 葉, meaning leaf, is the second kanji in Chiba and refers to Chiba Prefecture, and the compound refers to the Tokyo-Chiba region.[3] The Keiyō Industrial Zone spans the coast of Tokyo Bay from Urayasu in the northeast, through Funabashi, Chiba City, Kisarazu, Kimitsu, Ichihara, Sodegaura, and ends in Futtsu to the southeast. Numerous small rivers empty into the industrial region, and provide a source of water to support industry. They include the Edo River, the Yōrō River, and the Koito River. Before industrialization the Keiyō region was originally home to nori seaweed collection, the shellfish industry, mixed small-scale fishing and agricultural villages, and beach resorts.[4] The Keihin region, spanning west from Tokyo to Yokohama, was developed after World War I. With the rapid development of the defense industry in Japan from the beginning of the Shōwa period in 1926, a plan for the decentralization of industry from the immediate Tokyo area was planned in 1935. The Keiyō Industrial Region was fully developed after World War II. Some land reclamation had been carried out in coastal areas of Tokyo Bay as part of the industrialization of Japan in the early 20th century. Reclaimed land areas replaced traditional fishing areas and supported small factories. The construction of the Kawasaki Steel Works in Chiba City in 1953 marked the beginning of the large-scale construction of heavy industry infrastructure in the industrial zone,[5] and other industries soon followed. The deepwater ports of the Keiyō Industrial Zone were built starting in the 1950s. Thermal power generators were built,[6] and large tracts of land were reclaimed from the bay for expansion of the Keiyō region. Keiyō was significantly expanded in the 1960s. Heavy metal and chemical production were among the highest in Japan by the 1970s. The zone is a major base for the electric power generation, petrochemical, petroleum, shipbuilding, logistics, shipping, and steel industries.[7] The Port of Chiba is a major component to the Keiyō Industrial Region.
Lewis Carroll.  Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (27 January 1832 – 14 January 1898), better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English author, poet, mathematician, photographer and reluctant Anglican deacon. His most notable works are Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass (1871). He was noted for his facility with word play, logic, and fantasy. His poems Jabberwocky (1871) and The Hunting of the Snark (1876) are classified in the genre of literary nonsense. Some of Alices nonsensical wonderland logic reflects his published work on mathematical logic. Carroll came from a family of high-church Anglicans, and pursued his clerical training at Christ Church, Oxford, where he lived for most of his life as a scholar, teacher and (necessarily for his academic fellowship at the time) Anglican deacon. Alice Liddell – a daughter of Henry Liddell, the Dean of Christ Church – is widely identified as the original inspiration for Alice in Wonderland, though Carroll always denied this. An avid puzzler, Carroll created the word ladder puzzle, which he called Doublets and published in his weekly column for Vanity Fair magazine between 1879 and 1881. In 1982 a memorial stone to Carroll was unveiled at Poets Corner in Westminster Abbey. There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works.[1][2] Dodgsons family background was predominantly northern English, conservative, and high-church Anglican. Most of his male ancestors were army officers or Anglican clergymen. His great-grandfather, Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin in rural Ireland.[3] His paternal grandfather, also named Charles, was an army captain fatality of the Irish rebellion of 1803, when his two sons were hardly more than babies.[4] The elder of these sons, yet another Charles Dodgson, was Carrolls father. He went to Rugby School and then to Christ Church, a constituent college of the University of Oxford.[5] He reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career. Instead, he became a country parson.[6][7]
Cape Inubō. Cape Inubō (犬吠埼, Inubōsaki) is a cape on the Pacific Ocean, in Chōshi, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. The cape is near the midpoint of the Japanese Archipelago on the island of Honshū. The name of the cape is constructed from two Chinese characters, the first (犬) meaning dog, and the second (吠) meaning howling. Various traditions exist as to the origin of the name, one being that when Minamoto no Yoshitsunes pet dog Wakamaru was left behind on the peninsula, he howled for seven days and nights. Another explanation is that the region was home to numerous Japanese sea lions, whose barking voice resembles that of a dog. The name may also be of ancient Ainu origin.[1] Cape Inubō is technically a small peninsula, but is customarily referred to as a cape. While references exist to the Inubō Peninsula, the name has fallen out of use. An extensive marine cave exists in the reef areas under the lighthouse. The cape forms the easternmost point in Chiba Prefecture, close to the mouth of the Tone River. It is part of Suigo-Tsukuba Quasi-National Park. Cape Inubō is noted for its Inubōsaki Lighthouse, built in 1874. It is notable as one of the few lighthouses whose original lens was a first order Fresnel lens, the strongest type of Fresnel lens.  It is a Registered Tangible Cultural Property of Japan. Cape Inubō is mentioned in numerous literary works. Markers related to the poems of Shōwa period author Kyoshi Takahama (1874 – 1959) and Naturalist tanka poet Bokusui Wakayama (1885 – 1928) are on the cape.[2]
Romanization of Japanese. The romanization of Japanese is the use of Latin script to write the Japanese language.[1] This method of writing is sometimes referred to in Japanese as rōmaji (ローマ字; lit. Roman letters, [ɾoːma(d)ʑi] ⓘ or [ɾoːmaꜜ(d)ʑi]). Japanese is normally written in a combination of logographic characters borrowed from Chinese (kanji) and syllabic scripts (kana) that also ultimately derive from Chinese characters. There are several different romanization systems. The three main ones are Hepburn romanization, Kunrei-shiki romanization (ISO 3602) and Nihon-shiki romanization (ISO 3602 Strict). Variants of the Hepburn system are the most widely used. Romanized Japanese may be used in any context where Japanese text is targeted at non-Japanese speakers who cannot read kanji or kana, such as for names on street signs and passports and in dictionaries and textbooks for foreign learners of the language. It is also used to transliterate Japanese terms in text written in English (or other languages that use the Latin script) on topics related to Japan, such as linguistics, literature, history, and culture. All Japanese who have attended elementary school since World War II have been taught to read and write romanized Japanese. Therefore, almost all Japanese can read and write Japanese by using rōmaji. However, it is extremely rare in Japan to use it to write Japanese (except as an input tool on a computer or for special purposes such as logo design), and most Japanese are more comfortable in reading kanji and kana.
Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow.  Pokémon Red Version and Pokémon Blue Version are 1996 role-playing video games (RPGs) developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy. They are the first installments of the Pokémon video game series, and were first released in Japan as Pocket Monsters Red[a] and Pocket Monsters Green,[b] followed by the special edition Pocket Monsters Blue[c] later that year. The games were released internationally in 1998 and 1999 as Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue, while an enhanced version named Pokémon Yellow Version: Special Pikachu Edition,[d][e] was released in Japan in 1998 and in other regions in 1999 and 2000. The player controls the protagonist from an overhead perspective and navigates the fictional region of Kanto in a quest to master Pokémon battling. The goal is to become the champion of the Indigo League by defeating the eight Gym Leaders and the top Pokémon trainers in the land, the Elite Four. Another objective is to complete the Pokédex, an in-game encyclopedia, by obtaining all 151 Pokémon. Red and Blue use the Game Link Cable, which connects two Game Boy systems and allows Pokémon to be traded or battled between games. Both versions feature the same plot,[1] and while they can be played separately, players must trade between both games to obtain all of the original 151 Pokémon. Red and Blue were well-received, with critics praising the multiplayer options, especially the concept of trading. They received an aggregated score of 89% on GameRankings and are considered among the greatest games ever made, perennially ranked on top game lists including at least four years on IGNs Top 100 Games of All Time. The games marked the beginning of a multibillion-dollar franchise, jointly selling over 400 million copies worldwide. The Red and Blue versions were remade for Game Boy Advance as FireRed and LeafGreen (2004) while Yellow was remade for Nintendo Switch as Lets Go, Pikachu! and Lets Go, Eevee! (2018). The originals were rereleased on the Virtual Console service for the Nintendo 3DS in 2016 to commemorate their twentieth anniversaries. Pokémon Red and Blue are played in a third-person view, overhead perspective and consist of three basic screens: an overworld, in which the player navigates the main character;[3] a side-view battle screen;[4] and a menu interface, in which the player may configure their Pokémon, items, or gameplay settings.[5]
Japanese yen.  The yen (Japanese: 円; symbol: ¥; code: JPY) is the official currency of Japan. It is the third-most traded currency in the foreign exchange market, after the United States dollar and the euro.[2] It is also widely used as a third reserve currency after the US dollar and the euro. The New Currency Act of 1871 introduced Japans modern currency system, with the yen defined as 1.5 g (0.048 troy ounces) of gold, or 24.26 g (0.780 troy ounces) of silver, and divided decimally into 100 sen or 1,000 rin. The yen replaced the previous Tokugawa coinage as well as the various hansatsu paper currencies issued by feudal han (fiefs). The Bank of Japan was founded in 1882 and given a monopoly on controlling the money supply.[3] Following World War II, the yen lost much of its pre-war value as Japan faced a debt crisis and hyperinflation. Under the Bretton Woods system, the yen was pegged to the US dollar alongside other major currencies. After this system was abandoned in 1971 with the Nixon Shock, the short-lived Smithsonian Agreement temporarily reinstated a fixed exchange rate. However, since the end of that system in February 1973, the yen has been a floating currency.[4] The Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Japan have sometimes intervened in the currency market in recent years, to try to slow down exchange rate movements. There were intermittent interventions from 1998 to 2003 and from 2010 to 2011 to curb excessive and speculative appreciation of the yen, and again in 2022 and 2024 to slow down speculative selling of the currency.[5] The first two interventions were coordinated with respective[clarification needed] countries,[6][7] and the IMF has repeatedly stated that Japan is committed to a flexible exchange rate.[8][9][10]
Fantasy.  Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction that involves supernatural or magical elements, often including completely imaginary realms and creatures.[1][2] The genres roots lie in oral traditions, which later became fantasy literature and drama. From the twentieth century onward, it has expanded into various media, including film, television, graphic novels, manga, animation, and video games. The expression fantastic literature is often used for this genre by Anglophone literary critics.[3][4][5][6] An archaic spelling for the term is phantasy.[7] Fantasy is generally distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by an absence of scientific or macabre themes, although these can occur in fantasy. In popular culture, the fantasy genre predominantly features settings that reflect the actual Earth, but with some sense of otherness.[8]
Marine coastal ecosystem. A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Worldwide there is about 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats extend to the margins of the continental shelves, occupying about 7 percent of the ocean surface area. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity. For example, estuaries are areas where freshwater rivers meet the saltwater of the ocean, creating an environment that is home to a wide variety of species, including fish, shellfish, and birds. Salt marshes are coastal wetlands which thrive on low-energy shorelines in temperate and high-latitude areas, populated with salt-tolerant plants such as cordgrass and marsh elder that provide important nursery areas for many species of fish and shellfish. Mangrove forests survive in the intertidal zones of tropical or subtropical coasts, populated by salt-tolerant trees that protect habitat for many marine species, including crabs, shrimp, and fish. Further examples are coral reefs and seagrass meadows, which are both found in warm, shallow coastal waters. Coral reefs thrive in nutrient-poor waters on high-energy shorelines that are agitated by waves. They are underwater ecosystem made up of colonies of tiny animals called coral polyps. These polyps secrete hard calcium carbonate skeletons that builds up over time, creating complex and diverse underwater structures. These structures function as some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, providing habitat and food for a huge range of marine organisms. Seagrass meadows can be adjacent to coral reefs. These meadows are underwater grasslands populated by marine flowering plants that provide nursery habitats and food sources for many fish species, crabs and sea turtles, as well as dugongs. In slightly deeper waters are kelp forests, underwater ecosystems found in cold, nutrient-rich waters, primarily in temperate regions. These are dominated by a large brown algae called kelp, a type of seaweed that grows several meters tall, creating dense and complex underwater forests. Kelp forests provide important habitats for many fish species, sea otters and sea urchins. Directly and indirectly, marine coastal ecosystems provide vast arrays of ecosystem services for humans, such as cycling nutrients and elements, and purifying water by filtering pollutants. They sequester carbon as a cushion against climate change. They protect coasts by reducing the impacts of storms, reducing coastal erosion and moderating extreme events. They provide essential nurseries and fishing grounds for commercial fisheries. They provide recreational services and support tourism. These ecosystems are vulnerable to various anthropogenic and natural disturbances, such as pollution, overfishing, and coastal development, which have significant impacts on their ecological functioning and the services they provide. Climate change is impacting coastal ecosystems with sea level rises, ocean acidification, and increased storm frequency and intensity. When marine coastal ecosystems are damaged or destroyed, there can be serious consequences for the marine species that depend on them, as well as for the overall health of the ocean ecosystem. Some conservation efforts are underway to protect and restore marine coastal ecosystems, such as establishing marine protected areas and developing sustainable fishing practices. The Earth has approximately 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats extend to the margins of the continental shelves, occupying about 7 percent by area of the Earths oceans.[1] These coastal seas are highly productive systems, providing an array of ecosystem services to humankind, such as processing of nutrient effluents from land and climate regulation.[2] However, coastal ecosystems are threatened by human-induced pressures such as climate change and eutrophication. In the coastal zone, the fluxes and transformations of nutrients and carbon sustaining coastal ecosystem functions and services are strongly regulated by benthic (that is, occurring at the seafloor) biological and chemical processes.[2]
Kyushu Sangyo University. Kyushu Sangyo University (九州産業大学, Kyūshū Sangyō Daigaku) was founded in 1960 in Fukuoka City, and currently has twenty departments and six graduate schools. It is a private university.  33°40′11″N 130°26′41″E / 33.66972°N 130.44472°E / 33.66972; 130.44472  This article on a Fukuoka Prefecture institute of higher education or related topic is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Nagi, Okayama. Nagi (奈義町, Nagi-chō) is a town located in Katsuta District, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 December 2024[update], the town had a population of 5,512 in 2,437 households and a population density of 79.3 persons per km².[1] The total area of the town is 69.52 square kilometres (26.84 sq mi). Nagi is located in the northeastern part of Okayama Prefecture, bordered by Tottori Prefecture to the north. Located on the southern side of the Chugoku Mountains, mountains and forests occupy the northern town area; and the town is designated as a heavy snowfall area. Mount Nagi (1255 meters) from which the town derives its name, is located on the border between Nagi and Chizu, Tottori. The southern part of the city is a plateau called the Nihonbara Plateau, where the Ground Self-Defense Force Camp Nihonbara and the Nihonbara Maneuver Area are located. Okayama Prefecture Tottori Prefecture Nagi has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The average annual temperature in Nagi is 13.4 °C (56.1 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,511.0 mm (59.49 in) with July as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.7 °C (78.3 °F), and lowest in January, at around 1.8 °C (35.2 °F).[2] The highest temperature ever recorded in Nagi was 37.2 °C (99.0 °F) on 6 August 1994; the coldest temperature ever recorded was −15.5 °C (4.1 °F) on 3 February 2012.[3]
Manga artist. A manga artist, also known as a mangaka (Japanese: 漫画家), is a comic artist who writes and/or illustrates manga. Most manga artists study at an art college or manga school or take on an apprenticeship with another artist before entering the industry as a primary creator. More rarely a manga artist breaks into the industry directly, without previously being an assistant. For example, Naoko Takeuchi, author of Sailor Moon, won a Kodansha Manga Award contest and manga pioneer Osamu Tezuka was first published while studying an unrelated degree, without working as an assistant.[1] A manga artist will rise to prominence through recognition of their ability when they spark the interest of institutions, individuals or a demographic of manga consumers. For example, there are contests which prospective manga artist may enter, sponsored by manga editors and publishers. This can also be accomplished through producing a one-shot. While sometimes a stand-alone manga, with enough positive reception it can be serialized in a weekly, monthly, or quarterly format. They are also recognized for the number of manga they run at any given moment.[2][3] The original Japanese word can be broken down into two parts: manga (漫画) and ka (家). The manga corresponds to the medium of art the artist uses: comics, or Japanese comics, depending on how the term is used inside or outside Japan.[citation needed]
Okayama Prefecture. Okayama Prefecture (岡山県, Okayama-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [o.kaꜜ.ja.ma, o.ka.ja.maꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region of Honshu.[3] Okayama Prefecture has a population of 1,826,059 (1 February 2025) and has a geographic area of 7,114 km2 (2,746 sq mi). Okayama Prefecture borders Tottori Prefecture to the north, Hyōgo Prefecture to the east, and Hiroshima Prefecture to the west. Okayama is the capital and largest city of Okayama Prefecture, with other major cities including Kurashiki, Tsuyama, and Sōja.[4][5][6] Okayama Prefectures south is located on the Seto Inland Sea coast across from Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku, which are connected by the Great Seto Bridge, while the north is characterized by the Chūgoku Mountains. Prior to the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the area of present-day Okayama Prefecture was divided between Bitchū, Bizen and Mimasaka Provinces. Okayama Prefecture was formed and named in 1871 as part of the large-scale administrative reforms of the early Meiji period (1868–1912), and the borders of the prefecture were set in 1876.[5][7] Okayama Prefecture borders Hyōgo Prefecture, Tottori Prefecture, and Hiroshima Prefecture.[5] It faces Kagawa Prefecture in Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea and includes 90 islands in the sea. Okayama Prefecture is home to the historic town of Kurashiki. Most of the population is concentrated around Kurashiki and Okayama. The small villages in the northern mountain region are aging and declining in population - more than half of the prefectures municipalities are officially designated as depopulated.[8]
United States dollar.  The United States dollar (symbol: $; currency code: USD[a]) is the official currency of the United States and several other countries. The Coinage Act of 1792 introduced the U.S. dollar at par with the Spanish silver dollar, divided it into 100 cents, and authorized the minting of coins denominated in dollars and cents. U.S. banknotes are issued in the form of Federal Reserve Notes, popularly called greenbacks due to their predominantly green color. The U.S. dollar was originally defined under a bimetallic standard of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) (0.7734375 troy ounces) fine silver or, from 1834,[2] 23.22 grains (1.505 g) fine gold, or $20.67 per troy ounce. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 linked the dollar solely to gold. From 1934, its equivalence to gold was revised to $35 per troy ounce. In 1971 all links to gold were repealed.[3] The U.S. dollar became an important international reserve currency after the First World War, and displaced the pound sterling as the worlds primary reserve currency by the Bretton Woods Agreement towards the end of the Second World War. The dollar is the most widely used currency in international transactions,[4] and a free-floating currency. It is also the official currency in several countries and the de facto currency in many others,[5][6] with Federal Reserve Notes (and, in a few cases, U.S. coins) used in circulation. The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nations central bank. As of February 10, 2021, currency in circulation amounted to US$2.10 trillion, $2.05 trillion of which is in Federal Reserve Notes (the remaining $50 billion is in the form of coins and older-style United States Notes).[7][failed verification] As of January 1, 2025, the Federal Reserve estimated that the total amount of currency in circulation was approximately US$2.37 trillion.[8] Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution provides that Congress has the power to coin money.[9] Laws implementing this power are currently codified in Title 31 of the U.S. Code, under Section 5112, which prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued.[10] These coins are both designated in the section as legal tender in payment of debts.[11] The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, in contrast to the American Silver Eagle which is pure silver. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins, which have values ranging from one cent (U.S. Penny) to 100 dollars.[11] These other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar.
Shueisha.  Shueisha Inc. (株式会社集英社, Kabushiki gaisha Shūei-sha) is a Japanese publishing company headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. Shueisha is the largest publishing company in Japan.[3] It was established in 1925 as the entertainment-related publishing division of Japanese publisher Shogakukan. The following year, Shueisha became a separate, independent company. Manga magazines published by Shueisha include the Jump magazine line, which includes shonen magazines Weekly Shōnen Jump, Jump SQ, and V Jump, and seinen magazines Weekly Young Jump, Grand Jump and Ultra Jump, and the online magazine Shōnen Jump+. They also publish other magazines, including Non-no. Shueisha, along with Shogakukan, owns Viz Media, which publishes manga from both companies in North America.[4] In 1925, Shueisha was created by major publishing company Shogakukan (founded in 1922). Jinjō Shōgaku Ichinen Josei (尋常小學一年女生) became the first novel published by Shueisha in collaboration with Shogakukan—the temporary home of Shueisha. In 1927, two novels titled Danshi Ehon, and Joshi Ehon were created. In 1928, Shueisha was hired to edit Gendai Humor Zenshū (現代ユーモア全集, Gendai Yūmoa Zenshū), a compilation. Gendai Humor Zenshū continued 12 volumes, some issues being Joshi Shinjidai Eishūji-chō and Shinjidai Eishūji-chō (新時代英習字帳). In the 1930s another novel called Tantei-ki Dan was launched and Gendai Humor Zenshū was completed in 24 volumes. In 1931 two more novels were launched, Danshi Yōchien and Joshi Yōchien. After World War II, Shueisha started publishing a manga line called Omoshiro Book. Omoshiro Book published a picture book called Shōnen Ōja, which became a huge hit among boys and girls. The first full volume of Shōnen Ōja was released as Shōnen Ōja Oitachi Hen, which became an instant best-seller.
Nihonga.  Nihonga (Japanese: 日本画) is a Japanese style of painting that typically uses mineral pigments, and occasionally ink, together with other organic pigments on silk or paper. The term was coined during the Meiji period (1868–1912) to differentiate it from its counterpart, known as Yōga (洋画) or Western-style painting. The term translates to pictures in a Japanese style.[1] In the narrow sense, it refers to paintings that were developed during the 77 years from the Meiji Restoration to the end of World War II based on traditional Japanese techniques and styles, such as calligraphy and hand-painted painting , rather than oil painting. In contrast, oil paintings were called Yōga. In a broader sense, the term can be extended to include works made before the Meiji Restoration and after World War II. In such cases, the term is often used with some ambiguity as to whether it refers to works that have Japanese characteristics in terms of subject matter or style despite being of Chinese origin, or whether it refers generally to drawings made in Japan before the arrival of oil painting techniques. The former, Meiji-era Nihonga, began when Okakura Tenshin and Ernest Fenollosa sought to revive traditional Japanese painting in response to the rise of a new Western painting style, Yōga. Hashimoto Gahō, a painter of the Kano School, was the founder of the practical side of this revival movement. He did not simply paint Japanese-style paintings using traditional techniques, but revolutionized traditional Japanese painting by incorporating the perspective of Yōga and set the direction for the later Nihonga movement. As the first professor at the Tokyo Fine Arts School (now Tokyo University of the Arts), he trained many painters who would later be considered Nihonga masters, including Yokoyama Taikan, Shimomura Kanzan, Hishida Shunsō, and Kawai Gyokudō.[2][3]
Narita International Airport. Narita International Airport (成田国際空港, Narita Kokusai Kūkō) (IATA: NRT, ICAO: RJAA) — formerly and originally known as New Tokyo International Airport (新東京国際空港, Shin Tōkyō Kokusai Kūkō) — is the secondary international airport serving the Greater Tokyo Area, the other being Haneda Airport (HND). It is about 60 km (37 mi) east of central Tokyo in Narita, Chiba.[2] The facility, since July 2019, covers 1,137 hectares (2,810 acres) of land and construction to expand to nearly 2,300 ha (5,700 acres) is underway.[3] The conceptualization of Narita was highly controversial and remains so to the present day, especially among local residents in the area. This has led to the Sanrizuka Struggle, stemming from the governments decision to construct the airport without consulting most residents in the area, as well as expropriating their lands in the process. Even after the airport was eventually completed, air traffic movements have been controlled under various noise related operating restrictions due to its direct proximity with residential neighborhoods, including a house with a farm that is located right in between the runways.[4] As a result, the airport must be closed from 00:00 (12:00am) to 06:00 (6:00am) the next day to minimize the noise pollution impact around the airport.[5] Narita is the busiest airport in Japan by international passenger and international cargo traffic.[6] In 2018, Narita had 33.4 million international passengers and 2.2 million tonnes of international cargo.[7] In 2018, Narita was also the second-busiest airport in Japan in terms of aircraft movements (after Haneda Airport in Tokyo)[7] and the tenth-busiest air freight hub in the world.[8] Its 4,000-meter (13,123 ft) main runway shares the record for longest runway in Japan with the second runway at Kansai International Airport in Osaka.[9] Narita serves as the main international hub of Japan Airlines, All Nippon Airways and Nippon Cargo Airlines, and United Airlines, and as an operating base for low-cost carriers Air Japan, Jetstar Japan, Peach Aviation, Spring Airlines Japan, and Zipair Tokyo. In 2022, Narita was named the fourth-best airport in the world after Hamad International Airport in Doha, Haneda Airport in Tokyo, and Changi Airport in Singapore by Skytraxs Worlds Top 100 airports. Before Narita opened, Tokyo International Airport (also known as Haneda Airport) was Tokyos main international airport. Haneda, located in Tokyo Bay was surrounded by densely populated residential and industrial areas, and began to suffer capacity and noise issues in the early 1960s as jet aircraft became common. The Japanese transport ministry commissioned a study of alternate airport locations in 1963, and in 1965 selected a plan to build a five-runway airport in the village of Tomisato.[10] The site was later moved 5 km (3.1 mi) northeast to the villages of Sanrizuka and Shibayama, where the Imperial Household had a large farming estate. This development plan was made public in 1966.[11]
Othello (character).  Othello[a] is the titular protagonist in Shakespeares Othello (c. 1601–1604). The characters origin is traced to the tale Un Capitano Moro in Gli Hecatommithi by Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio. There, he is simply referred to as the Moor. Othello was first mentioned in a Revels account of 1604 when the play was performed on 1 November at Whitehall Palace with Richard Burbage almost certainly Othellos first interpreter. Modern notable performers of the role include Paul Robeson, Orson Welles, Richard Burton, James Earl Jones, Laurence Fishburne, Laurence Olivier, Patrick Stewart, and Avery Brooks. Othello is a Venetian soldier. After their time in Venice, Othello is appointed general in the Venetian Army. Iago, his jealous ensign,  tricks him into believing that his wife Desdemona is having an affair with Michael Cassio, his captain. Othello kills his wife out of jealousy by strangling her, only to realize that his wife was faithful after Emilia reveals the truth, at which point he commits suicide. There is no final consensus over Othellos ethnicity; whether of Maghrebi origin as in the generally accepted definition of Moor, or of Sub-Saharan African.
Hyōgo Prefecture. Hyōgo Prefecture (兵庫県, Hyōgo-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [çoꜜː.ɡo, -ŋo, çoː.ɡoꜜ.keɴ, -ŋoꜜ.keɴ][3]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu.[4] Hyōgo Prefecture has a population of 5,469,762 (as of 1 June 2019[update]) and a geographic area of 8,400 square kilometres (3,200 square miles). Hyōgo Prefecture borders Kyoto Prefecture to the east, Osaka Prefecture to the southeast, and Okayama and Tottori prefectures to the west. Kobe is the capital and largest city of Hyōgo Prefecture, and the seventh-largest city in Japan, with other major cities including Himeji, Nishinomiya, and Amagasaki.[5] Hyōgo Prefectures mainland stretches from the Sea of Japan to the Seto Inland Sea, where Awaji Island and a small archipelago of islands belonging to the prefecture are located. Hyōgo Prefecture is a major economic center, transportation hub, and tourist destination in western Japan, with 20% of the prefectures land area designated as Natural Parks. Hyōgo Prefecture forms part of the Kobe metropolitan area and Osaka metropolitan area, the second-most-populated urban region in Japan after the Greater Tokyo area and one of the worlds most productive regions by GDP. Present-day Hyōgo Prefecture includes the former provinces of Harima, Tajima, Awaji, and parts of Tanba and Settsu.[6] In 1180, near the end of the Heian period, Emperor Antoku, Taira no Kiyomori, and the Imperial court moved briefly to Fukuhara, in what is now the city of Kobe. There the capital remained for five months. Himeji Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is in the city of Himeji. Southern Hyōgo Prefecture was severely devastated by the 6.9 Mw Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995, which destroyed major parts of Kobe and Awaji, as well as Nishinomiya and Ashiya and the neighboring Osaka Prefecture, killing nearly 6,500 people.
Yamato people.  The Yamato (大和民族, Yamato minzoku; lit. Yamato ethnicity) or Wajin (和人 / 倭人; lit. Wa people)[4] are an East Asian ethnic group that comprises over 98% of the population of Japan. Genetic and anthropometric studies have shown that the Yamato people predominantly descend from the Yayoi people, who migrated to Japan from the continent beginning during the 1st millennium BC, and to a lesser extent the indigenous Jōmon people who had inhabited the Japanese archipelago for millennia prior.[5] It can also refer to the first people that settled in Yamato Province (modern-day Nara Prefecture). Generations of Japanese archeologists, historians, and linguists have debated whether the word is related to the earlier Yamatai (邪馬臺). Around the 6th century, the Yamato clan set up Japans first and only dynasty. The clan became the ruling faction in the area, and incorporated the natives of Japan and migrants from the mainland.[6] The clan leaders also elevated their own belief system that featured ancestor worship into a national religion known as Shinto.[6] The term came to be used around the late 19th century to distinguish the settlers of mainland Japan from minority ethnic groups inhabiting the peripheral areas of the then Empire of Japan, including the Ainu, Ryukyuans, Nivkh, as well as Chinese, Koreans, and Austronesians (Taiwanese indigenous peoples and Micronesians) who were incorporated into the empire in the early 20th century. The term was eventually used as race propaganda. After Japans surrender in World War II, the term became antiquated for suggesting pseudoscientific racist notions that have been discarded in many circles.[7] Ever since the fall of the Empire, Japanese statistics only count their population in terms of nationality, rather than ethnicity. The Wajin (also known as Wa or Wō) or Yamato were the names early China used to refer to an ethnic group living in Japan around the time of the Three Kingdoms period. Ancient and medieval East Asian scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato with one and the same Chinese character 倭, which translated to dwarf, until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 harmony, peace, balance. Retroactively, this character was adopted in Japan to refer to the country itself, often combined with the character 大, literally meaning Great.
Abd al-Rahman al-Awzai. Abū ʿAmr ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAmr al-Awzāʿī  (Arabic: أَبُو عَمْرو عَبْد ٱلرَّحْمَٰن بْن عَمْرو ٱلْأَوْزَاعِيّ; 707–774) was a Sunni Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, and the chief representative and eponym of the Awzai school of Islamic jurisprudence. Awzāʿī was of Sindhi origin,[2] born in Baalbek (in modern-day Lebanon) in 707. He was referred to by his nisbah Awzā (الأوزاع), part of Banu Hamdan.[3] The biographer and historian Al-Dhahabi reports that Awzāʿī was from Sindh, and he was a mawali of ʾAwzā tribe in his early life.[4][5] He may have descended from the Zutt (Jats), who had a strong presence in Syria and Iraq during Islamic Golden Age.[6] Very little of al-Awzāʿīs writings survive, but his style of Islamic jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh) is preserved in Abu Yusufs book Al-radd ʿala siyar al-Awzāʿī, in particular his reliance on the living tradition, or the  uninterrupted practice of Muslims handed down from preceding generations. For Awzāʿī, this was the true Sunnah of Muhammad. Awzāʿīs school flourished in Syria, the Maghreb, and Al Andalus but was eventually overcome and replaced by the Maliki school of Islamic law in the 9th century. He died in 774 and was buried near Beirut, Lebanon, where his tomb is still visited.[7] Theologically, he was known as a persecutor of the Qadariyah, but also one of the main historical witnesses of them. He said the Qadariyya merely appropriated the heretical doctrines of Christians. Al-Awzai had met their founder Mabad al-Juhani.[8] Al-Awzai differed with other schools of jurisprudence in holding that apostates from Islam ought not be executed unless their apostasy is part of a plot to take over the state.[9] In the introduction to his work al-Jarh wa-l-Tadil, Ibn Abi Hatim al-Razi preserves a corpus of ten letters attributed to al-Awzai. In these letters, al-Awzai addresses a series of high-ranking officials in order to plead the cause of individuals and groups. Among other things, he encouraged the Abbasids to ransom Muslims who were captured by the Byzantines in Erzurum, and to increase the wages of the Syrian soldiers in charge of protecting the Levantine coast.[10]
Othello (disambiguation). Othello (full title: The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice) is a tragic play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603. Othello or Otello may also refer to:
Akihito (disambiguation). Akihito was the Japanese emperor from 1989 to 2019. Akihito may also refer to:
Japanese people.  Japanese people (Japanese: 日本人, Hepburn: Nihonjin; IPA: [ɲihoɲdʑiꜜɴ]) are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Japanese archipelago.[26][27] Japanese people constitute 97.1% of the population of the country of Japan.[1] Worldwide, approximately 125 million people are of Japanese descent, making them one of the largest ethnic groups. Approximately 119.9 million Japanese people are residents of Japan,[1] and there are approximately five million members of the Japanese diaspora, known as Nikkeijin (日系人).[2] In some contexts, the term Japanese people might be used to refer specifically to the Yamato people, who are primarily from the historically principal islands of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku and constitute by far the largest group. In other contexts, the term could include other groups native to the Japanese archipelago, including Ryukyuan people, who share connections with the Yamato but are often regarded as distinct, and Ainu people.[28] In recent decades, there has also been an increase in the number of people with both Japanese and non-Japanese roots, including those who are half Japanese. Archaeological evidence indicates that Stone Age people lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Paleolithic period between 39,000 and 21,000 years ago.[29][30] Japan was then connected to mainland Asia by at least one land bridge, where nomadic hunter-gatherers crossed to Japan. Flint tools and bony implements of this era have been excavated in Japan.[31] In the 18th century, Arai Hakuseki suggested that the ancient stone tools in Japan were left behind by the Shukushin. Later, Philipp Franz von Siebold argued that the Ainu people were indigenous to northern Japan.[32] Iha Fuyū suggested that Japanese and Ryukyuan people have the same ethnic origin, based on his 1906 research on the Ryukyuan languages.[33] In the Taishō period, Torii Ryūzō claimed that Yamato people used Yayoi pottery and Ainu used Jōmon pottery.[32]
Javanese language.  Javanese (/ˌdʒɑːvəˈniːz/ JAH-və-NEEZ,[3] /dʒævə-/ JAV-ə-, /-ˈniːs/ -⁠NEESS;[4] Basa Jawa, Javanese script: ꦧꦱꦗꦮ, Pegon: باسا جاوا‎, IPA: [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ]) is an Austronesian language spoken primarily by the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 68 million people.[5] Javanese is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers. It has several regional dialects and a number of clearly distinct status styles.[6] Its closest relatives are the neighboring languages such as Sundanese, Madurese, and Balinese. Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian for official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians. There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the West Coast part of the states of Selangor and Johor) and Singapore. Javanese is also spoken by traditional immigrant communities of Javanese descent in Suriname, Sri Lanka and New Caledonia.[7] Along with Indonesian, Javanese is an official language in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia.[2]
Emperor Sutoku. Emperor Sutoku (崇徳天皇, Sutoku-tennō; July 7, 1119 – September 14, 1164) was the 75th emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Sutokus reign spanned the years from 1123 through 1142.[3] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina)[4] was Akihito (顕仁).[5] Sutoku was the eldest son of Emperor Toba. Some old texts say he was instead the son of Tobas grandfather, Emperor Shirakawa. In 1151, Sutoku ordered Waka imperial anthology Shika Wakashū. In 1156, after being defeated by forces loyal to Emperor Go-Shirakawa in the Hōgen Rebellion, he was exiled to Sanuki Province (modern-day Kagawa prefecture on the island of Shikoku). Emperor Sutokus reign lasted for 19 years: 2 years in the nengō Tenji, 5 years in Daiji, 1 year in Tenshō, 3 years in Chōshō, 6 years in Hōen, and 1 year in Eiji.[10]
Island.   An island or isle is a piece of land, distinct from a continent, completely surrounded by water. There are continental islands, which were formed by being split from a continent by plate tectonics, and oceanic islands, which have never been part of a continent. Oceanic islands can be formed from volcanic activity, grow into atolls from coral reefs, and form from sediment along shorelines, creating barrier islands. River islands can also form from sediment and debris in rivers. Artificial islands are those made by humans, including small rocky outcroppings built out of lagoons and large-scale land reclamation projects used for development. Islands are host to diverse plant and animal life. Oceanic islands have the sea as a natural barrier to the introduction of new species, causing the species that do reach the island to evolve in isolation. Continental islands share animal and plant life with the continent they split from. Depending on how long ago the continental island formed, the life on that island may have diverged greatly from the mainland due to natural selection. Humans have lived on and traveled between islands for thousands of years at a minimum. Some islands became host to humans due to a land bridge or a continental island splitting from the mainland, or by boat travel. In the far north or south some islands are joined by seasonal or glacial ice. Today, up to 10% of the worlds population lives on islands. Islands are popular targets for tourism due to their perceived natural beauty, isolation, and unique cultures.
Tragedy.  A tragedy is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character or cast of characters.[1] Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsis, or a pain [that] awakens pleasure, for the audience.[2][3] While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization.[2][4] That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity—the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common activity, as Raymond Williams puts it.[5] Originating in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, where only a fraction of the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides survive, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of Seneca; through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Jean Racine, and Friedrich Schiller to the more recent naturalistic tragedy of Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg; Natyaguru Nurul Momens Nemesis tragic vengeance & Samuel Becketts modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering; Heiner Müller postmodernist reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.[6][7] A long line of philosophers—which includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Voltaire, Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Freud, Benjamin,[8] Camus, Lacan, and Deleuze—have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.[9][10][11] In the wake of Aristotles Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.[11][12][13] Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialization from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed, respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.[7] The word tragedy appears to have been used to describe different phenomena at different times. It derives from Ancient Greek τραγῳδία goat song, which comes from τράγος tragos he-goat and ᾠδή ōidḗ singing, ode. Scholars suspect this may be traced to a time when a goat was either the prize[14] in a competition of choral dancing or was what a chorus danced around prior to the animals ritual sacrifice.[15] In another view on the etymology, Athenaeus of Naucratis (2nd–3rd century CE) says that the original form of the word was trygodia from trygos (grape harvest) and ode (song), because those events were first introduced during grape harvest.[16]
Enthronement of the Japanese emperor.  The Enthronement ceremony (即位の礼, Sokui no rei) is an ancient ceremony that marks the accession of a new emperor to the Chrysanthemum Throne. The Three Sacred treasures are given to the new sovereign during the course of the rite. It is the most important out of the Japanese Imperial Rituals. The most recent enthronement was that of Emperor Naruhito on 22 October 2019. The enthronement ceremony consist of five sub-ceremonies, which are conducted as constitutional functions (国事行為) based on Article 3 of the Constitution of Japan as follows:[1] The presentation of the Three Sacred Treasures (剣璽等承継の儀, Kenji-tō-Shōkei-no-gi) takes place immediately after the death or abdication of the previous sovereign. The successor is formally presented with boxes containing two of the three items that compose the Imperial Regalia of Japan: The three items of the imperial regalia were originally said to have been given by the Sun goddess, Amaterasu, to her grandson when he first descended to earth and became the founder of the imperial dynasty.
Théodore Chassériau. Théodore Chassériau (French pronunciation: [teɔdɔʁ ʃaseʁjo]; Spanish: Teodoro Chasseriau; September 20, 1819 – October 8, 1856) was a Dominican-born French Romantic painter noted for his portraits, historical and religious paintings, allegorical murals, and Orientalist images inspired by his travels to Algeria. Early in his career he painted in a Neoclassical style close to that of his teacher Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, but in his later works he was strongly influenced by the Romantic style of Eugène Delacroix. He was a prolific draftsman, and made a suite of prints to illustrate Shakespeares Othello. The portrait he painted at the age of 15 of Prosper Marilhat makes Chassériau the youngest painter exhibited at the Louvre museum.[1] Chassériau was born in El Limón, Samaná, in the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic).[2] His father Benoît Chassériau was a French adventurer who had arrived in Santo Domingo in 1802 to take an administrative position in what was until 1808 a French colony.[3] Theodores mother, Maria Magdalena Couret de la Blagniére, was the daughter of a mulatto landowner born in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). In December 1820 the family left Santo Domingo for Paris, where the young Chassériau soon showed precocious drawing skill. He was accepted into the studio of Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres in 1830, at the age of eleven, and became the favorite pupil of the great classicist, who regarded him as his truest disciple.[4] (An account that may be apocryphal has Ingres declaring Come, gentlemen, come see, this child will be the Napoleon of painting.)[5] After Ingres left Paris in 1834 to become director of the French Academy in Rome, Chassériau fell under the influence of Eugène Delacroix, whose brand of painterly colorism was anathema to Ingres. Chassériau first exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1836, and was awarded a third-place medal in the category of history painting.[6] In 1840 Chassériau travelled to Rome and met with Ingres, whose bitterness at the direction his students work was taking led to a decisive break. While in Italy, Chassériau made landscape sketches and studied Renaissance frescoes.[7] Among the chief works of his early maturity are Susanna and the Elders and Venus Anadyomene (both 1839), Diana Surprised by Actaeon (1840), Andromeda Chained to the Rock by the Nereids (1840), and The Toilette of Esther (1841), all of which reveal a very personal ideal in depicting the female nude.[8] Chassériaus major religious paintings from these years, Christ on the Mount of Olives (a subject he treated in 1840 and again in 1844) and The Descent from the Cross (1842), received mixed reviews from the critics; among the artists champions was Théophile Gautier. In 1843, Chassériau painted murals depicting the life of Saint Mary of Egypt in the Church of Saint-Merri in Paris, the first of several commissions he received to decorate public buildings in Paris.[7] Portraits from this period include the Portrait of the Reverend Father Dominique Lacordaire, of the Order of the Predicant Friars (1840), and The Two Sisters (1843), which depicts Chassériaus sisters Adèle and Aline.
Shikoku dog. The Shikoku (四国犬, Shikoku Inu,[2][3] Shikoku-ken[3][4]; Japanese pronunciation: [ɕi̥.ko.kɯꜜ i.nɯ][2]) or Kōchi Inu[5] (高知犬) is a Japanese breed of dog from Shikoku island, Japan.[1] Under the name Tosa Inu (土佐犬, Tosa Inu,[2][6] Tosa-ken[6]; [to.sa i.nɯ, -sa.keɴ][2][6]), the breed was designated a Living National Monument of Japan in 1937 by the Nihon jen Hozonkai (Japanese Dog Preservation Society).[4] However, to avoid confusion with the Tosa Fighting Dog, and the breed was also found in other prefectures, it was referred to as the Shikoku Ken after 1932.[4] The Shikoku Ken is listed as a Foundation Stock Service breed with the American Kennel Club (AKC) and is fully recognized by the United Kennel Club.[7] Its name is often abbreviated to merely Shikoku.[1][7] It is one of the medium-sized large game hunting dogs native to Japan, originating from the mountainous island of Shikoku where they were prevalent hunters of deer, boar and other indigenous wildlife. They are typical of other Japanese spitz-type hounds with a dense and harsh coat, erect ears, and a tail that is held over their back. Their development in rough terrain has allowed for Shikokus to be excellent hiking companions and adept climbers.[1][8] According to AKC, the Shikoku is a dog of marked endurance, keen in sense with a naive feeling, energetic and highly alert. He is an enthusiastic hunter and docile towards his master.[7] This is a rare breed, even in Japan. The Shikoku Kens numbers are in gradual decline, similar to the fellow Nihon Ken Hozonkai breed Kishu Ken. The Shikoku is one of the six native Japanese breeds. Its size is intermediate, between the large Akita Inu and the smaller Shiba Inu; all are in the Spitz family of dogs.[1]
Tokyo.  Tokyo,[a] officially the Tokyo Metropolis,[b] is the capital and most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is one of the most populous urban areas in the world. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and parts of six neighboring prefectures, is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, with 41 million residents as of 2024[update]. Lying at the head of Tokyo Bay, Tokyo is part of the Kantō region, on the central coast of Honshu, Japans largest island. It is Japans economic center and the seat of the Japanese government and the Emperor of Japan. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government administers Tokyos central 23 special wards, which formerly made up Tokyo City; various commuter towns and suburbs in its western area; and two outlying island chains, the Tokyo Islands. Although most of the world recognizes Tokyo as a city, since 1943 its governing structure has been more akin to that of a prefecture, with an accompanying Governor and Assembly taking precedence over the smaller municipal governments that make up the metropolis. Special wards in Tokyo include Chiyoda, the site of the National Diet Building and the Tokyo Imperial Palace; Shinjuku, the citys administrative center; and Shibuya, a hub of commerce and business. Tokyo, originally known as Edo, rose to political prominence in 1603 when it became the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate, and by the mid-18th century, Edo had evolved from a small fishing village into one of the largest cities in the world, with a population surpassing one million. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the imperial capital in Kyoto was moved to Edo, and the city was renamed Tokyo (lit. Eastern Capital). Tokyo was greatly damaged by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and by allied bombing raids during World War II. From the late 1940s, Tokyo underwent rapid reconstruction and expansion, which fueled the Japanese economic miracle, in which Japans economy became the second-largest in the world at the time, behind that of the United States.[9] As of 2023[update], Tokyo is home to 29 of the worlds 500 largest companies, as listed in the annual Fortune Global 500—the second highest number of any city.[10] Tokyo was the first city in Asia to host the Summer Olympics and Paralympics, in 1964 and then in 2021. It also hosted three G7 summits, in 1979, 1986, and 1993. Tokyo is an international hub of research and development and an academic center, with several major universities, including the University of Tokyo, the top-ranking university in Japan.[11][12] Tokyo Station is the central hub for the Shinkansen, the countrys high-speed railway network; and the citys Shinjuku Station is the worlds busiest train station. Tokyo Skytree is the worlds tallest tower.[13] The Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, which opened in 1927, is the oldest underground metro line in Asia.[14]
Shikoku (film). Shikoku (死国; Land of The Dead) is a 1999 Japanese supernatural thriller film directed by Shunichi Nagasaki and written by Kunimi Manda and Takenori Sento. Years after moving to Tokyo with her parents, Hinako returns to her hometown in rural Shikoku. She soon learns that her childhood friend, Sayori, died several years ago and that Sayoris mother, a Shinto priestess(?)[clarification needed] who used to perform séances and exorcisms, has gone almost insane with grief. After seeing Sayoris yūrei several times during the night, Hinako consults with some local experts on the paranormal and discovers that Sayoris mother has something planned for her daughter. Shikoku was released in Japan on January 23, 1999 where it was distributed by Toho.[1] It was released as a double feature with Ring 2.[2] Shikoku was later shown at the Vancouver International Film Festival as part of a program of modern Japanese horror films at the festival, including Ring, Ring 2, Audition and Gemini.[3] The film was released directly to video in the United States on October 26, 2004 by Adness.[1] Jasper Sharp writing for Midnight Eye referred to the film as a pedestrian addition to the late 1990s horror boom. He added: Hideo Nakatas high-concept popcorn movie Ring had proven pretty convincingly that the supernatural could be a lucrative cash cow in late-1990s recessional Japan. A contract job, co-written by one of Rings original producers, Takenori Sento, and circulating on the lower half of a double bill with Ring 2, Shikoku is less an indication of either Bando or Nagasakis thematic interests than an obvious attempt to milk the current interest in horror before it dried up. As such, it doesnt deviate too far from the path forged by its model in either style or formula.[4] John Kenneth Muir in his book Horror Films of the 1990s gave the film a three and a half star rating out of five, finding the film Beautifully shot and visually realized and that the film had more on its mind than scary dead girls with long hair[5][6]
Reversi.  Reversi is a strategy board game for two players, played on an 8×8 uncheckered board. It was invented in 1883. Othello, a variant with a fixed initial setup of the board, was patented in 1971. Two players compete, using 64 identical game pieces (disks) that are light on one side and dark on the other. Each player chooses one color to use throughout the game. Players take turns placing one disk on an empty square, with their assigned color facing up. After a play is made, any disks of the opponents color that lie in a straight line bounded by the one just played and another one in the current players color are turned over. When all playable empty squares are filled, the player with more disks showing in their own color wins the game. Englishmen Lewis Waterman and John W. Mollett[citation needed] both claim to have invented the game of reversi in 1883, each denouncing the other as a fraud. The game gained considerable popularity in England at the end of the 19th century.[1] The games first reliable mention is in the 21 August 1886 edition of The Saturday Review. Later mention includes an 1895 article in The New York Times, which describes reversi as something like Go Bang, [...] played with 64 pieces.[2] In 1893, the German games publisher Ravensburger started producing the game as one of its first titles. Two 18th century continental European books dealing with a game that may or may not be reversi are mentioned on page fourteen of the Spring 1989 Othello Quarterly, and there has been speculation, so far without documentation, that the game has older origins.[citation needed] A Japanese publication in 1907 titled World Games Rules Complete Collection (世界遊戯法大全) describes the board game reversi with the same rules as Othello where the first four pieces go in the center in a diagonal pattern and the player who cannot make a move simply passes.[3]
Tokyo Imperial Palace.  The Imperial Palace (皇居, Kōkyo; lit. Imperial Residence) is the main residence of the emperor of Japan. It is a large park-like area located in the Chiyoda district of the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo and contains several buildings including the Fukiage Palace (吹上御所, Fukiage gosho) where the emperor has his living quarters, the main palace (宮殿, Kyūden) where various ceremonies and receptions take place, some residences of the Imperial Family, an archive, museums and administrative offices. The 1.15-square-kilometer (0.44 sq mi) palace grounds and gardens are built on the site of the old Edo Castle.[1] After the capitulation of the shogunate and the Meiji Restoration, the inhabitants, including the Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, were required to vacate the premises of the Edo Castle. Leaving the Kyoto Imperial Palace on November 26, 1868, the Emperor arrived at the Edo Castle, made it to his new residence and renamed it to Tōkei Castle (東京城, Tōkei-jō). At this time, Tōkyō had also been called Tōkei. He left for Kyōto again, and after coming back on May 9, 1869, it was renamed to Imperial Castle (皇城, Kōjō).[2][user-generated source] Previous fires had destroyed the Honmaru area containing the old donjon (which itself burned in the 1657 Meireki fire). On the night of May 5, 1873, a fire consumed the Nishinomaru Palace (formerly the shōguns residence), and the new imperial Palace Castle (宮城, Kyūjō) was constructed on the site in 1888. The castle has many gardens.
Japanese archipelago. The Japanese archipelago (Japanese: 日本列島, Hepburn: Nippon/Nihon Rettō; Japanese pronunciation: [ɲip.pon/ɲi.hon ɾeꜜt.toː][1]) is an archipelago of 14,125 islands that form the country of Japan.[2] It extends over 3,000 km (1,900 mi)[3] from the Sea of Okhotsk in the northeast to the East China and Philippine seas in the southwest along the Pacific coast of the Eurasian continent, and consists of three island arcs from north to south: the Northeastern Japan Arc, the Southwestern Japan Arc, and the Ryukyu Island Arc. The Daitō Islands, the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc, and the Kuril Islands neighbor the archipelago. Japan is the largest island country in East Asia and the fourth-largest island country in the world with 377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi).[4][5] It has an exclusive economic zone of 4,470,000 km2 (1,730,000 sq mi).[6] The term Mainland Japan is used to distinguish the large islands of the Japanese archipelago from the remote, smaller islands; it refers to the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku.[7] From 1943 until the end of the Pacific War, Karafuto Prefecture (south Sakhalin) was designated part of the mainland. Geographically speaking the term mainland is somewhat inaccurate, as this refers to an expanse of territory that is attached to a continental landmass. The term home islands was used at the end of World War II to define the area where Japanese sovereignty and constitutional rule of its emperor would be restricted.[citation needed] The term is also commonly used today to distinguish the archipelago from Japans colonies and other territories.[8] The archipelago consists of 14,125 islands[2] (here defined as land more than 100 m in circumference), of which 430 are inhabited.[9] The five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa.[7] Honshu is the largest and is referred to as the Japanese mainland.[10]
Physical geography. Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography.[1][2][3][4][5] Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. This focus is in contrast with the branch of human geography, which focuses on the built environment, and technical geography, which focuses on using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, and understand spatial information.[4][5] The three branches have significant overlap, however. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: Main category: Geography Journals Physical geography and earth science journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most journals cover a specific field and publish the research within that field, however unlike human geographers, physical geographers tend to publish in inter-disciplinary journals rather than predominantly geography journal; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Additionally, textbooks, books, and magazines on geography communicate research to laypeople, although these tend to focus on environmental issues or cultural dilemmas. Examples of journals that publish articles from physical geographers include The Professional Geographer, Journal of Maps, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, and Nature. From the birth of geography as a science during the Greek classical period and until the late nineteenth century with the birth of anthropogeography (human geography), geography was almost exclusively a natural science: the study of location and descriptive gazetteer of all places of the known world. Several works among the best known during this long period could be cited as an example, from Strabo (Geography), Eratosthenes (Geographika) or Dionysius Periegetes (Periegesis Oiceumene) in the Ancient Age. In more modern times, these works include the Alexander von Humboldt (Kosmos) in the nineteenth century, in which geography is regarded as a physical and natural science through the work Summa de Geografía of Martín Fernández de Enciso from the early sixteenth century, which indicated for the first time the New World.
Mount Ishizuchi. Mount Ishizuchi (石鎚山, Ishizuchi-san) is a 1,982-metre-high (6,503 ft) mountain on the border of Saijō and Kumakōgen, in Ehime, Japan. This mountain is one of the 100 famous mountains in Japan.  It is the highest mountain in Western Japan and the island of Shikoku. Once upon a time it was a stratovolcano with large scale magma activity. Over time the magma activity ceased and it became extinct with no eruption activities in the past 10,000 years or recent signs of eruption Mount Ishizuchi is the highest mountain on the island of Shikoku and also the highest mountain west of Mount Haku.  It is known as the roof of Shikoku and the sharp, rocky summit resembles a huge stone hammer (石鎚, ishizuchi). Mount Ishizuchi is an important object of worship in this region and one of the major centers of Shugendō, a sect of mixture of Shinto and Buddhism. At the top of the mountain there is a small shrine called the Ishizuchi Shrine. This mountain is also known as one of Seven Holy Mountains (七霊山, nana reizan). There are several sets of heavy iron chains (鎖, kusari), the longest set being 68 metres (223 ft), leading up to the summit and this is the route many pilgrims opt to take. However, it is possible to hike all the way to the peak along a trail which includes stairs and ramps with handrails. The climbing season opens every year on July 1, and women are forbidden from climbing the mountain on this day.[2] Between mid-October and mid-November, people come from far and wide to view the autumn colours.
Landform.  A landform is a land feature on the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body. They may be natural or may be anthropogenic[1][2] (caused or influenced by human activity). Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. Landforms include hills, mountains, canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays, peninsulas, and seas,[3] including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, and the great oceanic basins. Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, structure stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Gross physical features or landforms include intuitive elements such as berms, cliffs, hills, mounds, peninsulas, ridges, rivers, valleys, volcanoes, and numerous other structural and size-scaled (e.g. ponds vs. lakes, hills vs. mountains) elements including various kinds of inland and oceanic waterbodies and sub-surface features. Hills, mountains, plains, and plateaus are the four major types of landforms on Earth. Minor landforms include basins, buttes, canyons, and valleys. Tectonic plate movements under Earths crust can create landforms by pushing up hills and mountains. Continents and oceans exemplify the highest-order landforms.[citation needed] Landform elements are parts of a high-order landforms that can be further identified and systematically given a cohesive definition such as hill-tops, shoulders, saddles, foreslopes and backslopes. Some generic landform elements including: pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools and plains.
Channel of Vivari. The Vivari Channel (Albanian: Kanali i Butrintit, also known as Butrinto River) links Lake Butrint in the extreme south of Albania with the Straits of Corfu, and forms a border of the peninsula of Butrint. The natural channel flows in both directions every six hours, from the lake to the sea and vice versa during the rising tide facilitating the access of saline waters into Lake Butrint.[1] A pontoon is situated near the gate of the Butrint National Park. Two small forts, the Ali Pasha Castle and the Venetian Triangular Castle, are located near the mouth of the channel; both were built during the rule of Ali Pasha of Ioannina.[2] According to international organizations, the channel serves as the demarcation line where the Adriatic Sea ends and the Ionian Sea begins. The channel creates a unique situation in Lake Butrint, which is partly fed with fresh water and partly with salt water, thereby creating ideal conditions for mollusks farming. During the communist regime, many students used to volunteer in the summer time to search for ancient ruins in the Butrint National Park.[3]
Edo. Edo (Japanese: 江戸, lit. bay-entrance or estuary), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo.[2] Edo, formerly a jōkamachi (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the de facto capital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate. Edo grew to become one of the largest cities in the world under the Tokugawa. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government renamed Edo to Tokyo (東京, Eastern Capital) and relocated the Emperor from the historic capital of Kyoto to the city. The era of Tokugawa rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868 is known as the Edo period. Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area. That name for the area first appears in the Azuma Kagami chronicles, which have probably been used since the second half of the Heian period. Edos development started in the late 11th century with a branch of the Kanmu-Taira clan (桓武平氏) called the Chichibu clan (秩父氏) coming from the banks of the then-Iruma River, present-day upstream of the Arakawa river. A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name Edo Shigetsugu (江戸重継), likely based on the name used for the place, and founded the Edo clan. Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the edge of the Musashino Terrace, that would become Edo castle. Shigetsugus son, Edo Shigenaga (江戸重長), took the Tairas side against Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became a gokenin for the Kamakura shogunate. At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of the Southern Court, and its influence declined during the Muromachi period. In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of the Uesugi clan started to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the name Ōta Dōkan. Dōkan lived in the castle until his assassination in 1486. Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, Odawara and other parts of Kanto and the country, Edo expanded as a jōkamachi, with the castle bordering a cove (now Hibiya Park) opening into Edo Bay, and the town developing along the Hirakawa River running into the cove, and on Edomaeto (江戸前島), the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (now roughly where Tokyo Station is). Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after the Ōnin War came to Edo during that period.
Hirohito.  Hirohito (裕仁; 29 April 1901 – 7 January 1989), posthumously honored as Emperor Shōwa (昭和天皇, Shōwa Tennō),[a] was the 124th emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 25 December 1926 until his death in 1989. He remains the longest-reigning emperor in Japanese history and one of the longest-reigning monarchs in the world. As emperor during the Shōwa era, Hirohito presided over Japans rise in militarism, its imperial expansion in Asia, the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second World War, as well as the nations postwar economic miracle. Hirohito was born during the reign of his paternal grandfather, Emperor Meiji, as the first child of the Crown Prince Yoshihito and Crown Princess Sadako (later Emperor Taishō and Empress Teimei). When Emperor Meiji died in 1912, Hirohitos father ascended the throne, and Hirohito was proclaimed crown prince and heir apparent in 1916. In 1921, he made an official visit to the United Kingdom and western Europe, marking the first time a Japanese crown prince traveled abroad. Owing to his fathers ill health, Hirohito became his regent that year. In 1924, Hirohito married Princess Nagako Kuni, with whom he would go on to have seven children. He became emperor upon his fathers death in 1926. As Japans head of state, Emperor Hirohito presided over the rise of militarism in Japanese politics. In 1931, he made no objection when Japans Kwantung Army staged the Mukden incident as a pretext for its invasion of Manchuria. Following the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, tensions steadily grew between Japan and the United States. Once Hirohito formally sanctioned his governments decision to go to war against the US and its allies on 1 December 1941, the Pacific War began one week later with a Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor as well as on other US and British colonies in the region. After atomic bombs were dropped on Japan and the Soviet Union invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria, Hirohito called upon his countrys forces to surrender in a radio broadcast on 15 August 1945. The extent of his involvement in military decision-making and wartime culpability remain subjects of historical debate. Following the surrender of Japan, Emperor Hirohito was not prosecuted for war crimes at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) even though the Japanese had waged war in his name. The head of the Allied occupation of the country, Douglas MacArthur, believed that a cooperative emperor would facilitate a peaceful occupation and other US postwar objectives. MacArthur therefore excluded any evidence from the tribunal which could have incriminated Hirohito or other members of the imperial family.[2] In 1946, Hirohito was pressured by the Allies into renouncing his divinity. Under Japans new constitution drafted by US officials, his role as emperor was redefined in 1947 as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Upon his death in January 1989, he was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito.
List of islands by area. This list includes all islands in the world larger than 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi). For size and location reference, the four continental landmasses are also included after the list. Continental landmasses are not usually classified as islands despite being completely surrounded by water.[Note 2] However, because the definition of continent varies between geographers, the Americas are sometimes defined as two separate continents while mainland Australia is sometimes defined as an island as well as a continent. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this list, mainland Australia along with the other major landmasses have been listed as continental landmasses for comparison. The figures are approximations and are for the four major continental landmasses only.[Note 3] 126 countries6 de facto states 22 countriesFrench Guiana
Sasakia charonda.  Sasakia charonda, the Japanese emperor or great purple emperor, is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is native to Japan (from Hokkaidō to Kyūshū), the Korean Peninsula, China, northern Taiwan and northern Vietnam. Its wingspan averages 50 mm (2.0 in) for males, and 65 mm (2.6 in) for females. They are common in the upper canopies of forests, only coming down to feed or to find salt sources. The larvae of the species feed on hackberries, like Celtis jessoensis, Celtis japonica and Celtis sinensis.[3][4] S. charonda is the national butterfly of Japan.[5][6]  This article related to members of the butterfly subfamily Apaturinae is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hiroshige (given name). Hiroshige (written: 広重, 啓成 or 弘成) is a masculine Japanese given name. Notable people with the name include:
Tenno (disambiguation). Tennō (天皇) is a Japanese word for the Emperor of Japan. Tenno may also refer to:
Hydrology.  Hydrology (from Ancient Greek  ὕδωρ (húdōr) water and  -λογία (-logía) study of) is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydrologist. Hydrologists are scientists studying earth or environmental science, civil or environmental engineering, and physical geography.[1] Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation, natural disasters, and water management.[1] Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology. Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-basin management, and water quality. Oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields. Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering, policy, and planning.
Kunisada. Utagawa Kunisada (Japanese: 歌川 国貞; 1786 – 12 January 1865), also known as Utagawa Toyokuni III (三代 歌川 豊国, Sandai Utagawa Toyokuni), was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist. He is considered the most popular, prolific and commercially successful designer of ukiyo-e woodblock prints in 19th-century Japan. In his own time, his reputation far exceeded that of his contemporaries, Hokusai, Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi. At the end of the Edo period (1603–1867), Hiroshige, Kuniyoshi and Kunisada were the three best representatives of the Japanese color woodcut in Edo (capital city of Japan, now Tokyo). However, among European and American collectors of Japanese prints, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th century, all three of these artists were actually regarded as rather inferior to the greats of classical ukiyo-e, and therefore as having contributed considerably to the downfall of their art. For this reason, some referred to their works as decadent. Beginning in the 1930s and 1970s, respectively, the works of Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi were submitted to a re-evaluation, and these two are now counted among the masters of their art. Thus, from Kunisada alone was withheld, for a long time, the acknowledgment which is due to him. With a few exceptions, such as actor portraits (yakusha-e) and portraits of beautiful women (bijin-ga), at the beginning of his career, and some series of large-size actor head-portraits near the end, it was thought that he had  produced only inferior works. It was not until the early 1990s, with the appearance of Jan van Doesburgs overview of the artistic development of Kunisada, and Sebastian Izzards extensive study of his work, that this picture began to change, with Kunisada more clearly revealed as one of the giants of the Japanese print that he was. Although not much is known of the details of Kunisadas life, there are some well-established records of particular events. He was born in 1786 in Honjo, an eastern district of Edo. His given name was Sumida Shōgorō IX (角田庄五朗), and he was also called Sumida Shōzō (角田庄蔵). A small licensed and hereditary ferry-boat service belonged to his family, and the income derived from this business provided a certain basic financial security to engage in leisure activities such as painting.[1] His father, who was an amateur poet of some renown, died in the year after his birth. While growing up, he developed an early talent for painting and drawing.  His early sketches at that time impressed Toyokuni, the great master of the Utagawa school[1] and prominent designer of  kabuki and actor-portrait prints. In the year 1800 or shortly thereafter Kunisada was accepted by Toyokuni I as an apprentice in his workshop. In keeping with a tradition of Japanese master-apprentice relations, he was then given the official artist name of KUNI-sada, the first character of which was derived from the second part of the name Toyo-KUNI. His first known print dates to the year 1807.[1] However this seems to have been an exceptional design, and further full-sized prints appear starting only in 1809–1810. As of 1808 he had already begun work as an illustrator of e-hon (woodblock print illustrated books) and his popularity rapidly increased. In 1809 he was referred to in contemporary sources as the star attraction of the Utagawa school, and soon thereafter was  considered as at least equal to his teacher Toyokuni in the area of book illustration. Kunisadas first actor portraits appeared in either 1808 or 1809. It is known that his first bijin-ga series and a series of pentaptychs of urban scenes of Edo, appear simultaneously in 1809. By 1813 he had risen as a star in the constellation of Edos artistic world; a contemporary list of the most important ukiyo-e artists places him in second place behind Toyokuni I.  Kunisada remained one of the trendsetters of the Japanese woodblock print until his death in early 1865.
Hiroshige (crater). Hiroshige is a crater on Mercury. Its name was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1976, after the Japanese artist Andō Hiroshige.[1] Hiroshige is east of the craters Murasaki and Kuiper.  Kuipers rays overlie Hiroshige.  This article about an impact crater on Mercury is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
List of emperors of Japan.  Japan has been ruled by emperors since antiquity. The sequence, order and dates of the early emperors are almost entirely based on the 8th-century Nihon Shoki, which was meant to retroactively legitimise the Imperial House by dating its foundation further back to the year 660 BC.[1][2][3] Emperor Kinmei (r. 539–571) is often considered the first historical emperor,[4][5] but the first Japanese ruler supported by historical evidence is actually Emperor Yūryaku (r. 456–479), who is mentioned in the 5th-century Inariyama and Eta Funayama Swords.[6][7] According to Chinese sources, the unification of Japan took place between the 2nd and 3rd centuries.[8][9] The terms Tennō (Emperor, 天皇), as well as Nihon (Japan, 日本), were not adopted until the late 7th century AD.[10][2] In the nengō system which has been in use since the late 7th century, years are numbered using the Japanese era name and the number of years which have elapsed since the start of that nengō era.[11] This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Japanese emperors posthumously. Unless otherwise noted (as BC), years are in CE / AD  * Imperial Consort and Regent Empress Jingū is not traditionally listed.
Hokusai.  Katsushika Hokusai[a] (葛飾 北斎; c. 31 October 1760 – 10 May 1849), known mononymously as Hokusai, was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist of the Edo period, active as a painter and printmaker.[2] His woodblock print series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji includes the iconic print The Great Wave off Kanagawa. Hokusai was instrumental in developing ukiyo-e from a style of portraiture largely focused on courtesans and actors into a much broader style of art that focused on landscapes, plants, and animals. His works had a significant influence on Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet during the wave of Japonisme that spread across Europe in the late 19th century. Hokusai created the monumental Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji as a response to a domestic travel boom in Japan and as part of a personal interest in Mount Fuji.[3] It was this series, specifically, The Great Wave off Kanagawa and Fine Wind, Clear Morning, that secured his fame both in Japan and overseas.[4] Hokusai was best known for his woodblock ukiyo-e prints, but he worked in a variety of mediums including painting and book illustration. Starting as a young child, he continued working and improving his style until his death, aged 88. In a long and successful career, Hokusai produced over 30,000 paintings, sketches, woodblock prints, and images for picture books. Innovative in his compositions and exceptional in his drawing technique, Hokusai is considered one of the greatest masters in the history of art. Hokusais date of birth is unclear, but is often stated as the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th year of the Hōreki era (in the old calendar, or 31 October 1760) to an artisan family, in the Katsushika[ja] district of Edo, the capital of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate (currently Katsushika-ku, Tokyo).[5] His childhood name was Tokitarō.[6] It is believed his father was Nakajima Ise, a mirror-maker for the shōgun.[6] His father never made Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a concubine.[5] Hokusai began painting around the age of six, perhaps learning from his father, whose work included the painting of designs around mirrors.[5]
Corfu.  Corfu (/kɔːrˈf(j)uː/ kor-FEW, -⁠FOO, US also /ˈkɔːrf(j)uː/ KOR-few, -⁠foo) or Kerkyra (Greek: Κέρκυρα, romanized: Kérkyra, pronounced [ˈcercira] ⓘ)[a] is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea, of the Ionian Islands;[1] including its small satellite islands, it forms the margin of Greeces northwestern frontier.[2] The island is part of the Corfu regional unit, and is administered by three municipalities with the islands of Othonoi, Ereikoussa, and Mathraki.[3] The principal city of the island (pop. 32,095) is also named Corfu.[4] Corfu is home to the Ionian University. The island is bound up with the history of Greece from the beginnings of Greek mythology, and is marked by numerous battles and conquests. Ancient Korkyra took part in the Battle of Sybota which was a catalyst for the Peloponnesian War, and, according to Thucydides, the largest naval battle between Greek city states until that time. Thucydides also reports that Korkyra was one of the three great naval powers of Greece in the fifth century BCE, along with Athens and Corinth.[5] Ruins of ancient Greek temples and other archaeological sites of the ancient city of Korkyra are located in Palaiopolis. Medieval castles punctuating strategic locations across the island are a legacy of struggles in the Middle Ages against invasions by pirates and the Ottomans. Two of these castles enclose its capital, which is the only city in Greece to be surrounded in such a way. As a result, Corfus capital has been officially declared a kastropolis (castle city) by the Greek government.[6] From medieval times and into the 17th century, the island, as part of the Republic of Venice since 1204, successfully repulsed the Ottomans during several sieges, was recognised as a bulwark of the European States against the Ottoman Empire and became one of the most fortified places in Europe.[7] The fortifications of the island were used by the Venetians to defend against Ottoman intrusion into the Adriatic. In November 1815 Corfu came under British rule following the Napoleonic Wars, and in 1864 was ceded to modern Greece by the British government along with the remaining islands of the United States of the Ionian Islands under the Treaty of London. Corfu is the origin of the Ionian Academy, the first university of the modern Greek state, and the Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù, the first Greek theatre and opera house of modern Greece. Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first governor of independent Greece after the revolution of 1821, founder of the modern Greek state, and a distinguished European diplomat, was born in Corfu. In 2007, the citys old town was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List, following a recommendation by ICOMOS.[8][9][10] The 1994 European Union summit was held in Corfu.[11] The island is a popular tourist destination.[12][13]
The Great Wave off Kanagawa.  The Great Wave off Kanagawa (Japanese: 神奈川沖浪裏, Hepburn: Kanagawa-oki Nami Ura; lit. Under the Wave off Kanagawa)[a] is a woodblock print by Japanese ukiyo-e artist Hokusai, created in late 1831 during the Edo period of Japanese history. The print depicts three boats moving through a storm-tossed sea, with a large, cresting wave forming a spiral in the centre over the boats and Mount Fuji in the background. The print is Hokusais best-known work and the first in his series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, in which the use of Prussian blue revolutionized Japanese prints. The composition of The Great Wave is a synthesis of traditional Japanese prints and use of graphical perspective developed in Europe, and earned him immediate success in Japan and later in Europe, where Hokusais art inspired works by the Impressionists. Several museums throughout the world hold copies of The Great Wave, many of which came from 19th-century private collections of Japanese prints. Only about 100 prints, in varying conditions, are thought to have survived into the 21st century. The Great Wave off Kanagawa has been described as possibly the most reproduced image in the history of all art,[1] as well as being a contender for the most famous artwork in Japanese history.[2] This woodblock print has influenced several Western artists and musicians, including Claude Debussy, Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet. Hokusais younger colleagues, Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi were inspired to make their own wave-centric works. Ukiyo-e is a Japanese printmaking technique which flourished in the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings of subjects including female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; Japanese flora and fauna; and erotica. The term ukiyo-e (浮世絵) translates as picture[s] of the floating world.
Flag of Japan.   The national flag of Japan is a rectangular white banner with a red circle at its center. The flag is officially called the Nisshōki (日章旗, flag of the sun) but is more commonly known in Japan as the Hinomaru (日の丸, ball of the sun). It embodies the countrys sobriquet: the Land of the Rising Sun. The Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Act on National Flag and Anthem, which was promulgated and became effective on 13 August 1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō-kan, the governmental body of the early Meiji period, each had a provision for a design of the national flag. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 (issued on 27 January 1870),[1] and as the national flag used by the Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 (issued on 3 October 1870).[2] Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the early years of the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II; these restrictions were later relaxed. The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion, as the Emperor is said to be the direct descendant of the Shinto sun goddess Amaterasu, and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment. The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this central importance of the sun. The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701, the first recorded use of a sun-motif flag in Japan.[3][4] The oldest existing flag is preserved in Unpō-ji temple, Kōshū, Yamanashi, which is older than the 16th century, and an ancient legend says that the flag was given to the temple by Emperor Go-Reizei in the 11th century.[5][6][7]  During the Meiji Restoration, the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Army became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism. In Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular among the public during the Second Sino-Japanese War and other conflicts. These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag.
Empress of Japan. The empress of Japan[c] is the title given to the wife of the Emperor of Japan or a female ruler in her own right. The current empress consort is Empress Masako, who ascended the throne with her husband on 1 May 2019. There were eight female imperial reigns (six empresses regnant including two who reigned twice) in Japans early history between 593 and 770, and two more in the early modern period (Edo period). Although there were eight reigning empresses, with only one exception their successors were selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline.[5] After many centuries, female reigns came to be officially prohibited only when the Imperial Household Law was issued in 1889 alongside the new Meiji Constitution. The eight historical empresses regnant are: Other than the eight historical empresses regnant, two additional empress are traditionally believed to have reigned, but historical evidence for their reigns is scant and they are not counted among the officially numbered Emperors/Empresses regnant: Under Shinto religious influence, the goddess Amaterasu, who is of the highest rank in the kami system, might suggest that Japans first rulers were women.[6] According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles in Japanese mythology, the Emperors of Japan are considered to be direct descendants of Amaterasu.
Body of water. A body of water or waterbody[1] is any significant accumulation of water on the surface of Earth or another planet. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water.[2] Most are naturally occurring and massive geographical features, but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs. Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways. Some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans. Bodies of water are affected by gravity, which is what creates the tidal effects.[3] The impact of climate change on water is likely to intensify as observed through the rising sea levels, water acidification and flooding. This means that climate change has pressure on water bodies.[4] Climate change significantly affects bodies of water through rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and sea-level rise. Warmer temperatures lead to the melting of glaciers and polar ice, contributing to rising sea levels and affecting coastal ecosystems. Freshwater bodies, such as rivers and lakes, are experiencing more frequent droughts, affecting water availability for communities and biodiversity. Moreover, ocean acidification, caused by increased carbon dioxide absorption, threatens marine ecosystems like coral reefs.[5] Collaborative global efforts are needed to mitigate these impacts through sustainable water management practices.[6]
Itsukushima. Itsukushima (厳島) is an island in the western part of the Inland Sea of Japan, located in the northwest of Hiroshima Bay. It is popularly known as Miyajima (宮島), which in Japanese means Shrine Island.[1] The island is one of Hayashi Gahōs Three Views of Japan specified in 1643.[2] Itsukushima is part of the city of Hatsukaichi in Hiroshima Prefecture. The island was part of the former town of Miyajima before the 2005 merger with Hatsukaichi.[3] Itsukushima is famous for the Itsukushima Shrine, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[4] The shrine was considered a sacred site for a long time, it is possible that locals built a simple shrine on the site before the complex was built in 593 AD. In 1168 AD, Taira no Kiyomori, a warrior-courtier, greatly contributed to giving the shrine its current form. In the 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a famed Japanese warlord and shogun, built a large building, the Senjō-kaku, on a hill above the shrine.[5] Itsukushima has a number of temples, including Toyokuni Shrine with a five-storied pagoda,[6] and Daiganji Temple - one of the three most famous Benzaiten temples of Japan.[7] The island is also famous for its upper hill side cherry blossoms and maple leaf autumn foliage.[8] The island of Itsukushima, including the waters around it (part of Seto Inland Sea), lies within Setonaikai National Park. This sea is affected by strong tides. At low tide, the bottom of the sea is exposed past the islands torii. At high tide, the sea covers all the previously exposed seabed mud and fills areas underneath the shrine boardwalk. Itsukushima is mountainous and sparsely settled. It has an elementary school and a middle school. There are no traffic signals. It is rural and mountainous, only 30.39 square kilometres (11.73 sq mi), and has a population of about 2000. There are no cities, only small towns with simple houses and privately owned shops. The islanders work hard to preserve the forests and respect nature.
Adventure Story (play).  Adventure Story is a 1949, play by the English dramatist Terence Rattigan.[2] The play tells the story of Alexander the Great and his conquests.[3] In this play Rattigan portrays the historical Alexander faithfully, at the same time revealing that his life was what it was because he was the kind of person who very well might have wept because nothing remained to conquer. The play focuses on the transformation of Alexander after his conquest of Persia from a military adventurist to an uncompromising despot with grand vision of a world empire which estranges him from his erstwhile friends. Driven by a deep-felt insecurity, he has to kill people close to him including even the father figure Cleitus. He tries to justify his actions in the name of his dreams of the world empire, but is haunted by loneliness in the end The play holds a deeper significance, that the conquests of Alexander were actually trials to find himself and achieve spiritual enlightenment, through becoming a god (see Theosis).
The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple.  The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (simplified Chinese: 火烧红莲寺; traditional Chinese: 火燒紅蓮寺; pinyin: Huǒshāo Hóngliánsì)  is a lost Chinese silent film serial directed by Zhang Shichuan, widely considered to be the founding father of Chinese cinema.[1][2] The film is adapted from the novel The Tale of the Extraordinary Swordsman.[3] The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple, in 16 parts, is among the longest films ever produced and the longest major release,[specify] running 27 hours in total. The Mingxing Film Company production was released in 19 feature-length parts between 1928 and 1931. No copies have survived. The craze of the film series eventually led the Kuomintang to ban all wuxia films by the early 1930s because wuxia was thought to be inciting anarchy and rebellion.[4] This article related to a Chinese film of the 1920s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Tokugawa shogunate.  The Tokugawa shogunate,[a] also known as the Edo shogunate,[b] was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.[20][21][22] The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars of the Sengoku period following the collapse of the Ashikaga shogunate. Ieyasu became the shōgun, and the Tokugawa clan governed Japan from Edo Castle in the eastern city of Edo (Tokyo) along with the daimyō lords of the samurai class.[23][24][21] The Tokugawa shogunate organized Japanese society under the strict Tokugawa class system and banned the entry of most foreigners under the isolationist policies of Sakoku to promote political stability. Japanese subjects were also barred from leaving the country. The Tokugawa shoguns governed Japan in a feudal system, with each daimyō administering a han (feudal domain), although the country was still nominally organized as imperial provinces. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization, which led to the rise of the merchant class and Ukiyo culture. The Tokugawa shogunate declined during the Bakumatsu period from 1853 and was overthrown by supporters of the Imperial Court in the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The Empire of Japan was established under the Meiji government, and Tokugawa loyalists continued to fight in the Boshin War until the defeat of the Republic of Ezo at the Battle of Hakodate in June 1869.
Drainage basin. A drainage basin is an area of land in which all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. A basin is separated from adjacent basins by a perimeter, the drainage divide,[1] made up of a succession of elevated features, such as ridges and hills. A basin may consist of smaller basins that merge at river confluences, forming a hierarchical pattern.[2] Other terms for a drainage basin are catchment area, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, water catchment, water basin,[3][4] and impluvium.[5][6][7] In North America, they are commonly called a watershed, though in other English-speaking places, watershed is used only in its original sense, that of the drainage divide line.[citation needed] A drainage basins boundaries are determined by watershed delineation, a common task in environmental engineering and science. In a closed drainage basin, or endorheic basin, rather than flowing to the ocean, water converges toward the interior of the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake, a dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost underground.[8] Drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks. In a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units, but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins.[8]
Pulp magazine.  Pulp magazines (also referred to as the pulps) were inexpensive fiction magazines that were published from 1896 until around 1955. The term pulp derives from the wood pulp paper on which the magazines were printed, due to their cheap nature. In contrast, magazines printed on higher-quality paper were called glossies or slicks. The typical pulp magazine was 128 pages,[1] 7 inches (18 cm) wide by 10 inches (25 cm) high, and 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) thick, with ragged, untrimmed edges. Pulps were the successors to the penny dreadfuls, dime novels, and short-fiction magazines of the 19th century. Although many respected writers wrote for pulps, the magazines were best known for their lurid, exploitative, and sensational subject matter, even though this was but a small part of what existed in the pulps. Digest magazines and mens adventure magazines were incorrectly regarded as pulps, though they have different editorial and production standards and are instead replacements. Modern superhero comic books are sometimes considered descendants of hero pulps; pulp magazines often featured illustrated novel-length stories of heroic characters, such as Flash Gordon, The Shadow, Doc Savage, and The Phantom Detective. The pulps gave rise to the term pulp fiction in reference to run-of-the-mill, low-quality literature. Successors of pulps include paperback books, such as hardboiled detective stories and erotic fiction.[2][3][4] Before pulp magazines, Newgate novels (1840s-1860s) fictionalized the exploits of real-life criminals. Later, British sensation novels gained peak popularity in the 1860s-1870s. Sensation novels focused on shocking stories that reflected modern-day anxieties, and were the direct precursors of pulp fiction.[5][6]
Short story. A short story is a piece of prose fiction. It can typically be read in a single sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single effect or mood. The short story is one of the oldest types of literature and has existed in the form of legends, mythic tales, folk tales, fairy tales, tall tales, fables, and anecdotes in various ancient communities around the world. The modern short story developed in the early 19th century.[1] The short story is a crafted form in its own right. Short stories make use of plot, resonance and other dynamic components as in a novel, but typically to a lesser degree. While the short story is largely distinct from the novel or novella/short novel, authors generally draw from a common pool of literary techniques.[citation needed] The short story is sometimes referred to as a genre.[2] Determining what exactly defines a short story remains problematic.[3] A classic definition of a short story is that one should be able to read it in one sitting, a point most notably made in Edgar Allan Poes essay The Philosophy of Composition (1846).[4] H. G. Wells described the purpose of the short story as The jolly art, of making something very bright and moving; it may be horrible or pathetic or funny or profoundly illuminating, having only this essential, that it should take from fifteen to fifty minutes to read aloud.[5] According to William Faulkner, a short story is character-driven and a writers job is to ...trot along behind him with a paper and pencil trying to keep up long enough to put down what he says and does.[6] Some authors have argued that a short story must have a strict form. Somerset Maugham thought that the short story must have a definite design, which includes a point of departure, a climax and a point of test; in other words, it must have a plot.[5] Hugh Walpole had a similar view: A story should be a story; a record of things happening full of incidents, swift movements, unexpected development, leading through suspense to a climax and a satisfying denouement.[5] This view of the short story as a finished product of art is however opposed by Anton Chekhov, who thought that a story should have neither a beginning nor an end. It should just be a slice of life, presented suggestively. In his stories, Chekhov does not round off the end but leaves it to the readers to draw their own conclusions.[5]
Pacific Ocean.  Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earths five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is bounded by the continents of Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east. At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as defined with a southern Antarctic border), the Pacific Ocean is the largest division of the World Ocean and the hydrosphere and covers approximately 46% of Earths water surface and about 32% of the planets total surface area, larger than its entire land area (148,000,000 km2 (57,000,000 sq mi)).[1] The centers of both the water hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, as well as the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, are in the Pacific Ocean. Ocean circulation (caused by the Coriolis effect) subdivides it[2] into two largely independent volumes of water that meet at the equator, the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean (or more loosely the South Seas). The Pacific Ocean can also be informally divided by the International Date Line into the East Pacific and the West Pacific, which allows it to be further divided into four quadrants, namely the Northeast Pacific off the coasts of North America, the Southeast Pacific off South America, the Northwest Pacific off Far Eastern/Pacific Asia, and the Southwest Pacific around Oceania.
Novel. A novel is an extended work of narrative fiction usually written in prose and published as a book.[1] The word derives from the Italian: novella for new, news, or short story (of something new), itself from the Latin: novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus, diminutive of novus, meaning new.[2] According to Margaret Doody, the novel has a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years, with its origins in the Ancient Greek and Roman novel, Medieval chivalric romance, and the tradition of the Italian Renaissance novella.[3] The ancient romance form was revived by Romanticism, in the historical romances of Walter Scott and the Gothic novel.[4] Some novelists, including Nathaniel Hawthorne,[5] Herman Melville,[6] Ann Radcliffe,[7] and John Cowper Powys,[8] preferred the term romance. Such romances should not be confused with the genre fiction romance novel, which focuses on romantic love. M. H. Abrams and Walter Scott have argued that a novel is a fiction narrative that displays a realistic depiction of the state of a society, like Harper Lees To Kill a Mockingbird.[9][10] The romance, on the other hand, encompasses any fictitious narrative that emphasizes marvellous or uncommon incidents.[11][12][13] In reality, such works are nevertheless also commonly called novels, including Mary Shelleys Frankenstein[14] and J. R. R. Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings.[15] The spread of printed books in China led to the appearance of the vernacular classic Chinese novels during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), and Qing dynasty (1616–1911). An early example from Europe was Hayy ibn Yaqdhan by the Sufi writer Ibn Tufayl in Muslim Spain.[16] Later developments occurred after the invention of the printing press. Miguel de Cervantes, author of Don Quixote (the first part of which was published in 1605), is frequently cited as the first significant European novelist of the modern era.[17] Literary historian Ian Watt, in The Rise of the Novel (1957), argued that the modern novel was born in the early 18th century with Robinson Crusoe.[18] Recent technological developments have led to many novels also being published in non-print media: this includes audio books, web novels, and ebooks. Another non-traditional fiction format can be found in graphic novels. While these comic book versions of works of fiction have their origins in the 19th century, they have only become popular recently. A novel is a long, fictional narrative. The novel in the modern era usually makes use of a literary prose style. The development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations in printing, and the introduction of cheap paper in the 15th century. Several characteristics of a novel might include:
Edo period. The Edo period,[a] also known as the Tokugawa period,[b] is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868[3] in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional daimyo, or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characterized by prolonged peace and stability, urbanization and economic growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies, and popular enjoyment of arts and culture. In 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu prevailed at the Battle of Sekigahara and established hegemony over most of Japan, and in 1603 was given the title shogun by Emperor Go-Yōzei. Ieyasu resigned two years later in favor of his son Hidetada, but maintained power, and defeated the primary rival to his authority, Toyotomi Hideyori, at the Siege of Osaka in 1615 before his death the next year. Peace generally prevailed from this point on, making samurai largely redundant. Tokugawa shoguns continued Ieyasus policies of conformity, including a formalization of social classes in a strict hierarchy. By 1639, all foreigners were expelled under the policy of sakoku, with the exception of Dutch traders on the island of Dejima in Nagasaki, beginning a period of isolation. From 1635, daimyō had to spend alternating years in the capital Edo, where their family was required to reside permanently, in a system of alternate attendance in order to keep them in check. During the Edo period, merchants greatly prospered, and laid the foundation for Japans later zaibatsu business conglomerates. Despite general restrictions on travel within the country, daimyō processions to and from Edo developed a network of roads and inns. A commoner culture emerged in Edo and cities such as Ōsaka and Kyōto, and art forms such as kabuki and ukiyo-e flourished. Japanese scholars developed schools of neo-Confucian philosophy, and samurai, now mostly employed as administrators, formalized their code of morality in the bushido code. In 1853, Japan was forcibly opened to Western trade by United States Commodore Matthew C. Perry, beginning the Bakumatsu (end of the bakufu) era. The Edo period came to an end in 1868 with the Meiji Restoration and the Boshin War, which restored imperial rule to Japan. A revolution took place from the time of the Kamakura shogunate, which existed with the Tennōs court, to the Tokugawa, when the samurai became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer called a centralized feudal form of the shogunate. Instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[4] Already a powerful daimyo (feudal lord), Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area. He maintained two million koku, or thirty-six hectares of land, a new headquarters at Edo, a strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo), and also had an additional two million koku of land and thirty-eight vassals under his control. After Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control of the Toyotomi clan.[citation needed] Ieyasus victory over the western daimyo at the Battle of Sekigahara (October 21, 1600, or in the old Japanese calendar, on the 15th day of the ninth month of the fifth year of the Keichō era) gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyo houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyo, but his assumption of the title of shōgun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada (1579–1632) as shōgun and himself as retired shōgun in 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka.
Zhang Shichuan. Zhang Shichuan (Wade–Giles: Chang Shih-chuan; 1889–1953[1] or 1890–1954[2]), also credited as S. C. Chang, was a Chinese entrepreneur, film director, and film producer, who is considered a founding father of Chinese cinema. He and Zheng Zhengqiu made the first Chinese feature film, The Difficult Couple, in 1913, and cofounded the Mingxing (Star) Film Company in 1922, which became the largest film production company in China under Zhangs leadership. Zhang directed about 150 films in his career, including Laborers Love (1922), the earliest complete Chinese film that has survived; Orphan Rescues Grandfather (1923), one of the first Chinese box-office hits; The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (1928), the first martial arts film; and Sing-Song Girl Red Peony (1931), Chinas first sound film. After the destruction of Mingxings studio by Japanese bombing during the 1937 Battle of Shanghai, Zhang Shichuan made films for the China United Film Production Company (Zhonglian) in Japanese-occupied Shanghai, which led to accusations of treason after the surrender of Japan in 1945. He never recovered from the humiliation, and died in 1953 or 1954. Zhang Shichuan was born Zhang Weitong (张伟通) in Beilun, Ningbo, Zhejiang province. Shichuan was his courtesy name, originally written with the different characters 蚀川. His father Zhang Heju (张和巨) was a small merchant dealing with silkworms. His father died when Zhang was 16 years old, and he had to quit school and move to Shanghai to live with his maternal uncle Jing Runsan (经润三), a successful comprador. In Shanghai, he worked at the American-owned Huayang Company by day and studied English at night.[3] In 1913, Yashell and Suffert, two Americans in Shanghai who had acquired the Asia Film Company, asked Zhang to be their consultant.[2] Despite his lack of experience in filmmaking, Zhang took over the companys work responsibilities. He sought help from Zheng Zhengqiu, a well-known playwright, and the two cofounded the Xinmin (新民) Film Company to make film for the Asia Company. Soon they made Chinas first feature film, The Difficult Couple, in 1913. However, Xinmin and Asia went out of business when their supply of German film stock was cut off after the outbreak of World War I.[1][2][3] When his uncle died, Zhang was asked by his aunt to manage the familys New World amusement park.[3]
Sea.  A sea is a large body of salt water. There are particular seas and the sea. The sea commonly refers to the ocean, the interconnected body of seawaters that spans most of Earth. Particular seas are either marginal seas, second-order sections of the oceanic sea (e.g. the Mediterranean Sea), or certain large, nearly landlocked bodies of water. The salinity of water bodies varies widely, being lower near the surface and the mouths of large rivers and higher in the depths of the ocean; however, the relative proportions of dissolved salts vary little across the oceans. The most abundant solid dissolved in seawater is sodium chloride. The water also contains salts of magnesium, calcium, potassium, and mercury, among other elements, some in minute concentrations. A wide variety of organisms, including bacteria, protists, algae, plants, fungi, and animals live in various marine habitats and ecosystems throughout the seas. These range vertically from the sunlit surface and shoreline to the great depths and pressures of the cold, dark abyssal zone, and in latitude from the cold waters under polar ice caps to the warm waters of coral reefs in tropical regions. Many of the major groups of organisms evolved in the sea and life may have started there. The ocean moderates Earths climate and has important roles in the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles. The surface of water interacts with the atmosphere, exchanging properties such as particles and temperature, as well as currents. Surface currents are the water currents that are produced by the atmospheres currents and its winds blowing over the surface of the water, producing wind waves, setting up through drag slow but stable circulations of water, as in the case of the ocean sustaining deep-sea ocean currents. Deep-sea currents, known together as the global conveyor belt, carry cold water from near the poles to every ocean and significantly influence Earths climate. Tides, the generally twice-daily rise and fall of sea levels, are caused by Earths rotation and the gravitational effects of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, of the Sun. Tides may have a very high range in bays or estuaries. Submarine earthquakes arising from tectonic plate movements under the oceans can lead to destructive tsunamis, as can volcanoes, huge landslides, or the impact of large meteorites. The seas have been an integral element for humans throughout history and culture. Humans harnessing and studying the seas have been recorded since ancient times and evidenced well into prehistory, while its modern scientific study is called oceanography and maritime space is governed by the law of the sea, with admiralty law regulating human interactions at sea. The seas provide substantial supplies of food for humans, mainly fish, but also shellfish, mammals and seaweed, whether caught by fishermen or farmed underwater. Other human uses of the seas include trade, travel, mineral extraction, power generation, warfare, and leisure activities such as swimming, sailing, and scuba diving. Many of these activities create marine pollution.
Martial arts.  Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; competition;  physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the preservation of a nations intangible cultural heritage.[1] The concept of martial arts was originally associated with East Asian tradition,[2] but subsequently the term has been applied to practices that originated outside that region. Martial arts is a direct English translation of the Sino-Japanese word (Japanese: 武芸, romanized: bu-gei, Chinese: 武藝; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: bú-gē; pinyin: wǔyì). Literally, it refers to 武 martial and 芸 arts. The term martial arts was popularized by mainstream popular culture during the 1960s to 1970s, notably by Hong Kong martial arts films (most famously those of Bruce Lee) during the so-called chopsocky wave of the early 1970s.[3] According to John Clements, the term martial arts itself is derived from an older Latin term meaning arts of Mars, the Roman god of war, and was used to refer to the combat systems of Europe (European martial arts) as early as the 1550s.[4]
Hand-to-hand combat. Hand-to-hand combat is a physical confrontation between two or more persons at short range (grappling distance or within the physical reach of a handheld weapon) that does not involve the use of ranged weapons.[1] The phrase hand-to-hand sometimes includes use of melee weapons such as knives, swords, clubs, spears, axes, or improvised weapons such as entrenching tools.[1] While the term hand-to-hand combat originally referred principally to engagements by combatants on the battlefield, it can also refer to any personal physical engagement by two or more people, including law enforcement officers, civilians, and criminals.[1] Combat within close quarters, to a range just beyond grappling distance, is commonly termed close combat or close-quarters combat. It may include lethal and non-lethal weapons and methods depending upon the restrictions imposed by civilian law, military rules of engagement, or ethical codes. Close combat using firearms or other distance weapons by military combatants at the tactical level is referred to in contemporary parlance as close-quarters battle. The United States Army uses the term combatives to describe various military fighting systems used in hand-to-hand combat training, systems which may incorporate eclectic techniques from several different martial arts and combat sports. Hand-to-hand combat is the most ancient form of fighting known. A majority of cultures have their own particular histories related to close combat, and their own methods of practice. The pankration, which was practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome, is an example of a form which involved nearly all strikes and holds, with biting and gouging being the only exceptions (although allowed in Sparta).[2] Many modern varieties of martial arts and combat sports, such as some boxing styles, wrestling and MMA, were also practiced historically. For example, Celtic wrestling is mentioned in the Tailteann Games dating back from somewhere between 1839 BC to 632 BC (academics disagree) to the 12th century AD when the Normans invaded. Other historical forms of close combat include the gladiator spectacles of ancient Rome and medieval tournament events such as jousting or medieval martial arts. Military organizations have always taught some sort of unarmed combat for conditioning and as a supplement to armed combat. Soldiers in China were trained in unarmed combat as early as the Zhou dynasty (1022 BCE to 256 BCE). Despite major technological changes such as the use of gunpowder, the machine gun in the Russo-Japanese War and the trench warfare of World War I, hand-to-hand fighting methods with the knife and bayonet remain common in modern military training, though the importance of formal training declined after 1918. By 1944 some German rifles were being produced without bayonet lugs.
Municipalities of Japan.  Municipalities are a level of administration in Japan. The country has three levels of governments: national, prefectural, and municipal. The nation is divided into 47 prefectures (within these, one metropolis, one regional prefecture, and two urban prefectures). Each prefecture consists of numerous municipalities, with 1,719 in total as of January 2014.[1] There are four types of municipalities in Japan: cities, towns, villages and special wards of Tokyo (ku). In Japanese, this system is known as shikuchōson (市区町村), where each kanji in the word represents one of the four types of municipalities. In Tokyo, because the wards are at the center, the system is officially referred to as kushichōson (区市町村), with the wards first, and cities second.[2][3][4] Some designated cities also have further administrative subdivisions, also known as wards, but, unlike the special wards of Tokyo, these wards are not municipalities.
Tang dynasty.    The Tang dynasty (/tɑːŋ/,[7] [tʰǎŋ]; Chinese: 唐朝[a]), or the Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Historians generally regard the Tang as a high point in Chinese civilisation, and a golden age of cosmopolitan culture.[9] Tang territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, rivalled that of the Han dynasty. The Li family founded the dynasty after taking advantage of a period of Sui decline and precipitating their final collapse, in turn inaugurating a period of progress and stability in the first half of the dynastys rule. The dynasty was formally interrupted during 690–705 when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, proclaiming the Wu Zhou dynasty and becoming the only legitimate Chinese empress regnant. The An Lushan rebellion (755–763) led to devastation and the decline of central authority during the latter half of the dynasty. Like the previous Sui dynasty, the Tang maintained a civil-service system by recruiting scholar-officials through standardised examinations and recommendations to office. The rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century undermined this civil order. The dynasty and central government went into decline by the latter half of the 9th century; agrarian rebellions resulted in mass population loss and displacement, widespread poverty, and further government dysfunction that ultimately ended the dynasty in 907.
Subprefectures of Japan. Subprefecture of Japan (支庁, shichō) are a Japanese form of self-government which focuses on local issues below the prefectural level. It acts as part of the greater administration of the state and as part of a self-government system.[1] They were given a definite form in 1878 (Meiji 11).[2] The Meiji government established the sub-prefecture (郡, -gun) as an administrative unit.[1] In 1888 (Meiji 21), the sub-prefecture as a form of self-government was officially recognized as more general than civic corporations like cities, towns and villages.[2] Certain prefectures of Japan are now, or once were, divided into subprefectures. The subprefecture is the jurisdiction surrounding a branch office of the prefectural government. Normally, the area of a subprefecture consists of a few to a dozen cities, towns, and/or villages. Subprefectures are formed to provide services of the prefectural government in geographically remote areas. They are usually not used in postal addresses.
Naruto.  Naruto[a] is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Masashi Kishimoto. It tells the story of Naruto Uzumaki, a young, socially isolated ninja who seeks recognition from his peers and dreams of becoming the Hokage, the leader of his village. The story is told in two parts: the first is set in Narutos pre-teen years (volumes 1–27), and the second in his teens (volumes 28–72). The series is based on two one-shot manga by Kishimoto: Karakuri (1995), which earned Kishimoto an honorable mention in Shueishas monthly Hop Step Award the following year, and Naruto (1997). Naruto was serialized in Shueishas shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from September 1999 to November 2014, with its 700 chapters collected in 72 tankōbon volumes. Viz Media licensed the manga for North American production and serialized Naruto in their digital Weekly Shonen Jump magazine. The manga was adapted into two anime television series by Pierrot and Aniplex, which ran from October 2002 to March 2017 on TV Tokyo. Pierrot also produced 11 animated films and 12 original video animations (OVAs). The franchise additionally includes light novels, video games, and trading cards. The story continues in Boruto, where Narutos son Boruto Uzumaki creates his own ninja path as opposed to of following his fathers. Naruto is one of the best-selling manga series of all time, having 250 million copies in circulation worldwide. It has become one of Viz Medias best-selling manga series; their English translations of the volumes have appeared on USA Today and The New York Timess bestseller list several times, and the seventh volume won a Quill Award in 2006. Naruto has been praised for its character development, storylines, and action sequences, though some felt the latter slowed the story down. Critics noted that the manga, which contains coming-of-age themes, often makes cultural references to Japanese mythology and Confucianism. A powerful fox known as the Nine-Tails attacks Konoha, the hidden leaf village in the Land of Fire, one of the Five Great Shinobi Countries in the Ninja World. In response, the leader of Konoha and the Fourth Hokage, Minato Namikaze, at the cost of his life, seals the fox inside the body of his newborn son, Naruto Uzumaki, making him a host of the beast.[i] The Third Hokage returns from retirement to become the leader of Konoha again. Naruto is often scorned by Konohas villagers for being the host of the Nine-Tails. Due to a decree by the Third Hokage forbidding any mention of these events, Naruto learns nothing about the Nine-Tails until 12 years later, when Mizuki, a renegade ninja, reveals the truth to him. Naruto defeats Mizuki in combat, earning the respect of his teacher, Iruka Umino.[ii]
Administrative divisions of Japan.   Naruhito  Fumihito
Metropolitan Museum of Art.  The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the third-largest museum in the world and the largest art museum in the Americas. With 5.36 million visitors in 2023, it is the most-visited museum in the United States and the fifth-most visited art museum in the world.[6] In 2000, its permanent collection had over two million works;[1] it currently lists a total of 1.5 million works.[7] The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattans Upper East Side, is by area one of the worlds largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot (190,000 m2) building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe. The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870, the museum was established by a group of Americans, including philanthropists, artists, and businessmen, with the goal of creating a national institution that would inspire and educate the public.[8] The museums permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries. The Mets permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research.[9] The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt; paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters; and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art.[10] The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world.[11] A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries.[12] Since the late 1800s, the Museum has been collecting diverse materials from all over the world. Its outreach to exhibition designers, architects, graphic designers, lighting designers, and production designers helps the museum to maintain its collection in good condition.[13]
Core cities of Japan. A core city (中核市, chūkakushi; Japanese pronunciation: [tɕɯː.ka.kɯ̥ꜜ.ɕi, -kaꜜ.kɯ̥-][1]) is a class or category of Japanese cities.  It is a local administrative division created by the national government.[2] Core cities are delegated many functions normally carried out by prefectural governments, but not as many as designated cities. To become a candidate for core city status, a city must have a population greater than 300,000 and an area greater than 100 square kilometers, although special exceptions may be made by order of the cabinet for cities with populations under 300,000 but over 200,000.[3] After the abolition of special city status on April 1, 2015, any city with a population above 200,000 may apply for core city status.[4] Application for designation is made by a city with the approval of both the city and prefectural assemblies. The term core city was created by the first clause of Article 252, Section 22 of the Local Autonomy Law of Japan.[5] As of 1 April 2021, 62 cities have been designated core cities:[4] The following cities have populations greater than 200,000 but have not yet been nominated. (Special cities and cities planning to apply for core city status are not shown.)
Whirlpool (disambiguation). A whirlpool is a swirling body of water. Whirlpool may also refer to:
Action film. The action film is a film genre that predominantly features chase sequences, fights, shootouts, explosions, and stunt work. The specifics of what constitutes an action film has been in scholarly debate since the 1980s. While some scholars such as David Bordwell suggested they were films that favor spectacle to storytelling, others such as Geoff King stated they allow the scenes of spectacle to be attuned to storytelling. Action films are often hybrid with other genres, mixing into various forms such as comedies, science fiction films, and horror films. While the term action film or action adventure film has been used as early as the 1910s, the contemporary definition usually refers to a film that came with the arrival of New Hollywood and the rise of anti-heroes appearing in American films of the late 1960s and 1970s drawing from war films, crime films and Westerns. These genres were followed by what is referred to as the classical period in the 1980s. This was followed by the post-classical era where American action films were influenced by Hong Kong action cinema and the growing using of computer generated imagery in film. Following the September 11 attacks, a return to the early forms of the genre appeared in the wake of Kill Bill and The Expendables films. Scott Higgins wrote in 2008 in Cinema Journal that action films are both one of the most popular and popularly derided of contemporary cinema genres, stating that in mainstream discourse, the genre is regularly lambasted for favoring spectacle over finely tuned narrative.[2] Bordwell echoed this in his book, The Way Hollywood Tells It,  writing that the reception to the genre as being the emblem of what Hollywood does worst.[3] In the Journal of Film and Video, Lennart Soberson stated that the action film genre has been a subject of scholarly debate since the 1980s.[4] Soberson wrote that repeated traits of the genre include chase sequences, fights, shootouts, explosions, and stunt work while other scholars asserted there were more underlying traits that define the genre.[4] David Bordwell in The Way Hollywood Tells It wrote that audiences are told that spectacle overrides narrative in action cinema while Wheeler Winston Dixon echoed that these films were typified by excessive spectacle as a desperate attempt to mask the lack of content.[3][5] Geoff King argued that the spectacle can also be a vehicle for narrative, opposed to interfering with it.[6] Soberson stated that Harvey OBrien had perhaps the most convincing understanding of the genre, stating that the action film was best understood as a fusion of form and content. It represents the idea and ethic of action through a form in which action, agitation and movement are paramount.[4] OBrien wrote further in his book Action Movies: The Cinema of Striking Back to suggest action films being unique and not just a series of action sequences, stating that that was the difference between Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and Die Hard (1988), that while both were mainstream Hollywood blockbusters with a hero asserting masculinity and overcoming obstacles to a personal and social solution, John McClane in Die Hard repeatedly firing his automatic pistol while swinging from a high rise was not congruent with the image of Indiana Jones in Raiders swinging his whip to fend off villains in the backstreets of Cairo.[7] British author and academic Yvonne Tasker expanded on this topic, stating that action films have no clear and constant iconography or settings. In her book The Hollywood Action and Adventure Film (2015), she found that the most broadly consistent themes tend to be a characters quest from freedom from oppression such as a hero overcoming enemies or obstacles and physical conflicts or challenge, usually battling other humans or alien opponents.[8]
Cities designated by government ordinance of Japan.  A city designated by government ordinance (政令指定都市, seirei shitei toshi; [sei.ɾei ɕi̥.tei toꜜ.ɕi, seː.ɾeː- -teː-][1]), also known as a designated city (指定都市, shitei toshi; [ɕi̥.tei toꜜ.ɕi, -teː-][1]) or government ordinance city (政令市, seireishi; [sei.ɾeꜜi.ɕi, seː.ɾeꜜː-][1]), is a Japanese city that has a population greater than 500,000 and has been designated as such by order of the Cabinet of Japan under Article 252, Section 19, of the Local Autonomy Law.[2] Designated cities are delegated many of the functions normally performed by prefectural governments in fields such as public education, social welfare, sanitation, business licensing, and urban planning. The city government is generally delegated the various minor administrative functions in each area, and the prefectural government retains authority over major decisions. For instance, pharmaceutical retailers and small clinics can be licensed by designated city governments, but pharmacies and hospitals are licensed by prefectural governments. Designated cities are also required to subdivide themselves into wards (区, ku) (broadly equivalent to the boroughs of London or the boroughs of New York City), each of which has a ward office conducting various administrative functions for the city government, such as koseki and juminhyo resident registration and tax collection. In some cities, ward offices are responsible for business licensing, construction permits, and other administrative matters. The structure and the authorities of the wards are determined by municipal ordinances. The 23 special wards of Tokyo are not part of this system, as Tokyo is a prefecture, and its wards are effectively independent cities. Although the two largest wards of Tokyo, Setagaya and Nerima, are populous enough to become designated cities, they are not considered to be cities within the meaning of the Local Autonomy Law and so are not designated as such.
Animation.  Animation is a filmmaking technique whereby still images are manipulated to create moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the entertainment industry. Many animations are either traditional animations or computer animations made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Stop motion animation, in particular claymation, is also prominent alongside these other forms, albeit to a lesser degree. Animation is contrasted with live action, although the two do not exist in isolation. Many filmmakers have produced films that are a hybrid of the two. As CGI increasingly approximates photographic imagery, filmmakers can relatively easily composite 3D animated visual effects (VFX) into their film, rather than using practical effects. Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation (which may have the look of traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets, or clay figures. An animated cartoon, or simply a cartoon, is an animated film, usually short, that features an exaggerated visual style. This style is often inspired by comic strips, gag cartoons, and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include anthropomorphic animals, superheroes, or the adventures of human protagonists. The action often revolves around exaggerated physical humor, particularly in predator/prey dynamics (e.g. cats and mices, coyotes and birds), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and explosions occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life.
Gulf of Corryvreckan.  The Gulf of Corryvreckan (from the Gaelic Coire Bhreacain, meaning cauldron of the speckled seas or cauldron of the plaid), also called the Strait of Corryvreckan, is a narrow strait between the islands of Jura and Scarba, in Argyll and Bute, off the west coast of mainland Scotland. It is possible for tourists to visit the site by way of boat trips from local harbours or sightseeing flights from Oban Airport. Strong Atlantic currents and unusual underwater topography together produce a particularly intense tidal race in the Corryvreckan channel. As the flood tide enters the narrow area between the two islands it speeds up to 8.5 knots (16 km/h) and meets a variety of seabed features, including a deep hole and a rising pinnacle. These features combine to create whirlpools, standing waves and a variety of other surface effects. The Corryvreckan is the third largest whirlpool in the world,[1] and is on the northern side of the gulf, surrounding a pyramid-shaped basalt pinnacle that rises from depths of 70 to 29 m (230 to 95 ft) at its rounded top. Flood tides and outflow to the Firth of Lorne in the west can drive the waters of Corryvreckan to waves of more than 30 ft (9 m), and the roar of the resulting maelstrom can be heard 10 mi (16 km) away.
Saiyuki (manga).  Saiyuki (Japanese: 最遊記, Hepburn: Saiyūki) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Kazuya Minekura. It was originally serialized in Enixs Shōnen magazine Monthly GFantasy between February 1997 and November 2001, with its chapters collected in nine tankōbon volumes. It was later republished by Ichijinsha, who released nine volumes with new covers from October 2002 to June 2003, and a five-volume bunkoban edition which was released from April to August 2015. The story, which is loosely based on the 16th-century Chinese novel Journey to the West, follows a monk named Genjo Sanzo who receives a mission to travel to the west with a group of three yokai (demons) to stop the revival of Gyumao, an evil god. The manga was licensed for an English release by Tokyopop, who published nine volumes between March and July, 2005. The most recent publication in North America is by Kodansha, the series receiving a hardcover release with a new translation between February 2020 and January 2021. Minekuras manga includes two sequels titled Saiyuki Reload and Saiyuki Reload Blast, as well as two prequels titled Saiyuki Gaiden and Saiyuki Ibun. The series has spawned a media franchise that includes five anime series. Pierrot produced a 50-episode anime television series titled Gensomaden Saiyuki that aired from April 2000 to March 2001, and won the twenty-third annual Animage Anime Grand Prix prize for best anime.  The same studio developed an anime film adaptation and two anime sequel series titled Saiyuki Reload and Saiyuki Reload Gunlock, which were broadcast together in Japan from October 2003 to September 2004. Two other animes were produced; Platinum Vision made Saiyuki Reload Blast in 2017 and Liden Films made Saiyuki Reload: Zeroin, in 2022. Three original video animations (OVAs), ten stage musicals, a light novel adaptation, numerous video games, drama CDs, and artbooks have also been made. As of July 2017, the Saiyuki franchise has sold 25 million copies in circulation worldwide, making it one of the best-selling manga series of all time. It has become a mainstay of manga/anime culture, and its entries have continually garnered critical praise and accolades.
Whirlpool Corporation.  Whirlpool Corporation is an American multinational manufacturer and marketer of home appliances headquartered in Benton Charter Township, Michigan, United States.[2] In 2023, the Fortune 500 company had an annual revenue of approximately $19 billion in sales, around 59,000 employees, and more than 55 manufacturing and technology research centers globally.[3] The company’s flagship brand, Whirlpool, is marketed alongside a range of other brands including Maytag, KitchenAid, JennAir, Amana, Gladiator GarageWorks, Inglis, Estate, Brastemp, Bauknecht and Consul.[4] In its domestic U.S. market, Whirlpool has eleven manufacturing facilities which employs about 15,000 workers.[5] On November 11, 1911, Louis Upton (1886–1952), who worked as an insurance salesman, and his uncle, Emory Upton, who owned a machine shop, founded the Upton Machine Company. Following a failed business venture, Lou acquired a patent to a manual clothes washer. He approached Emory to determine if he could add an electric motor to the design. With the aid of a $5,000 investment from retailing executive Lowell Bassford, they began producing electric motor-driven wringer washers.[6][7]  Soon after its founding, Lous younger brother Fred joined the company.[8]
Night in Tunisia (short story collection).  Night in Tunisia was the first book by Irish writer Neil Jordan in 1976, containing ten stories, which was published by The Irish Writers Co-operative (Co-op Books) in Dublin, Ireland. The storys title is a jazz standard composed by Dizzy Gillespie. In 1979, the book won the Guardian Fiction Prize[1] and was then published by Writers and Readers in the UK and by George Braziller in the US. From Scribd the book is praised:[2]
Vortex. In fluid dynamics, a vortex (pl.: vortices or vortexes)[1][2] is a region in a fluid in which the flow revolves around an axis line, which may be straight or curved.[3][4] Vortices form in stirred fluids and may be observed in smoke rings, whirlpools in the wake of a boat, and in the winds surrounding a tropical cyclone, tornado, or dust devil. Vortices are a major component of turbulent flow. The distribution of velocity, vorticity (the curl of the flow velocity), as well as the concept of circulation are used to characterize vortices. In most vortices, the fluid flow velocity is greatest next to its axis and decreases in inverse proportion to the distance from the axis. In the absence of external forces, viscous friction within the fluid tends to organize the flow into a collection of irrotational vortices, possibly superimposed to larger-scale flows, including larger-scale vortices. Once formed vortices can move, stretch, twist, and interact in complex ways. A moving vortex carries some angular and linear momentum, energy, and mass, with it. In the dynamics of fluid, a vortex is fluid that revolves around the line of flow. The flow of fluid might be curved or straight. Vortices form from stirred fluids: they might be observed in smoke rings, whirlpools, in the wake of a boat or the winds around a tornado or dust devil. Vortices are an important part of turbulent flow. Vortices can otherwise be known as a circular motion of a liquid. In the cases of the absence of forces, the liquid settles. That makes the water stay still instead of move.
Guardian Fiction Prize. The Guardian Fiction Prize was a literary award sponsored by The Guardian newspaper.[1][2] Founded in 1965 by the Guardians Literary Editor, W.L. Webb, and chaired by him until 1987, it recognized one fiction book per year written by a British or Commonwealth writer and published in the United Kingdom. The award ran for 33 years before being terminated. In 1999, the Guardian replaced the Fiction Prize with the Guardian First Book Award, for début works of both fiction and non-fiction,[3] which was discontinued in 2016, with the 2015 awards being the last.[4]
Anime.  Anime (Japanese: アニメ; IPA: [aꜜɲime] ⓘ;[a] derived from a shortening of the English word animation) is hand-drawn and computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside Japan and in English, anime refers specifically to animation produced in Japan.[1] However, anime, in Japan and in Japanese, describes all animated works, regardless of style or origin. Many works of animation with a similar style to Japanese animation are also produced outside Japan. Video games sometimes also feature themes and art styles that may be labelled as anime. The earliest commercial Japanese animation dates to 1917. A characteristic art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of cartoonist Osamu Tezuka and spread in the following decades, developing a large domestic audience. Anime is distributed theatrically, through television broadcasts, directly to home media, and over the Internet. In addition to original works, anime are often adaptations of Japanese comics (manga), light novels, or video games. It is classified into numerous genres targeting various broad and niche audiences.[2] Anime is a diverse medium with distinctive production methods that have adapted in response to emergent technologies. It combines graphic art, characterization, cinematography, and other forms of imaginative and individualistic techniques.[3] Compared to Western animation, anime production generally focuses less on movement, and more on the detail of settings and use of camera effects, such as panning, zooming, and angle shots.[3] Diverse art styles are used, and character proportions and features can be quite varied, with a common characteristic feature being large and emotive eyes.[4] The anime industry consists of over 430 production companies, including major studios such as Studio Ghibli, Kyoto Animation, Sunrise, Bones, Ufotable, MAPPA, Wit Studio, CoMix Wave Films, Madhouse, Inc., TMS Entertainment, Pierrot, Production I.G, Nippon Animation and Toei Animation. Since the 1980s, the medium has also seen widespread international success with the rise of foreign dubbed, subtitled programming, and since the 2010s due to the rise of streaming services and a widening demographic embrace of anime culture, both within Japan and worldwide.[5][6] As of 2016,[update] Japanese animation accounted for 60% of the worlds animated television shows.[7]
Tribeca Festival.  The Tribeca Festival is an annual film festival organized by Tribeca Enterprises. It takes place each spring in New York City, showcasing a diverse selection of film, episodic, talks, music, games, art, and immersive programming. The festival was founded by Robert De Niro, Jane Rosenthal, and Craig Hatkoff in 2002 to spur the economic and cultural revitalization of Lower Manhattan following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center. Until 2020, the festival was known as the Tribeca Film Festival. The festival hosts over 600 screenings with approximately 150,000 attendees each year, and awards independent artists in 23 juried competitive categories.[1] The Tribeca Film Festival was founded in 2002 by Jane Rosenthal, Robert De Niro, and Craig Hatkoff, in response to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the consequent loss of vitality in the Tribeca neighborhood in Lower Manhattan.[2] The inaugural festival launched after 120 days of planning with the help of more than 1,300 volunteers. It was attended by more than 150,000 people[3] and featured several up-and-coming filmmakers. The festival included juried narrative, documentary and short film competitions; a restored classics series; a best of New York series curated by Martin Scorsese; 13 major panel discussions; an all-day family festival; and the premieres of independent and studio films Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones - made independently,[4] About A Boy,[5] the American remake of Insomnia, Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen. The 2003 festival brought more than 300,000 people.[3] The festival showcased an expanded group of independent features, documentaries and short films from around the world, coupled with studio premieres, panel discussions, music and comedy concerts, a family festival, sports activities, and outdoor movie screenings along the Hudson River. The family festival featured childrens movie screenings, storytelling, family panels, workshops, and interactive games culminating in a daylong street fair that drew a crowd estimated at 250,000 people.[6]
List of science fiction and fantasy artists.  This is a list of science fiction and fantasy artists, notable and well-known 20th- and 21st-century artists who have created book covers or interior illustrations for books, or who have had their own books or comic books of fantastic art with science fiction or fantasy themes published. Artists known exclusively for their work in comic books are not included. Many of the artists are known for their work in both the fantasy and sf fields. Artists who have won the Hugo Award, the World Fantasy Award, or the Chesley Award are noted, as are inductees into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame.
List of fantasy anime. This is a list of fantasy anime television series, films, and OVAs. Titles are in alphabetical order.
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938 film).  The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a 1938 American drama film produced by David O. Selznick and directed by Norman Taurog who had previously directed Huckleberry Finn (1931) with Jackie Coogan and Junior Durkin.  The film starred Tommy Kelly in the title role, with Jackie Moran and Ann Gillis. The screenplay by John V. A. Weaver was based on the classic 1876 novel of the same name by Mark Twain. The movie was the first film version of the novel to be made in color. The United Artists release includes most of the sequences familiar to readers of the book, including the fence-whitewashing episode;  Tom and Huckleberry Finns attendance at their own funeral, after the boys, who were enjoying an adventure on a remote island, are presumed dead; the murder trial of local drunkard Muff Potter; and Tom and Becky Thatchers flight through a cave as they try to escape Injun Joe, who is revealed to be the real killer. Note: Many cast lists included an uncredited Spring Byington as Widow Douglas. However, Hucks adoption is not included in this version, and Byingtons role does not appear to have survived editing. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer was the fourth film adaptation of the Twain novel, following versions released in 1907, 1917, and 1930, and this is the first filmed in Technicolor.
Fantastic art.  Fantastic art is a broad and loosely defined art genre.[1] It is not restricted to a specific school of artists, geographical location or historical period. It can be characterised by subject matter—which portrays non-realistic, mystical, mythical or folkloric subjects or events—and style, which is representational and naturalistic, rather than abstract—or in the case of magazine illustrations and similar, in the style of graphic novel art such as manga.[citation needed] Fantasy has been an integral part of art since its beginnings,[2] but has been particularly important in mannerism, magic realist painting, romantic art, symbolism, surrealism and lowbrow. In French, the genre is called le fantastique, in English it is sometimes referred to as visionary art, grotesque art or mannerist art. It has had a deep and circular interaction with fantasy literature.[citation needed] The subject matter of fantastic art may resemble the product of hallucinations, and Fantastic artist Richard Dadd spent much of his life in mental institutions. Salvador Dalí famously said: the only difference between me and a madman is that I am not mad.[3]  Some recent fantastic art draws on the artists experience, or purported experience, of hallucinogenic drugs. The term fantasy art is closely related, and is applied primarily to recent art (typically 20th century on wards) inspired by, or illustrating fantasy literature.[citation needed]
Fantasy comics. Fantasy comics have been around as long as comics. The classification fantasy comics broadly encompasses illustrated books set in an other-worldly universe or involving elements or actors outside our reality. Fantasy has been a mainstay of fiction for centuries, but burgeoned in the late 1930s and early 1940s, spurred by authors such as C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien. They inspired comic book producers. Fantasy-themed books—driven by superhero comics gaining popularity through the 1960s—grew to dominate the field. In the 1990s, authors such as Neil Gaiman helped expand the genre with his critically acclaimed Sandman series. In the American market, fantasy comics began in the Golden Age of Comic Books, which was populated with notable works such as All-American Publications (and later DC Comics). Greek myth inspired super heroes including Wonder Woman and Dells Tarzan. Starting in the late 1940s, horror-themed fantasy anthologies gained prominence, including EC Comics Tales from the Crypt, Haunt of Fear, and Vault of Horror; and titles such as American Comics Group Adventures into the Unknown and Forbidden Worlds. This trend faded with the publication of Dr. Fredric Werthams book Seduction of the Innocent, which led to a Senate hearing that claimed a purported relationship between comics and juvenile violence. Fantasy comics survived in this new atmosphere, though in a diminished capacity. Fantasy-themed super heroes continued to populate comics through the 1950s and regained popularity in the 1960s with such characters as Steve Ditkos Doctor Strange published by Marvel Comics and Jack Kirbys Thor. In the 1970s, Conan the Barbarian,  created by Robert E. Howard, became one of the most popular publications of Marvel Comics.
Sligo.  Sligo (/ˈslaɪɡoʊ/; Irish: Sligeach [ˈʃl̠ʲɪɟəx]; lit. abounding in shells) is a coastal seaport and the county town of County Sligo, Ireland, within the western province of Connacht. With a population of 20,608 in 2022, it is the countys largest urban centre (constituting 29.5% of the countys population) and the 24th largest in the Republic of Ireland.[2][3] Sligo is a commercial and cultural centre situated on the west coast of Ireland. Its surrounding coast and countryside, as well as its connections to the poet W. B. Yeats, have made it a tourist destination. Sligo is the anglicisation of the Irish name Sligeach, meaning abounding in shells or shelly place. It refers to the abundance of shellfish found in the river and its estuary, and from the extensive shell middens in the vicinity.[4][5] The river now known as the Garavogue (Irish: An Gharbhóg), perhaps meaning little torrent, was originally called the Sligeach.[6] It is listed as one of the seven royal rivers of Ireland in the ninth century AD tale The Destruction of Da Dergas Hostel. The river Slicech is also referenced in the Annals of Ulster in 1188.[6] The Ordnance Survey letters of 1836 state that cart loads of shells were found underground in many places within the town where houses now stand. The whole area, from the river estuary at Sligo, around the coast to the river at Ballysadare Bay, is rich in marine resources which were utilised as far back as the Mesolithic period.
Burbank Animation Studios.  Burbank Animation Studios was an Australian film animation production company, formerly named Burbank Films Australia. The companys first animated productions in 1982 were a series of adaptations of books from Charles Dickens; these first few films characterized themselves by their grim appeal. The sketch-styled backgrounds and the simplicity of the original score, such as in Oliver Twist (1982), added to the dramatic tone of those first stories. The eight total Dickens adaptations were produced during two years. At the same time, in 1983, the company produced a short series of adaptations of Sherlock Holmes stories, adapted from the works of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In the years that followed, until 1988, Burbank adapted the works of many other well-known authors and legends,[1] including Kenneth Grahames The Wind in the Willows, Miguel de Cervantes Don Quixote, J. M. Barries Peter Pan, Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland and Alexandre Dumas The Three Musketeers among many others.[2] By 1987, the animation was entirely made in Philippines (Burbank Animation Incorporated based in Manila).[3]
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (musical). The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a musical comedy based on the 1876 novel by Mark Twain conceived and written by Ken Ludwig, with music and lyrics by Don Schlitz. The musical is the story of a fourteen-year-old boy growing up in the heartland of America. This Broadway musical version of Mark Twains novel is set in 1840 in St. Petersburg, Missouri, a bustling town on the banks of the Mississippi River. In the course of the story, Tom matches wits with his stern Aunt Polly, falls in love with the beautiful, feisty Becky Thatcher, and goes on the adventure of his life with Becky and Huckleberry Finn. Along the way he meets a terrifying villain named Injun Joe, Toms bratty half-brother Sid, and all the other boys and girls in the village. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer opened on Broadway at the Minskoff Theater on April 26, 2001 and closed on May 13, 2001, after 21 performances and 34 previews.[1] The musical was directed by Scott Ellis with choreography by David Marques, and featured Joshua Park as Tom Sawyer, Kristen Bell as Becky Thatcher, Jim Poulos as Huckleberry Finn, with Linda Purl (Aunt Polly), Tom Aldredge (Muff Potter), Stephen Lee Anderson (Doc Robinson/Pap), Jane Connell (Widow Douglas), John Dossett (Judge Thatcher) and Kevin Durand (Injun Joe). In 1840, Tom Sawyer is fishing outside St. Petersburg, Missouri as his friends arrive, and the children play a game of Robin Hood (Hey, Tom Sawyer). Toms Aunt Polly sends him to school, where he tricks the schoolmaster, Mr. Dobbins, into letting the class have the day off. Aunt Polly, Mr. Dobbins and the preacher, Reverend Sprague, lament that they can’t do a thing about the boy. That Saturday, Aunt Polly orders Tom to whitewash a fence in front of their house, and Toms half-brother, Sid, is happy. Frustrated, Tom plans to run away (Heres My Plan). As Tom procrastinates, he meets beautiful newcomer Becky Thatcher, and they are mutually attracted. The towns outcast and Toms best friend Huckleberry Finn appears and arranges for the two of them to meet at the local graveyard that night so that Huck can cure his warts. Huck remarks that painting the fence looks like fun, and Tom then swindles his friends into painting the fence for him after having them trade their valuables. (Smart Like That).
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (video game). The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1989 by SETA and was based upon the 1876 book The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a platformer similar to The Goonies 1 or 2, wherein one plays as Tom Sawyer. The game is not to be confused with Squares Tom Sawyer. Inexplicably, the level order is changed in the English version (perhaps so as not to confuse players by starting with the rafting stage). The Japanese originals level 5, the pirate ship, is the English versions level 1, making the beginning of the game much more difficult. Tom Sawyer is dreaming, and in this dream he must save Becky from Injun Joe, travelling through six stages to get to her. He encounters various creatures, including a giant octopus, a giant alligator in the Mississippi River, ghosts and ghouls in a haunted house, and a dragon. He wakes up from the dream and finds himself in his Missouri classroom, where he finds one feather on his desk that had belonged to Injun Joe.  It is never made clear whether or not the events of the game were real.  This platform game-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Tom Sawyer (1973 film).  Tom Sawyer is the 1973 American musical film adaptation of the Mark Twain novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and was directed by Don Taylor. The film was produced by Readers Digest in collaboration with Arthur P. Jacobs, and its screenplay and songs were written by the Sherman Brothers, Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman. During the 46th Academy Awards, the film received three nominations for Best Original Song Score, Best Art Direction, and Best Costume Design, but failed to win any. Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn, seeking adventure and superstition, skip school to attempt resurrecting a dead cat through an incantation they believe will be empowered by the imminent death of a man named Hoss Williams. During their escapade, they encounter Muff Potter, the town drunk. Their discussion is interrupted by Injun Joe, who informs them that Doc Robinson seeks their assistance to exhume Williams body. Concurrently, Tom consistently evades school, weaving elaborate tales to excuse his absences at dinner. When Aunt Polly, his guardian, seeks to discipline him for his truancy, Tom cunningly persuades other children to undertake his punitive chores, demonstrating his mischievous and manipulative nature. Following Williams death, Tom and Huck visit the cemetery, only to discover Muff Potter and Injun Joe exhuming Williams grave under Doc Robinsons orders. An altercation ensues when Joe demands additional payment, and in the ensuing chaos, Robinson inadvertently incapacitates Muff with a shovel. In a violent response, Joe strikes Robinson, knocking him into the grave, then fatally stabs him with Muffs knife. Horrified, Tom and Huck witness the entire event and flee the scene, binding themselves with a pact of silence over the gruesome murder they observed.
University College Dublin.  University College Dublin (Irish: Coláiste na hOllscoile, Baile Átha Cliath), commonly referred to as UCD, is a public research university in Dublin, Ireland, and a member institution of the National University of Ireland. With 38,417 students, it is Irelands largest university.[4] UCD originates in a body founded in 1854, which opened as the Catholic University of Ireland on the feast of St. Malachy with John Henry Newman as its first rector; it re-formed in 1880 and chartered in its own right in 1908. The Universities Act, 1997 renamed the constituent university as the National University of Ireland, Dublin, and a ministerial order of 1998 renamed the institution as University College Dublin – National University of Ireland, Dublin.[5] Originally located at St Stephens Green[6] and Earlsfort terrace in Dublins city centre, all faculties later relocated to a 133-hectare (330-acre)[7] campus at Belfield, six kilometres to the south of the city centre. In 1991, it purchased a second site in Blackrock,[8] which currently houses the Michael Smurfit Graduate Business School. A report published in May 2015 asserted that the economic output generated by UCD and its students in Ireland amounted to €1.3 billion annually.[9] Notable alumni and faculty of UCD include five Nobel laureates,[10][11] four Taoisigh of Ireland, three Irish Presidents, and one President of India.[12][13] The university has produced 32 Chief Justices of the Supreme Court,[14] 29 Rhodes Scholars, 3 Pulitzer Prize winners, and 3 Pritzker Prize recipients.[15] Additionally, UCD is associated with writers such as James Joyce, William Butler Yeats,[16] and Gerard Manley Hopkins; physicist Dennis Jennings; Golden Globe Award recipients Carroll OConnor and Gabriel Byrne; Academy Award winner Neil Jordan; one of the co-developers of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine Teresa Lambe; and many CEOs, including those of Unilever, Aer Lingus, Mediahuis Ireland, Chevron Corporation, and BP.[17]
Fantasy.  Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction that involves supernatural or magical elements, often including completely imaginary realms and creatures.[1][2] The genres roots lie in oral traditions, which later became fantasy literature and drama. From the twentieth century onward, it has expanded into various media, including film, television, graphic novels, manga, animation, and video games. The expression fantastic literature is often used for this genre by Anglophone literary critics.[3][4][5][6] An archaic spelling for the term is phantasy.[7] Fantasy is generally distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by an absence of scientific or macabre themes, although these can occur in fantasy. In popular culture, the fantasy genre predominantly features settings that reflect the actual Earth, but with some sense of otherness.[8]
Comedy.  Comedy is a genre of dramatic works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. Comedy originated in ancient Greece: in Athenian democracy, the public opinion of voters was influenced by political satire performed by comic poets in theaters.[1] The theatrical genre of Greek comedy can be described as a dramatic performance pitting two groups, ages, genders, or societies against each other in an amusing agon or conflict. Northrop Frye depicted these two opposing sides as a Society of Youth and a Society of the Old.[2] A revised view characterizes the essential agon of comedy as a struggle between a relatively powerless youth and the societal conventions posing obstacles to his hopes. In this struggle, the youth then becomes constrained by his lack of social authority, and is left with little choice but to resort to ruses which engender dramatic irony, which provokes laughter.[3] Satire and political satire use comedy to portray people or social institutions as ridiculous or corrupt, thus alienating their audience from the object of their humor. Parody subverts popular genres and forms, critiquing those forms without necessarily condemning them. Other forms of comedy include screwball comedy, which derives its humor largely from bizarre, surprising (and improbable) situations or characters, and black comedy, which is characterized by a form of humor that includes darker aspects of human behavior or human nature.  Similarly scatological humor, sexual humor, and race humor create comedy by violating social conventions or taboos in comic ways, which can often be taken as offensive by the subjects of the joke. A comedy of manners typically takes as its subject a particular part of society (usually upper-class society) and uses humor to parody or satirize the behavior and mannerisms of its members. Romantic comedy is a popular genre that depicts burgeoning romance in humorous terms and focuses on the foibles of those who are falling in love.
Elizabeth Karlsen.  Elizabeth Karlsen is an American–British film producer. Her career has spanned over three and a half decades, and in 2019, she was awarded the BAFTA award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema.[1] Her work has garnered a total of 52 BAFTA nominations and wins, and 20 Academy Award® nominations and wins.[2] In 2002, she co-founded Number 9 Films with production partner and husband, Stephen Woolley.[3][4] She has produced independent films in the US and Europe including: Todd Haynes’s CAROL[5] (nominated for 6 Academy Awards®, 6 Golden Globe Awards and 9 BAFTA Awards)[6][7][8][9] Mark Herman’s LITTLE VOICE[10] (winner of a Golden Globe Award, nominated for 1 Academy Award®, 6 Golden Globe Awards and 6 BAFTA Awards)[11][12][13][14] Neil Jordan’s THE CRYING GAME[15] (winner of an Academy Award®, a BAFTA Award and nominated for 6 Academy Awards®),[16][17][18] MADE IN DAGENHAM[19] (nominated for 3 BAFTA Awards)[20][21] and Phyllis Nagy’s MRS HARRIS[22] (nominated for 12 Emmy® Awards, 3 Golden Globe Awards and a PGA Award)[23][24][25] and Wash Westmoreland’s COLETTE[19] (Nominated for 4 BIFA’s and an Independent Spirit Award).[26][27][28] Other work includes: ON CHESIL BEACH,[29] written by Ian McEwan and directed by Dominic Cooke;[30] THEIR FINEST,[31] directed by Lone Scherfig;[32] THE LIMEHOUSE GOLEM[33] written by Jane Goldman and directed by Juan Carlos Medina,[34] GREAT EXPECTATIONS,[35] written by David Nicholls and directed by Mike Newell,[36] THE NEON BIBLE[37] directed by Terence Davies[38] and BYZANTIUM[39] directed by Neil Jordan[40] and as co-producer Paolo Sorrentino’s YOUTH [41] (nominated for 1 Academy Award® and winner of 3 European Film Awards).[42][43][44] She also produced the international box office success Ladies in Lavender,[45] starring Maggie Smith and Judi Dench.[46] She has had multiple films selected for Palme D’Or competition in Cannes[47] and premieres in international film festivals including TIFF, LFF, NY and Sundance.[47] In addition to film work, MADE IN DAGENHAM: THE MUSICAL opened in London’s West End in 2014 starring Gemma Arterton.[48]
Water.  Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula H2O. It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless,[c] and nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earths hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms in which it acts as a solvent. Water, being a polar molecule, undergoes strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding which is a large contributor to its physical and chemical properties.[20] It is vital for all known forms of life, despite not providing food energy or being an organic micronutrient. Due to its presence in all organisms, its chemical stability, its worldwide abundance and its strong polarity relative to its small molecular size; water is often referred to as the universal solvent.[21] Because Earths environment is relatively close to waters triple point, water exists on Earth as a solid, a liquid, and a gas.[22] It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor. Water covers about 71.0% of the Earths surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).[23] Small portions of water occur as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (consisting of ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation (0.001%).[24][25] Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the fresh water used by humans goes to agriculture.[26] Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies has been, and continues to be, a major source of food for many parts of the world, providing 6.5% of global protein.[27] Much of the long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, and manufactured products) is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of substances, both mineral and organic; as such, it is widely used in industrial processes and in cooking and washing. Water, ice, and snow are also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing.
Horror film.  Horror is a film genre that seeks to elicit physical or psychological fear in its viewers.[2] Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with transgressive topics or themes. Broad elements of the genre include monsters, apocalyptic events, and religious or folk beliefs. Horror films have existed since the early 20th century. Early inspirations predating film include folklore; the religious beliefs and superstitions of different cultures; and the Gothic and horror literature of authors such as Edgar Allan Poe, Bram Stoker, and Mary Shelley. From its origins in silent films and German Expressionism, horror became a codified genre only after the release of Dracula (1931). Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, including body horror, comedy horror, erotic horror, slasher films, splatter films, supernatural horror, and psychological horror. The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions. Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of Japan, Korea, and Thailand, among other countries. Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen major commercial success, influenced society, and generated popular culture icons. The book The Film Experience: An Introduction (2021) defines the horror film as a genre with origins in Gothic literature that seeks to frighten the viewer. The authors highlight the fundamental elements of the horror film as characters with physical, psychological, or spiritual deformities; narratives built on suspense, surprise, and shock; and visual compositions that move between the dread of not seeing and the horror of seeing.[2]
Hishikawa Moronobu. Hishikawa Moronobu (Japanese: 菱川 師宣; 1618 – 25 July 1694)[1] was a Japanese artist known for popularizing the ukiyo-e genre of woodblock prints and paintings in the late 17th century.[2] He consolidated the works of scattered Japanese art styles and forged the early development of ukiyo-e.[3] Born in Hoda at the distant end of Edo Bay, Moronobu was the son of a well-respected embroiderer of rich tapestries who produced them for the use of temples and wealthy patrons. His initial works consisted designs for embroidery.[4] After moving to Edo in the 1660s, Moronobu, who had likely learned skills from his fathers craft, and studied both Tosa and Kanō-style painting.[3] He thus had a solid grounding in both decorative crafts and academic painting, which served him well when he then turned to ukiyo-e, which he studied with his mentor, the Kanbun Master.[citation needed] The earliest known illustration of Moronobu that can be dated comes from his work titled One Hundred Warrior Poets from 1672, although earlier works may yet surface.[3] By the mid-1670s Moronobu had already become the most important ukiyo-e printmaker, a position he maintained until his death.[7] He produced more than 100 sets of illustrations, perhaps as many as 150, with around 20 being of an erotic nature.[3] Though it is difficult to attribute to him many unsigned examples (for example, the scholar Kiyoshi Shibui established, in 1926, a basis for crediting some of the designs previously given to Moronobu as the work of Sugumura Jihei). Very few of Moronobus single-sheet prints have survived, and most, if not all, are unsigned. Moronobu assimilated inchoate ukiyo-e designs by previous artists, creating the first truly mature form of ukiyo-e, in a style of great strength and presence that would set the standards for generations of artists who followed. In 1685, the ukiyo-e book Kokon Bushidō ezukushi (古今武士道絵つくし, Images of Bushidō Through the Ages) by Moronobu was published.[8] It features heroic popular tales of samurai warriors with simple descriptions for each artwork.[8] The title includes the word bushido and was meant for children, which shows that it had spread among the general population.[8]
The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō. The Fifty-Three Stations of the Tōkaidō (東海道五十三次, Tōkaidō Gojūsan-tsugi), in the Hōeidō edition (1833–1834), is a series of ukiyo-e woodcut prints created by Utagawa Hiroshige after his first travel along the Tōkaidō in 1832.[1] The Tōkaidō road, linking the shōguns capital, Edo, to the imperial one, Kyōto, was the main travel and transport artery of old Japan. It is also the most important of the Five Roads (Gokaidō)—the five major roads of Japan created or developed during the Edo period to further strengthen the control of the central shogunate administration over the whole country. Even though the Hōeidō edition is by far the best known, The Fifty-Three Stations of the Tōkaidō was such a popular subject that it led Hiroshige to create some 30 different series of woodcut prints on it, all very different one from the other by their size (ōban or chuban), their designs or even their number (some series include just a few prints). The Hōeidō edition of the Tōkaidō is Hiroshiges best known work, and the best sold ever ukiyo-e Japanese prints.[2] Coming just after Hokusais Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji series, it established this new major theme of ukiyo-e, the landscape print, or fūkei-ga, with a special focus on famous views. The Tōkaidō was one of the Five Routes constructed under Tokugawa Ieyasu, a series of roads linking the historical capital of Edo with the rest of Japan. The Tōkaidō connected Edo with the then-capital of Kyoto. The most important and well-traveled of these, the Tōkaidō travelled along the eastern coast of Honshū, thus giving rise to the name Tōkaidō (Eastern Sea Road). Along this road, there were 53 different post stations, which provided stables, food, and lodging for travelers.
Utamaro.  Kitagawa Utamaro (喜多川 歌麿; Japanese pronunciation: [ɯ.ta.ma.ɾo],[1] c. 1753 – 31 October 1806) was a Japanese artist.  He is one of the most highly regarded designers of ukiyo-e woodblock prints and paintings, and is best known for his bijin ōkubi-e large-headed pictures of beautiful women of the 1790s.  He also produced nature studies, particularly illustrated books of insects. Little is known of Utamaros life.  His work began to appear in the 1770s, and he rose to prominence in the early 1790s with his portraits of beauties with exaggerated, elongated features.  He produced over 2000 known prints and was one of the few ukiyo-e artists to achieve fame throughout Japan in his lifetime.  In 1804 he was arrested and manacled for fifty days for making illegal prints depicting the 16th-century military ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and died two years later. Utamaros work reached Europe in the mid-nineteenth century, where it was very popular, enjoying particular acclaim in France. He influenced the European Impressionists, particularly with his use of partial views and his emphasis on light and shade, which they imitated. The reference to the Japanese influence among these artists often refers to the work of Utamaro. Ukiyo-e art flourished in Japan during the Edo period from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries.  The art form took as its primary subjects courtesans, kabuki actors, and others associated with the ukiyo floating world lifestyle of the pleasure districts. Alongside paintings, mass-produced woodblock prints were a major form of the genre.[2]  Ukiyo-e art was aimed at the common townspeople at the bottom of the social scale, especially of the administrative capital of Edo. Its audience, themes, aesthetics, and mass-produced nature kept it from consideration as serious art.[3]
Steven Rea. Steven Rea (also known as Steven X. Rea) is an American journalist, film critic,[2][3] web producer, and writer. He was a film critic for The Philadelphia Inquirer from 1992 through late 2016. Rea was born in London, and raised in New York City.[4] He is a graduate of Stuyvesant High School in New York. Rea went to the West Coast for college, earning an undergraduate degree in English and Creative Writing from San Francisco State University. He attended the Writers Workshop graduate program at the University of Iowa. Rea has written for multiple publications since 1975, as well as working for major record labels such as Island Records.[4] In 1982, he joined The Philadelphia Inquirer, where he covered pop culture topics including movies, pop music and books.[2] He became one of its film critics in 1992 and left that post in late 2016.[2][4] Other periodicals for which he has written include: Entertainment Weekly, TV Guide, Family Fun,[2] Crawdaddy!, Music World, Phonograph Record Magazine, High Fidelity, Folk Scene, Los Angeles, New West, Trouser Press, Oui, Chic, Record World, and the Los Angeles Herald Examiner.[4] His film reviews and movie columns have been syndicated.[1] Rea was an adjunct professor in the Cinema and Television program at the Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts and Design at Drexel University.[5]  He hosts Talk Cinema events. He served on the Narrative Features jury of the 2012 Florida Film Festival[1] and the FIPRESCI jury at the 2014 Palm Springs International Film Festival. He is a member of the National Society of Film Critics (NSFC).[6] Rea is the author of Hollywood Rides a Bike: Cycling with the Stars (2012),[7] an expansion on his blog featuring photos of stars riding bikes, in which Rea explores his obsession with the details of these images and stARS. It received good reviews from The Telegraph (UK)[8] and the San Francisco Chronicle.[9]  He later published Hollywood Cafe: Coffee With The Stars (2016), which was favorably covered in The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, Metro US, and numerous other publications and websites.  He is the curator of the Tumblr blog, Rides a Bike www.ridesabike.com. His essay on the British New Wave is published in the book European Cinema (2012).[10]
Abbey Theatre School.  The Abbey Theatre School or the Abbey School of Acting, was a drama school associated with the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, Ireland. Established in 1911 by W. B. Yeats,[1]: 59  it was developed by Lady Gregory to continue performances in Dublin while the main cast of the theatre was overseas, usually in America.[2] The schools first director was the theatre director Nugent Monck, whom Yeats asked to begin the school.[1]: 59  The first play performed by the school was The Countess Cathleen, written by Yeats. The school was the primary place in Ireland where amateur actors could receive training for an acting career before breaking into paid work.[3] In the beginning, the schools plays were performed in the Abbey Theatre, but in 1927 the venue for them became the newly constructed Peacock Theatre, located on the first floor of the Abbey Theatres building.[4]: 138 Many well-known Irish actors and directors attended or taught at the school. Among them were Lennox Robinson,[5]: 513 [6]: 49  Stephen Rea,[7] and Frank Fay.[8]: 181
Sharaku. Tōshūsai Sharaku (東洲斎 写楽; Japanese pronunciation: [toː.ɕɯꜜː.sai | ɕaꜜ.ɾa.kɯ],[1] active 1794–1795) was a Japanese ukiyo-e print designer, known for his portraits of kabuki actors.  Neither his true name nor the dates of his birth or death are known.  His active career as a woodblock artist spanned ten months; his prolific work met disapproval and his output came to an end as suddenly and mysteriously as it had begun.  His work has come to be considered some of the greatest in the ukiyo-e genre. Sharaku made mostly yakusha-e portraits of kabuki actors.  His compositions emphasize poses of dynamism and energy, and display a realism unusual for prints of the time—contemporaries such as Utamaro represented their subjects with an idealized beauty, while Sharaku did not shy from showing unflattering details.  This was not to the tastes of the public, and the enigmatic artists production ceased in the first month of 1795.  His mastery of the medium with no apparent apprenticeship has drawn much speculation, and researchers have long tried to discover his true identity—amongst the dozens of proposals, some suggest he was an obscure poet, others a Noh actor, or even the ukiyo-e master Hokusai. Ukiyo-e art flourished in Japan during the Edo period from the 17th to 19th centuries.  The artform took as its primary subjects courtesans, kabuki actors, and others associated with the ukiyo floating world lifestyle of the pleasure districts.  Alongside paintings, mass-produced woodblock prints were a major form of the genre.[2]  Ukiyo-e art was aimed at the merchants at the bottom of the social scale, especially of the administrative capital of Edo (modern Tokyo).  Its audience, themes, aesthetics, and mass-produced nature kept it from consideration as serious art.[3] After the mid-18th century, full-colour nishiki-e prints became common, printed with a large number of woodblocks, one for each colour.[4]  Critics have come to see the late 18th century as a peak period in the general quality of the work.[5] Shunshō of the Katsukawa school introduced the ōkubi-e large-headed picture in the 1760s.[6]  He and other members of the Katsukawa school popularized ōkubi yakusha-e actor prints and the dusting of mica in the backgrounds to produce a luxurious glittering effect.[7]  In contrast to earlier actor prints, which used stereotyped features and poses of anonymous actors, these ōkubi yakusha-e aimed for recognizable likenesses.[8] Tōshūsai[a] Sharakus works appeared in the middle of the Kansei era (1789–1801), when the nation faced hard economic times that the military government responded to with reactionary policies such as the Kansei Reforms intended to strengthen the feudalistic shogunal system.  Some of the policies restricted extravagant fashions, and Kabuki theatres faced strict control over their perceived excesses and limits on actors incomes.  Late Edo-period art nevertheless flourished, and new works and popular actors continued to rapidly appear in kabuki theatre, where realistic performances came in vogue.[10] Yakusha-e came to favour a greater emphasis on the individuality of the actors, and buyers came to expect pictures with the actors likenesses,[b] rather than the stereotyped images of the past, such as those by the once-dominant Torii school.[11]
Dolours Price.  Dolours Price (16 December 1950 – 23 January 2013) was a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) volunteer. She grew up in an Irish republican family and joined the IRA in 1971. She was sent to jail for her role in the 1973 Old Bailey bombing, and released in 1981. In her later life, Price was a vocal opponent of the Irish peace process, Sinn Féin, and Gerry Adams. She married actor Stephen Rea in 1983; they divorced in 2003. Dolours Price was born on 16 December 1950 in Belfast, Northern Ireland.[1][2] She and her sister, Marian, also an IRA member, were the daughters of Albert Price, a prominent Irish republican and former IRA member from Belfast,[3] and Christina (née Dolan), a member of Cumann na mBan. Both parents were imprisoned at different times. The name Dolours derives from the dolours (sorrows) of the Virgin Mary; however, the family was not particularly religious.[1] Christinas sister Bridie Dolan was blinded and lost both hands in an accident handling IRA explosives, and lived with the family.[4][5]: 9–13 [1]
Handsome Harry. Handsome Harry is a 2009 American film written by Nicholas T. Proferes and directed by Bette Gordon.[1] It was the first film produced by Worldview Entertainment and stars Jamey Sheridan, Steve Buscemi, Mariann Mayberry, Aidan Quinn, John Savage, Campbell Scott, Titus Welliver, and Karen Young. The film premiered at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival[2][3] and was released theatrically in 2010 by Paladin/Emerging Pictures and on DVD/VOD by Screen Media Films. Handsome Harry is the story of Harry Sweeneys journey to find forgiveness from an old Navy friend. One day, Harry gets a call from an old Navy buddy, Kelley, on his deathbed. At first, Harry wants nothing to do with Kelley, but soon, memories and guilt overcome him, and he goes on a journey to confront his old friends. First, he meets Kelley in a Philadelphia hospital. Kelley asks Harry to seek forgiveness from David on his behalf. Kelley dies in the hospital the next day. Harry then goes on to meet more of his Navy buddies to find the truth about what happened the night they assaulted David together. Somebody dropped a generator on Davids hand that night, but Harry could not recollect who it was. In time, its revealed that Harry and David had an affair back in the Navy. Kelley found Harry and David in a sexually compromising position in the shower. In fear of repercussion, Harry turned on David. Kelley and the rest of the gang, including Harry, got drunk and assaulted David. It was in the end revealed that Harry was the one who dropped the generator on David, maiming him for life. 
Action film. The action film is a film genre that predominantly features chase sequences, fights, shootouts, explosions, and stunt work. The specifics of what constitutes an action film has been in scholarly debate since the 1980s. While some scholars such as David Bordwell suggested they were films that favor spectacle to storytelling, others such as Geoff King stated they allow the scenes of spectacle to be attuned to storytelling. Action films are often hybrid with other genres, mixing into various forms such as comedies, science fiction films, and horror films. While the term action film or action adventure film has been used as early as the 1910s, the contemporary definition usually refers to a film that came with the arrival of New Hollywood and the rise of anti-heroes appearing in American films of the late 1960s and 1970s drawing from war films, crime films and Westerns. These genres were followed by what is referred to as the classical period in the 1980s. This was followed by the post-classical era where American action films were influenced by Hong Kong action cinema and the growing using of computer generated imagery in film. Following the September 11 attacks, a return to the early forms of the genre appeared in the wake of Kill Bill and The Expendables films. Scott Higgins wrote in 2008 in Cinema Journal that action films are both one of the most popular and popularly derided of contemporary cinema genres, stating that in mainstream discourse, the genre is regularly lambasted for favoring spectacle over finely tuned narrative.[2] Bordwell echoed this in his book, The Way Hollywood Tells It,  writing that the reception to the genre as being the emblem of what Hollywood does worst.[3] In the Journal of Film and Video, Lennart Soberson stated that the action film genre has been a subject of scholarly debate since the 1980s.[4] Soberson wrote that repeated traits of the genre include chase sequences, fights, shootouts, explosions, and stunt work while other scholars asserted there were more underlying traits that define the genre.[4] David Bordwell in The Way Hollywood Tells It wrote that audiences are told that spectacle overrides narrative in action cinema while Wheeler Winston Dixon echoed that these films were typified by excessive spectacle as a desperate attempt to mask the lack of content.[3][5] Geoff King argued that the spectacle can also be a vehicle for narrative, opposed to interfering with it.[6] Soberson stated that Harvey OBrien had perhaps the most convincing understanding of the genre, stating that the action film was best understood as a fusion of form and content. It represents the idea and ethic of action through a form in which action, agitation and movement are paramount.[4] OBrien wrote further in his book Action Movies: The Cinema of Striking Back to suggest action films being unique and not just a series of action sequences, stating that that was the difference between Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and Die Hard (1988), that while both were mainstream Hollywood blockbusters with a hero asserting masculinity and overcoming obstacles to a personal and social solution, John McClane in Die Hard repeatedly firing his automatic pistol while swinging from a high rise was not congruent with the image of Indiana Jones in Raiders swinging his whip to fend off villains in the backstreets of Cairo.[7] British author and academic Yvonne Tasker expanded on this topic, stating that action films have no clear and constant iconography or settings. In her book The Hollywood Action and Adventure Film (2015), she found that the most broadly consistent themes tend to be a characters quest from freedom from oppression such as a hero overcoming enemies or obstacles and physical conflicts or challenge, usually battling other humans or alien opponents.[8]
Aodhan Quinn. Aodhan Quinn (born March 22, 1992) is an American professional soccer player who currently plays for Indy Eleven in the USL Championship. Quinn played college soccer at Bradley University in 2010 and at the University of Akron between 2011 and 2013.[1] During his time at college Quinn also played for USL PDL clubs Akron Summit Assault during their 2011 season,[2] and Seattle Sounders FC U-23 during their 2012 and 2013 seasons.[3][4] Quinn was selected by Philadelphia Union in the third round of the 2014 MLS SuperDraft (52nd overall), but wasnt signed by the club.[5] Quinn later signed with USL Pro club Orlando City on March 19, 2014.[6] He was released upon the conclusion of the 2014 season, a casualty of the clubs transition to Major League Soccer.[7] Quinn signed with Louisville City on May 11, 2015.[8] In January 2017 it was announced that Quinn was leaving Louisville City FC to play for FC Cincinnati.[9] Following the close of the 2017 season, FC Cincinnati announced they would not exercise the option to have Quinn return in 2018.[10]
Okumura Masanobu. Okumura Masanobu (Japanese: 奥村 政信; 1686 – 13 March 1764) was a Japanese print designer, book publisher, and painter. He also illustrated novelettes and in his early years wrote some fiction. At first his work adhered to the Torii school, but later drifted beyond that. He is a figure in the formative era of ukiyo-e doing early works on actors and bijin-ga (pictures of beautiful women). While Masanobus early life is largely undocumented, he is believed to have been born about 1686, possibly in Edo (modern Tokyo).  Edo was a small fishing village when Tokugawa Ieyasu chose it as his administrative capital of the Tokugawa shogunate, and by the early 17th century the city had prospered and its population had grown to half a million.[1] Masanobu appears to have been self-taught painter (though he did study poetry under Tachiba Fukaku); he is not known to have belonged to any artistic school.[2]  His early work shows the influence of the Torii school of ukiyo-e painting, particularly Torii Kiyonobu I, and he likely learned from the examples of Torii Kiyomasa and the early ukiyo-e artist Hishikawa Moronobu.  A print album published by Kurihara Chōemon in 1701 depicting courtesans in the Yoshiwara pleasure district is Masanobus earliest surviving signed work, followed by a similar work ten months later.  Moronobu provided the illustrations, and sometimes text, for at least twenty-two ukiyo-zōshi novels and librettos for puppet theatre between 1703 and 1711.  These included a modernized illustrated version of the 11th-century Tale of Genji in eighteen volumes, whose translation was by Masanobu.[1] After 1711 Masanobus output of book illustrations shriveled[3] as he turned his attention to albums of prints, usually about a dozen per set, on a variety of themes—most outstanding of which were the comic albums.  These prints, influenced perhaps by 12th-century Toba-e and the caricature paintings of Hanabusa Itchō (1652–1724), depicted humorous scenes from, or parodies of, Noh, kabuki, and Japanese mythology.[4]  This period also saw Masanobu produce large kakemono-sized[a] portraits of courtesans, whose designs had a warmth and humanity largely absent from the earlier Torii and Kaigetsudō beauties.  The financial restraints of the Kyōhō Reforms begun in 1717 brought an end to the luxury of these large prints, replaced by smaller hosoban-sized[b] prints, which were often sold as triptychs—which when placed together were little smaller than the kakemono-sized prints.[5]  At least as early as 1718, Masanobus were some of the earliest urushi-e prints, printed with brass powder sprinkled on the ink, which created a lacquer effect. About 1721 Masanobu abandoned the publishers of his earlier works and opened his own wholesaler, Okumura-ya, in Tōri Shio-chō in Edo.  His trade mark was a gourd-shaped sign, a mark he thereafter stamped on the works he printed.[6]
2009 in film. The year 2009 saw the release of many films. Seven made the top 50 list of highest-grossing films. Also in 2009, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences announced that as of that year, their Best Picture category would consist of ten nominees, rather than five (the first time since the 1943 awards). Film critic Philip French of The Guardian said that 2009 began with the usual flurry of serious major movies given late December screenings in Los Angeles to qualify for the Oscars. Theyre now forgotten or vaguely regarded as semi-classics: The Reader, Che, Slumdog Millionaire, Frost/Nixon, Revolutionary Road, The Wrestler, Gran Torino, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button. It soon became apparent that horror movies would be the dominant genre once again, with vampires the pre-eminent sub-species, the most profitable inevitably being New Moon, the latest in Stephenie Meyers Twilight saga, the best the subtle Swedish Let the Right One In and the worst the British horror spoof Lesbian Vampire Killers. Documentaries continued to flourish, introducing us to fascinating new worlds: Afghan TV talent shows (Afghan Star), Australian exploitation cinema (Not Quite Hollywood), haute couture (The September Issue). Animation thrived, the 3-D comeback threatened to become permanent rather than a gimmick, and the two were conjoined in a dozen 3-D animated features, the finest being DreamWorks Animations Monsters vs. Aliens and Pixars Up. Remakes and sequels abounded, none of any merit. The same went for films based on comic strips and graphic novels. British cinema generally bubbled in the doldrums. The well-acted Fish Tank was overrated, as was the dull costume drama The Young Victoria. The best films by native directors were fuelled by our obsession with soccer (Ken Loachs Looking for Eric and Tom Hoopers The Damned United) or directed by foreigners (New Zealander Jane Campions Bright Star, and two films by Danes: Nicholas Winding Refns Bronson and Lone Scherfigs An Education). The most original British film was Christine Molloy and Joe Lawlors low-key, low-budget Helen, a formally innovative look at provincial life. 2009 was a mostly undistinguished year for Hollywood, with indifferent films from Woody Allen (Vicky Cristina Barcelona), Michael Mann (Public Enemies) and others, and deadly blockbusters such as Angels & Demons and 2012. The Coen brothers, however, were on form, examining their midwestern Jewish roots in A Serious Man, and Kathryn Bigelows The Hurt Locker was the best film yet about Iraq. From Europe we had several striking revisionist accounts of violent resistance to Nazi occupation in the second world war: Flammen & Citronen (Denmark), Max Manus: Man of War (Norway) and The Army of Crime (France). But they were drowned in the tsunami of Quentin Tarantinos lunatic second world war fantasy Inglourious Basterds. The most likable European picture was the Italian Mid-August Lunch, the directorial debut of 60-year-old Gianni Di Gregorio (screenwriter on Gomorrah), and the three most memorably argumentative and provocative were Paolo Sorrentinos Il Divo, Lars von Triers Antichrist and Michael Hanekes The White Ribbon. The performances I most enjoyed were impersonations: Meryl Streeps Julia Child (Julie & Julia) and Christian McKays Orson in Me and Orson Welles.[1] The top 10 films released in 2009 by worldwide gross are as follows:[2] Avatar surpassed Titanic as the highest-grossing film of all time on January 25, 2010.[3] Avatar then became the first film to earn more than $2 billion at the box office on January 31, 2010.[4] Avatar was surpassed by Avengers: Endgame as the highest-grossing film of all time on July 21, 2019.[5] Due to a re-release, Avatar retook the title from Endgame on March 13, 2021.[6] Palme dOr (62nd Cannes Film Festival):
Queens University Belfast.  The Queens University of Belfast, commonly known as Queens University Belfast (Irish: Ollscoil na Banríona; abbreviated Queens or QUB), is a public research university in Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. The university received its charter in 1845 as part of the Queens University of Ireland and opened four years later, together with University of Galway (as Queens College, Galway) and University College Cork (as Queens College, Cork). Queens offers approximately 300 academic degree programmes at various levels.[6] The current president and vice-chancellor is Ian Greer. The annual income of the institution for 2023–24 was £474.2 million, of which £105.2 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £345.9 million.[1] Queens is a member of the Russell Group of research-intensive universities, the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association, Universities UK and Universities Ireland. The university is associated with two Nobel laureates and one Turing Award laureate. Queens University Belfast has roots in the Belfast Academical Institution, which was founded in 1810 and which remains as the Royal Belfast Academical Institution.[7] The present university was first chartered as Queens College, Belfast when it was associated with the simultaneously founded Queens College, Cork, and Queens College, Galway on 30 December 1845 as part of the Queens University of Ireland – founded to encourage higher education for Catholics and Presbyterians, as a counterpart to Trinity College, Dublin, then an almost exclusively Anglican institution.[7] Queens College, Belfast, opened in 1849.[7] Its main building, the Lanyon Building, was designed by the English-born architect, Sir Charles Lanyon. At its opening, it had 23 professors and 195 students.[8] Some early students at Queens University Belfast took University of London examinations.[9]
Palace of Nations.  The Palace of Nations (French: Palais des Nations, pronounced [palɛ de nɑsjɔ̃]) is the home of the United Nations Office at Geneva, located in Geneva, Switzerland.  It was built between 1929 and 1938[2] to serve as the headquarters of the League of Nations. It has served as the home of the United Nations Office at Geneva since 1946 when the secretary-general of the United Nations signed a Headquarters Agreement with the Swiss authorities, although Switzerland did not become a member of the United Nations until 2002. In 2012, the Palace of Nations hosted more than 10,000 intergovernmental meetings.[3] The Palais Wilson was used until 1936 as the main building of the League. However, from 1920 to 1929, the Assembly met in Geneva at the Salle de la Réformation (in a building at the corner of Boulevard Helvétique and Rue du Rhône), then from 1930 to 1936 at the Bâtiment électoral or Palais Électoral (Rue du Général-Dufour 24, later used by the Red Cross affiliated International Prisoners-of-War Agency). For special sessions, the Assembly met at the Pavillon du désarmement adjacent to the Palais Wilson.[4] In 1937, the Assembly moved into the Assembly Hall of the Palace of Nations. An architectural competition held in the 1920s to choose a design for the complex described the project as follows:
Lists of sovereign states and dependent territories.  This is a list of lists of countries and territories by various criteria. A country or territory is a geographical area, either in the sense of nation (a cultural entity) or state (a political entity).[1] The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services: The study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets: The value of goods and services produced within a country:
Dependent territory. A dependent territory, dependent area, or dependency (sometimes referred as an external territory) is a territory that does not possess full political independence or sovereignty as a sovereign state and remains politically outside the controlling states integral area. A dependent territory is commonly distinguished from a country subdivision by being considered not to be a constituent part of a sovereign state. An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper. A dependent territory, conversely, often maintains a great degree of autonomy from its controlling state. Historically, most colonies were considered to be dependent territories. Not all autonomous entities are considered to be dependent territories.[1][failed verification] Most inhabited, dependent territories have their own ISO 3166 country codes. Some political entities inhabit a special position guaranteed by an international treaty or another agreement, thereby creating a certain level of autonomy (e.g. a difference in immigration rules). Those entities are sometimes considered to be, or are at least grouped with, dependent territories,[2] but are officially considered by their governing states to be an integral part of those states.[2] Such an example is Åland, an autonomous region of Finland. The lists below include the following: This list includes all territories that have not been legally incorporated into their governing state, including several territories that are not on the list of non-self-governing territories of the General Assembly of the United Nations.[3] All claims in Antarctica are listed in italics.
Novelist. A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, while others aspire to support themselves in this way or write as an avocation. Most novelists struggle to have their debut novel published, but once published they often continue to be published, although very few become literary celebrities, thus gaining prestige or a considerable income from their work. Novelists come from a variety of backgrounds and social classes, and frequently this shapes the content of their works. Public reception of a novelists work, the literary criticism commenting on it, and the novelists incorporation of their own experiences into works and characters can lead to the authors personal life and identity being associated with a novels fictional content. For this reason, the environment within which a novelist works and the reception of their novels by both the public and publishers can be influenced by their demographics or identity. Similarly, some novelists have creative identities derived from their focus on different genres of fiction, such as crime, romance or historical novels. While many novelists compose fiction to satisfy personal desires, novelists and commentators often ascribe a particular social responsibility or role to novel writers. Many authors use such moral imperatives to justify different approaches to novel writing, including activism or different approaches to representing reality truthfully. Novelist is a term derivative from the term novel  describing the writer of novels. The Oxford English Dictionary recognizes other definitions of novelist, first appearing in the 16th and 17th centuries to refer to either An innovator (in thought or belief); someone who introduces something new or who favours novelty or An inexperienced person; a novice.[1] However, the OED attributes the primary contemporary meaning of a writer of novels as first appearing in the 1633 book East-India Colation by C. Farewell citing the passage It beeing a pleasant observation (at a distance) to note the order of their Coaches and Carriages..As if (presented to a Novelist) it had bin the spoyles of a Tryumph leading Captive, or a preparation to some sad Execution[1]  According to the Google Ngrams, the term novelist first appears in the Google Books database in 1521.[2] The difference between professional and amateur novelists often is the authors ability to publish. Many people take up novel writing as a hobby, but the difficulties of completing large scale fictional works of quality prevent the completion of novels. Once authors have completed a novel, they often will try to publish it. The publishing industry requires novels to have accessible profitable markets, thus many novelists will self-publish to circumvent the editorial control of publishers. Self-publishing has long been an option for writers, with vanity presses printing bound books for a fee paid by the writer. In these settings, unlike the more traditional publishing industry, activities usually reserved for a publishing house, like the distribution and promotion of the book, become the authors responsibility. The rise of the Internet and electronic books has made self publishing far less expensive and a realistic way for authors to realize income.
Liam Neeson filmography.  Liam Neeson is an Irish actor. Neeson has had an extensive career in film, television and stage. He made his professional acting debut playing Jesus Christ in the film Pilgrims Progress (1978). That same year he acted in the BBC anthology series Play for Today (1978). A few years later he made his stage debut in the Brian Friel play Translations (1980). He earned notoriety for his early roles as Gawain in the John Boorman medieval fantasy film Excalibur (1981), Charles Churchill in the Roger Donaldson historical drama The Bounty (1984), Father John Fielding in the Roland Joffé religious epic The Mission (1986), and a charming writer in the Woody Allen romantic comedy-drama Husbands and Wives (1992). Neeson gained prominence and acclaim for his leading role of Oskar Schindler in the Steven Spielbergs holocaust epic drama film Schindlers List (1993). He established himself as a leading man in a string of prestige films playing the title role of the romance drama Ethan Frome (1993), a town doctor in the drama film Nell (1994), the starring role in the historical drama Michael Collins (1996), and Jean Valjean in the costume drama Les Misérables (1998). He expanded his career gaining worldwide attention for his roles in franchise films such as Qui-Gon Jinn in the George Lucas space opera film Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Henri Ducard / Ras al Ghul in the Christopher Nolan superhero film Batman Begins (2005), Aslan the Lion in the The Chronicles of Narnia series (2005–2010), and Zeus in Clash of the Titans (2010). He also acted in the Martin Scorsese historical epic Gangs of New York (2002), the British romantic comedy Love Actually (2003) and the historical drama Kinsey (2004). He then established himself as an action star taking the leading role as a father out for vengeance in the action drama Taken (2008) followed by Taken 2 (2012) and Taken 3 (2014). He then starred in several action films such as The Grey (2012), Non-Stop (2013), A Walk Among the Tombstones (2014), Run All Night (2015), The Commuter (2018), Cold Pursuit (2019), Honest Thief (2020), Blacklight (2022), and In the Land of Saints and Sinners (2023). During this time he took roles in the fantasy drama A Monster Calls (2016), the historical epic Silence (2016), the western anthology The Ballad of Buster Scruggs (2018), and noir-thriller Widows (2018). He took comedic roles playing John Hannibal Smith in the action comedy The A-Team (2010), an outlaw in the western comedy in A Million Ways to Die in the West (2014) and a bumbling officer in the crime comedy The Naked Gun (2025). On stage, he acted in Broadway revivals of the Eugene ONeill play Anna Christie (1992), the David Hare play The Judas Kiss (1998), and the Arthur Miller play The Crucible (2001). Neeson has been nominated for a number of awards, including an Academy Award for Best Actor, a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and three Golden Globe Awards for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama. Empire magazine ranked Neeson among both the 100 Sexiest Stars in Film History and The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time.[1]
Screenwriter.  A screenwriter (also called scriptwriter, scribe, or scenarist) is a person who practices the craft of writing for visual mass media, known as screenwriting. These can include short films, feature-length films, television programs, television commercials, video games, and the growing area of online web series.[1] In the silent era, screenwriters were denoted by terms such as photoplaywright, photoplay writer, photoplay dramatist, and screen playwright.[2] Screenwriting historian Steven Maras notes that these early writers were often understood as being the authors of the films as shown, and argues that they could not be precisely equated with present-day screenwriters because they were responsible for a technical product, a brief scenario, treatment, or synopsis that is a written synopsis of what is to be filmed.[2] Screenwriting is typically a contracted freelance profession, not a hired position. No education is required to be a professional screenwriter, but good storytelling abilities and imagination give aspiring screenwriters an advantage. Many screenwriters start their careers doing speculative work (work on spec), practicing their screenwriting with no guaranteed financial compensation. If one of these scripts is sold, it is called a spec script. Amateur screenwriters will often pursue this work as writers in training, leading these spec scripts to often go uncredited or come from unknown screenwriters. Further separating professional and amateur screenwriters is that professionals are usually represented by a talent agency. These screenwriter-specific employment agencies work to handle the business side of the screenwriting job, typically taking on legal, financial, and other important representative roles for the screenwriter.[3] These professional screenwriters rarely work for free.
Ballymena.  Ballymena (/ˌbæliˈmiːnə/ BAL-ee-MEE-nə;[1] from Irish: an Baile Meánach [ənˠ ˌbˠalʲə ˈmʲaːn̪ˠəx]ⓘ, meaning the middle townland)[2] is a town in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. It had a population of 31,205 people at the 2021 United Kingdom census, making it the seventh largest town in Northern Ireland by population.[3] It is part of the Borough of Mid and East Antrim. The town was built on the Braid River, on land given to the Adair family by King Charles I in 1626, with a right to hold two annual fairs and a Saturday market in perpetuity. Surrounding villages are Cullybackey, Ahoghill, Broughshane, and Kells-Connor. The recorded history of the Ballymena area dates to the Early Christian period, from the fifth to the seventh centuries. Ringforts are found in the townland of Ballykeel, and a site known as Camphill Fort in the townland of Ballee may also have been of this type. There are a number of souterrains within a 1+1⁄4 miles (2.0 km) radius of the centre of Ballymena. Two miles (3.2 kilometres) north in the townland of Kirkinriola, the medieval parish church and graveyard show signs of Early Christian settlement, including a souterrain. Also in 1868, a gravedigger found a large stone slab on which was carved a cross with the inscription ord do degen. This refers to Bishop Degen, who lived in Ireland during the seventh century. This stone is now in the porch of St Patricks Church of Ireland, at the end of Castle Street. At the end of the fifth century, a church was founded in Connor, five miles (8.0 kilometres) south of Ballymena. This was followed by a monastery at Templemoyle, Kells. In 831, Vikings invaded the area and burned the church. In the late 12th century, the Anglo-Normans invaded Ireland and conquered much of what is now eastern Ulster, creating the Earldom of Ulster. They built a motte-and-bailey fort in what is now the Harryville area of Ballymena. It is one of the best-surviving examples of this type of fortification in Northern Ireland.
Kagoshima Prefecture. Kagoshima Prefecture (鹿児島県, Kagoshima-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [ka.ɡo.ɕi.ma, -maꜜ.keɴ, ka.ŋo-][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands.[3] Kagoshima Prefecture has a population of 1,527,019 (1 February 2025) and has a geographic area of 9,187 km2 (3,547 sq mi). Kagoshima Prefecture borders Kumamoto Prefecture to the north and Miyazaki Prefecture to the northeast. Kagoshima is the capital and largest city of Kagoshima Prefecture, with other major cities including Kirishima, Kanoya, and Satsumasendai.[4] Kagoshima Prefecture is located at the southernmost point of Kyūshū and includes the Satsunan Islands group of the Ryukyu Islands. Kagoshima Prefectures mainland territory extends from the Ariake Sea to Shibushi Bay on the Pacific Ocean coast, and is characterized by two large peninsulas created by Kagoshima Bay. Kagoshima Prefecture formed the core of the Satsuma Domain, ruled from Kagoshima Castle, one of the most important Japanese domains of the Edo period and the Meiji Restoration. Kagoshima Prefecture corresponds to the ancient Japanese provinces Ōsumi and Satsuma, including the northern part of the Ryukyu Islands (Satsunan).[5] This region played a key role in the Meiji Restoration (Saigō Takamori), and the city of Kagoshima was an important naval base during Japans 20th century wars and the home of admiral Tōgō Heihachirō. More recent incidents are the sinking of a North Korean spy ship (100 ton class) in 2001 by the Coast Guard, which was later salvaged and exhibited in Tokyo, and the abduction of an office clerk from a Kagoshima beach in 1978 by agents from the same country. This became known only recently under the Koizumi administration. The two main ethnic groups of Kagoshima Prefecture are the Japanese and the Ryukyuans (Amami Islands). Kagoshima Prefecture is located at the southwest tip of Kyushu on the Satsuma Peninsula and Ōsumi Peninsula. This prefecture also includes a chain of islands stretching further to the southwest of Kyushu for a few hundred kilometers. The most important group is the Amami Islands. Surrounded by the East China Sea to the west, Okinawa Prefecture in the south, Kumamoto Prefecture to the north, and Miyazaki Prefecture to the east, it has 2,632 km (1,635 mi) of coastline (including the 28 islands). It has a bay called Kagoshima Bay (Kinkowan), which is sandwiched by two peninsulas, Satsuma and Ōsumi. Its position made it a gateway to Japan at various times in history. While Kyushu has about 13 million people, there are less than 2 million in this prefecture.
Member states of the United Nations.   The United Nations comprise 193 sovereign states and the worlds largest intergovernmental organization. All members have equal representation in the United Nations General Assembly.[3] The Charter of the United Nations defines the rules for admission of member states. Membership is open to all states which accept certain terms of the charter and are able to carry them out. New members must be recommended by the United Nations Security Council. In addition to the member states, the UN also invites non-member states to be observer states at the UN General Assembly. A member state that has persistently violated the principles of the United Nations Charter can be expelled from the United Nations.[4] The criteria for admission of new members to the UN are established in Chapter II, Article 4 of the UN Charter:[5]
Sir Henry Aubrey-Fletcher, 6th Baronet.  Major Sir Henry Lancelot Aubrey-Fletcher, 6th Baronet KStJ CVO DSO  (10 September 1887 – 30 May 1969), also known by his pen name Henry Wade, was Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire from 1954 to 1961.[1] He was also one of the leading authors during the Golden Age of Detective Fiction. Aubrey-Fletcher was the only son and second child of Sir Lancelot Aubrey-Fletcher, 5th Baronet and Emily Harriet Wade (married 18 April 1882 St Anne, Soho, London). His father had already had another son by a previous marriage, but the child died in infancy. He was educated at Eton College and New College, Oxford.[1] He fought in both the First World War and Second World War with the Grenadier Guards, being awarded the Distinguished Service Order[2] and French Croix de guerre[3] in 1917. He was a member of Buckinghamshire County Council and appointed High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire in 1925.[1] He played Minor counties cricket between 1921 and 1928 for Buckinghamshire.[4] He was also, under the pen name of Henry Wade, a noted mystery writer and one of the founding members of the Detection Club.[5]
Belfast.  Belfast (/ˈbɛlfæst/ ⓘ, /-fɑːst/;[a] from Irish: Béal Feirste [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]ⓘ)[3][4] is the capital city and principal port of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan and connected to the open sea through Belfast Lough and the North Channel. It is the second-largest city in Ireland (after Dublin), with an estimated population of 348,005 in 2022,[2] and a metropolitan area population of 671,559.[5] First chartered as an English settlement in 1613, the towns early growth was driven by an influx of Scottish Presbyterians. Their descendants disaffection with Irelands Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain in 1800—later regarded as a key to the towns industrial transformation. When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the worlds largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage. Sectarian tensions existed with the Irish Catholic population that was drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts. Heightened by division over Irelands future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets. A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts. Since the Good Friday Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists. At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions.
Tokusatsu.  Tokusatsu (特撮; lit. special filming) is a Japanese term for live-action films or television programs that make heavy use of practical special effects. Credited to special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya, tokusatsu mainly refers to science fiction, superhero, fantasy, or horror media featuring such technology but is also occasionally dubbed a genre itself. Its contemporary use originated in the Japanese mass media around 1958 to explain special effects in an easy-to-understand manner and was popularized during the first monster boom (1966–1968). Prior to the monster boom, it was known in Japan as tokushu gijutsu (特殊技術; lit. special technology) or shortened tokugi (特技; lit. special technique).[1] Subgenres of tokusatsu include kaiju such as the Godzilla and Gamera series; superhero such as the Kamen Rider and Metal Hero series; Kyodai Hero like Ultraman, and Denkou Choujin Gridman; and mecha like Giant Robo and Super Robot Red Baron. Some tokusatsu television programs combine several of these subgenres, for example, the Super Sentai series. Tokusatsu is one of the most popular forms of Japanese entertainment, but only a small proportion of tokusatsu films and television programs are widely known outside of Japan. Nevertheless, certain properties have attained popularity outside of Japan; for example, Godzilla has featured in popular American-made movies. Tokusatsu has origins in early Japanese theater, specifically in kabuki (with its action and fight scenes) and in bunraku, which utilized some of the earliest forms of special effects, specifically puppetry.[citation needed] Japanese cinema pioneer Shōzō Makino is credited as the founding father of tokusatsu techniques, having directed several jidaigeki films starring Matsunosuke Onoe that featured special effects.[2] Makinos effects work inspired filmmaker Yoshirō Edamasa to employ such technology in his own movies, notably Journey to the West (1917) and The Great Buddha Arrival (1934).[2]
Natasha Richardson.  Natasha Jane Richardson (11 May 1963 – 18 March 2009) was a British actress. A part of the Redgrave family, Richardson was the daughter of actress Vanessa Redgrave and director/producer Tony Richardson and the granddaughter of Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson. She was married to Liam Neeson. Early in her career, Richardson portrayed Mary Shelley in Ken Russells Gothic (1986) and Patty Hearst in the eponymous 1988 biopic film directed by Paul Schrader and later received critical acclaim and a Theatre World Award for her Broadway debut in the 1993 revival of Anna Christie. Richardson also appeared in The Handmaids Tale (1990), Nell (1994), The Parent Trap (1998), Maid in Manhattan (2002), and The White Countess (2005). For playing Sally Bowles in the 1998 Broadway revival of Cabaret, she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical, the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical and the Outer Critics Circle Award. Richardson died in 2009 at the age of 45 from a head injury after a skiing accident in Quebec.[1]
Order of the British Empire.  The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities.[2] It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or a dame if female.[3] There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with the order, but are not members of it. The order was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, who created the order to recognise such persons, male or female, as may have rendered or shall hereafter render important services to Our Empire.[3] Equal recognition was to be given for services rendered in the UK and overseas.[4] Today, the majority of recipients are UK citizens, though a number of Commonwealth realms outside the UK continue to make appointments to the order.[5] Honorary awards may be made to citizens of other nations of which the orders sovereign is not the head of state. The five classes of appointment to the Order are, from highest grade to lowest grade: The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross and Knight or Dame Commander entitle their members to use the titles Sir for men and Dame for women before their forenames, except with honorary awards.[6]
Mystery fiction.  Mystery is a fiction genre where the nature of an event, usually a murder or other crime, remains mysterious until the end of the story.[1] Often within a closed circle of suspects, each suspect is usually provided with a credible motive and a reasonable opportunity for committing the crime. The central character is often a detective (such as Sherlock Holmes), who eventually solves the mystery by logical deduction from facts presented to the reader.[2] Some mystery books are non-fiction. Mystery fiction can be detective stories in which the emphasis is on the puzzle or suspense element and its logical solution such as a whodunit. Mystery fiction can be contrasted with hardboiled detective stories, which focus on action and gritty realism. Mystery fiction can involve a supernatural mystery in which the solution does not have to be logical and even in which there is no crime involved. This usage was common in the pulp magazines of the 1930s and 1940s, whose titles such as Dime Mystery, Thrilling Mystery, and Spicy Mystery offered what were then described as complicated to solve and weird stories: supernatural horror in the vein of Grand Guignol. That contrasted with parallel titles of the same names which contained conventional hardboiled crime fiction. The first use of mystery in that sense was by Dime Mystery, which started out as an ordinary crime fiction magazine but switched to weird menace during the later part of 1933.[3] The genre of mystery novels is a young form of literature that has developed since the early 19th century. The rise of literacy began in the years of the English Renaissance and, as people began to read over time, they became more individualistic in their thinking. As people became more individualistic in their thinking, they developed a respect for human reason and the ability to solve problems.[4][5] Perhaps a reason that mystery fiction was unheard of before the 19th century was due in part to the lack of true police forces. Before the Industrial Revolution, many towns would have constables and a night watchman at best. Naturally, the constable would be aware of every individual in the town, and crimes were either solved quickly or left unsolved entirely. As people began to crowd into cities, police forces became institutionalized, and the need for detectives was realized – thus the mystery novel arose.[6]
Constable & Robinson.  Constable & Robinson Ltd. is a British book publisher. It serves as an imprint of Little, Brown, publishing fiction and non-fiction books and ebooks. Constable & Co. was founded in 1795 in Edinburgh, Scotland by Archibald Constable, and became the publisher of works by Sir Walter Scott. In 1827, following the death of his father, Thomas Constable took over the company. In 1860, Thomas Constable sold the publishing part of his business to Edmonston & Douglas, while continuing the printing activities of his firm. In 1861, the company employed 50 compositors for printing work. In 1865, Thomas son Archibald joined the firm as a partner and the firm began publishing as T. & A. Constable Ltd. In 1897, Constable released the well-known horror novel, Bram Stokers The Un-Dead, albeit with a last-minute title change to Dracula. In 1813, the company was the first publishing company to give an author advance against royalties. [citation needed]
Geneva.  Geneva (/dʒɪˈniːvə/ jin-EE-və,[5] Arpitan: [dzəˈnɛva] ⓘ; French: Genève [ʒ(ə)nɛv] ⓘ)[note 1] is the second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva. Geneva is a global city, an international financial centre, and a worldwide centre for diplomacy, which has led to it being called the Peace Capital.[6] It hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world,[7]  including the headquarters of many agencies of the United Nations[8] and the ICRC and IFRC of the Red Cross.[9] It was where the Geneva Conventions on humanitarian treatment in war were signed, and, in the aftermath of World War I, it hosted the League of Nations. It shares a unique distinction with municipalities such as New York City, Bonn, Basel, and Strasbourg as a city which serves as the headquarters of at least one critical international organization without being the capital of a country.[10][11][12] The city of Geneva (Ville de Genève) had a population of 203,856 in January 2021[13] within its municipal territory of 16 km2 (6 sq mi).[14] The Geneva metropolitan area as officially defined by Eurostat,[15] including suburbs and exurbs in Vaud and the French departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie, extends over 2,292 km2 (885 sq mi)[16] and had a population of 1,053,436 in 2021.[17] The Canton of Geneva, the Nyon District, and the Pôle métropolitain du Genevois français [fr] (a federation of eight French intercommunal councils), form the Grand Genève (Greater Geneva), a Local Grouping of Transnational Cooperation [fr] in charge of organizing cooperation within the cross-border metropolitan area of Geneva.[18] The Grand Genève GLCT extends over 1,996 km2 (771 sq mi)[19] and had a population of 1,046,168, with 58.3% of them living on Swiss territory, and 41.7% on French territory.[20] In 2025, Geneva was ranked as the worlds fifteenth most important financial centre by the Global Financial Centres Index, fourth in Europe behind London, Frankfurt and Dublin.[21] In 2024, Geneva was ranked as the third most liveable city in the world by Mercer,[22] as well as the fourth most expensive city in the world.[23] In a UBS ranking of global cities in 2018, Geneva was ranked first for gross earnings, second most expensive, and fourth in purchasing power.[24]
Crime fiction. Crime fiction, detective story, murder mystery, crime novel, mystery novel, and police novel are terms used to describe narratives or fiction that centre on criminal acts and especially on the investigation, either by an amateur or a professional detective, of a crime, often a murder.[1] Most crime drama focuses on criminal investigation and does not feature the courtroom. Suspense and mystery are key elements that are nearly ubiquitous to the genre. It is usually distinguished from mainstream fiction and other genres such as historical fiction and science fiction, but the boundaries are indistinct. Crime fiction has several subgenres,[2] including detective fiction (such as the whodunit), courtroom drama, hard-boiled fiction, and legal thrillers. Proto-science and crime fictions have been composed across history, and in this category can be placed texts as varied as the Epic of Gilgamesh from Mesopotamia, the Mahabharata from ancient India, the Book of Tobit, Urashima Tarō from ancient Japan, the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), and more.[3] One example of a story of this genre is the medieval Arabic tale of The Three Apples, one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the Arabian Nights. In this tale, a fisherman discovers a heavy locked chest along the Tigris River, and he sells it to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, who then has the chest broken open, only to find inside it the dead body of a young woman who was cut into pieces. Harun orders his vizier, Jafar ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails his assignment.[4] The story has been described as a whodunit murder mystery[5] with multiple plot twists.[6] The story has detective fiction elements.[7] Two other Arabian Nights stories, The Merchant and the Thief and Ali Khwaja, contain two of the earliest fictional detectives, who uncover clues and present evidence to catch or convict a criminal, with the story unfolding in normal chronology and the criminal already being known to the audience. The latter involves a climax where titular detective protagonist Ali Khwaja presents evidence from expert witnesses in a court.[8] The Hunchbacks Tale is another early courtroom drama, presented as a suspenseful comedy.[3] The earliest known modern crime fiction is E. T. A. Hoffmanns 1819 novella Mademoiselle de Scudéri. Also, Thomas Skinner Surrs anonymous Richmond is from 1827; another early full-length short story in the genre is The Rector of Veilbye by Danish author Steen Steensen Blicher, published in 1829. A further example of crime detection can be found in Letitia Elizabeth Landons story The Knife, published in 1832, although here the truth remains in doubt at the end.
Chicago.  Chicago[a] is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. Located on the western shore of Lake Michigan, it is the third-most populous city in the United States with a population of 2.74 million at the 2020 census,[9] while the Chicago metropolitan area has 9.41 million residents and is the third-largest metropolitan area in the nation. Chicago is the seat of Cook County, the second-most populous county in the United States. Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837 near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed. It grew rapidly in the mid-19th century.[10][11] In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed several square miles and left more than 100,000 homeless,[12] but Chicagos population continued to grow.[11] Chicago made noted contributions to urban planning and architecture, such as the Chicago School, the development of the City Beautiful movement, and the steel-framed skyscraper.[13][14] Chicago is an international hub for finance, culture, commerce, industry, education, technology, telecommunications, and transportation. It has the largest and most diverse finance derivatives market in the world, generating 20% of all volume in commodities and financial futures alone.[15] OHare International Airport is routinely ranked among the worlds top ten busiest airports by passenger traffic,[16] and the region is also the nations railroad hub.[17] The Chicago area has one of the highest gross domestic products (GDP) of any urban region in the world, generating $689 billion in 2018.[18] Chicagos economy is diverse, with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce.[15] Chicago is a major destination for tourism, with 55 million visitors in 2024 to its cultural institutions, Lake Michigan beaches, restaurants, and more.[19][20] Chicagos culture has contributed much to the visual arts, literature, film, theater, comedy (especially improvisational comedy), food, dance, and music (particularly jazz, blues, soul, hip-hop, gospel,[21] and electronic dance music, including house music). Chicago is home to the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the Lyric Opera of Chicago, while the Art Institute of Chicago provides an influential visual arts museum and art school. The Chicago area also hosts the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Illinois Chicago, among other institutions of learning. Professional sports in Chicago include all major professional leagues, including two Major League Baseball teams. The city also hosts the Chicago Marathon, one of the World Marathon Majors.
Fable. Fable is a literary genre defined as a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are anthropomorphised, and that illustrates or leads to a particular moral lesson, which may at the end be added explicitly as a concise maxim or saying. A fable differs from a parable in that the latter excludes animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech or other powers of humankind. Conversely, an animal tale specifically includes talking animals as characters.[1] Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished. In the King James Version of the New Testament, μῦθος (mythos) was rendered by the translators as fable[2] in the First Epistle to Timothy, the Second Epistle to Timothy, the Epistle to Titus and the First Epistle of Peter.[3] The fable is one of the most enduring forms of folk literature, spread abroad, modern researchers agree,[4] less by literary anthologies than by oral transmission. Fables can be found in the literature of almost every country. The varying corpus denoted Aesopica or Aesops Fables includes most of the best-known western fables, which are attributed to the legendary Aesop, supposed to have been a slave in ancient Greece around 550 BCE. When Babrius set down fables from the Aesopica in verse for a Hellenistic Prince Alexander, he expressly stated at the head of Book II that this type of myth that Aesop had introduced to the sons of the Hellenes had been an invention of Syrians from the time of Ninos (personifying Nineveh to Greeks) and Belos (ruler).[5] Epicharmus of Kos and Phormis are reported as having been among the first to invent comic fables.[6] Many familiar fables of Aesop include The Crow and the Pitcher, The Tortoise and the Hare and The Lion and the Mouse.
Folklore. Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture.[1] This includes oral traditions such as tales, myths, legends, proverbs, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions.[2][3] This also includes material culture, such as traditional building styles common to the group. Folklore also encompasses customary lore, taking actions for folk beliefs, including folk religion, and the forms and rituals of celebrations such as festivals, weddings, folk dances, and initiation rites.[2] Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact or traditional cultural expression. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. Folklore is not something one can typically gain from a formal school curriculum or study in the fine arts. Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another, either through verbal instruction or demonstration.[4] The academic study of folklore is called folklore studies or folkloristics, and it can be explored at the undergraduate, graduate, and Ph.D. levels.[5] The word folklore, a compound of folk and lore, was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms,[6] who contrived the term as a replacement for the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature. The second half of the word, lore, comes from Old English lār instruction. It is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group frequently passed along by word of mouth.[7][8] The concept of folk has varied over time. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, and illiterate peasants. A more modern definition of folk is a social group that includes two or more people with common traits who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a flexible concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family.[9] This expanded social definition of folk supports a broader view of the material, i.e., the lore, considered to be folklore artifacts. These now include all things people make with words (verbal lore), things they make with their hands (material lore), and things they make with their actions (customary lore).[10] Folklore are no longer considered to be limited to that which is old or obsolete. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, and always in multiple variants. The folk group is not individualistic; it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, computer programmers.[11] In direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within a common social group.[12]
Picaresque (album).  Picaresque is the third studio album from The Decemberists. It was released in 2005 on the Kill Rock Stars record label. The word picaresque refers to a form of satirical prose originating in Spain, depicting realistically and often humorously the adventures of a low-born, roguish hero living by their wits in a corrupt society.[2] The album was recorded at the Prescott Church in northeast Portland, which the band rented for one month in the summer of 2004. To facilitate the creative process and avoid creative block, band members filled a used bike helmet with slips of paper listing strategies and ideas to try out. Non-traditional rock instruments used in the albums recording included an accordion and a hurdy-gurdy. The album was produced by Chris Walla, also the guitarist for the band Death Cab for Cutie.[3] The album includes the track Sixteen Military Wives, the music video of which was distributed by the band via BitTorrent.[4] A double vinyl version was released in the United States that contained the album on the first three sides with an EP of outtakes named Picaresqueties on the fourth side.[5] This EP was the bands final release for the Kill Rock Stars label. In Europe, a single-disc vinyl version was released on Rough Trade without the Picaresqueties EP; the first six tracks appear on Side A, and the final five are on Side B.[6] A limited edition tenth anniversary pressing of the album on red vinyl was released for Record Store Day 2015. It was formatted as three sides, with the tracks from the Picaresqueties EP as the fourth side.
Folk play. Folk plays such as Hoodening, Guising, Mummers Play and Soul Caking are generally verse sketches performed in countryside pubs in European countries, private houses or the open air, at set times of the year such as the Winter or Summer solstices or Christmas and New Year. Many have long traditions, although they are frequently updated to retain their relevance for contemporary audiences. With the rise in folklore studies as an academic discipline, research into folk plays has increased. Notable organizations in this area (in the UK in particular, often centred on Yorkshire) have included: In addition, although the Morris dance has no direct link with folk plays, members of the Morris Federation, Open Morris and Morris Ring often perform mumming plays on the side. This theatre-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Family law. Family law (also called matrimonial law or the law of domestic relations) is an area of the law that deals with family matters and domestic relations.[1] Subjects that commonly fall under a nations body of family law include: This list is not exhaustive and varies depending on jurisdiction. Issues may arise in family law where there is a question as to the laws of the jurisdiction that apply to the marriage relationship or to custody and divorce, and whether a divorce or child custody order is recognized under the laws of another jurisdiction.[8][9][10][11] For child custody, many nations have joined the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction in order to grant recognition to other member states custody orders and avoid issues of parental kidnapping.[12]
Legitimacy. Legitimacy, from the Latin legitimare meaning to make lawful, may refer to:
Lazarillo de Tormes. The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes and of His Fortunes and Adversities (Spanish: La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes y de sus fortunas y adversidades [la ˈβiða ðe laθaˈɾiʎo ðe ˈtoɾmes i ðe sus foɾˈtunas jaðβeɾsiˈðaðes]) is a Spanish novella, published anonymously because of its anticlerical content. The oldest editions were published in 1554 in four different locations : Alcalá de Henares, Burgos and Medina del Campo in Spain and Antwerp in the Spanish Netherlands. It is assumed that they were not the original edition of the novella, which was published at an unknown date.[1] The Alcalá de Henares edition adds some episodes which were most likely written by a second author. Lazarillo de Tormes is the first book establishing the style of the picaresque satirical novel. Lázaro is a boy of humble origins from Salamanca. After his stepfather is accused of thievery, his mother asks a wily blind beggar to take on Lazarillo (little Lázaro) as his apprentice. Lázaro develops his cunning while serving the blind beggar and several other masters, while also learning to take on his fathers practice. Table of contents: *(or treatise) Besides its importance in the Spanish literature of the Golden Age, Lazarillo de Tormes is credited with founding a literary genre, the picaresque novel, from the Spanish word pícaro, meaning rogue or rascal. In novels of this type, the adventures of the pícaro expose injustice while amusing the reader. This extensive genre includes Cervantes Rinconete y Cortadillo and El coloquio de los perros, Henry Fieldings Tom Jones and Mark Twains Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Its influence extends to twentieth century novels, dramas and films featuring the anti-hero.
John Romeril. John Henry Romeril AM (born 1945) is an Australian playwright and teacher. He has written around 60 plays for theatre, film, radio, and television, and is known for his 1975 play The Floating World. John Henry Romeril was born in 1945 and grew up in Melbourne, living  in Moorabbin until 1966. He attended Bentleigh West State School, Brighton Tech., and Brighton High Schools, and then undertook a BA at Monash University, graduating in 1970 with majors in English Literature and Politics.[1] Over the course of his career, Romeril wrote plays for theatre, film, radio, and television, including stage, musicals, puppet theatre, pantomimes, and street theatre.[2] In 1968 he became involved with La Mama Theatre, which had been established in that year by Betty Burstall. In 1969 a group involved with the theatre founded the Australian Performing Group (APG) in 1970 established the Pram Factory. The APG went on to perform many of Romerils plays, which were performed at the Pram Factory. Romeril also worked collaboratively with other APG writers, including Jack Hibberd and Tim Robertson.[1] His first plays, I Dont Know Who To Feel Sorry For (1969) and Chicago, Chicago (1970) were written while he was still a student.[3]
Helen Mirren.  Dame Helen Mirren (/ˈmɪrən/; born Ilyena Lydia Mironoff;[a] 26 July 1945) is an English actor. With a career spanning over six decades of screen and stage, her accolades include an Academy Award, five Emmy Awards, a Tony Award, a BAFTA Film Award, three BAFTA Television Awards, and a Laurence Olivier Award. She is the only person to have achieved both the US and UK Triple Crowns of Acting, and has also received the BAFTA Fellowship, Honorary Golden Bear, and the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award. Mirren was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in 2003.[11][12] Mirren started her career at the age of 18 as a performer with the National Youth Theatre, where she played Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra (1965). She later joined the Royal Shakespeare Company and made her West End stage debut in 1975. She went on to receive the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress for playing Elizabeth II in the Peter Morgan play The Audience (2013). She reprised the role on Broadway and won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. She was Tony-nominated for A Month in the Country (1995) and The Dance of Death (2002). Mirrens first credited film role was in Herostratus (1967) and her first major role was in Age of Consent (1969). She gained further recognition for her roles in O Lucky Man! (1973), Caligula (1979), The Long Good Friday (1980), Excalibur (1981), The Mosquito Coast (1986), and The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover (1989). She received Academy Award nominations for her performances in The Madness of King George (1994) and Gosford Park (2001), before winning Best Actress for her portrayal of Elizabeth II in the drama The Queen (2006). She was nominated again for her performance in The Last Station (2009), and went on to appear in further films such as The Tempest (2010), Hitchcock (2012), Eye in the Sky (2015), and Trumbo (2015). She has also appeared in the action film Red (2010) and its 2013 sequel, as well as four films in the Fast & Furious franchise. On television, Mirren played DCI Jane Tennison in ITVs police procedural Prime Suspect (1991–2006), for which she earned three British Academy Television Awards for Best Actress and two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie.[13] She also earned Emmy Awards for portraying Ayn Rand in the Showtime television film The Passion of Ayn Rand (1999) and Queen Elizabeth I in the HBO miniseries Elizabeth I (2005).[14] Her other television roles include Door to Door (2002), Phil Spector (2013), Catherine the Great (2019), 1923 (2022), and MobLand (2025).
Monarch. A monarch (/ˈmɒnərk/) is a head of state[1][2] for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, or others may wield that power on behalf of the monarch. Usually, a monarch either personally inherits the lawful right to exercise the states sovereign rights (often referred to as the throne or the crown) or is selected by an established process from a family or cohort eligible to provide the nations monarch. Alternatively, an individual may proclaim oneself monarch, which may be backed and legitimated through acclamation, right of conquest or a combination of means. If a young child is crowned the monarch, then a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. Monarchs actual powers vary from one monarchy to another and in different eras; on one extreme, they may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) wielding genuine sovereignty; on the other they may be ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no direct power or only reserve powers, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body (constitutional monarchy). A monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously. For example, the 15 Commonwealth realms are all separate sovereign states, but share the same monarch through personal union. Monarchs, as such, bear a variety of titles – king or queen, prince or princess (e.g., Sovereign Prince of Monaco), emperor or empress (e.g., Emperor of China, Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor of Japan, Emperor of India), archduke, duke or grand duke (e.g., Grand Duke of Luxembourg), emir (e.g., Emir of Qatar), sultan (e.g., Sultan of Oman), or pharaoh. Monarchy is political or sociocultural in nature, and is generally (but not always) associated with hereditary rule. Most monarchs, both historically and in the present day, have been born and brought up within a royal family (whose rule over a period of time is referred to as a dynasty) and trained for future duties. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood (male preference or absolute), primogeniture, agnatic seniority, Salic law, etc. While traditionally most monarchs have been male, female monarchs have also ruled, and the term queen regnant refers to a ruling monarch, as distinct from a queen consort, the wife of a reigning king.
Fairy tale.  A fairy tale (alternative names include fairytale, fairy story, household tale,[1] magic tale, or wonder tale) is a short story that belongs to the folklore genre.[2] Such stories typically feature magic, enchantments, and mythical or fanciful beings. In most cultures, there is no clear line separating myth from folk or fairy tale; all these together form the literature of preliterate societies.[3] Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described)[4] and explicit moral tales, including beast fables. Prevalent elements include dragons, dwarfs, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins, griffins, merfolk, monsters, monarchy, pixies, talking animals, trolls, unicorns, witches, wizards, magic, and enchantments. In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness, as in fairy-tale ending (a happy ending)[5] or fairy-tale romance. Colloquially, the term fairy tale or fairy story can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale; it is used especially to describe any story that not only is not true, but also could not possibly be true. Legends are perceived as real within their culture; fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, fairy tales usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and to actual places, people, and events; they take place once upon a time rather than in actual times.[6] Fairy tales occur both in oral and in literary form (literary fairy tale); the name fairy tale (conte de fées in French) was first ascribed to them by Madame dAulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of todays fairy tales have evolved from centuries-old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world.[7] The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace because often only the literary forms survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, some to the Bronze Age.[8][9] Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today.
Japan (disambiguation). Japan is an archipelagic country in East Asia, located in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. Japan may also refer to:
Vagrancy.  Vagrancy is the condition of wandering homelessness without regular employment or income. Vagrants[a] usually live in poverty and support themselves by travelling while engaging in begging,  scavenging, or petty theft. In Western countries, vagrancy was historically a crime punishable with forced labor, military service, imprisonment, or confinement to dedicated labor houses. Both vagrant and vagabond ultimately derive from the Latin word  vagari, meaning to wander. The term vagabond and its archaic equivalent vagabone come from Latin vagabundus (strolling about). In Middle English, vagabond originally denoted a person without a home or employment.[2] Vagrants have been historically characterised as outsiders in settled, ordered communities: embodiments of otherness, objects of scorn or mistrust, or worthy recipients of help and charity.[citation needed] Some ancient sources show vagrants as passive objects of pity, who deserve generosity and the gift of alms. Others show them as subversives, or outlaws, who make a parasitical living through theft, fear and threat.[citation needed]
Folk music.  Folk music is a music genre that includes traditional folk music and the contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, music that is played on traditional instruments, music about cultural or national identity, music that changes between generations (folk process), music associated with a peoples folklore, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. The term originated in the 19th century, but folk music extends beyond that. Starting in the mid-20th century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms.[1] Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals. This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, and others. While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in U.S. English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music. Folk music is fascinating – in that just about everybody and their uncle has an opinion on what it is, and what it isn’t! The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions. They are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes.[3] The term further derives from the German expression Volk, in the sense of the people as a whole as applied to popular and national music by Johann Gottfried Herder and the German Romantics over half a century earlier.[4] Though it is understood that folk music is the music of the people, observers find a more precise definition to be elusive.[5][6] Some do not even agree that the term folk music should be used.[5] Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics[3] but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers,[7] another is that of music that has been submitted to an evolutionary process of oral transmission... the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character.[8]
Jack Charles.  Jack Charles (5 September 1943 – 13 September 2022), also known as Uncle Jack Charles, was an Australian stage and screen actor and activist, known for his advocacy for Aboriginal people. He was involved in establishing the first Indigenous theatre in Australia, co-founding Nindethana Theatre with Bob Maza in Melbourne in 1971. His film credits include the Australian film The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1978), among others, and more recently appeared in TV series Cleverman (2016) and Preppers (2021). He spent many decades in and out of prison and as a heroin addict, which he ascribed largely to trauma that he experienced as a child, as one of the Stolen Generations. In later life he became a mentor for Aboriginal youth in the prison system along with musician Archie Roach, and was revered as an elder. As a gay man, Charles was considered a gay icon and role model for LGBTQI+ Indigenous youth. Among other awards and honours, he was Victorian Senior Australian of the Year in 2015, and Male Elder of the Year in the 2022 National NAIDOC Week Awards. Jack Charles was born on 5 September 1943 at the Royal Womens Hospital, Carlton, in Melbourne, Victoria,[1][2] to a Bunurong mother, Blanche,[3] who was 15 years old at the time,[2] and a Wiradjuri father, Hilton. Charles great-great-grandfather was a Djadjawurrung man, among the activists who resisted government policy at the Coranderrk reserve in Victoria in 1881.[4]
Monarchy.  A monarchy is a hereditary form of government in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of the monarch, a head of state who rules for life.[1] While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority via election.[2] Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies, notably at the end of World War I.[3][4] As of 2024[update], forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there is a range of sub-national monarchical entities. Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic.[4] The word monarch first appeared in the mid-15th century as monark, meaning “a supreme governor for life, a sole or autocratic ruler of a state.” It comes from the Old French monarche (14th century, Modern French monarque) and directly from the Late Latin monarcha, which in turn derives from the Greek monarkhēs, meaning “one who rules alone” (see monarchy).[5] The term monarchy dates back to the mid-14th century, when it referred to a kingdom or territory ruled by a monarch, and by the late 14th century it also meant rule by a single person with supreme power. It comes from Old French monarchie (13th century), meaning “sovereignty” or “absolute power,” which was borrowed from Late Latin monarchia and ultimately from Greek monarkhia, “absolute rule,” literally “ruling of one,” from monos (“alone”) and arkhein (“to rule”).[6] The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley civilization.[7] In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.[8] Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer, Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt c. 3100 BCE, and Enmebaragesi, a Sumerian King of Kish c. 2600 BCE.
Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven (Chinese: 天命; pinyin: Tiānmìng; Wade–Giles: Tien1-ming4; lit. Heavens command) is a Chinese political doctrine that was used in Ancient China and Imperial China to legitimize the rule of the king or emperor of China.[1] According to this doctrine, Heaven (天, Tian) bestows its mandate[a] on a virtuous ruler, called the Son of Heaven (天子, Tianzi), who is the supreme universal monarch that will rule the world (天下, Tianxia; [all] under heaven).[3] If a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler and his dynasty were unworthy and had lost the Mandate.[4] It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heavens displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.[5] The Mandate of Heaven does not require a legitimate ruler to be of noble birth. Chinese dynasties such as the Han and Ming were founded by men of common origins, but they were seen as having succeeded because they had gained the Mandate of Heaven. Retaining the mandate is contingent on the just and able performance of the rulers and their heirs. Corollary to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven was the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler. The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate from the ruler. Throughout Chinese history, times of poverty and natural disasters were often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement. The classical statement of the legitimacy of rebellion against an unjust ruler, found in the Mencius, was often edited out of that text. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven also extends to the rulers family having divine rights[1] and was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou dynasty to legitimize their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty. It was used throughout the history of China to legitimize the successful overthrow and installation of new dynasties, including by non-Han dynasties such as the Qing dynasty. The Mandate of Heaven has been called the Zhou dynastys most important contribution to Chinese political thought,[6] but it coexisted and interfaced with other theories of sovereign legitimacy, including abdication to the worthy and five phases theory. The prosperous Shang dynasty saw its rule filled with multiple outstanding accomplishments. Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations. The rule of the Shang kings has been described as hegemonic. Royal authority flowed from the person of the king, enforced by his military. Neighbouring clans were allied through marriage and adopted into the Shang ancestral temple.[7]
Nippon (disambiguation). Nippon is a formal way of pronouncing the native name of Japan (日本). Nippon may also refer to:
Family.  Family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order.[1] Ideally, families offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and learn to participate in the community.[2] Historically, most human societies use family as the primary purpose of attachment, nurturance, and socialization.[3][4][5][6] Anthropologists classify most family organizations as matrifocal (a mother and her children), patrifocal (a father and his children), conjugal (a married couple with children, also called the nuclear family), avuncular (a man, his sister, and her children), or extended (in addition to parents, spouse and children, may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, or cousins). The field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. The family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics. The word families can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, and global village. One of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production and reproduction of persons biologically and socially. This can occur through the sharing of material substances (such as food); the giving and receiving of care and nurture (nurture kinship); jural rights and obligations; also moral and sentimental ties.[8][9] Thus, ones experience of ones family shifts over time.
Nihon (disambiguation). Nihon is a formal way of pronouncing the native name of Japan (日本). Nihon may also refer to:
Divine right of kings. Divine right of kings, divine right, or Gods mandation,[dubious – discuss] is a political and religious doctrine of political legitimacy of a monarchy in Western Christianity during the Age of Absolutism. It is also known as the divine-right theory of kingship. The doctrine asserts that a monarch is not accountable to any earthly authority (such as a parliament or the Pope) because their right to rule is derived from divine authority. Thus, the monarch is not subject to the will of the people, of the aristocracy, or of any other estate of the realm. It follows that only divine authority can judge a monarch, and that any attempt to depose, dethrone, resist or restrict their powers runs contrary to Gods will and may constitute a sacrilegious act. It does not imply that their power is absolute.[1]: 858  In its full-fledged form, the Divine Right of Kings is associated with Henry VIII of England (and the Acts of Supremacy), James VI and I of Scotland and England, Louis XIV of France, and their successors. It is important to understand the medieval context from which the Divine Right of Kings and the Age of Absolutism emerge. This medieval political system, often summarised by the concept of the Res publica Christiana, was far more decentralised and had no concept of absolute monarchical power as held by rulers of the 17th and 18th centuries. In that older system, the legitimacy of a regime was ultimately derivative of Eternal Law (Lex Aeterna), i.e. the divine blueprint for the order of the world, in which humans, by virtue of being rational creatures, participate, giving them knowledge of Natural Law (Lex Naturalis). The Natural Law is universal, but is determined locally by custom, which generates Human Law (Lex Humana). This hierarchical order from eternal to natural to human law is most famously articulated by Thomas Aquinas, and meant that a medieval regime, such as a monarchy, was legitimate so long as it ruled in accordance with that order, obligating the ruler to govern in accordance with Natural Law and to protect local customs. The Church, unsurprisingly, held ultimate authority in interpreting whether a king complied with Natural Law and thus maintained his Divine Mandation, which was the signature feature of the pan-European political order of the Res publica Christiana. This is why Excommunication was dreaded by medieval kings, as it formally invalidated the legitimacy of their rule and gave the Church in Rome Papal deposing power. The power of a king was, consequently, far from absolute, and was furthermore shared with other political institutions of medieval society, such as parliaments (e.g. the Cortes Generales in Iberia) and a powerful nobility. This division was encouraged by the Church and political theory of the time, with Thomas Aquinas promoting constitutional monarchy checked by a strong parliament as the preferred form of government. All this was dramatically changed first by the Reformation, then by the Thirty Years War, which demoted the Church from ultimate political authority and developed the idea of kings as rulers under the authority of God alone, whence the Divine Right of Kings and the onset of Absolutism. The Divine Rights of Kings plays an important role in the development of legal rights qua rights. Its focus on the individual of the monarch stands in contrast to the conception of non-hierarchical, universal human rights, which started being developed in the Middle Ages by scholars such as St. Thomas Aquinas (see Natural Law) and were systematised by the thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment, e.g. John Locke. Liberty, dignity, freedom and equality are examples of important human rights. Divine right has been a key element of the self-legitimization of many absolute monarchies, connected with their authority and right to rule.  Related but distinct notions include Caesaropapism (the complete subordination of bishops etc. to the secular power), Supremacy (the legal sovereignty of the civil laws over the laws of the Church), Absolutism (a form of monarchical or despotic power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites) or Tyranny (an absolute ruler who is unrestrained even by moral law).
JPN (disambiguation). Japan an island country in East Asia. (JPN is the ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code for the country) JPN may also refer to:
Okuchichibu Mountains. Okuchichibu Mountains (奥秩父山塊, Okuchichibu Sankai) or the Okuchichibu Mountainous Region (奥秩父山地, Okuchichibu Sanchi) is a mountainous district in the Kantō region and Kōshinetsu region, Japan. It covers the western part of Tokyo, the western part of Saitama Prefecture, the southwestern part of Gunma Prefecture, the southeastern part of Nagano Prefecture, and the northern part of Yamanashi Prefecture. Oku (奥, oku) means the interior, Okuchichibu means the interior of Chichibu (秩父, chichibu). The meaning of the word Okuchichibu is based on the point of view from the Kantō region. This mountain area consists of folded mountains and ranges from 1000 to 2600 meters in height. Mount Kita Okusenjō (北奥千丈岳, Kita Okusenjō-dake) is the highest at 2601m. Most of the range lies in the Chichibu Tama Kai National Park (秩父多摩甲斐国立公園, Chichibu Tama Kai Kokuritsu Kōen).[1] Some of the mountains in the Okuchichibu Mountains include:  This Gunma Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This Nagano Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Seiyu (disambiguation). Seiyū (声優) is the Japanese word for voice actor. Seiyu may also refer to:
Heir apparent (disambiguation). An heir apparent is someone likely to inherit a throne or title. Heir Apparent may also refer to
Spanish language.  Spanish (español) or Castilian (castellano) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe. Today, it is a global language with 498 million native speakers, mainly in the Americas and Spain, and about 600 million speakers total, including second-language speakers.[1] Spanish is the official language of 20 countries, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[4][5] Spanish is the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese;[6][7] the worlds fourth-most spoken language overall after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu); and the worlds most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers is Mexico.[8] Spanish is part of the Ibero-Romance language group, in which the language is also known as Castilian (castellano). The group evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th century,[9] and the first systematic written use of the language happened in Toledo, a prominent city of the Kingdom of Castile, in the 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the early modern period spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas.[10] As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. Around 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek.[11][12] Alongside English and French, it is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world.[13] Spanish is well represented in the humanities and social sciences.[14] Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese[15] and the second most used language by number of websites after English.[16] Spanish is used as an official language by many international organizations, including the United Nations, European Union, Organization of American States, Union of South American Nations, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, African Union, and others.[4]
Lycoris radiata.  Lycoris radiata, known as the red spider lily, red magic lily, corpse flower, or equinox flower, is a plant in the amaryllis family, Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Amaryllidoideae.[3] It is originally from China, Japan, Korea and Nepal[1] and spread from there to the United States and elsewhere. It is considered naturalized in Seychelles and in the Ryukyu Islands.[4] It flowers in the late summer or autumn, often in response to heavy rainfall. The common name hurricane lily refers to this characteristic,[5] as do other common names, such as resurrection lily;[5] these may be used for the genus as a whole. Lycoris radiata is a bulbous perennial with showy, bright-red flowers. When in full bloom, spindly stamens, likened to the image of spider legs, extend slightly upward and outward from the flowers center.[6] The flowers of the plant generally appear around late August to early September, before the leaves fully develop, on scapes rising 30–70 centimetres (12–28 in) from the ground. Four to six 2-inch long flowers, arranged in umbels, perch atop each plant stalk.[7] Individual flowers are irregular, with narrow segments which curve backwards.[8] The leaves, which tend to emerge in October, are a greyish-green color, parallel-sided, 0.5–1 cm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) wide and feature a paler central stripe. The plant retains its leaves throughout the winter season, but will begin to shed them away as temperatures start to warm in late spring.[7] The presumed original form of Lycoris radiata, known as L. radiata var. pumila, occurs only in China. It is a diploid, with 11 pairs of chromosomes (2N = 22), and is able to reproduce by seed. Triploid forms, with 33 chromosomes, are known as L. radiata var. radiata. These are widespread in China and also in Japan, from where the species was introduced into cultivation in America and elsewhere. The triploid forms are sterile, and reproduce only vegetatively, via bulbs. The Japanese triploids are genetically uniform. It has been suggested that they were introduced into Japan from China along with rice cultivation.[9] In phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast genes, Hori et al. found that all the other species of Lycoris they examined were nested within Lycoris radiata. They suggest that the species of Lycoris presently recognized may not be distinct.[9]
United Kingdom.  The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain,[m] is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[n] The UK includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles, covering 94,354 square miles (244,376 km2).[f] Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; otherwise, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea and the Irish Sea. It maintains sovereignty over the British Overseas Territories, which are located across various oceans and seas globally. The UK had an estimated population of over 68.2 million people in 2023. The capital and largest city of both England and the UK is London. The cities of Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland respectively. The UK has been inhabited continuously since the Neolithic. In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began. The Roman departure was followed by Anglo-Saxon settlement. In 1066 the Normans conquered England. With the end of the Wars of the Roses the Kingdom of England stabilised and began to grow in power, resulting by the 16th century in the annexation of Wales and the establishment of the British Empire. Over the course of the 17th century the role of the British monarchy was reduced, particularly as a result of the English Civil War. In 1707 the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland united under the Treaty of Union to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. In the Georgian era the office of prime minister became established. The Acts of Union 1800 incorporated the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922 as the Irish Free State, and the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 created the present United Kingdom. The UK became the first industrialised country and was the worlds foremost power for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the Pax Britannica between 1815 and 1914. The British Empire was the leading economic power for most of the 19th century, a position supported by its agricultural prosperity, its role as a dominant trading nation, a massive industrial capacity, significant technological achievements, and the rise of 19th-century London as the worlds principal financial centre. At its height in the 1920s the empire encompassed almost a quarter of the worlds landmass and population, and was the largest empire in history. However, its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War damaged Britains economic power, and a global wave of decolonisation led to the independence of most British colonies. The UK is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy[o] with three distinct jurisdictions: England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Since 1999 Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various devolved matters. A developed country with an advanced economy, the UK ranks amongst the largest economies by nominal GDP and is one of the worlds largest exporters and importers. As a nuclear state with one of the highest defence budgets, the UK maintains one of the strongest militaries in Europe. Its soft power influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of its former colonies, and British culture remains globally influential, particularly in language, literature, music and sport. A great power, the UK is part of numerous international organisations and forums.
Monarchism. Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule.[1] A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. Conversely, the opposition to monarchical rule is referred to as republicanism.[2][3][4] Monarchical rule is among the oldest political institutions.[5] The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley civilization.[6] In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.[7] In the 17th and 18th centuries the Enlightenment began.[8] This resulted in new anti-monarchist ideas[9] which resulted in several revolutions such as the 18th century American Revolution and the French Revolution which were both additional steps in the weakening of power of European monarchies. In 1974, one of the worlds oldest monarchies was abolished in Ethiopia with the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie.[10] For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC, and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b] Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[16]
Canyon. A canyon (from Spanish  cañón; archaic British English spelling: cañon),[1] gorge or chasm, is a deep cleft between escarpments or cliffs resulting from weathering and the erosive activity of a river over geologic time scales.[2] Rivers have a natural tendency to cut through underlying surfaces, eventually wearing away rock layers as sediments are removed downstream. A river bed will gradually reach a baseline elevation, which is the same elevation as the body of water into which the river drains. The processes of weathering and erosion will form canyons when the rivers headwaters and estuary are at significantly different elevations,[3] particularly through regions where softer rock layers are intermingled with harder layers more resistant to weathering. A canyon may also refer to a rift between two mountain peaks, such as those in ranges including the Rocky Mountains, the Alps, the Himalayas or the Andes. Usually, a river or stream carves out such splits between mountains. Examples of mountain-type canyons are Provo Canyon in Utah or Yosemite Valley in Californias Sierra Nevada. Canyons within mountains, or gorges that have an opening on only one side, are called box canyons. Slot canyons are very narrow canyons that often have smooth walls. Steep-sided valleys in the seabed of the continental slope are referred to as submarine canyons. Unlike canyons on land, submarine canyons are thought to be formed by turbidity currents and landslides. The word canyon is Spanish in origin (cañón,[4] pronounced [kaˈɲon]), with the same meaning. The word canyon is generally used in North America, while the words gorge and ravine (French in origin) are used in Europe and Oceania, though gorge and ravine are also used in some parts of North America. In the United States, place names generally use canyon in the southwest (due to their proximity to Spanish-speaking Mexico) and gorge in the northeast (which is closer to French Canada), with the rest of the country graduating between these two according to geography. In Canada, a gorge is usually narrow while a ravine is more open and often wooded. The military-derived word defile is occasionally used in the United Kingdom. In South Africa, kloof (in Krantzkloof Nature Reserve) is used along with canyon (as in Blyde River Canyon) and gorge (in Oribi Gorge).[5] Most canyons were formed by a process of long-time erosion from a plateau or table-land level. The cliffs form because harder rock strata that are resistant to erosion and weathering remain exposed on the valley walls.
Stormfield.  Stormfield was the mansion built in Redding, Connecticut for author Samuel Clemens, best known by his pen name, Mark Twain, who lived there from 1908 until his death in 1910. He derived the propertys name from the short story Extract from Captain Stormfields Visit to Heaven. The building was destroyed in a 1923 fire. Twain met biographer Albert Bigelow Paine in 1906 while living in New York City. He decided to purchase 195 acres of land in Redding where Paine lived,[1] purchasing his first parcel there March 24, 1906, and buying additional acreage in May and September that year.[2] Twain hired architect John Mead Howells of Howells & Stokes, son of the author William Dean Howells who was a friend and collaborator for 45 years.[3] Twain stipulated the house should be built in the style of a Tuscan villa, after having lived at Villa Viviani (1891–1892) in Settignano and Villa di Quarto (1903–1904) in Sesto Fiorentino outside Florence, Italy.[4] Construction began in 1907; the project was nearly abandoned later that year due to cost and Twains misgivings about Reddings relative isolation, but the younger Howells convinced him that he would suffer a financial loss on work already underway.[5] The house was completed in June 1908,[1] built on elevated land known at the time as Birch Spray Hill on the west bank of the Saugatuck River.[6] The exterior of the house featured a gray stucco finish and green-colored roof, with the foundation measuring 70 feet by 40 feet, flanked by wings measuring 20 feet by 18 feet.[7] Howells designed the interior ground floor to include a central dining room, opening onto garden terraces and a fountain. In one wing was a drawing room opening onto an outdoor seating area; the other wing contained a billiards room decorated with caricatures of Twain.[4][8] The hand-carved mantel for the billiards room fireplace was a gift from the Sandwich Islanders. Twain had purchased a second, ornate mantel from Ayton Castle in Scotland that was installed in the living room; that mantel was damaged in the fire but restored, and is located today at the Mark Twain House & Museum in Hartford, Connecticut[9] where Twain lived from 1874 to 1891.[10]
List of anime companies.  This is a list of anime industry companies involved in the production or distribution of anime. There are over 500 animation studios in Japan.[1] Below are those notable enough to have an article.
One-Punch Man.  One-Punch Man (Japanese: ワンパンマン, Hepburn: Wanpanman; stylized as OnePunch-Man) is a Japanese manga series created by One, originally released as a webcomic in early 2009. It tells the story of Saitama, an independent superhero who, having trained to the point that he can defeat any opponent with a single punch, grows deeply bored from a lack of challenge. He sets out to find stronger opponents, while making allies of other heroes as well. A digital manga remake, illustrated by Yusuke Murata, began publication on Shueishas Tonari no Young Jump website in June 2012. Its chapters are periodically compiled and published into individual tankōbon volumes. As of August 2025[update], 34 volumes have been released. In North America, Viz Media licensed the manga remake for English language release and has serialized it in its Weekly Shonen Jump digital magazine. An anime adaptation produced by Madhouse was broadcast in Japan from October to December 2015. A second season, produced by J.C.Staff, was broadcast from April to July 2019. A third season, also by J.C.Staff, is set to premiere in October 2025. Licensed in North America by Viz Media, the series aired its first season in the United States on Adult Swims Toonami programming block from July to October 2016. The second season also aired on the block from October 2019 to January 2020. By June 2012, the original webcomic manga surpassed 7.9 million hits. By August 2025, the manga remake had over 34 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series of all time.
Florida, Missouri.  Florida is a village in Monroe County, Missouri, United States. It is located at the intersection of Missouri Route 107 and State Route U on the shores of Mark Twain Lake. In 1910 the population was 200, per the census data in the 1911 Crams World Atlas.[5] As of the 2020 census, however, the reported population was five.[3] The Mark Twain Birthplace State Historic Site is located in Florida, with Mark Twain State Park nearby. The village was laid out in the winter of 1831. The community took its name from the state of Florida.[6] The founders were Robert Donaldson, Joseph Grigsby, Hugh A. Hickman, a Doctor Keenan, John Witt, and Major W.N. Penn.[7] Hickman owned and operated a mill approximately one half-mile (800 m) south of Florida, while Penn had a dry goods store near there as well. Penn soon moved his store into Florida proper, becoming the towns first business. Mark Twain was born in Florida in 1835. He said his birthplace was a nearly invisible village,[8] and The village contained a hundred people and I increased the population by 1 per cent. It is more than many of the best men in history could have done for a town.[9] In the early years there was some hope of the town becoming a regional point of commerce and shipping. Florida is located at the confluence of the North, South, and Middle forks of the Salt River, 48 miles (77 km) upstream from its mouth emptying into the Mississippi River at Louisiana, Missouri. The location was thought to be strategic because it was felt to be a potential growth center in the settlement of northeast Missouri. For example, John Clemens, father of Mark Twain, along with other investors, had formed the Salt River Navigation Company in 1836 in hopes of developing this water commerce. Several boatloads of flour were shipped from Hickmans mill to the Mississippi and returned with sugar, coffee, and manufactured goods. However, fickle river levels on the Salt made consistent shipping via barge or riverboat impractical.[7] Having no railroad and with river shipping no longer an option, Florida was destined to remain a small village attending to the commerce needs of area farmers.
Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York).  Woodlawn Cemetery is the name of a cemetery in Elmira, New York, United States. Its most famous burials are Mark Twain and his wife Olivia Langdon Clemens. Many members of the United States Congress, including Jacob Sloat Fassett are also interred there. Within Woodlawn Cemetery is the distinct Woodlawn National Cemetery, begun with the interment of Confederate prisoners from the nearby Elmira Prison (dubbed Hellmira by its inmates) during the American Civil War.  It is run by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.[2] Both cemeteries are still active and together were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.[2]
Flag of Japan.   The national flag of Japan is a rectangular white banner with a red circle at its center. The flag is officially called the Nisshōki (日章旗, flag of the sun) but is more commonly known in Japan as the Hinomaru (日の丸, ball of the sun). It embodies the countrys sobriquet: the Land of the Rising Sun. The Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Act on National Flag and Anthem, which was promulgated and became effective on 13 August 1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō-kan, the governmental body of the early Meiji period, each had a provision for a design of the national flag. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 (issued on 27 January 1870),[1] and as the national flag used by the Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 (issued on 3 October 1870).[2] Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the early years of the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II; these restrictions were later relaxed. The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion, as the Emperor is said to be the direct descendant of the Shinto sun goddess Amaterasu, and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment. The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this central importance of the sun. The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701, the first recorded use of a sun-motif flag in Japan.[3][4] The oldest existing flag is preserved in Unpō-ji temple, Kōshū, Yamanashi, which is older than the 16th century, and an ancient legend says that the flag was given to the temple by Emperor Go-Reizei in the 11th century.[5][6][7]  During the Meiji Restoration, the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Army became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism. In Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular among the public during the Second Sino-Japanese War and other conflicts. These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag.
Mark Twain (disambiguation). Mark Twain (1835–1910) was an American writer. Mark Twain may also refer to:
History of anime.   The history of anime can be traced back to the start of the 20th century, with Japan producing its first animated films in the 1910s, influenced by Western animation techniques; the earliest verifiable Japanese animated film dates from 1917. However, it was not until the 1960s, with the work of Osamu Tezuka, often called the God of Manga, that anime began to take shape as a distinct cultural phenomenon. Tezukas Astro Boy (1963) is considered one of the first major anime TV series, setting the foundation for the animation industry. Over the following decades, anime grew in popularity both domestically and internationally, with diverse genres and styles emerging. By the 1980s and 1990s, anime had become a global phenomenon, with influential works such as Akira, Dragon Ball Z, and Sailor Moon reaching international audiences. Today, anime is a major part of global pop culture, known for its unique art styles, storytelling depth, and expansive influence across media.[1] Before the advent of film, Japan already had a rich tradition of entertainment with colourful painted figures moving across a projection screen in utsushi-e (写し絵), a particular Japanese type of magic lantern show popular in the 19th century. Possibly inspired by European phantasmagoria shows, utsushi-e showmen used mechanical slides and developed lightweight wooden projectors (furo) that were handheld so that several performers could each control the motions of different projected figures.[2][3] The second generation of animators in the late 1910s included Ōten Shimokawa, Junichi Kōuchi and Seitarō Kitayama, commonly referred to as the fathers of anime.[4] Propaganda films, such as Momotarō no Umiwashi (1943) and Momotarō: Umi no Shinpei (1945), the latter being the first anime feature film, were made during World War II. During the 1970s, anime developed further, with the inspiration of Disney animators, separating itself from its Western roots, and developing distinct genres such as mecha and its super robot subgenre. Popular shows from this period include Astro Boy, Lupin III and Mazinger Z. During this period several filmmakers gained worldwide fame, such as Hayao Miyazaki and Mamoru Oshii. Doraemon, which started airing in 1979, has become the longest-running anime of all time.
Facebook Stories. Facebook Stories are short user-generated photo or video collections that can be uploaded to the users Facebook. Facebook Stories were created on March 28, 2017. They are considered  a second news feed for the social media website.[1] It is focused around Facebooks in-app camera which allows users to add fun filters and Snapchat-like lenses to their content as well as add visual geolocation tags to their photos and videos. The content is able to be posted publicly on the Facebook app for only 24 hours or can be sent as a direct message to a Facebook friend.[1] As people mostly post photos and videos, Stories is the way they’re going to want to do it, says Facebook Camera product manager Connor Hayes, noting Facebooks shift away from text status updates after ten years as its primary sharing option. Obviously we’ve seen this doing very well in other apps. Snapchat has really pioneered this, explained Hayes.[2] Facebook has seen much success through other applications like Snapchat and Instagram, especially since Facebook bought Instagram for $1 billion in 2012.[3] After the many failed attempts of trying to incorporate Snapchat-like features on Facebook,[4][5] (date=January 2018) the company decided to test run Messenger Day. In 2016, Facebook created a feature called Messenger Day,[6][7] which allowed users to post videos and pictures with filters for 24 hours only. This project was only used in Poland because of the unpopularity of Snapchat in that region. Users are able to add texts and colorful graphics. However, this was only a test for Facebook to be later turned into a feature on Facebooks app.[8] Facebooks introduction of the Story function may have been in response to the wider success of Instagram Story advertising over the advertising on Facebook Wall; Instagram Story ads were found to be more successful than Facebook Wall advertising in all demographics aside from non-millennial men.[9] As of 2017[update], Facebook Stories is much less popular among social media users than Snapchat and Instagram.[10] In August 2016, Instagram stories, which is a part of the Facebook owned Instagram, was created and as of June 2017, had 250 million active users. Mark Zuckerberg states, It is important to release products that people are familiar with, but (Facebook Stories) is going to have the first mainstream augmented reality platform.[11]
Article (publishing). An article or piece is a written work published in a print or electronic medium, for the propagation of news, research results, academic analysis or debate. A news article discusses current or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily newspapers) or of a specific topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club newsletters or technology news websites).[citation needed] A news article can include accounts of eyewitnesses to the happening event. It can contain photographs, accounts, statistics, graphs, recollections, interviews, polls, debates on the topic, etc. Headlines can be used to focus the readers attention on a particular (or main) part of the article. The writer can also give facts and detailed information following answers to general questions like who, what, when, where, why and how.[citation needed] Quoted references can also be helpful. References to people can also be made through the written accounts of interviews and debates confirming the factuality of the writers information and the reliability of his source. The writer can use redirection to ensure that the reader keeps reading the article and to draw her attention to other articles. For example, phrases like Continued on page 3 redirect the reader to a page where the article is continued.[citation needed] While a good conclusion is an important ingredient for newspaper articles, the immediacy of a deadline environment means that copy editing occasionally takes the form of deleting everything past an arbitrary point in the story corresponding to the dictates of available space on a page. Therefore, newspaper reporters are trained to write in inverted pyramid style, with all the most important information in the first paragraph or two. If the less vital details are pushed toward the end of the story, then the potentially destructive impact of draconian copy editing will be minimized.[citation needed]
Short story. A short story is a piece of prose fiction. It can typically be read in a single sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single effect or mood. The short story is one of the oldest types of literature and has existed in the form of legends, mythic tales, folk tales, fairy tales, tall tales, fables, and anecdotes in various ancient communities around the world. The modern short story developed in the early 19th century.[1] The short story is a crafted form in its own right. Short stories make use of plot, resonance and other dynamic components as in a novel, but typically to a lesser degree. While the short story is largely distinct from the novel or novella/short novel, authors generally draw from a common pool of literary techniques.[citation needed] The short story is sometimes referred to as a genre.[2] Determining what exactly defines a short story remains problematic.[3] A classic definition of a short story is that one should be able to read it in one sitting, a point most notably made in Edgar Allan Poes essay The Philosophy of Composition (1846).[4] H. G. Wells described the purpose of the short story as The jolly art, of making something very bright and moving; it may be horrible or pathetic or funny or profoundly illuminating, having only this essential, that it should take from fifteen to fifty minutes to read aloud.[5] According to William Faulkner, a short story is character-driven and a writers job is to ...trot along behind him with a paper and pencil trying to keep up long enough to put down what he says and does.[6] Some authors have argued that a short story must have a strict form. Somerset Maugham thought that the short story must have a definite design, which includes a point of departure, a climax and a point of test; in other words, it must have a plot.[5] Hugh Walpole had a similar view: A story should be a story; a record of things happening full of incidents, swift movements, unexpected development, leading through suspense to a climax and a satisfying denouement.[5] This view of the short story as a finished product of art is however opposed by Anton Chekhov, who thought that a story should have neither a beginning nor an end. It should just be a slice of life, presented suggestively. In his stories, Chekhov does not round off the end but leaves it to the readers to draw their own conclusions.[5]
Redding, Connecticut.  Redding is an incorporated town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 8,765 at the 2020 census.[1] The town is part of the Western Connecticut Planning Region. At the time colonials began receiving grants for land within the boundaries of present-day Redding, Native American trails crossed through portions of the area, including the Berkshire Path running north–south.[2] In 1639, Roger Ludlow (also referenced as Roger Ludlowe in many accounts) purchased land from local Native Americans to establish Fairfield,[3] and in 1668 Fairfield purchased another tract of land then called Northfield, which comprised land that is now part of Redding.[4] For settlement purposes, Fairfield authorities divided the newly available land into parcels dubbed long lots at the time, which north–south measured no more than a third of a mile wide but extended east–west as long as 15 miles.[5] Immediately north of the long lots was a similar-sized parcel of land known as The Oblong.[6]
Story (social media). In social media, a story is a function in which the user tells a narrative or provides status messages and information in the form of short, time-limited clips in an automatically running sequence.[1] A story is a short sequence of images, videos, or other social media content, which can be accompanied by backgrounds, music, text, stickers, animations, filters or emojis. Social media platforms typically advance through the sequence automatically when presenting a story to a viewer. Although the sequential nature of stories can be used to tell a narrative, the pieces of a story can also be unrelated. Social media platforms that offer stories will typically have a primary story for each user which consists of everything the user posted to their story over a certain period of time, usually the most recent 24 hours. Most stories cannot be changed afterwards and are only available for a short time.  Stories are almost exclusively created on a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet computer and are usually displayed vertically.[2] In October 2013, Snapchat first introduced the story function as a series of Snaps that can together tell a narrative through a chronological order, with each Snap being viewable by all of the posters friends and deleted after 24 hours. Stories soon surpassed private Snaps to become Snapchats most-viewed type of post.[3] After 2015, Snapchat introduced a feature allowing users to post private stories viewable by a chosen subset of their friends.[citation needed] Later other apps would copy this feature.[citation needed] In August 2016, Instagram introduced a stories function that deletes the content after 24 hours.[4] Various commenters have accused the site of copying Snapchat.[5] In February 2017, the instant messenger WhatsApp introduced the Now Status stories function in beta, which was later renamed Status.[6] In March 2017, a story function was introduced in Facebook Messenger.[7]
Storey.  A storey (Commonwealth English)[1] or story (American English),[2] is any level part of a building with a floor that could be used by people (for living, work, storage, recreation, etc.). Plurals for the word are storeys (UK, CAN) and stories (US). The terms floor, level, or deck are used in similar ways as storey (e.g., the 16th floor). However, when referring to an entire building, it is more usual to use storey or story (e.g., a 16-storey building). The floor at ground or street level is called the ground floor (i.e. it needs no number); the floor below ground is called basement, and the floor above ground is called first in many regions.[3] However, in some regions, like the US, ground floor is synonymous with first floor, leading to differing numberings of floors, depending on region – even between different national varieties of English. The words storey and floor normally exclude levels of the building that are not covered by a roof, such as the terrace on the rooftops of many buildings. Nevertheless, a flat roof on a building is counted as a floor in other languages, for instance dakvloer in Dutch, literally roof-floor, simply counted one level up from the floor number that it covers. A two-storey house or home extension is sometimes referred to as double-storey in the UK,[4] while one storey is referred to as single-storey.[5]
Amuse (music company). Amuseio AB, doing business as Amuse, is a global music company offering digital music distribution, funding and artist services to artists and managements, enabling them to stay independent while growing their careers. The company was founded as a modern alternative to major record labels in 2015 in Stockholm, Sweden by entrepreneurs Diego Farias, Andreas Ahlenius, Christian Wilsson, Guy Parry, and Jimmy Brodd. Amuse is based in Stockholm, Sweden, with offices in London, UK and New York, US. In 2024, Giorgio DAmbrosio was appointed interim CEO of the company. Amuses proprietary technology platform uses the streaming data from digital music services to partner with independent artists with momentum.[1] When the company discovers music it can help grow, Amuses Artist & Label Services team can offer artists a tailor made licensing deal, including services like funding, artist marketing and rights management, in return of a revenue split. The licensing deal means that artists remain in control of master rights. Amuses self-service digital distribution service lets any self-releasing and independent artists release and monetize their music, through all major streaming services. Amuse offers three subscription tiers for self-service music distribution - Artist, Artist Plus and Professional[2] - as well as connected services such as automated royalty advances,[3] AI mastering[4] and music performance insights.[5] Amuse was founded in 2015 by Diego Farias, Andreas Ahlenius, Christian Wilsson, Guy Parry, and Jimmy Brodd, with the ambition to redefine artist discovery and record label deals. The first Amuse iOS and Android digital distribution application was released in March 2017, allowing anyone to self-release and manage their music catalog straight from their smartphone.[1] In June 2017, American rapper, singer, songwriter, DJ, record producer, voice actor and philanthropist will.i.am joined the companys list of co-founders.[6] Later on in May 2018 Amuse raised $15,5M USD in series A funding round led by venture capital firms Lakestar and Raine Ventures.[7] In April 2019 the company launched Fast Forward[3] - an automated royalty advance service for self-releasing artists.[8]
Manga.  Manga (Japanese: 漫画; IPA: [maŋga] ⓘ[a]) are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan.[1] Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century,[2] and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art.[3] The term manga is used in Japan to refer to both comics and cartooning. Outside of Japan, the word is typically used to refer to comics originally published in Japan. In Japan, people of all ages and walks of life read manga. The medium includes works in a broad range of genres: action, adventure, business and commerce, comedy, detective, drama, historical, horror, mystery, romance, science fiction and fantasy, erotica (hentai and ecchi), sports and games, and suspense, among others.[4][5] Many manga are translated into other languages.[6][7] Since the 1950s, manga has become an increasingly major part of the Japanese publishing industry.[8] By 1995, the manga market in Japan was valued at ¥586.4 billion (US$6–7 billion),[9] with annual sales of 1.9 billion manga books and manga magazines (also known as manga anthologies) in Japan (equivalent to 15 issues per person).[10] The domestic manga market in Japan remained in the ¥400 billion range annually from 2014 to 2019. In 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic led to increased time spent at home, the market rapidly expanded to ¥612.6 billion. Growth continued even after the end of lockdowns, reaching a record high of ¥704.3 billion in 2024. Alongside this rapid expansion, the print manga market has continued to shrink; as of 2024, digital manga accounts for approximately ¥500 billion, while print manga makes up about ¥200 billion.[11] Manga have also gained a significant worldwide readership.[12][13][14][15] Beginning with the late 2010s manga started massively outselling American comics.[16] As of 2021, the top four comics publishers in the world are manga publishers Shueisha, Kodansha, Kadokawa, and Shogakukan.[17] In 2020 the North American manga market was valued at almost $250 million.[18] According to NPD BookScan manga made up 76% of overall comics and graphic novel sales in the US in 2021.[19] The fast growth of the North American manga market is attributed to mangas wide availability on digital reading apps, book retailer chains such as Barnes & Noble and online retailers such as Amazon as well as the increased streaming of anime.[20][21][22] Manga represented 38% of the French comics market in 2005.[23] This is equivalent to approximately three times that of the United States and was valued at about €460 million ($640 million).[24] In Europe and the Middle East, the market was valued at $250 million in 2012.[25]
Public company.  A public company[a] is a company whose ownership is organized via shares of stock which are intended to be freely traded on a stock exchange or in over-the-counter markets. A public (publicly traded) company can be listed on a stock exchange (listed company), which facilitates the trade of shares, or not (unlisted public company). In some jurisdictions, public companies over a certain size must be listed on an exchange. In most cases, public companies are private enterprises in the private sector, and public emphasizes their reporting and trading on the public markets. Public companies are formed within the legal systems of particular states and so have associations and formal designations, which are distinct and separate in the polity in which they reside. In the United States, for example, a public company is usually a type of corporation, though a corporation need not be a public company. In the United Kingdom, it is usually a public limited company (PLC). In France, it is a société anonyme (SA). In Germany, it is an Aktiengesellschaft (AG). While the general idea of a public company may be similar, differences are meaningful and are at the core of international law disputes with regard to industry and trade. Usually, the securities of a publicly traded company are owned by many investors while the shares of a privately held company are owned by relatively few shareholders. A company with many shareholders is not necessarily a publicly traded company. Conversely, a publicly traded company typically (but not necessarily) has many shareholders. In the United States, companies with over 500 shareholders in some instances are required to report under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934; companies that report under the 1934 Act are generally deemed public companies.[citation needed] A public company possess some advantages over privately held businesses.
Narrative Magazine.  Narrative Magazine[1] is a non-profit digital publisher of fiction, poetry, non-fiction, and art founded in 2003 by Tom Jenks and Carol Edgarian. Narrative publishes weekly and provides educational resources to teachers and students; subscription and access to its content is free. Narrative was cofounded in 2003 by the former editor of Esquire, Gentlemens Quarterly, and Scribner, Tom Jenks, and New York Times-bestselling author Carol Edgarian. Narrative is headquartered in San Francisco. It publishes fiction, creative non-fiction, poetry, and art of different forms from established and emerging writers . Additionally, Narrative coined the iStory—a short, dramatic narrative, fiction or nonfiction, up to 150 words long—and the iPoem—a short poem that fits within no more than two screens on the iPhone (up to 150 words long). It also publishes features on craft, teaching, and other topics related to professional writing. All works of contemporary writing accepted by the magazine are previously unpublished. All Narrative writers are paid for their contributions.[2] Narratives team of editors include co-founders Tom Jenks and Carol Edgarian, Michael Wiegers of Copper Canyon Press, among others.
Romanization. In linguistics, romanization or romanisation is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both. Transcription methods can be subdivided into phonemic transcription, which records the phonemes or units of semantic meaning in speech, and more strict phonetic transcription, which records speech sounds with precision. There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics. A particular systems characteristics may make it better-suited for various, sometimes contradictory applications, including document retrieval, linguistic analysis, easy readability, faithful representation of pronunciation. If the romanization attempts to transliterate the original script, the guiding principle is a one-to-one mapping of characters in the source language into the target script, with less emphasis on how the result sounds when pronounced according to the readers language. For example, the Nihon-shiki romanization of Japanese allows the informed reader to reconstruct the original Japanese kana syllables with 100% accuracy, but requires additional knowledge for correct pronunciation. Most romanizations are intended to enable the casual reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds (phonemes) of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language. The popular Hepburn Romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. A phonetic conversion goes one step further and attempts to depict all phones in the source language, sacrificing legibility if necessary by using characters or conventions not found in the target script. In practice such a representation almost never tries to represent every possible allophone—especially those that occur naturally due to coarticulation effects—and instead limits itself to the most significant allophonic distinctions. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription.
Ticker symbol. A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock or security on a particular stock exchange. Ticker symbols are arrangements of symbols or characters (generally Latin letters or digits) which provide a shorthand for investors to refer to, purchase, and research securities. Some exchanges include ticker extensions, which encode additional information such as share class, bankruptcy status, or voting rights into the ticker.[1] The first ticker symbol was used in 1867, following the invention of the ticker tape machine by Edward Calahan. It was used to identify shares of the Union Pacific Railroad Company.[2][3][4] Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market. A stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock.  The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, and to make it easy to recognize by traders and investors. The allocation of symbols and formatting conventions is specific to each stock exchange.  In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the company name where possible.  For example, US-based computer company stock Apple Inc. traded on the NASDAQ exchange has the symbol AAPL, while the motor company Fords stock that is traded on the New York Stock Exchange has the single-letter ticker F.  In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes; for example, British-Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA and London Stock Exchange has the symbol ULVR.  In Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts.  For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 5, New York Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol HSBC (bank abbreviation) and London Stock Exchange has the ticker HSBA. Symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a phonetic spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol.  The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM.  Symbols are sometimes reused. In the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols.  For example, since March 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously been used by Vivendi which had delisted and given up the symbol.[5]
Tokyo Stock Exchange. The Tokyo Stock Exchange (東京証券取引所, Tōkyō Shōken Torihikijo), abbreviated as Tosho (東証) or TSE/TYO, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. The exchange is owned by Japan Exchange Group (JPX), a holding company that it also lists (TYO: 8697), and operated by Tokyo Stock Exchange, Inc.,[3] a wholly owned subsidiary of JPX. JPX was formed from the merger of Tokyo Stock Exchange Group, Inc. with Osaka Securities Exchange Co., Ltd.[4] (now Osaka Exchange, Inc.[5]); the merger process began in July 2012, when said merger was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission.[6][4] JPX itself was launched on January 1, 2013.[7] The TSE is incorporated as a kabushiki gaisha (joint-stock company) with nine directors, four auditors and eight executive officers. Its headquarters are located at 2-1 Nihonbashi-Kabutochō, Chūō, Tokyo which is the largest financial district in Japan. The main indices tracking the stock market of TSE are the Nikkei 225 index of companies selected by the Nihon Keizai Shimbun (Japans largest business newspaper), the TOPIX index based on the share prices of Prime companies, and the J30 index of large industrial companies maintained by Japans major broadsheet newspapers. There are also active bond market and futures market. Ninety-four domestic and 10 foreign securities companies participate in TSE trading. See: Members of the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Political narrative. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Political narrative is a term used in the humanities and political sciences to describe the way in which storytelling can shape fact and effect understandings of reality.[1] However, political narrative is not only a theoretical concept, it is also a tool employed by political figures in order to construct the perspectives of people within their environment and alter relationships between social groups and individuals.[2] As a result, fiction has the potential to become fact and myths become intertwined into public discourse.[3] Political narrative is consequential in its ability to elicit pathos, allowing the narrative to be influential through the value it provides rather than the truth that is told.[4] Meta-narratives are an important component to political narratives as it encompasses the artificiality of storytelling within a political context.[3] They are central in shaping understandings of reality through the creation of history under the guise of grandeur and tales of development or expansion.[3] The notion of political narrative stems from concepts illustrated in narrative theory, which has become increasingly popular in the humanities and political science as a result of the popularisation of fake news following the inauguration of Donald Trump in 2017.[4] The study of narrative began at the beginning of the 20th century and experienced a resurgence in the 1970s when feminist researchers began to highlight the way in which womens lives are framed in storytelling - and this research has subsequently pioneered research on gendered political narrative today.[5] Narrative theory grew from the ideas present within literary theory which experienced reform during the 1940s when novels began to gain validity as a medium for literary study.[3] Poetry and drama had been valued for the aesthetic in its form and structure, however, novels became significant for their ability to influence the reader more broadly.[3] Narrative theory emerged from the notion that stories are able to provide an illustration of human nature rather than just impersonal narrations.[3] Ideas surrounding narrative and political science began as a result of work conducted by scholar Walter R. Fisher who conceptualised the term narrative paradigm in order to contend that narrative is the most persuasive form of communication and is thus central to politics.[5]
Personal narrative. Personal narrative (PN) is a prose narrative relating personal experience usually told in first person; its content is nontraditional.[1] Personal refers to a story from ones life or experiences. Nontraditional refers to literature that does not fit the typical criteria of a narrative. Charlotte Linde writes about life stories, which are similar to the personal narrative: A life story consists of all the stories and associated discourse units, such as explanations and chronicles, and the connections between them, told by an individual during his/her lifetime that satisfy the following two criteria: The stories and associated discourse units contained in the life story have as their primary evaluation a point about the speaker, not a general point about the way the world is. The stories and the associated discourse units have extended reportability.[2] Linde also mentions that life story and autobiography have similarities and differences: “the primary way autobiography differs from life story is that it is a written, not oral form. More specifically it constitutes literary genre with its history, its demands, and its market.”[3] Jeff Todd Titon also refers to personal narrative as being very similar to a life story. “A life story is, simply, a persons story of his or her life or what he or she thinks is a significant part of that life.”[4] Titon goes on to state that personal narrative arises from conversation. According to Linda Degh, an example of personal narrative would include “any part of life history from the cradle to the grave, including great turning points to insignificant details in family life, occupation, entertainment, celebration, religion, crisis, illness, and travel, may provide material for elaboration into a narrative.”[5] A personal narrative can be organized by two coherence principles of life stories: causality and continuity. Causality is the relationship between cause and effect. This means that one action is the result of the others action. Continuity is the consistent existence of something over some time.[3] William Labov defines personal narrative as “one verbal technique for recapitulating experience, in particular a technique of constructing narrative units which match the temporal sequence of that event.”[6] Labov argues that narrative can be broken down into subcategories such as the abstract, orientation, complication, resolution, evaluation, and coda. The abstract is the summary of the story that usually comes at the very beginning of a story.[6] Labov notes that the orientation (introduction) serves to orient the listener in respect to person, place, time, and behavioural situation. The orientation tells us how the story begins. An example would be “I went to the store in San Francisco.”[6] The complication of a narrative is the conflict. A complication is key in narrative because without complication there can be no resolution. Labov writes that the complication is regularly terminated by a result.[6]  This result is referred to as the resolution. Evaluation comes when the author reflects on the events that occurred in the story.[6] This is common in personal narratives. Coda is another word for a conclusion. The coda concludes the evaluation and gives efficient closure to the narrative. Lastly, Labov notes that narrative is usually told in answer to some stimulus from outside.[6]
The Narrative.  The Narrative (or Narrative) is an American independent indie rock band from Long Island, New York, formed in 2008. They are currently based in Nashville, Tennessee. Since 2011, the band has consisted of Suzie Zeldin (vocals, keyboards) and Jesse Gabriel (vocals, guitar). Previously, the group featured the drummer Charlie Seich. The group started its musical career with their debut EP Just Say Yes, released in 2008, where Eyes Closed stands out as the most popular song with more than four million views on YouTube. Its debut album The Narrative was released in 2010. As well the group release two supporting tour-EP, Nothing Without You in 2010 and Kickstarter EP in 2011. A follow-up EP b-side compilation album, B-Sides and Seasides was released online in 2012. The Narrative released its second studio album, Golden Silence, on December 2, 2016. In 2006, after graduating, Jesse Gabriel decided to find some musicians to begin a musical project. He wrote a three-page open advertisement and submitted it to Craigslist. After some answers, he looked saw Suzie Zeldins response, who was also looking for musicians to form a band, and they decided to meet.[1][2] They found that they had studied in the same school on Bellmore, Long Island, but never met. The two decided to collaborate in music, around October 2006, naming the band January Window, before changing it to the Narrative. Zeldin spoke to U-T San Diego, explaining the following about the change of band name, We came up with the name while we were recording the Just Say Yes EP. At one point, we had put together a list of random band names, mostly from literary terms, poems, or song lyrics we liked and sent them around to our friends. For a short time, we settled on January Window which is from a Sylvia Plath poem. We ended up not liking it after a while and revisited the list and found The Narrative Paradigm which seemed a little wordy and pretentious so we shortened it to The Narrative. We decided it was a good name and have been happy with it.[3] The bands first song released was the demo version of End All Arrival, under the name January Window on January 1, 2007, on MySpace,[4] which was later used on their debut album. Jesse would not sing in the band initially, but Suzie asked him and he decided to sing Slide by the Goo Goo Dolls. Following this audition, Suzie was pleased by his voice and Jesse was thus included in the lead vocals and the back vocals.[5] Drummer Charles Seich was added to the band after being introduced to Jesse and Suzie for the purposes of recording their EP.[6] In 2007, Suzie participated in many band projects, singing in Russian on Im Breathing... Are You Breathing Too? by Envy on the Coast,[7] Fairmonts song Melt Your Heart from the album Transcendence,[8] and The Minus Scales song No Matter What I Say Youre Going To Do It. She also sang guest vocals on the Dashboard Confessional side of the New Found Glory split EP Swiss Army Bromance song All About Her, as well as on at least one track on the newest edition of the released Dashboard Confessionals, Wire Tapes Vol 2. Before the Narrative she also released solo material, such as the Excuses EP, featuring four songs.[9]
Satire (film and television). Satire is a television and film genre in the fictional, pseudo-fictional, or semi-fictional category that employs satirical techniques. Film or television satire may be of the political, religious, or social variety. Works using satire are often seen as controversial or taboo in nature, with topics such as race, class, system, violence, sex, war, and politics, criticizing or commenting on them, typically under the disguise of other genres including, but not limited to, comedies, dramas, parodies, fantasies and/or science fiction.[1] Satire may or may not[2] use humor or other, non-humorous forms as an artistic vehicle to illuminate, explore, and critique[3] social conditions, systems of power[4] (social, political, military, medical or academic institutions[5]), hypocrisy, and other instances of human behavior. Film director Jonathan Lynn generally advises against marketing ones work as satire because according to Lynn it can substantially reduce viewing figures and box office due to a presumed negative perception of satire in the [American] industry: George S. Kaufman, the great Broadway playwright and director, and screenwriter, once said: Satire is what closes on Saturday night. An excellent wisecrack, but it led the way to a general belief in America that satire is not commercial. When you pitch a satirical film idea, dont refer to it as satire. I used to, and I was met with the inevitable response that satirical films dont make money. This view is factually incorrect.  Plenty have done so, if budgeted right.[6]
Satires (disambiguation). Satires are cultural texts in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule. Satires may also refer to:
Punch (magazine).  Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and wood-engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, when it helped to coin the term cartoon in its modern sense as a humorous illustration. Artists at Punch included John Tenniel who, from 1850, was the chief cartoon artist at the magazine for over 50 years. The editors took the anarchic puppet Mr Punch, of Punch and Judy, as their mascot—the character appears in many magazine covers—with the character also an inspiration for the magazines name. With its satire of the contemporary, social, and political scene, Punch became a household name in Victorian Britain. Sales of 40,000 copies a week by 1850 rose above 100,000 by 1910. After the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002. Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and wood-engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25 (equivalent to £2,871 in 2023). It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon. It was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari.[1] Reflecting their satiric and humorous intent, the two editors took for their name and masthead the anarchic glove puppet Mr. Punch, of Punch and Judy; the name also referred to a joke made early on about one of the magazines first editors, Lemon, that punch is nothing without lemon.[2] Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845. The magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842, due to financial difficulties, the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans, both printers and publishers. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray.
Narrative (journal).  Narrative is an academic journal published by the Ohio State University that focuses on narratology. It is the official journal of the International Society for the Study of Narrative (formerly known as the Society for the Study of Narrative Literature from its founding in June 1984 until March 2008).[1] Narrative is published triannually in January, May, and October.[2] The Journal of Narrative Technique was the Society for the Study of Narrative Literatures official journal until the founding of Narrative in January 1993. With the founding of the new journal, George and Barbara Perkins ended their tenures as editors of the Journal of Narrative Technique and took up posts as associate editors for Narrative. James Phelan served as Narratives editor from its founding[3] until the Fall 2024 issue, when he was succeeded by new editors Marta Figlerowicz and Kent Puckett.[4] Narrative was founded with the intention to be an outlet for the best current thinking about narrative and narratives; an arena in which a plurality of critical voices will be welcome to speak; a site where theoretical exploration and interpretive practice inform—and sometimes challenge—one another; and a place where critics talk directly to each other.[5] In December 1993, the Council of Editors of Learned Journals named Narrative the best new journal of 1993.[6][7]
Talë. Talë is a seaside resort town, part of the former municipality of Shënkoll in the Lezhë County in Albania. At the 2015 local government reform, it became part of the municipality Lezhë.[1] Its beaches attract many tourists, especially with the increase in small local hotels.
Fukuoka Prefecture.  Fukuoka Prefecture (福岡県, Fukuoka-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [ɸɯ̥.kɯꜜ.o.ka, -kɯ.o.kaꜜ.keɴ][3]) is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū.[4] Fukuoka Prefecture has a population of 5,109,323 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 4,986 km2 (1,925 sq mi).[5] Fukuoka Prefecture borders Saga Prefecture to the southwest, Kumamoto Prefecture to the south, and Ōita Prefecture to the southeast. Fukuoka is the capital and largest city of Fukuoka Prefecture, and the largest city on Kyūshū, with other major cities including Kitakyushu, Kurume, and Ōmuta.[6] Fukuoka Prefecture is located at the northernmost point of Kyūshū on the Kanmon Straits, connecting the Tsushima Strait and the Seto Inland Sea across from Yamaguchi Prefecture on the island of Honshu, and extends south towards the Ariake Sea. Fukuoka Prefecture includes the former provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen.[7] Kōra taisha, Sumiyoshi-jinja, and Hakozaki-gū are the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) in the prefecture.[8]
River Tale.  The River Tale is a small river that drains the southern slopes of the Blackdown Hills, in Devon, England.   It is a tributary of the River Otter and 8.8 miles (14.2 km) in length.[1] Its name is derived from getæl (Old English) meaning quick, active or swift; however, the river is noted as being sluggish.[2] One theory is that its name was transferred from Tala Water, a tributary of the nearby River Tamar.[2] The river is the site of ongoing efforts to reintroduce the water vole, which is thought to be extinct in Devon.[3] The river rises on the southern flanks of the Blackdown Hills, beneath North Hill, and flows southwest through the village of Broadhembury and beneath the A373. It then turns south and passes alongside the grounds of Escot House before flowing through Fairmile where it is crossed by the A30 until it joins the River Otter at Cadhay near Ottery St Mary.[4] Since 1978 the river levels and flows of the Tale have been measured in its lower reaches near Fairmile. The thirty-six year record shows that the catchment of 34 square kilometres (13 sq mi) to the gauging station yielded an average flow of 0.44 cubic metres per second (16 cu ft/s).[5] The highest river level recorded occurred in December 1981 with a height of 1.72 metres (5 ft 8 in) through the gauge, giving a corresponding flow of 19.56 cubic metres per second (691 cu ft/s).[6] The catchment upstream of the station has an average annual rainfall of 921 millimetres (36.3 in) and a maximum altitude of 283 metres (928 ft) at North Hill. Land use is primarily agricultural arable and grassland.[7]
Suwenxue congkan. Suwenxue congkan (Chinese: 俗文學叢刊; pinyin: Súwénxué cóngkān; lit. Book series of folk literature), with the English-language subheading Folk Literature: Materials in the Collection of the Institute of History and Philology, is a 620-volume collection of photomechanically reproduced Chinese performative literature issued by Shin Wen Feng Print Company (新文豐出版公司) in Taipei from 2002 to 2016. One of the most prominent Chinese collections, it includes over 10,000 Quyi and Chinese opera texts from the 18th century in the holdings of the Fu Ssu-Nien Library of the Institute of History and Philology at the Academia Sinica in Taiwan. Suwenxue congkan is one of the most important sources of Chinese performative literature research in current times. The collection contains performative texts from the Qianlong period (1736–1795) to the early Republican times. They were issued in China until the 1930s and are freely available. The quality of the copies varies greatly; masters’ delicate editions come with obvious mass production. The materials were collected by the historian Fu Ssu-nien (1896–1950), the founding director of the Institute of History and Philology at the Academia Sinica. A digital database in which all work titles of the collection are indexed has been established by the East Asian Faculty of Ruhr-Universität Bochum.[1] The Collection issued approximately 20,000 titles in more than 10,000 fascicles. The printed anthology is divided into Generalia (including reproductions of entire special journals, sheet music and materials for instrument lessons) and the main part with photomechanical reproduction of performative texts. These are sorted by genres and historical periods in which the plays take place. The drama texts belong to different regional genres, including Gaoqiang (高腔), Kunqu, Peking opera, Hui opera, Teochew opera and Cantonese opera. There are also texts for shadow plays, tanhuang (彈簧), ballads, and folklores. Volumes 501 to 600 should be attached with an entire index, for all quyi texts.
Folk tale (disambiguation). A folktale or folk tale is a story from the oral literature. Folktale, Folktales, Folk Tale, etc. may also refer to:
Tale, Maharashtra.  Tale, Maharashtra is a small village in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra state in Western India.[1] The 2011 Census of India recorded a total of 1,352 residents in the village.[1] Tale, Maharashtras geographical area is approximately 999 hectares (2,470 acres).[1] 14°26′N 74°52′E / 14.433°N 74.867°E / 14.433; 74.867
Tale, Iran. Tale (Persian: طالع, also Romanized as Ţāle‘)[1] is a village in Rastupey Rural District, in the Central District of Savadkuh County, Mazandaran Province, Iran. At the 2016 census, its population was 241, in 83 families,[2] up from 111 people in 2006.[3] This Savadkuh County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Transcription activator-like effector. TAL (transcription activator-like) effectors (often referred to as TALEs, but not to be confused with the three amino acid loop extension homeobox class of proteins) are proteins secreted by some β- and γ-proteobacteria.[1] Most of these are Xanthomonads. Plant pathogenic Xanthomonas bacteria are especially known for TALEs, produced via their type III secretion system.  These proteins can bind promoter sequences in the host plant and activate the expression of plant genes that aid bacterial infection. The TALE domain responsible for binding to DNA is known to have 1.5 to 33.5 short sequences that are repeated multiple times (tandem repeats).[2] Each of these repeats was found to be specific for a certain base pair of the DNA.[2] These repeats also have repeat variable diresidues (RVDs) that can detect specific DNA base pairs.[2] They recognize plant DNA sequences through a central repeat domain consisting of a variable number of ~34 amino acid repeats.   There appears to be a one-to-one correspondence between the identity of two critical amino acids in each repeat and each DNA base in the target sequence.  These proteins are interesting to researchers both for their role in disease of important crop species and the relative ease of retargeting them to bind new DNA sequences.  Similar proteins can be found in the pathogenic bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum[3][4][1] and Burkholderia rhizoxinica,[5][1] as well as yet unidentified marine microorganisms.[6] The term TALE-likes is used to refer to the putative protein family encompassing the TALEs and these related proteins. Xanthomonas are Gram-negative bacteria that can infect a wide variety of plant species including pepper/capsicum, rice, citrus, cotton, tomato, and soybeans.[7]  Some types of Xanthomonas cause localized leaf spot or leaf streak while others spread systemically and cause black rot or leaf blight disease.  They inject a number of effector proteins, including TAL effectors, into the plant via their type III secretion system.  TAL effectors have several motifs normally associated with eukaryotes including multiple nuclear localization signals and an acidic activation domain.  When injected into plants, these proteins can enter the nucleus of the plant cell, bind plant promoter sequences, and activate transcription of plant genes that aid in bacterial infection.[7]  Plants have developed a defense mechanism against type III effectors that includes R (resistance) genes triggered by these effectors.  Some of these R genes appear to have evolved to contain TAL-effector binding sites similar to site in the intended target gene.  This competition between pathogenic bacteria and the host plant has been hypothesized to account for the apparently malleable nature of the TAL effector DNA binding domain.[8] R. solanacearum, B. rhizoxinica, and banana blood disease (a bacterium not yet definitively identified, in the R. solanacearum species group).[1] The most distinctive characteristic of TAL effectors is a central repeat domain containing between 1.5 and 33.5 repeats that are usually 34 residues in length (the C-terminal repeat is generally shorter and referred to as a “half repeat”).[7]  A typical repeat sequence is LTPEQVVAIASHDGGKQALETVQRLLPVLCQAHG, but the residues at the 12th and 13th positions are hypervariable (these two amino acids are also known as the repeat variable diresidue or RVD). There is a simple relationship between the identity of these two residues in sequential repeats and sequential DNA bases in the TAL effectors target site.[8] The crystal structure of a TAL effector bound to DNA indicates that each repeat comprises two alpha helices and a short RVD-containing loop where the second residue of the RVD makes sequence-specific DNA contacts while the first residue of the RVD stabilizes the RVD-containing loop.[10][11] Target sites of TAL effectors also tend to include a thymine flanking the 5’ base targeted by the first repeat; this appears to be due to a contact between this T and a conserved tryptophan in the region N-terminal of the central repeat domain.[10] However, this zero position does not always contain a thymine, as some scaffolds are more permissive.[12] The TAL-DNA code was broken by two separate groups in 2010.[8] The first group, headed by Adam Bogdanove, broke this code computationally by searching for patterns in protein sequence alignments and DNA sequences of target promoters derived from a database of genes upregulated by TALEs.[13] The second group (Boch) deduced the code through molecular analysis of the TAL effector AvrBs3 and its target DNA sequence in the promoter of a pepper gene activated by AvrBs3.[14] The experimentally validated code between RVD sequence and target DNA base can be expressed as follows:
World Trigger.  World Trigger (Japanese: ワールドトリガー, Hepburn: Wārudo Torigā), also known as WorTri (Japanese: ワートリ, Hepburn: Wātori), is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Daisuke Ashihara [ja]. It was initially serialized in Shueishas shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from February 2013 to November 2018, and transferred to Jump Square in December 2018. Its chapters have been collected in 28 tankōbon volumes as of February 2025. In North America, the manga has been licensed for English release by Viz Media. An anime television series adaptation produced by Toei Animation was aired on TV Asahi from October 2014 to April 2016. A second season aired from January to April 2021, and a third season aired from October 2021 to January 2022. One day, a gate to another world opens in Mikado City (三門市, Mikado-shi) and monsters called Neighbors (近界民, Neibā; lit. Near-world people) start appearing from it. Humanity struggles to fight the Neighbors, as their weapons are ineffective against them, until a mysterious organization appears that is able to repel the Neighbors attacks. The organization is called the National Defense Agency, or Border, and has appropriated the Neighbor technology Triggers, which allows its user to channel an internal energy called Trion and use it as a weapon or for other purposes. When a Trigger is activated, the users body is replaced with a battle-body made of Trion. Four years following the appearance of the gate, the people of Mikado City have become accustomed to fighting with the Neighbors and have mostly returned to everyday life. One day, a mysterious white-haired student named Yūma Kuga (空閑 遊真, Kuga Yūma) transfers to the local school. Kuga is actually a strong humanoid Neighbor, which he seeks to hide from Border. At school, he meets another student, Osamu Mikumo (三雲 修, Mikumo Osamu), who is secretly a C-rank Border trainee. Since Kuga is unfamiliar with life in Mikado City, Mikumo must help him adjust to life there and keep him a secret from Border.
Tohoku (disambiguation). Tohoku may refer to:
Chubu Centrair International Airport.  Chubu Centrair International Airport (中部国際空港, Chūbu Kokusai Kūkō) (IATA: NGO, ICAO: RJGG) is an international airport on an artificial island (which also houses the Aichi International Exhibition Center [ja]) in Ise Bay, Tokoname City in Aichi Prefecture, 35 km (22 mi) south of Nagoya in central Japan.[3] The airport covers about 470 hectares (1,161 acres) of land and has one 3,500 m (11,500 ft) runway.[4] Centrair is classified as a first-class airport and is the main international gateway for the Chubu (central) region of Japan. The name Centrair (セントレア, Sentorea) is an abbreviation of Central Japan International Airport, an alternate translation used in the English name of the airports operating company, Central Japan International Airport Co., Ltd. (中部国際空港株式会社, Chūbu Kokusai Kūkō Kabushiki-gaisha). 12.35 million people used the airport in 2018, ranking 8th busiest in the nation, and 212,797 tons of cargo was moved in 2018. In 2019, the airport was ranked the fifth-best airport in the world by Skytraxs Worlds Top Airports 100, and received the Worlds Best Regional Airport and the Best Regional Airport in Asia.
Mausu Promotion. Mausu Promotion (株式会社マウスプロモーション, Kabushiki-gaisha Mausu Puromōshon), formerly known as Ezaki Productions, is a Japanese talent management agency representing a number of prolific voice actors.
Literature (card game). Literature is a card game for 6 or 8 players in two teams using a shortened version of the standard 52-card pack. The game is sometimes called Fish or Canadian Fish, after the similar Go Fish, or Russian Fish. It is played in Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southern India and in parts of North America. The following rules are based on John McLeods version at pagat.com:[1] The game is played by six or eight players in two teams. Six is best and is standard in the Canadian game.[2] Players sit in alternating order. Four 8s are removed from a standard French-suited 52-card English pattern pack to leave 48 cards. There are thus eight half-suits of six cards each called sets or books such as Low Spades  (♠2 ♠3 ♠4 ♠5 ♠6 ♠7) or High Hearts (♥9 ♥10 ♥J ♥Q ♥K ♥A).[1] The objective is to win more books than the other team. Deal and play are assumed to be to the left i.e. clockwise. The first dealer is selected at random by e.g. drawing cards, highest deals. Dealer shuffles and deals all the cards out, individually and face down, beginning with the player to the dealers immediate left. If six play, they will each receive 8 cards; if eight play, 6 cards. When the deal is finished players pick up and look at their own cards.[1]
Japan Standard Time. Japan Standard Time (日本標準時, Nihon Hyōjunji; JST), or Japan Central Standard Time (中央標準時, Chūō Hyōjunji; JCST), is the standard time zone in Japan, 9 hours ahead of UTC (UTC+09:00).[1] Japan does not observe daylight saving time, though its introduction has been debated on several occasions. During World War II, the time zone was often referred to as Tokyo Standard Time. Japan Standard Time is equivalent to Korean Standard Time, Pyongyang Time (North Korea), Eastern Indonesia Standard Time, East-Timorese Standard Time, Palau Time, and Yakutsk Time (Russia). Before the Meiji era (1868–1912), each local region had its own time zone in which noon was when the sun was exactly at its culmination. As modern transportation methods, such as trains, were adopted, this practice became a source of confusion. For example, there is a difference of about 5 degrees longitude between Tokyo and Osaka and because of this, a train that departed from Tokyo would arrive at Osaka 20 minutes behind the time in Tokyo. In 1886, Ordinance 51 was issued in response to this problem, which stated: Ordinance 51 (on the precise calculation of time using the Prime Meridian) – July 13, 1886 According to this, the standard time (標準時, hyōjunji) was set 9 hours ahead of GMT (UTC had not been established yet). In the ordinance, the first clause mentions GMT, the second defines east longitude and west longitude and the third says the standard time zone would be in effect from 1888. The city of Akashi in Hyōgo Prefecture is located exactly on 135 degrees east longitude and subsequently became known as Toki no machi (Town of Time).
Niigata Prefecture. Niigata Prefecture (新潟県, Niigata-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [niː.ɡa.ta, -taꜜ.keɴ, niː.ŋa-][2]) is a prefecture in the Chūbu region of Honshu of Japan.[3] Niigata Prefecture has a population of 2,131,009 (1 July 2023) and is the fifth-largest prefecture of Japan by geographic area at 12,584.18 km2 (4,858.78 sq mi). Niigata Prefecture borders Toyama Prefecture and Nagano Prefecture to the southwest, Gunma Prefecture to the south, Fukushima Prefecture to the east, and Yamagata Prefecture to the northeast. Niigata is the capital and largest city of Niigata Prefecture, with other major cities including Nagaoka, Jōetsu, and Sanjō.[4] Niigata Prefecture contains the Niigata Major Metropolitan Area centered on Niigata with a population of 1,395,612, the largest metropolitan area on the Sea of Japan coast and the twelfth-largest in Japan. Niigata Prefecture is part of the historic Hokuriku region and features Sado Island, the sixth largest island of Japan in area following the four main islands and Okinawa Island. Until after the Meiji Restoration, the area that is now Niigata Prefecture was divided into Echigo Province (on the mainland) and Sado Province.[5]  During the Sengoku period, the Nagao clan, who were at times vassals to the Uesugi, ruled a fief in the western part of modern Niigata from Kasugayama Castle. The most notable member of the Nagao clan was Nagao Kagetora, later and better known as Uesugi Kenshin. He unified the leaders of Echigo Province and became its sole ruler. By taking the surname Uesugi, he also became the head of the Uesugi clan and effectively brought their realm under his control. The city of Niigata is now the third largest Japanese city facing the Sea of Japan, after Fukuoka and Kitakyushu. It was the first Japanese port on the Sea of Japan to be opened to foreign trade following the opening of Japan by Matthew Perry. It has since played an important role in trade with Russia and Korea. A freighter from North Korea visits Niigata once a month, in one of the few forms of direct contact between Japan and that country. The Etsuzankai organization, led by the politician Kakuei Tanaka, was highly influential in bringing infrastructure improvements to Niigata Prefecture in the 1960s and 1970s. These included the Jōetsu Shinkansen high-speed rail line and the Kanetsu Expressway to Tokyo.
Palais Bourbon. The Palais Bourbon (pronounced [pa.lɛ buʁ.bɔ̃]) is the meeting place of the National Assembly, the lower legislative chamber of the French Parliament. It is in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, on the Rive Gauche of the Seine across from the Place de la Concorde. The official address is on the Rue de lUniversité, facing the Place du Palais-Bourbon. The original palace was built beginning in 1722 for Louise Françoise de Bourbon, Duchess of Bourbon, the legitimised daughter of Louis XIV and the Marquise de Montespan. Four successive architects – Lorenzo Giardini, Pierre Cailleteau, Jean Aubert and Ange-Jacques Gabriel – completed the palace in 1728. It was then confiscated from Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé during the French Revolution and nationalised. From 1795 to 1799, during the Directory, it was the meeting place of the Council of Five Hundred, which chose the government leaders. Beginning in 1806, during Napoleon Bonapartes First French Empire, Bernard Poyets Neoclassical façade was added to mirror that of the Église de la Madeleine, facing it across the Seine beyond the Place de la Concorde. The palace complex today has a floor area of 124,000 m2 (1,330,000 sq ft), with over 9,500 rooms, in which 3,000 people work. The complex includes the Hôtel de Lassay, on the west side of the Palais Bourbon; it is the official residence of the President of the National Assembly. The palace was built for Louise Françoise de Bourbon, Duchess of Bourbon (1673–1743), the legitimised daughter of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan. Begun in 1722 and finished in 1728, it was located in what was then a largely rural quarter at the edge of Paris, which was about to become a very fashionable residential neighbourhood, the Faubourg Saint-Germain. Until that time, the area, called the Pré-au-Clercs, was a wooded area popular for fighting duels. After the death of Louis XIV in 1715, following the example of the Regent, the aristocracy began to move their residences from Versailles back to Paris. As building-space land was scarce in the traditional residential area of the nobility and the densely populated Marais, the aristocracy of the Régence looked for land with space for gardens at the edges of the city, either near the Champs-Élysées, on the right bank, or on the left bank.[1] The Duchess of Bourbon had been known for frivolity at the court in Versailles, but by the 1720s, she had had seven children and was widowed. The reputed lover of the Duchess, Armand de Madaillan de Lesparre, Comte de Lassay, proposed the site of the palace to her; he had purchased land next door along the Seine, and the two buildings were constructed at the same time. The parcel of land for the new palace was large, extending from the Seine to the Rue de lUniversité.
The Rose of Versailles.  The Rose of Versailles,[a] also known as Lady Oscar and La Rose de Versailles, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Riyoko Ikeda. It was originally serialized in Shueishas shōjo manga magazine Margaret from 1972 to 1973, while a revival of the series was published in the magazine from 2013 to 2018. The series is a historical drama set in 18th century France before and during the French Revolution. Using a combination of historical personages and original characters, The Rose of Versailles focuses primarily on the lives of two women: the Queen of France Marie Antoinette, and Oscar François de Jarjayes, who serves as commander of the Royal Guard. Ikeda created The Rose of Versailles as a story about revolution and populist uprisings after becoming involved with Japans New Left as a member of the Communist Party of Japan in the late 1960s. The series was developed during a significant transitional period for shōjo manga as a medium, characterized by the emergence of stories with complex narratives focused on politics and sexuality. The Rose of Versailles was a significant critical and commercial success, and by 2022 had sold over 23 million copies worldwide. The series contributed significantly to the development of shōjo manga, and was one of the primary works responsible for its shift from a genre aimed at children to a genre aimed at adolescents and young adults. The Rose of Versailles spawned a media franchise, having been adapted into an anime television series produced by TMS Entertainment and broadcast on Nippon Television during the 1979—80 season, a 1979 live-action film directed by Jacques Demy, a series of musicals staged by the Takarazuka Revue, and a 2025 anime film produced by MAPPA. Several sequels and spin-offs have also been produced, notably Eikou no Napoleon – Eroica. The manga series was licensed for an English language release in North America by Udon Entertainment, while the anime adaptation is currently licensed in North America by Discotek Media. The Rose of Versailles follows the young Queen of France Marie Antoinette, though the series later refocuses to Oscar François de Jarjayes, the youngest of six daughters who was raised as a man from birth by her military general father to succeed him as commander of the Royal Guards at the Palace of Versailles. Oscars commoner friend (and later lover) André Grandier, the grandson of her nanny, serves as her attendant.
Kurokos Basketball.  Kurokos Basketball (Japanese: 黒子のバスケ, Hepburn: Kuroko no Basuke) is a Japanese sports manga series written and illustrated by Tadatoshi Fujimaki. It was serialized in Shueishas shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from December 2008 to September 2014, with its chapters collected in 30 tankōbon volumes. It tells the story of a high school basketball team trying to make it to the national tournament. An anime television series adaptation by Production I.G aired for three seasons from April 2012 to June 2015. A sequel manga, Kurokos Basketball: Extra Game, was serialized in Jump Next! from December 2014 to March 2016. An anime film adaptation of the Kurokos Basketball: Extra Game manga premiered in March 2017. A stage play adaptation opened in April 2016 followed by more stage adaptations. The manga has been licensed for English-language release by Viz Media in North America. By November 2020, Kurokos Basketball had over 31 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series. The Teiko Middle School basketball team achieves unprecedented dominance in Japanese middle school basketball, securing three consecutive national championships. Its star players, collectively known as the Generation of Miracles, gain nationwide recognition for their extraordinary talent. Upon graduating, the five prodigies—Ryota Kise, Shintaro Midorima, Daiki Aomine, Atsushi Murasakibara, and Seijuro Akashi—enroll at separate high schools with elite basketball programs. Rumors persist of a sixth member, a phantom player whose existence remains unconfirmed. This shadow, Tetsuya Kuroko, later joins Seirin High, a newly established school with an emerging team. Alongside Taiga Kagami, a gifted player raised primarily in the United States, Kuroko seeks to elevate Seirin to national prominence by challenging his former teammates.
Minamiuonuma. Minamiuonuma (南魚沼市, Minamiuonuma-shi) is a city located in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 December 2020[update], the city had an estimated population of 55,354 with 20,047 households,[2] and a population density of 96.1 persons per km2. Its total area was 584.55 square kilometres (225.70 sq mi). Minamiuonuma is situated in a valley in a mountainous region of Niigata Prefecture, located on Honshu, Japans largest and most centralised island. Dotted with ski lodges and other winter activity facilities, the city is in a region known as Snow Country; indeed, Minamiuonuma sits at an average elevation of around 617 m (2,024 ft) above sea level,[3] creating a wintry climate in the coldest months of the year. The city sits just between Mount Sakado to the southeast, which measures 634 m (2,080 ft) tall, and Masugata Yama, measuring some 747 m (2,450 ft) above sea level, to the northwest.[4] The highest peaks in the area reach well over 1600 m (5,249 ft), and some measure as high as 2000 m (approx. 6,700 ft).[5] Parts of the city are within the borders of the Jōshinetsu-kōgen National Park; to the north, the city is bounded by Uonuma and the Echigo Sanzan-Tadami Quasi-National Park (and its associated mountains), and to the south by Yuzawa, a popular ski resort town. The Uono River flows through most of the city. The city and its surrounding areas are dotted with many onsen (hot springs) and ski resorts, making it a popular destination in winter. There are also a large number of seasonal paddy fields, as this is part of the major koshihikari rice-growing region in Japan. Other popular seasonal produce is grown, as well, like watermelon. Minamiuonuma has a Humid climate (Köppen Cfa), characterised by warm, wet summers and cold winters, with heavy snowfall. The average annual rainfall is 1865 mm (73), with September being the wettest month. The average annual temperature in the region is 11.3 °C (52.3 °F); temperatures are highest, on average, in August, at around 24.3 °C (75.7 °F), and lowest in January, at around -1.1 °C (30 °F).[6] According to Japanese census data,[7] the population of Minamiuonuma peaked around 1950 and has since declined to about the same level as a century ago.
Ashita no Joe.  Ashita no Joe (Japanese: あしたのジョー, Hepburn: Ashita no Jō; Tomorrows Joe), also known as Ashita no Joe: Fighting for Tomorrow, is a Japanese boxing manga series written by Asao Takamori and illustrated by Tetsuya Chiba. It follows drifter Joe Yabuki, who discovers a passion for boxing in a juvenile prison, and his rise through Japans and the global boxing scene. Ashita no Joe was serialized in Kodanshas Weekly Shonen Magazine from 1968 to 1973, with its chapters collected in 20 tankōbon volumes. During its serialization, it was popular with working-class people and college students in Japan. It has been adapted into various media, including the Megalo Box anime, a futuristic reimagining of the original that was made as a part of the series 50th anniversary. The manga has been widely influential, with numerous anime and manga referencing it. Joe Yabuki, a young drifter, has a chance encounter with alcoholic former boxing trainer Danpei Tange while wandering through the Sanya slums. Recognizing his talent, Danpei trains Joe as a boxer, but Joe is arrested for fraud. He fights Nishi Kanichi, the leader of a group of hooligans, in temporary jail, and the two are transferred to a juvenile detention center. There, Joe meets Tōru Rikiishi, a former boxing prodigy, and they develop a rivalry after Rikiishi prevents him from escaping. The prison sets up a boxing tournament led by Danpei and funded by millionaire Mikinosuke Shiraki and his granddaughter Yoko. Rikiishi dominates Joe in the final until the latter hits a cross-counter, resulting in a double knockout. Feeling that the match did not resolve anything, Joe and Rikiishi vow to fight again as professional boxers.
Maya the Honey Bee.  Maya the Honey Bee (Japanese: みつばちマーヤの冒険, Hepburn: Mitsubachi Māya no Bōken; lit. The Adventures of Maya the Honey Bee) is an anime television series produced first by Zuiyo Enterprise[5] and Asahi Broadcasting Corporation of Osaka. After the first 6 episodes, Zuiyo Enterprises animation studio division became Nippon Animation, which retained the rights of the series. The series consisted of 52 episodes and was originally telecast from April 1975 to April 1976 on all ANN affiliates. Loosely based on the classic childrens book The Adventures of Maya the Bee by Waldemar Bonsels, the anime series has become extremely popular in continental Europe and has been rebroadcast in countries and languages all around the world since its premiere. A film edited from the first few episodes was released on 15 December 1977.[6] Two English-dubbed versions of the series exist, a South African version produced by Sonovision for the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC),[7] using a translated version of the theme tune used for the German dub, and featuring South African accents for the characters; and a United States version with an entirely new theme tune, and a Canadian voice cast, produced by Saban Entertainment, which was broadcast from 1 January 1990 to 31 December 1992 on the childrens television channel Nickelodeon. Maya the Bee aired alongside other juvenile-targeted anime such as Adventures of the Little Koala, Noozles and The Littl Bits as part of Nickelodeons Nick Jr. block of programming for young children. 65 episodes were dubbed.[8] A second Maya the Bee series, Shin Mitsubachi Māya no Bōken (新みつばちマーヤの冒険; The New Adventures of Maya the Honey Bee), was a co-production made in 1979 by Nippon Animation, Wako Productions and Austrian/German Apollo Film, Wien. The second series first premiered in Germany (ZDF) from September 1979 to September 1980. Different and cartoon-like second series, which lasted for 52 episodes, was not much popular and did not premiere in Japan until 12 October 1982, on TV Osaka, and aired through 27 September 1983.[9] The story centres on Maya, an inquisitive, adventurous and somewhat flighty young honeybee, and her adventures in the forest around her. Maya is born in a bee hive during internal unrest: the hive is dividing itself into two new colonies. Maya is raised by her teacher, Mrs. Cassandra. Despite Mrs. Cassandras warnings, Maya wants to explore the wide world and commits the unforgivable crime of leaving the hive. During her adventures, Maya, now in exile, befriends other insects and braves dangers with them.
Sendai. Sendai (仙台市, Sendai-shi; [seꜜn.dai, sen.daꜜi.ɕi] ⓘ) is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture and the largest city in the Tōhoku region. As of 1 August 2023[update], the city had a population of 1,098,335 in 539,698 households,[1] making it the twelfth most populated city in Japan. The modern city was founded in 1600 by the daimyō Date Masamune. It is nicknamed the City of Trees (杜の都, Mori no Miyako); there are Japanese zelkova trees lining many of the main thoroughfares such as Jōzenji Street (定禅寺通, Jōzenji dōri) and Aoba Street (青葉通, Aoba dōri). In the summer, the Sendai Tanabata Festival, the largest Tanabata festival in Japan, is held. In winter, the trees are decorated with thousands of lights for the Pageant of Starlight (光のページェント, Hikari no pējento), lasting through most of December. The city is also home to Tohoku University, one of the former Imperial Universities. On 11 March 2011, coastal areas of the city suffered catastrophic damage from a magnitude 9.0 offshore earthquake,[2][3][4] which triggered a destructive tsunami.[5] Although the Sendai area was inhabited as early as 20,000 years ago, the history of Sendai as a city begins from 1600, when the daimyō Date Masamune relocated. Masamune was not happy with his previous stronghold, Iwadeyama, which was located in the northern portion of his territories and was difficult to access from Edo (modern-day Tokyo). Sendai was an ideal location, being in the centre of Masamunes newly defined territories, upon the major road from Edo. Tokugawa Ieyasu gave Masamune permission to build a new castle in Aobayama after the Battle of Sekigahara. The previous ruler of the Sendai area had used a castle located on Aobayama. At this time Sendai was written as 千代 (a thousand generations or eternity). Masamune changed the kanji to 仙臺, which later became 仙台 (literally: hermit/wizard plus platform/plateau or figuratively, hermit on a platform/high ground). The character came from a Chinese poem that praised a palace created by the Emperor Wen of Han China (reigned 180–157 BCE), comparing it to a mythical palace in the Kunlun Mountains. Tradition says that Masamune chose this kanji so that the castle would prosper as long as a mountain inhabited by an immortal hermit. Masamune ordered the construction of Sendai Castle in December 1600 and the construction of the surrounding castle town in 1601. The grid plan roads in modern-day central Sendai are based upon his plans. The first railway line between Sendai and Tokyo, now the Tōhoku Main Line, opened in 1887, bringing the area within a days travel from Tokyo for the first time in history. Tohoku Imperial University, the regions first university, was founded in Sendai in 1907 and became the first Japanese university to admit female students in 1913.
Riddarholmen Church. Riddarholmen Church (Swedish: Riddarholmskyrkan) is the church of the former medieval Greyfriars Monastery in Stockholm, Sweden. The church serves as the final resting place of most Swedish monarchs.[1] Riddarholmen Church is located on the island of Riddarholmen, close to the Royal Palace in Stockholm, Sweden. The congregation was dissolved in 1807 and today the church is used only for burial and commemorative purposes. Swedish monarchs from Gustavus Adolphus (d. 1632 AD) to Gustaf V (d. 1950) are entombed here (with only one exception: Queen Christina who is buried within St. Peters Basilica in Rome), as well as the earlier monarchs Magnus III (d. 1290) and Charles VIII (d. 1470). It has been discontinued as a royal burial site in favour of the Royal Cemetery and today is run by departments of the Swedish Government and Royal Court.[2] [3] The Churchs age can be seen in its architecture, which is eclectic from various eras. Most of the church is a Northern European Gothic style, but parts of the church are also baroque. It is one of the oldest buildings in Stockholm, parts of it dating to the late-13th century, when it was built as a greyfriars monastery. After the Protestant Reformation, the monastery was closed and the building became a Lutheran church. A spire designed by Flemish architect Willem Boy (1520–1592) was added during the reign of John III, but it was destroyed by a lightning strike on 28 July 1835, after which it was replaced with the present cast-iron spire. [4] Traditionally, the armorial plates depiciting the arms of deceased knights of the Royal Order of the Seraphim are affixed to the walls of the church. When a knight of the Order dies, his coat of arms is carried from the royal palace and rehung in the church, and when the funeral takes place the churchs bells are rung without pause from 12:00 to 13:00.[5]
Désirée Clary. Bernardine Eugénie Désirée Clary (Swedish: Eugenia Bernhardina Desideria;[1] 8 November 1777 – 17 December 1860) was Queen of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 to 8 March 1844 as the wife of King Charles XIV John. Charles John was a French general and founder of the House of Bernadotte. Désirée Clary, the mother of Oscar I, was the one-time fiancée of Napoleon Bonaparte. Her name was officially changed in Sweden to Desideria although she did not use that name.[2] Désirée Clary was born in Marseille, France, the daughter of François Clary (Marseille, St. Ferreol, 24 February 1725 – Marseille, 20 January 1794), a wealthy French silk manufacturer and merchant, by his second wife (m. 26 June 1759) Françoise Rose Somis (Marseille, St. Ferreol, 30 August 1737 – Paris, 28 January 1815). Eugénie was normally used as her name of address.[3] Her father had been previously married, at Marseille on 13 April 1751, to Gabrielle Fléchon (1732 – 3 May 1758). Clary had a sister and brother to whom she remained very close all her life. Her sister, Julie Clary, married Joseph Bonaparte; she later became Queen of Naples and Spain. Her brother, Nicolas Joseph Clary, was created Count Clary. He married Anne Jeanne Rouyer, by whom he had a daughter named Zénaïde Françoise Clary (Paris, 25 November 1812 – Paris, 27 April 1884). Zénaïde would marry Napoléon Alexandre Berthier (the son of Marshal Louis Alexandre Berthier) and have several children, among them the first wife of Joachim, 4th Prince Murat. As a child, Clary received the convent schooling usually given to daughters of the upper classes in pre-revolutionary France. However, when she was barely 11 years old, the French Revolution (starting in 1789) took place, during which convents were closed.[4] Clary returned to live with her parents, where she was perforce home-schooled thereafter. Later, her education was described as shallow.[5] It has been observed by several historians that Clary was devoted to her birth-family her entire life. In 1794, Clarys father died. Shortly after, it was discovered that in the years before the revolution, he had made an appeal to be ennobled, a request that had been denied. Because of this, Désirée Clarys brother Etienne, now the head of the family and her guardian, was arrested. Désirée Clary went to talk on his behalf and seek his release from the holding. In the process, she met Joseph Bonaparte, inviting him back to their home. Joseph was soon engaged to her elder sister Julie, while Napoleon was engaged to Désirée Clary on 21 April 1795. In 1795–1797, Clary lived with her mother in Genoa in Italy, where her brother-in-law Joseph had a diplomatic mission; they were also joined by the Bonaparte family. In 1795, Napoleon became involved with Joséphine de Beauharnais and broke the engagement to Clary on 6 September. He married Joséphine in 1796.
Names of Japan.  The word Japan is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by many languages. The Japanese names for Japan are Nihon ([ɲi.hoꜜɴ] ⓘ) and Nippon ([ɲip.poꜜɴ] ⓘ). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji 日本. Since the third century, Chinese called the people of the Japanese archipelago something like ˀWâ (倭), which can also mean dwarf or submissive.[1]: 4–6  Japanese scribes found fault with its offensive connotation, and officially changed the characters they used to spell the native name for Japan, Yamato, replacing the 倭 (dwarf) character for Wa with the homophone 和 (peaceful, harmonious). Wa 和 was often combined with 大 (great) to form the name 大和, which is read as Yamato[2][3] (see also Jukujikun for a discussion of this type of spelling where the kanji and pronunciations are not directly related). The earliest record of 日本 appears in the Chinese Old Book of Tang, which notes the change in 703 when Japanese envoys requested that its name be changed. It is believed that the name change within Japan itself took place sometime between 665 and 703.[4] During the Heian period, 大和 was gradually replaced by 日本, which was first pronounced with the sound reading (onyomi) Nippon and later as Nifon, and then in modern usage Nihon, reflecting shifts in phonology in Early Modern Japanese.[1][failed verification] In 1076, Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari in his book Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk mentioned this country as Jabarqa (جَابَرْقَا).[5] Marco Polo called Japan Cipangu around 1300, based on the Chinese enunciation of the name,[6] probably 日本國; sun source country (compare modern Min Nan pronunciation ji̍t pún kok). In the 16th century in Malacca, Portuguese traders first heard from Indonesian and Malay the names Jepang, Jipang, and Jepun.[7] In 1577 it was first recorded in English, spelled Giapan.[7] At the end of the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries came to coastal islands of Japan and created brief grammars and dictionaries of Middle Japanese for the purpose of trade. The 1603–1604 dictionary Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam has 2 entries: nifon[8] and iippon.[9] Since then many derived names of Japan appeared on early-modern European maps. Both Nippon and Nihon literally mean the suns origin, that is, where the sun originates,[10] and are often translated as the Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui dynasty and refers to Japans eastern position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (倭) or Wakoku (倭国).[11] Wa was a name early China used to refer to an ethnic group living in Japan around the time of the Three Kingdoms period.[citation needed] Although the etymological origins of Wa remain uncertain, Chinese historical texts recorded an ancient people residing in the Japanese archipelago (perhaps Kyūshū), named something like *ˀWâ or *ˀWər 倭. Carr (1992:9–10) surveys prevalent proposals for Was etymology ranging from feasible (transcribing Japanese first-person pronouns waga 我が my; our and ware 我 I; oneself; thou) to shameful (writing Japanese Wa as 倭 implying dwarf), and summarizes interpretations for *ˀWâ Japanese into variations on two etymologies: behaviorally submissive or physically short. The first submissive; obedient explanation began with the (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi dictionary. It defines 倭 as shùnmào 順皃 obedient/submissive/docile appearance, graphically explains the person; human radical 亻 with a wěi 委 bent phonetic, and quotes the above Shijing poem[clarification needed]. Conceivably, when Chinese first met Japanese, Carr (1992:9) suggests they transcribed Wa as *ˀWâ bent back signifying compliant bowing/obeisance. Bowing is noted in early historical references to Japan. Examples include Respect is shown by squatting (Hou Han Shu, tr. Tsunoda 1951:2), and they either squat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect. (Wei Zhi, tr. Tsunoda 1951:13). Koji Nakayama interprets wēi 逶 winding as very far away and euphemistically translates Wō 倭 as separated from the continent. The second etymology of wō 倭 meaning dwarf, pygmy has possible cognates in ǎi 矮 low, short (of stature), wō 踒 strain; sprain; bent legs, and wò 臥 lie down; crouch; sit (animals and birds). Early Chinese dynastic histories refer to a Zhūrúguó 侏儒國 pygmy/dwarf country located south of Japan, associated with possibly Okinawa Island or the Ryukyu Islands. Carr cites the historical precedence of construing Wa as submissive people and the Country of Dwarfs legend as evidence that the little people etymology was a secondary development.[1]: 9
Désirée Clary. Bernardine Eugénie Désirée Clary (Swedish: Eugenia Bernhardina Desideria;[1] 8 November 1777 – 17 December 1860) was Queen of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 to 8 March 1844 as the wife of King Charles XIV John. Charles John was a French general and founder of the House of Bernadotte. Désirée Clary, the mother of Oscar I, was the one-time fiancée of Napoleon Bonaparte. Her name was officially changed in Sweden to Desideria although she did not use that name.[2] Désirée Clary was born in Marseille, France, the daughter of François Clary (Marseille, St. Ferreol, 24 February 1725 – Marseille, 20 January 1794), a wealthy French silk manufacturer and merchant, by his second wife (m. 26 June 1759) Françoise Rose Somis (Marseille, St. Ferreol, 30 August 1737 – Paris, 28 January 1815). Eugénie was normally used as her name of address.[3] Her father had been previously married, at Marseille on 13 April 1751, to Gabrielle Fléchon (1732 – 3 May 1758). Clary had a sister and brother to whom she remained very close all her life. Her sister, Julie Clary, married Joseph Bonaparte; she later became Queen of Naples and Spain. Her brother, Nicolas Joseph Clary, was created Count Clary. He married Anne Jeanne Rouyer, by whom he had a daughter named Zénaïde Françoise Clary (Paris, 25 November 1812 – Paris, 27 April 1884). Zénaïde would marry Napoléon Alexandre Berthier (the son of Marshal Louis Alexandre Berthier) and have several children, among them the first wife of Joachim, 4th Prince Murat. As a child, Clary received the convent schooling usually given to daughters of the upper classes in pre-revolutionary France. However, when she was barely 11 years old, the French Revolution (starting in 1789) took place, during which convents were closed.[4] Clary returned to live with her parents, where she was perforce home-schooled thereafter. Later, her education was described as shallow.[5] It has been observed by several historians that Clary was devoted to her birth-family her entire life. In 1794, Clarys father died. Shortly after, it was discovered that in the years before the revolution, he had made an appeal to be ennobled, a request that had been denied. Because of this, Désirée Clarys brother Etienne, now the head of the family and her guardian, was arrested. Désirée Clary went to talk on his behalf and seek his release from the holding. In the process, she met Joseph Bonaparte, inviting him back to their home. Joseph was soon engaged to her elder sister Julie, while Napoleon was engaged to Désirée Clary on 21 April 1795. In 1795–1797, Clary lived with her mother in Genoa in Italy, where her brother-in-law Joseph had a diplomatic mission; they were also joined by the Bonaparte family. In 1795, Napoleon became involved with Joséphine de Beauharnais and broke the engagement to Clary on 6 September. He married Joséphine in 1796.
Surname.  In many societies, a surname, family name, or last name is the mostly hereditary portion of ones personal name that indicates ones family.[1][2] It is typically combined with a given name to form the full name of a person, although several given names and surnames are possible in the full name. In modern times most surnames are hereditary, although in most countries a person has a right to change their name. Depending on culture, the surname may be placed either at the start of a persons name, or at the end. The number of surnames given to an individual also varies: in most cases it is just one, but in Portuguese-speaking countries and many Spanish-speaking countries, two surnames (one inherited from the mother and another from the father) are used for legal purposes. Depending on culture, not all members of a family unit are required to have identical surnames. In some countries, surnames are modified depending on gender and family membership status of a person. Compound surnames can be composed of separate names.[3] The use of names has been documented in even the oldest historical records. Examples of surnames are documented in the 11th century by the barons in England. English surnames began to be formed with reference to a certain aspect of that individual, such as their trade, fathers name, location of birth, or physical features, and were not necessarily inherited. By 1400 most English families, and those from Lowland Scotland, had adopted the use of hereditary surnames.[4] The study of proper names (in family names, personal names, or places) is called onomastics.
Tarō (given name). Tarō (太郎) (alternatively romanized Taro, Tarô, Talo, Taroh or Tarou), is a stand-alone masculine Japanese given name or a common name second half of such a name (literally meaning eldest son). Tarō can also be used as a surname, but the etymology and kanji are different. The name Tarō can have many different meanings depending on the kanji characters used to write it. It can also be written using hiragana or katakana. Possible variations of the name Taro include:
Prince Kanin Kotohito. Prince Kanin Kotohito (閑院宮載仁親王, Kanin-no-miya Kotohito-shinnō; November 10, 1865 – May 21, 1945) was the sixth head of a cadet branch of the Japanese imperial family, and a career army officer who served as Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff from 1931 to 1940. During his tenure as the Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, the Imperial Japanese Army committed numerous war crimes against Chinese civilians including the Nanjing Massacre and the systemic use of chemical and bacteriological weapons. Prince Kanin Kotohito died several months before the end of the Second World War. Prince Kotohito was born in Kyoto on November 10, 1865, as the sixteenth son of Prince Fushimi Kuniie (1802–1875). His father was the twentieth head of the Fushimi-no-miya, one of the four shinnōke, branches of the Imperial Family which were eligible to succeed to the throne if the main line should die out. Since the infant mortality rate in the main imperial household was quite high, Emperor Kōmei, the father of Emperor Meiji, adopted Prince Kotohito as a potential heir. Prince Kotohito was thus the adopted brother of Emperor Meiji and a great uncle to both Emperor Shōwa and his consort, Empress Kōjun. Prince Kotohito was initially sent to Sambō-in monzeki temple at the age of three to be raised as a Buddhist monk, but was selected in 1872 to revive the Kanin-no-miya, another of the shinnōke households, which had gone extinct upon the death of the fifth head, Prince Naruhito. On December 19, 1891, Prince Kotohiko married Sanjō Chieko (January 30, 1872 – March 19, 1947), a daughter of Prince Sanjō Sanetomi. The couple had seven children: five daughters and two sons. Prince Kanin entered the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1877 and graduated in 1881. Emperor Meiji sent him as a military attaché to France in 1882 to study military tactics and technology. He graduated from the Army Staff College in 1894, specializing in cavalry. He commanded the 1st Cavalry Regiment from 1897 to 1899.
Yamada. Yamada (山田; lit. mountain rice field) is the 12th most common Japanese surname.[1]
Placeholder name.  Placeholder names are names used as placeholder words, i.e., referring to things, places, or people, the names of which or of whom do not actually exist; are temporarily forgotten, or are unimportant; or in order to avoid stigmatization, or because they are unknowable or unpredictable given the context of their discussion; or to deliberately expunge direct use of the name.[1][2][3][4] Placeholder names for people are often terms referring to an average person or a predicted persona of a typical user or for an individual whose name is unknown.[3][5][6] Placeholder names serve as a common language that provide flexibility and clarity when talking or writing about concepts.[4] Some morphologists will distinguish between placeholders such as thingummy and placeholder names like John Doe.[7] In computer programming and printing, placeholder names allow creator to test or visual the end product.[4] Use of placeholder names has caused problems in circumstances where the placeholder is not thereafter substituted for a real name when it becomes available. For example, in 2009, the United States Army was forced to issue an apology when letters addressed to John Doe were sent to thousands of families of soldiers killed in Iraq and Afghanistan.[8] A 2015 report noted that hospitals using a standard Babyboy or Babygirl placeholder for the first names of unidentified newborns has led to mix-ups in identification and medication of the infants.[9] Ace and Acme were popular in company names as positioning words in alphabetical directories.[10] It has been claimed to be an acronym, either for A Company Making Everything, American Companies Make Everything, or American Company that Manufactures Everything.[11][12] (Acme is a regular English word from the Ancient Greek ἀκμή, akme meaning summit, highest point, extremity or peak, and thus sometimes used for best.)[13] A well-known example of Acme as a placeholder name is the Acme Corporation, whose products are often seen in the Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner cartoons.[14] Oceanic Airlines is used as a fictional airline in several films, TV programmes, and comic books, typically when it is involved in a disaster or another event with which actual airlines would prefer not to be associated.[15][16]
Kanin-no-miya. The Kanin-no-miya (閑院宮家) was the youngest of the four shinnōke, branches of the Imperial Family of Japan which were eligible to succeed to the Chrysanthemum Throne in the event that the main line should die out. It was founded by Prince Naohito, the son of Emperor Higashiyama. Fearing extinction of the imperial house, Arai Hakuseki proposed that a new branch of the Imperial Family be created. In 1718, Emperor Emeritus Reigen bestowed upon his grandson the title of Kanin-no-miya and land worth 1000 koku.  This was the first new shinnōke formed since the Arisugawa-no-miya lineage in 1625. The name Kanin-no-miya is thought to have come from the title of Prince Sadamoto, a son of the Heian-era Emperor Seiwa. Arai Hakuseis wisdom was soon proved with the second head of the house, Imperial Prince Sukehito. When Emperor Go-Momozono died, he had only a daughter. Sukehitos younger son was chosen to become Emperor Kōkaku. The Kanin House became extinct upon the death of its 5th head, Prince Kanin Naruhito, in 1842, but was revived by Emperor Meiji, who assigned the name to Prince Kotohito, 16th son of Prince Fushimi Kuniie (one of the other shinnoke houses).
Shinnōke.  Seshū Shinnōke (世襲親王家) was the collective name for the four cadet branches of the Imperial House of Japan,[1] which were until 1947[2] entitled to provide a successor to the Chrysanthemum Throne if the main line failed to produce an heir. The heads of these royal houses held the title of imperial prince (親王, shinnō), regardless of their genealogical distance from the reigning Emperor of Japan, as the term seshū in their designation meant that they were eligible for succession. The Imperial family of Japan considers itself a single dynasty in unbroken succession; however, the succession has often not been directly from father to son, but has been in the male line within a closely related group of people. In the Muromachi period, Prince Yoshihito, the son of the Northern Emperor Sukō was permitted to establish a parallel lineage to the main imperial line, and took the name Fushimi-no-miya from the location of his palace. Without this permission, the line would be considered commoners, and therefore excluded from the succession. This served politically to cement the reunification of the Northern and Southern Court, but provided insurance in the extreme event that the main imperial line should fail to produce a direct heir and become extinct. This proved to be a fortunate decision, as in 1428, the son of the second Prince Fushimi-no-miya ascended the throne as Emperor Go-Hanazono. In the Edo period, three additional seshū shinnōke households were created by the Tokugawa shogunate, in conscious imitation of the Tokugawa Gosanke.
BA. BA or variants may refer to:
Imperial House of Japan. The Imperial House (皇室, Kōshitsu) is the reigning dynasty of Japan, consisting of those members of the extended family of the reigning emperor of Japan who undertake official and public duties. Under the present constitution of Japan, the emperor is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Other members of the imperial family perform ceremonial and social duties, but have no role in the affairs of government. The duties as an emperor are passed down the line to their male children. The Japanese monarchy is the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world.[6]  The imperial dynasty does not have a name, therefore its direct members do not have a family name. The imperial house recognizes 126 monarchs, beginning with Emperor Jimmu (traditionally dated to 11 February 660 BCE), and continuing up to the current emperor, Naruhito. However, scholars have agreed that there is no evidence of Jimmus existence,[3][7] that the traditional narrative of the imperial familys founding is mythical, and that Jimmu is a mythical figure.[8] Historical evidence for the first 25 emperors is scant, and they are considered mythical, but there is sufficient evidence of an unbroken agnatic line since the early 6th century.[9] Historically, verifiable emperors of Japan start from 539 CE with Emperor Kinmei, the 29th tennō.[3][4][5] The earliest historic written mentions of Japan were in Chinese records, where it was referred to as Wa (倭 later 和), which later evolved into the Japanese name of Wakoku. Suishō (ca. 107 CE) was a king of Wa, the earliest Japanese monarch mentioned in Volume 85 of the Book of the Later Han from 445 CE. Further records mention the five kings of Wa, of which the last one Bu of Wa is generally considered to be Emperor Yūryaku (417/18 – 479 CE). The existence of his reign has been established through modern archaeological research. While the main line of the dynasty does not have a name and is referred to as Kōshitsu (皇室, imperial house), there are agnatic cadet branches which split during the course of centuries who received their own family names in order to distinguish them from the main line. They were considered a part of the imperial family (皇族 Kōzoku), with members carrying the title Imperial Highness, until the laws changed in 1947. The most important branches were the Shinnōke of which the most senior branch Fushimi-no-miya is first in the order of succession. Out of the Fushimi branch the Ōke branches split, which are the Kuni, Kaya, Asaka, Higashikuni  and Takeda families as of 2024. Furthermore there are branches created from sons of the emperor who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the court (kuge) or sword (buke) nobility. Such families are the Minamoto (源 also known as Genji), Taira (平 also known as Heishi), as well as through in-laws the Tachibana for example. Out of these families further branches split through male descent who were also considered noble Japanese clans. The line of legitimate direct male descendants of emperors is therefore numerous. Other terms used for the dynasty are also Kōka (皇家, Imperial House). Formerly the term Kyūshitsu (宮室, Palace Household) was also used under the old Imperial Constitution and the Imperial Household Law, as well as Teishitsu (帝室, Imperial Household).
The Bachelor of Arts. The Bachelor of Arts (1937) is a novel written by R. K. Narayan. It is the second book of a trilogy that begins with Swami and Friends and ends with The English Teacher.[1] It is again set in Malgudi, the fictional town Narayan invented for his novels. The story follows the coming-of-age of Chandran, a young upper-middle class college graduate into adulthood. Chandran falls in love with Malathi, who he desires to marry. Their relationship is rejected by her parents as Chandrans horoscope[2] describes him as having a Mangala Dosha – a superstition in which a marriage to a non-Manglik, Malathi, would lead to her early death. Malathi is then married to someone else. Heartbroken, Chandran goes to Madras and lives on the streets. Disillusioned, Chandran embraces a nomadic life, becoming a Sanyasi and renouncing his life of worldly pursuits.[2] Along his journey, Chandran is misunderstood as a great sage by the villagers he meets. After eight months, Chandran rouses to his senses, remembering his parents. He returns home, finding employment as a newsagent. Despite his return home, Chandran still obsesses over Malathi. His father comes to him with a proposal of marriage to another girl, Sushila. Chandran is initially skeptical about finding love again, but later decides to meet her. Chandran falls in love with Sushila at first sight. 
Boron arsenide. Boron arsenide (or Arsenic boride) is a chemical compound involving boron and arsenic, usually with a chemical formula BAs. Other boron arsenide compounds are known, such as the subarsenide B12As2. Chemical synthesis of cubic BAs is very challenging and its single crystal forms usually have defects. BAs is a cubic (sphalerite) semiconductor in the III-V family with a lattice constant of 0.4777 nm and an indirect band gap of 1.82 eV. Cubic BAs is reported to decompose to the subarsenide B12As2 at temperatures above 920 °C.[5] Boron arsenide has a melting point of 2076 °C. The thermal conductivity of BAs is exceptionally high, recently measured in single-crystal BAs to be around 1300 W/(m·K) at room temperature, making it the highest among all metals and semiconductors.[6] The basic physical properties of cubic BAs have been experimentally measured:[7] Band gap (1.82 eV), optical refractive index (3.29 at wavelength 657 nm), elastic modulus (326 GPa), shear modulus, Poissons ratio, thermal expansion coefficient (3.85×10−6/K), and heat capacity. It can be alloyed with gallium arsenide to produce ternary and with indium gallium arsenide to form quaternary semiconductors.[8] BAs has high electron and hole mobility, >1000 cm2/V/second, unlike silicon which has high electron mobility, but low hole mobility.[9] In 2023, a study in journal Nature reported that subjected to high pressure BAs decreases its thermal conductivity contrary to the typical increase seen in most materials.[10][11][12]
Bachelor of Arts (film).  Bachelor of Arts is a 1934 American drama film directed by Louis King and written by Lamar Trotti. The film stars Tom Brown, Anita Louise, Henry B. Walthall, Mae Marsh, Arline Judge and Frank Albertson. The film was released on November 23, 1934, by Fox Film Corporation.[1][2][3] Alexander Alec Hamilton, Jr., a headstrong, but likable freshman at the state college, falls in love at first sight with co-ed Mimi Smith when he sees her standing over him after he gets involved in a brawl at an antiwar speech. After nearly getting into a couple of more fights, Alec, whose father, the owner of Hamilton Iron Works, is sending him through college, proposes to Mimi, who works her way through as a dining hall cashier, but she only agrees to date. After Alec breaks a date with Mimi when his fraternity initiation turns into an all-night drinking party, he meets a radical reading Karl Marxs Das Capital and, convinced that Mimi has not come up against the realities of life, takes her to a rally in the park. The rally soon turns into a brawl when the people congregated resent Alec and Mimis intrusion. Mimi and Alec become engaged, but when Alec, on a whim, buys a car instead of her engagement ring, she calls him a spoiled child and says that they should not see each other again. After she sees him driving with Gladys Cottle, who tries to make her jealous, Mimi returns Alecs fraternity pin. As Alec gets acquainted with one of his instructors, Professor Barth, the professors wife Mary, who is ill, and Robert Neal, an excellent student who uses a wheelchair, he begins to mature; however, when he thinks that Mimi and Professor Donald Woolsey, who has fallen in love with her, are making fun of his singing at Glee Club practice, Alec rebukes Mimi, goes drinking with Gladys and neglects his studies. After the dean reprimands Alec and he is arrested for reckless driving, Mimi writes his father and convinces him not to give Alec money so that he will have to work. Alec gets a job in the University Cafe, and when he learns from Neal that Mrs. Barth will die if she does not get to a better climate soon, he retrieves his fraternity pin from Gladys, who gives it up for a kiss when she sees Mimi watching, hocks it with his watch and sells his blood to get $200, which he leaves anonymously for Mary and Professor Barth so that they can go to the desert. After Mimi reprimands Alec for kissing Gladys, Woolsey, who saw Alec leave the money, tells Mimi of the deed and explains that Alec needed contact with something real: the Barths. Mimi stops Alec from leaving school, and they are reconciled.[4]
AB.  AB, Ab, or ab may refer to:
UTC+09:00. UTC+09:00 is an identifier for a time offset from UTC of +09:00. During the Japanese occupations of British Borneo, Burma, Hong Kong, Dutch East Indies, Malaya, Philippines, Singapore, and French Indochina, it was used as a common time with Tokyo until the fall of the Empire of Japan. Principal cities: Yakutsk, Blagoveshchensk, Chita, Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Yokohama, Sapporo, Hiroshima, Kyoto, Seoul, Busan, Daegu, Gwangju, Ulsan, Incheon, Jeju, Changwon, Pohang, Gumi, Geoje,  Pyongyang, Koror, Jayapura, Sorong, Ternate, Ambon, Dili. This concerns areas within 127°30′ E and 142°30′ E longitude.
Terra (satellite). Terra (EOS AM-1) is a multi-national scientific research satellite operated by NASA in a Sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth.  It takes simultaneous measurements of Earths atmosphere, land, and water to understand how Earth is changing and to identify the consequences for life on Earth.[1] It is the flagship of the Earth Observing System (EOS) and the first satellite of the system which was followed by Aqua (launched in 2002) and Aura (launched in 2004). Terra was launched in 1999. The name Terra comes from the Latin word for Earth. A naming contest was held by NASA among U.S. high school students. The winning essay was submitted by Sasha Jones of Brentwood, Missouri. The identifier AM-1 refers to its orbit, passing over the equator in the morning. The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on December 18th, 1999, aboard an Atlas IIAS vehicle and began collecting data on February 24th, 2000. It was placed into a near-polar, sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 705 km (438 mi), with a 10:30am descending node. Terra carries a payload of five remote sensors designed to monitor the state of Earths environment and ongoing changes in its climate system:[2] Data from the satellite helps scientists better understand the spread of pollution around the globe. Studies have used instruments on Terra to examine trends in global carbon monoxide and aerosol pollution.[7] The data collected by Terra will ultimately become a new, 15-year global data set.
National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. The National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS), also known as the National Television Academy until 2007, is an American professional service organization founded in 1955 for the advancement of the arts and sciences of television and the promotion of creative leadership for artistic, educational and technical achievements within the television industry.[1] Headquartered in New York City, NATAS membership is national and the organization has local chapters around the country. NATAS distributes several groups of Emmy Awards, including Daytime, Sports, News and Documentary, and Childrens and Family Emmys. NATAS is a sister organization to the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences and the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, the other two bodies that present Emmy Awards to other sectors of television programming. NATAS was originally established when the Los Angeles-based Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS) merged with a New York academy founded by Ed Sullivan. The Los Angeles chapter then broke away from NATAS in 1977, splitting the distribution of the several groups of Emmy Awards as part of their agreement. Among others, ATAS continues to present the Primetime and Los Angeles Emmys; while NATAS is responsible for the Daytime, Sports, News and Documentary, Childrens and Family, and the regional Emmys outside of Los Angeles.[2] Sister organization International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (IATAS), presenter of the International Emmys, was then founded in 1969 as the International Council of the NATAS.[3] One of its past presidents, Don DeFore, was instrumental in arranging for the Emmy Awards to be broadcast on national TV for the first time on March 7, 1955. Other past presidents include Diana Muldaur, John Cannon, Peter Price, Frank Radice and Bob Mauro. NATAS distributes several US national level groups of Emmy Awards, including: 19 Regional NATAS chapters organize award ceremonies of their own, awarding Emmy statues similar to those given out at the national ceremonies. They also administer their own regional scholarship and student productions award programs.[4]
Kinki (disambiguation). Kinki may refer to:
Sports and Recreation Center (Poland). The Sports and Recreation Center, Ośrodek Sportu i Rekreacji (OSiR) is an entity dedicated to promoting physical culture, sports, and recreational activities among the residents of a particular locality, primarily in Poland. Its responsibilities include maintaining sports facilities, managing sports sections, and organizing competitions at local and higher levels. In many cities, such centers operate under the name Municipal Sports and Recreation Center, Miejski Ośrodek Sportu i Rekreacji (MOSiR).[1][2][3][4] These centers are typically public entities funded by local government budgets, sponsor donations, and subsidies from the European Union.[1]
Kansai dialect. The Kansai dialect (関西弁・関西方言, Kansai-ben, Kansai hōgen; Japanese pronunciation: [kaɰ̃.sai.beɴ, kaɰ̃.sai hoː.ɡeꜜɴ, -ŋeꜜɴ, kaɰ̃.sai hoꜜː.ɡeɴ, -ŋeɴ]ⓘ) is a group of Japanese dialects in the Kansai region (Kinki region) of Japan. In Japanese, Kansai-ben is the common name and it is called Kinki dialect (近畿方言, Kinki-hōgen) in technical terms. The dialects of Kyoto and Osaka are known as Kamigata dialect (上方言葉, Kamigata kotoba; or Kamigata-go (上方語)), and were particularly referred to as such in the Edo period. The Kansai dialect is typified by the speech of Osaka, the major city of Kansai, which is referred to specifically as Osaka-ben. It is characterized as being both more melodic and harsher by speakers of the standard language.[1] Since Osaka is the largest city in the region and its speakers received the most media exposure over the last century, non-Kansai-dialect speakers tend to associate the dialect of Osaka with the entire Kansai region. However, technically, Kansai dialect is not a single dialect but a group of related dialects in the region. Each major city and prefecture has a particular dialect, and residents take some pride in their particular dialectal variations. The common Kansai dialect is spoken in Keihanshin (the metropolitan areas of the cities of Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe) and its surroundings, a radius of about 50 km (31 mi) around the Osaka-Kyoto area (see regional differences).[2] This article mainly discusses variations in Keihanshin during the 20th and 21st centuries. Even in the Kansai region, away from Keihanshin and its surrounding areas, there are dialects that differ from the characteristics generally considered to be Kansai dialect-like. Tajima and Tango (except Maizuru) dialects in northwest Kansai are too different to be regarded as Kansai dialects and are thus usually included in the Chūgoku dialect. Dialects spoken in Southeastern Kii Peninsula including Totsukawa and Owase are also far different from other Kansai dialects, and considered a language island. The Shikoku dialect and the Hokuriku dialect share many similarities with the Kansai dialects, but are classified separately.
John F. Kennedy.  John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest person elected president at 43 years.[a] Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A member of the Democratic Party, Kennedy represented Massachusetts in both houses of the United States Congress prior to his presidency. Born into the prominent Kennedy family in Brookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940, joining the U.S. Naval Reserve the following year. During World War II, he commanded PT boats in the Pacific theater. Kennedys survival following the sinking of PT-109 and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy represented a working-class Boston district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to the U.S. Senate, serving as the junior senator for Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book Profiles in Courage, which won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the 1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum after the first televised presidential debates in American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeating Republican opponent Richard Nixon, the incumbent vice president. Kennedys presidency saw high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam, and the Strategic Hamlet Program began during his presidency. In 1961, he authorized attempts to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion and Operation Mongoose. In October 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases had been deployed in Cuba. The resulting period of tensions, termed the Cuban Missile Crisis, nearly resulted in nuclear war. In August 1961, after East German troops erected the Berlin Wall, Kennedy sent an army convoy to reassure West Berliners of U.S. support, and delivered one of his most famous speeches in West Berlin in June 1963. In 1963, Kennedy signed the first nuclear weapons treaty. He presided over the establishment of the Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress with Latin America, and the continuation of the Apollo program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon before 1970. He supported the civil rights movement but was only somewhat successful in passing his New Frontier domestic policies. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. His vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, assumed the presidency. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby two days later. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Warren Commission both concluded Oswald had acted alone, but conspiracy theories about the assassination persist. After Kennedys death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Revenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly in polls of U.S. presidents with historians and the general public. His personal life has been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments and extramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recent U.S. president to have died in office.
Hokkaido (disambiguation). Hokkaido:
Danny Jacobs (actor).  Danny Jacobs is an American actor and comedian. Following his voice acting debut in 1999 with an uncredited role in Full Blast, he took over the role of King Julien (originally voiced by Sacha Baron Cohen) in The Penguins of Madagascar (2008–2015) and reprised his role in the Christmas special Merry Madagascar (2009), the Valentines Day short Madly Madagascar (2013) and All Hail King Julien (2014–2017). He also impersonated Cohens character Borat Sagdiyev (as well as a cameo appearance as a Pirate with an Eye Patch) in Epic Movie (2007). Besides King Julien, his voice work includes the role of Rowdy Remington in Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil (2010–2012), Victor Zsasz in Batman: Arkham Asylum (2009) and Batman: Arkham City (2011), Special Agent Porter in Justice League: Doom (2012), Snake / Snakeweed in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012), Grifter and Captain Cold in Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox (2013), Baron Mordo in Ultimate Spider-Man (2016) and Heinrich Zemo in Avengers Assemble (2016). Jacobs is a devout Catholic of Lebanese descent.[1] Growing up, Jacobs originally intended to become an NBA player. Jacobs attended Bishop Gallagher High School in Harper Woods, Michigan where he started to become interested in acting after seeing a production of West Side Story, in which he attended the rehearsals. Jacobs would later act in school productions of Grease and The Wiz. He enrolled in Wayne State University where he was in the community theater and later transferred to the University of Arizona where he majored in musical theater. Jacobs was further inspired by his cousin who appeared on the original Broadway rendition of Les Misérables. He moved to Los Angeles where he initially did commercial voice overs as a side gig to his theatrical work. He started animation voice acting as a walla voice actor alongside James Arnold Taylor and Teresa Ganzel.[2] In 1993, Jacobs originated the role of Chico Fernández in Jeff Daniels comedy The Vast Difference at the Purple Rose Theatre.
Eartha Kitt.  Eartha Mae Kitt (née Keith; January 17, 1927 – December 25, 2008) was an American singer and actress. She was known for her highly distinctive singing style and her 1953 recordings of Cest si bon and the Christmas novelty song Santa Baby. Kitt began her career in 1942 and appeared in the 1945 original Broadway theatre production of the musical Carib Song. In the early 1950s, Kitt had six US Top 30 entries, including Uska Dara (1953) and I Want to Be Evil (1953). Her other recordings include the UK Top 10 song Under the Bridges of Paris (1954), Just an Old Fashioned Girl (1956) and Where Is My Man (1983). Orson Welles once called her the most exciting woman in the world.[4] Kitt starred as Catwoman in the third and final season of the television series Batman in 1967.[5] In 1968, Kitts career in the U.S. deteriorated after she made anti-Vietnam War statements at a White House luncheon with Lady Bird Johnson, the wife of President Lyndon B. Johnson.[5] Ten years later, Kitt made a successful return to Broadway in the 1978 original production of the musical Timbuktu!, for which she received the first of her two Tony Award nominations. Kitts second was for the 2000 original production of the musical The Wild Party. She wrote three autobiographies.[6] Kitt found a new generation of fans through her various voice acting roles in the last decade of her life. She voiced the villains Yzma and Vexus in The Emperors New Groove franchise and My Life As A Teenage Robot, with the former earning her two Daytime Emmy Awards. Kitt posthumously won a third Emmy in 2010 for her guest performance on Wonder Pets!.
Demonym.  A demonym (/ˈdɛmənɪm/; from Ancient Greek  δῆμος (dêmos) people, tribe and  ὄνυμα (ónuma) name) or gentilic (from Latin  gentilis of a clan, or gens)[1] is a word that identifies a group of people (inhabitants, residents, natives) in relation to a particular place.[2] Demonyms are usually derived from the name of the place (hamlet, village, town, city, region, province, state, country, and continent).[3] Demonyms are used to designate all people (the general population) of a particular place, regardless of ethnic, linguistic, religious or other cultural differences that may exist within the population of that place. Examples of demonyms include Cochabambino, for someone from the city of Cochabamba; Tunisian for a person from Tunisia; and Swahili, for a person of the Swahili coast. Many demonyms function both endonymically and exonymically (used by the referents themselves or by outsiders); others function only in one of those ways. As a sub-field of anthroponymy, the study of demonyms is called demonymy or demonymics. Since they are referring to territorially defined groups of people, demonyms are semantically different from ethnonyms (names of ethnic groups). In the English language, there are many polysemic words that have several meanings (including demonymic and ethnonymic uses), and therefore a particular use of any such word depends on the context. For example, the word Thai may be used as a demonym, designating any inhabitant of Thailand, while the same word may also be used as an ethnonym, designating members of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms. For example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Briton or, informally, a Brit.
Daytime Emmy Awards.  The Daytime Emmy Awards, or Daytime Emmys, are part of the extensive range of Emmy Awards for artistic and technical merit for the American television industry. Bestowed by the New York-based National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS), the Daytime Emmys are presented in recognition of excellence in American daytime television programming. The first ceremony was held in 1974, expanding what was originally a prime time-themed Emmy Award. Ceremonies generally are held in May or June, but starting in 2025, the ceremony will be held in October. The first Emmy Award ceremony took place on January 25, 1949. The first daytime-themed Emmy Awards were given out at the Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony in 1972, when The Doctors and General Hospital were nominated for Outstanding Achievement in a Daytime Drama. That year, The Doctors won the first Best Show Daytime Emmy. In addition, the award for Outstanding Achievement by an Individual in a Daytime Drama was given to Mary Fickett from All My Children. A previous category Outstanding Achievement in Daytime Programming was added once in 1968 with individuals like Days of Our Lives star Macdonald Carey nominated. Due to voting rules of the time, judges could opt to either award one or no Emmy, and in the end they decided that no one nominated was deserving of the golden statuette. This snub outraged then-Another World writer Agnes Nixon, causing her to write in The New York Times, ...after viewing the recent fiasco of the Emmy awards, it may well be considered a mark of distinction to have been ignored by this group.[1] Longtime General Hospital star John Beradino became a leading voice to have daytime talent honored with special recognition for their work. The first separate awards show made just for daytime programming was broadcast in 1974 from the Channel Gardens at Rockefeller Center in New York. The hosts that year were Barbara Walters and Peter Marshall. For years, the gala was held in New York, usually at nearby Radio City Music Hall, with occasional broadcasts from Madison Square Garden. In 2006, the Daytime Emmys was moved to the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles, the first time they had ever been held outside of New York.[2] The Kodak Theatre also hosted the 2007 and 2008 ceremonies, before it was moved again in 2009 to the Orpheum Theatre across town. In 2010 and 2011, the Daytime Emmys were instead held in Las Vegas. From 2012 onward, the Daytime Emmys have been held at various venues in Los Angeles, never to return again to New York (most likely as a reflection of the current state of American daytime dramas, where all New York-produced network soap operas have since been cancelled, and the ones left on the air are being recorded in Los Angeles). In 2007, child voice actress Danica Lee, the voice for Ming-Ming in Wonder Pets! became the first Asian nominee overall in Daytime Emmy history while Eric Bauza became the first adult Asian nominee in Daytime Emmy history.
Kansai International Airport.  Kansai International Airport (Japanese: 関西国際空港, romanized: Kansai Kokusai Kūkō) (IATA: KIX, ICAO: RJBB), commonly known as Kankū (Japanese: 関空), is located on an artificial island and serves as the primary international airport in the Greater Osaka Area of Japan and the closest international airport to the cities of Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe. It is located on an artificial island, Kankūjima (関空島), in the middle of Osaka Bay off the Honshu shore, 38 km (24 mi) southwest of Ōsaka Station,[4] located within three municipalities, including Izumisano (north),[5] Sennan (south),[6] and Tajiri (central),[7] in Osaka Prefecture. The airports first airport island covers approximately 510 hectares (1,260 acres) and the second covers approximately 545 hectares (1,347 acres), for a total of 1,055 hectares (2,607 acres).[8] Kansai opened on 4 September 1994 to relieve overcrowding at Osaka International Airport, also called Itami Airport, which is closer to Osaka. It consists of two terminals: Terminal 1 and Terminal 2. Terminal 1, designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano, is the longest airport terminal in the world with a length of 1.7 km (1+1⁄16 mi). The airport serves as an international hub for All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, and Nippon Cargo Airlines and as a hub for Peach, the first international low-cost carrier in Japan.[9] It is also the north Pacific hub for FedEx Express, which obtained fifth freedom rights under the 1998 U.S. and Japan air agreement and established the hub in 2014.[10][3] In 2019, 31.9 million passengers used the airport, making it the third busiest in Japan. The freight volume was 802,162 tonnes total: 757,414 t international (18th in the world) and 44,748 t domestic.[11] The 4,000 m × 60 m (13,120 ft × 200 ft) second runway was opened on 2 August 2007. As of June 2014[update], Kansai Airport has become an Asian hub, with 780 weekly flights to Asia and Australasia (including 119 freight), 59 weekly flights to Europe and the Middle East (5 freight), and 80 weekly flights to North America (42 freight).[12] In 2020, Kansai was ranked the tenth-best airport in the world by Skytrax and received its awards for Best Airport Staff in Asia, Worlds Best Airport Staff, and Worlds Best Airport for Baggage Delivery.[13][14]
List of islands of Japan.  Japan is an island country of 14,125 islands, of which approximately 260 are inhabited.[1][2] Japan is the third-largest island country in the world, behind Indonesia and Madagascar.[3] Japan is also the second-most-populous island country in the world, only behind Indonesia. According to a survey conducted by the Japan Coast Guard in 1987, the number of islands in Japan was 6,852. At that time, the survey only counted islands with coastlines of 100 meters or more that were shown on paper maps. On February 28, 2023, the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan announced that the number of islands had been updated to 14,125 through a recount using digital maps. Since there is no international standard for counting islands, only islands with a coastline of 100 meters or more were counted, as in the past. According to the GSI, advances in surveying technology and the detailed representation of topographic features through digital mapping contributed to this announcement.[4][1] The four main islands of Japan are:[5][6] Most of these are located in the East China Sea.
Minor planet. According to the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a minor planet is an astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun that is exclusively classified as neither a planet nor a comet.[a] Before 2006, the IAU officially used the term minor planet, but that years meeting reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies (SSSBs).[1] In contrast to the eight official planets of the Solar System, all minor planets fail to clear their orbital neighborhood.[2][1] Minor planets include asteroids (near-Earth objects, Earth trojans, Mars trojans, Mars-crossers, main-belt asteroids and Jupiter trojans), as well as distant minor planets (Uranus trojans, Neptune trojans, centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects), most of which reside in the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc. As of October 2024[update], there are 1,392,085 known objects, divided into 740,000 numbered, with only one of them recognized as a dwarf planet (secured discoveries) and 652,085 unnumbered minor planets, with only five of those officially recognized as a dwarf planet.[3] The first minor planet to be discovered was Ceres in 1801, though it was called a planet at the time and an asteroid soon after; the term minor planet was not introduced until 1841, and was considered a subcategory of planet until 1932.[4] The term planetoid has also been used, especially for larger, planetary objects such as those the IAU has called dwarf planets since 2006.[5][6] Historically, the terms asteroid, minor planet, and planetoid have been more or less synonymous.[5][7] This terminology has become more complicated by the discovery of numerous minor planets beyond the orbit of Jupiter, especially trans-Neptunian objects that are generally not considered asteroids.[7] A minor planet seen releasing gas may be dually classified as a comet. Objects are called dwarf planets if their own gravity is sufficient to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium and form an ellipsoidal shape. All other minor planets and comets are called small Solar System bodies.[1] The IAU stated that the term minor planet may still be used, but the term small Solar System body will be preferred.[8] However, for purposes of numbering and naming, the traditional distinction between minor planet and comet is still used. Hundreds of thousands of minor planets have been discovered within the Solar System and thousands more are discovered each month. The Minor Planet Center has documented over 213 million observations and 794,832 minor planets, of which 541,128 have orbits known well enough to be assigned permanent official numbers.[9][10] Of these, 21,922 have official names.[9] As of 1 September 2025[update], the lowest-numbered unnamed minor planet is (4596) 1981 QB,[11] and the highest-numbered named minor planet is 826631 Frascati.[12]
China.  China,[h] officially the Peoples Republic of China (PRC),[i] is a country in East Asia. With a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the second-most populous country after India, representing 17.4% of the world population. China is vast; it borders fourteen countries by land[j] across an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), making it the third-largest country by land area.[k] The country is divided into 33 province-level divisions: 22 provinces,[l] 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and 2 semi-autonomous special administrative regions. Beijing is the countrys capital, while Shanghai is its most populous city by urban area and largest financial center. Considered one of six cradles of civilization, China saw the first human inhabitants in the region arriving during the Paleolithic. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, the earliest dynastic states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The 8th–3rd centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of the Zhou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques, literature, philosophy, and historiography. In 221 BCE, China was unified under an emperor, ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including the Qin, Han, Tang, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. With the invention of gunpowder and paper, the establishment of the Silk Road, and the building of the Great Wall, Chinese culture flourished and has heavily influenced both its neighbors and lands further afield. However, China began to cede parts of the country in the late 19th century to various European powers by a series of unequal treaties. After decades of Qing China on the decline, the 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty and the monarchy and the Republic of China (ROC) was established the following year. The country under the nascent Beiyang government was unstable and ultimately fragmented during the Warlord Era, which was ended upon the Northern Expedition conducted by the Kuomintang (KMT) to reunify the country. The Chinese Civil War began in 1927, when KMT forces purged members of the rival Chinese Communist Party (CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-led Nationalist government. Following the countrys invasion by the Empire of Japan in 1937, the CCP – under the leadership of Mao Zedong – and KMT formed the Second United Front to fight the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War eventually ended in a Chinese victory; however, the CCP and the KMT resumed their civil war as soon as the war ended. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country, proclaiming the Peoples Republic of China and forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to the island of Taiwan. The country was split, with both sides claiming to be the sole legitimate government of China. Following the implementation of land reforms, further attempts by the PRC to realize communism failed: the Great Leap Forward was largely responsible for the Great Chinese Famine that ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequent Cultural Revolution was a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized by Maoist populism. Following the Sino-Soviet split, the Shanghai Communiqué in 1972 would precipitate the normalization of relations with the United States. Economic reforms that began in 1978 moved the country away from a socialist planned economy towards a market-based economy, spurring significant economic growth. A movement for increased democracy and liberalization stalled after the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre in 1989. China is a unitary communist state led by the CCP that self-designates as a socialist state. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council; the UN representative for China was changed from the ROC (Taiwan) to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the AIIB, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, and the RCEP. It is a member of BRICS, the G20, APEC, the SCO, and the East Asia Summit. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, the Chinese economy is the worlds largest by PPP-adjusted GDP and the second-largest by nominal GDP. China is the second-wealthiest country, albeit ranking poorly in measures of democracy, human rights and religious freedom. The country has been one of the fastest-growing major economies and is the worlds largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer. China is a nuclear-weapon state with the worlds largest standing army by military personnel and the second-largest defense budget. It is a great power, and has been described as an emerging superpower. China is known for its cuisine and culture and, as a megadiverse country, has 59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the second-highest number of any country.
Childrens television series. Childrens television series (or childrens television shows) are television programs designed specifically for children. They are typically characterised by easy-going content devoid of sensitive or adult themes and are normally broadcast during the morning and afternoon when children are awake, immediately before and after school schedules generally start in the country where they air. Educational themes are also prevalent, as well as the transmission of cautionary tales and narratives that teach problem-solving methods in some fashion or another, such as social disputes. The purpose of these shows, aside from profit, is mainly to entertain or educate children, with each series targeting a certain age of child: some are aimed at infants and toddlers,[1] some are aimed at those aged 6 to 11 years old, and others are aimed at all children.[2] Childrens television is nearly as old as television itself.[3] In the United Kingdom, the BBCs For the Children was first broadcast in 1946, and in English-speaking circles, is generally credited with being the first TV programme specifically for children.[4] Some authors posit television for children tended to originate from similar programs on radio. For example, the BBCs Childrens Hour was launched as a radio broadcast in 1922,[5] with BBC School Radio commencing live broadcasts in 1924. In the early 1930s, radio adventure serials such as Little Orphan Annie began to emerge in the United States and became a staple of childrens afternoon radio listening.[6]
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) is a research institute of the Smithsonian Institution, concentrating on astrophysical studies including galactic and extragalactic astronomy, cosmology, solar, earth and planetary sciences, theory and instrumentation, using observations at wavelengths from the highest energy gamma rays to the radio, along with gravitational waves.  Established in Washington, D.C., in 1890, the SAO moved its headquarters in 1955 to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where its research is a collaboration with the Harvard College Observatory (HCO) and the Harvard University Department of Astronomy. In 1973, the Smithsonian and Harvard formalized the collaboration as the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian (CfA) under a single Director. Samuel Pierpont Langley, the third Secretary of the Smithsonian, founded the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory on the south yard of the Smithsonian Castle (on the U.S. National Mall) on March 1,1890. The Astrophysical Observatorys initial, primary purpose was to record the amount and character of the Suns heat[1]. Charles Greeley Abbot was named SAOs first director, and the observatory operated solar telescopes to take daily measurements of the Suns intensity in different regions of the optical electromagnetic spectrum. In doing so, the observatory enabled Abbot to make critical refinements to the Solar constant, as well as to serendipitously discover Solar variability. It is likely that SAOs early history as a solar observatory was part of the inspiration behind the Smithsonians sunburst logo, designed in 1965 by Crimilda Pontes.[2] In 1955, the scientific headquarters of SAO moved from Washington, D.C. to Cambridge, Massachusetts to affiliate with the Harvard College Observatory (HCO).[1] Fred Lawrence Whipple, then the chairman of the Harvard Astronomy Department, was named the new director of SAO. The collaborative relationship between SAO and HCO therefore predates the official creation of the CfA by 18 years. SAOs move to Harvards campus also resulted in a rapid expansion of its research program. Following the launch of Sputnik (the worlds first human-made satellite) in 1957, SAO accepted a national challenge[3] to create a worldwide satellite-tracking network, collaborating with the United States Air Force on Project Space Track.[4] With the creation of NASA the following year and throughout the space race, SAO led major efforts in the development of orbiting observatories and large ground-based telescopes, laboratory and theoretical astrophysics, as well as the application of computers to astrophysical problems. The followings persons served as director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory:[5]
International Astronomical Union.  The International Astronomical Union (IAU; French: Union astronomique internationale, UAI) is an international non-governmental organization (INGO) with the objective of advancing astronomy in all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreach, education, and development through global cooperation. It was founded on 28 July 1919 in Brussels, Belgium and is based in Paris, France. The IAU is composed of individual members, who include both professional astronomers and junior scientists, and national members, such as professional associations, national societies, or academic institutions. Individual members are organised into divisions, committees, and working groups centered on particular subdisciplines, subjects, or initiatives. As of May 2024,[update] the Union had 85 national members and 12,734 individual members, spanning 90 countries and territories.[5] Among the key activities of the IAU is serving as a forum for scientific conferences. It sponsors nine annual symposia and holds a triannual General Assembly that sets policy and includes various scientific meetings. The Union is best known for being the leading authority in assigning official names and designations to astronomical objects, and for setting uniform definitions for astronomical principles. It also coordinates with national and international partners, such as UNESCO, to fulfill its mission. The IAU is a member of the International Science Council, which is composed of international scholarly and scientific institutions and national academies of sciences.
Honolulu (disambiguation). Honolulu is the capital and the most populous community of the state of Hawaii in the United States. Honolulu may also refer to:
Mike Young (producer).  Michael Emlyn Young (born 16 October 1945) is a Welsh Emmy and BAFTA Award-winning producer. He is the founder of two animation companies in both the UK and America. His company in 2015 changed its name from Mike Young Productions to Splash Entertainment, which also is a majority owner of the AVOD network Kabillion. Young was born in Cwm, Ebbw Vale, Gwent, in the flat above a fish and chip shop owned by the family of actor Victor Spinetti, who would later go on to provide the voice of Mikes character, Texas Pete. He trained as a television producer, and while working as an advertising copywriter he met his wife Liz Young. After the pair married in the 1970s, Youngs stepson Richard Finn (later head of post-production at MYP), was having trouble falling asleep. Young created stories about a teddy bear and Finn told his school friends the stories, which resulted in the SuperTed books, co-produced with Young.[1] In 1981, Young, along with his wife, animator Dave Edwards and producer Robin Lyons, founded Siriol Productions. They approached the newly formed Welsh TV channel S4C and secured a commission to produce an animated series of SuperTed. Due to the success of the initial series, it was re-dubbed in English. A special edition was made for the Welsh Office which instructed children on the dos and donts of road safety.[2] The series sold well in the UK, and was followed by the more ambitious Fantastic Max (with Hanna-Barbera) and Little Dracula (with Steven Hahn Productions).[3] Young found it difficult to sell his series to Hollywood executives without a local presence there so in 1989 the family moved to Los Angeles, selling their rights to SuperTed and shares owned in Siriol Animation to finance the move and to set up Mike Young Productions, now called Splash Entertainment. The companys first production was P. J. Sparkles, after which it was involved in many other animated series, including The Hot Rod Dogs and Cool Car Cats (co-produced with the Dave Edwards Studio), The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe (the 2002 series), Two computer-animated series: Pet Alien, Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks (which won seven Emmys and a BAFTA Award), Growing Up Creepie, a Bratz TV series and five full-length Bratz DVD movies, I Got a Rocket! (which won a Emmy Award), Dive Olly Dive, Chloes Closet, Care Bears: Welcome to Care-a-Lot, Strawberry Shortcake, and Sabrina: Secrets of a Teenage Witch.[3]
Peadar Lamb.  Peadar Lamb (24 December 1929 – 1 September 2017) [1]was an Irish actor. He was known for his roles in numerous Irish-language stage productions, including playing King Fin Varra in the television series Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog, and voicing Grandpa Piggley Winks on the childrens television series Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks. Lamb grew up in An Cheathrú Rua, Carraroe. His father, Charles Lamb, was a well-known painter. Peadar Lamb trained at the Abbey Theatre and first appeared on stage in 1954.[2] Lamb had a theatrical career lasting over 60 years. Over the course of this time, he played diverse characters and appeared in a number of plays by famous playwrights including Brendan Behan, Dion Boucicault and Seán OCasey: Other stage performances include a role as Curly in John Murphys The Country Boy and as the blind man in W. B. Yeats On Bailes Strand. Lamb toured America and Canada in 1990 with John Millington Synges The Playboy of the Western World.[3] In June 2002, Peadar Lamb and his wife Geraldine Plunkett played leading roles in a production of Tony Guerins play Hummin, performed by the Waterford-based Red Kettle Company.[2]
Tara Strong.  Tara Lyn Strong (née Charendoff; born February 12, 1973) is a Canadian and American actress.[1] She is known for her voice work in animation, websites, and video games. Strongs voice roles include animated series such as The Powerpuff Girls, The Fairly OddParents, My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, Teen Titans, Xiaolin Showdown, Ben 10, Drawn Together, The New Batman Adventures, Rugrats, The Proud Family, Chowder, Wow! Wow! Wubbzy!,  Unikitty!, and DC Super Hero Girls. She has also voiced characters in the video games Mortal Kombat X, Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, Jak and Daxter, Final Fantasy X, Final Fantasy X-2, Blue Dragon, and Batman: Arkham. Strong has earned Annie Award and Daytime Emmy nominations and won an award from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. Strong was born as Tara Lyn Charendoff in Toronto, Ontario, on February 12, 1973,[2] the younger daughter of Syd and Lucy Charendoff.[3] Strong has called her Jewish background a big part of her identity.[4] Her grandfather was a cantor, while her grandmother ran a catering business in Torontos Beth Radom Congregation.[5] She has a sister.[6] At age four, Strong became interested in acting and volunteered to be a soloist at a school production.[7] Strong worked in Yiddish Theatre in Toronto, where she memorized her lines phonetically because she did not know the Yiddish language. Strong also performed with the Toronto Jewish Theater, where she acted in A Night of Stars and was featured in an audiotape for Lay Down Your Arms with the Habonim Youth Choir, singing the lyrics in both English and Hebrew.[7] Strongs first professional role was Gracie in Limelight Theaters production of The Music Man at the age of 13.[7] She had a guest role in the action series T. and T. Her first major voice role, also at the age of 13, was the title role in Hello Kittys Furry Tale Theater.[8] Strong starred in the short-lived CBC Television sitcom Mosquito Lake.[7] She took improv classes at The Second City in Toronto[8] and continued acting in both animated and live-action shows and films, before moving to Los Angeles in January 1994.[4][9]
Downtown Honolulu.  Downtown Honolulu is the current historic, economic, and governmental center of Honolulu, the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is bounded by Nuʻuanu Stream to the west, Ward Avenue to the east, Vineyard Boulevard to the north, and Honolulu Harbor to the south. Both modern and historic buildings and complexes are located in the area, with many of the latter declared National Historic Landmarks on the National Register of Historic Places. Downtown Honolulu can be subdivided into four neighborhoods, each with its own central focus and mix of buildings.  These areas are the Capitol District, the Central Business District, Chinatown, and the Waterfront. The Capitol District, or Civic Center, contains most of the federal, state, and city governmental buildings and is centered on the Hawaiʻi State Capitol, ʻIolani Palace, and Honolulu Hale (city hall).  It is roughly bounded by Richards Street on the west, Ward Avenue on the east, Vineyard Boulevard to the north, and Nimitz Highway to the south.  Significant buildings in this area include: Centered on Bishop Street and Fort Street Mall, the central business district is roughly bounded by Nuʻuanu Avenue, Nimitz Highway, Richards Street, and Vineyard Boulevard.  This area contains most of the headquarters buildings of Hawaiʻi-based companies and most of the skyscrapers.  Buildings in this area include:
Russi Taylor.  Russi Taylor (May 4, 1944 – July 26, 2019) was an American voice actress. She is best remembered for voicing the character of Minnie Mouse in English from 1986 to 2019, and was married to voice actor Wayne Allwine, the voice of Mickey Mouse, until his death on May 18, 2009. She was the longest-tenured voice actress to voice the character, holding the role for 33 years. She also provided the voices of several characters in The Simpsons. Taylor was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on May 4, 1944.[1] Taylor began her voice-over career in the mid-1970s. Her first voice-over role was the voice of Ted and Georgettes baby on The Mary Tyler Moore Show.[2] Taylor became the voice of Minnie Mouse in 1986, and continued to voice the character for 33 years until her death in 2019. Russi Taylor was 75 years old.[3] She also voiced Huey, Dewey, and Louie and Webby Vanderquack in the television series DuckTales and in other appearances.[3] Taylor provided the voices of numerous characters in the animated series The Simpsons, including fourth-grade nerd Martin Prince, purple-haired twins Sherri and Terri and German exchange student Üter.[4] After her death, The Simpsons producers cast Grey DeLisle as her characters.[5] She voiced Pebbles Flintstone in The Flintstone Comedy Show for Hanna-Barbera in 1980.[6] Taylor was also the original voice of Strawberry Shortcake and the voice of Baby Gonzo in Muppet Babies, Nova in Twinkle, the Dream Being, Pac-Baby in the television series Pac-Man, the high-pitched Nurses that were mice in The Rescuers Down Under, Melissa in the Pound Puppies episode Garbage Night: The Musical, Queen Rosedust in My Little Pony and Birdie the Early Bird in McDonaldland commercials. She was also the voice of Drizella and the Fairy Godmother in the Cinderella sequels, Cinderella II: Dreams Come True and Cinderella III: A Twist in Time.[7]
Asteroid.  An asteroid is a minor planet—an object larger than a meteoroid that is neither a planet nor an identified comet—that orbits within the inner Solar System or is co-orbital with Jupiter (Trojan asteroids). Asteroids are rocky, metallic, or icy bodies with no atmosphere, and are broadly classified into C-type (carbonaceous), M-type (metallic), or S-type (silicaceous). The size and shape of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from small rubble piles under a kilometer across to Ceres, a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter. A body is classified as a comet, not an asteroid, if it shows a coma (tail) when warmed by solar radiation, although recent observations suggest a continuum between these types of bodies.[1][2] Of the roughly one million known asteroids,[3] the greatest number are located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, approximately 2 to 4 AU from the Sun, in a region known as the main asteroid belt. The total mass of all the asteroids combined is only 3% that of Earths Moon. The majority of main belt asteroids follow slightly elliptical, stable orbits, revolving in the same direction as the Earth and taking from three to six years to complete a full circuit of the Sun.[4] Asteroids have historically been observed from Earth. The first close-up observation of an asteroid was made by the Galileo spacecraft. Several dedicated missions to asteroids were subsequently launched by NASA and JAXA, with plans for other missions in progress. NASAs NEAR Shoemaker studied Eros, and Dawn observed Vesta and Ceres. JAXAs missions Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 studied and returned samples of Itokawa and Ryugu, respectively. OSIRIS-REx studied Bennu, collecting a sample in 2020 which was delivered back to Earth in 2023. NASAs Lucy, launched in 2021, is tasked with studying ten different asteroids, two from the main belt and eight Jupiter trojans. Psyche, launched October 2023, aims to study the metallic asteroid Psyche. ESAs Hera, launched in October 2024, is intended to study the results of the DART impact. CNSAs Tianwen-2 was launched in May 2025,[5] to explore the co-orbital near-Earth asteroid 469219 Kamoʻoalewa and the active asteroid 311P/PanSTARRS and collecting samples of the regolith of Kamooalewa.[6] Near-Earth asteroids have the potential for catastrophic consequences if they strike Earth, with a notable example being the Chicxulub impact, widely thought to have induced the Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction. As an experiment to meet this danger, in September 2022 the Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft successfully altered the orbit of the non-threatening asteroid Dimorphos by crashing into it.
ʻIolani Palace.  The ʻIolani Palace (Hawaiian: Hale Aliʻi ʻIolani) was the royal residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi beginning with Kamehameha III under the Kamehameha Dynasty (1845) and ending with Queen Liliʻuokalani (1893) under the Kalākaua Dynasty. It is located in the capitol district of downtown Honolulu in the U.S. state of Hawaiʻi. It is now a National Historic Landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places. After the monarchy was overthrown in 1893, the building was used as the capitol building for the Provisional Government, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawaiʻi until 1969. The palace was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978. ʻIolani Palace is the only royal palace on US soil.[1] In the early 19th century, the site of ʻIolani Palace was near an ancient burial site known as Pohukaina.[2] It is believed to be the name of a chief (sometimes spelled Pahukaina) who according to legend chose a cave in Kanehoalani in the Koʻolau Range for his resting place.[3] The land belonged to Kekauluohi, who later served as Kuhina Nui.[4] She lived there with her husband Charles Kanaina. Kekūanaōʻa, a chief who served as Governor of Oʻahu, also had his home, called Haliimaile, just west of Kekauluohis home. Another chief, Keoni Ana, lived in Kīnaʻu Hale (which was later converted into the residence of the royal chamberlain), all members of the House of Kamehameha.[citation needed] Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻinas original home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes. The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels. The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats. In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror. In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write. Four matching cabinet-bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each.[5] In his book, A visit to the South Seas, in the U.S. Ship Vincennes: during the years 1829 and 1830, Charles Samuel Stewart describes the area and homes in detail.[5] Next to Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻinas home was an old estate that had been demolished called Hanailoia.[6] According to oral history, Hanailoia was the former site of a destroyed heiau called Kaʻahaimauli.[7][8]
JPL (disambiguation). JPL is the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a NASA research center in California. JPL may also refer to:
Orbit.  In celestial mechanics, an orbit (also known as orbital revolution) is the curved trajectory of an object[1] such as the trajectory of a planet around a star, or of a natural satellite around a planet, or of an artificial satellite around an object or position in space such as a planet, moon, asteroid, or Lagrange point. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the center of mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse,[2] as described by Keplers laws of planetary motion. For most situations, orbital motion is adequately approximated by Newtonian mechanics, which explains gravity as a force obeying an inverse-square law.[3] However, Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity, which accounts for gravity as due to curvature of spacetime, with orbits following geodesics, provides a more accurate calculation and understanding of the exact mechanics of orbital motion. Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were described by European and Arabic philosophers using the idea of celestial spheres. This model posited the existence of perfect moving spheres or rings to which the stars and planets were attached. It assumed the heavens were fixed apart from the motion of the spheres and was developed without any understanding of gravity. After the planets motions were more accurately measured, theoretical mechanisms such as deferent and epicycles were added. Although the model was capable of reasonably accurately predicting the planets positions in the sky, more and more epicycles were required as the measurements became more accurate, hence the model became increasingly unwieldy. Originally geocentric, it was modified by Copernicus to place the Sun at the centre to help simplify the model. The model was further challenged during the 16th century, as comets were observed traversing the spheres.[4][5] The basis for the modern understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are summarised in his three laws of planetary motion. First, he found that the orbits of the planets in the Solar System are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the Sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus.[6] Second, he found that the orbital speed of each planet is not constant, as had previously been thought, but rather that the speed depends on the planets distance from the Sun. Third, Kepler found a universal relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the Sun. For the planets, the cubes of their distances from the Sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the Sun, their orbital periods respectively about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter, 5.23/11.862, is practically equal to that for Venus, 0.7233/0.6152, in accord with the relationship. Idealised orbits meeting these rules are known as Kepler orbits.
Pearl Harbor.  Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands are now a United States Navy deep-water naval base. It is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U.S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet and the right to maintain a repair and coaling station for ships here in 1887.[1] The surprise attack on the harbor by the Imperial Japanese Navy on December 7, 1941, led the United States to declare war on the Empire of Japan, marking the United States entry into World War II.[2][3][4] Pearl Harbor was originally an extensive shallow embayment called Wai Momi (meaning Waters of Pearl)[5] or Puʻuloa (meaning long hill) by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the shark goddess, Kaʻahupahau, and her brother (or son), Kahiʻuka, in Hawaiian legends. According to tradition, Keaunui, the head of the powerful Ewa chiefs, is credited with cutting a navigable channel near the present Puʻuloa saltworks, by which he made the estuary, known as Pearl River, accessible to navigation. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is; but Keaunui is typically given the credit for widening and deepening it. During the early nineteenth century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The United States interest in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and Seamen was appointed to look after American business in the Port of Honolulu. These commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became an integral part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu. In most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U.S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U.S. establish a naval base in Hawaii for the protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that, ... my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States.
Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator.  The Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator is a chamber for testing spacecraft in space-like conditions, including extreme cold, high radiation, and near-vacuum pressure. Built in 1961, it is located at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. It has been used to prepare many American space probes for their launches, including the Ranger, Surveyor, Mariner, and Voyager spacecraft. The first facility of its type, the chamber served as an example for other countries seeking to establish space programs.[3] It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1985 and is on the National Register of Historic Places.[2][1] The Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator is a stainless-steel cylinder 85 feet (26 m) in height and 27 feet (8.2 m) in diameter.  A doorway 15 feet (4.6 m) wide and 25 feet (7.6 m) high provides access for bringing test objects and equipment into the chamber; a personnel access door is built into the larger doorway.  Its walls and floor are lined with cooling shrouds that help provide a controllable temperature range from −320 °F (−195.6 °C) to 200 °F (93 °C).  A series of lamps, lenses, and mirrors can irradiate the chamber with a directed beam of simulated solar energy in a variety of patterns and strengths.  The chamber can be depressurized to 5×10−7 torr.  Test objects can be mounted with a number of attachment points and methods.  The chamber is mounted on a seismically isolated foundation.[3] The chamber requires about 75 minutes to achieve a space-like environment, and about 21⁄2 hours to return to a normal environment. Next to the chamber is a clean room in which equipment can be prepared for testing.[3]
Minor Planet Center.  The Minor Planet Center (MPC) is the official body for observing and reporting on minor planets under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Founded in 1947, it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. The Minor Planet Center is the official worldwide organization in charge of collecting observational data for minor planets (such as asteroids), calculating their orbits and publishing this information via the Minor Planet Circulars. Under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, which is part of the Center for Astrophysics along with the Harvard College Observatory.[1] The MPC runs a number of free online services for observers to assist them in observing minor planets and comets.  The complete catalogue of minor planet orbits (sometimes referred to as the Minor Planet Catalogue) may also be freely downloaded. In addition to astrometric data, the MPC collects light curve photometry of minor planets. A key function of the MPC is helping observers coordinate follow up observations of possible near-Earth objects (NEOs) via its NEO web form and blog, the Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page.[2][3] The MPC is also responsible for identifying, and alerting to, new NEOs with a risk of impacting Earth in the few weeks following their discovery (see Potentially hazardous objects and § Videos).[1] The Minor Planet Center was set up at the University of Cincinnati in 1947, under the direction of Paul Herget.[4][5]: 63  Upon Hergets retirement on June 30, 1978,[5]: 67  the MPC was moved to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of Brian G. Marsden.[5]: 67  From 2006 to 2015,[6] the director of the MPC was Timothy Spahr,[7] who oversaw a staff of five. From 2015 to 2021, the Minor Planet Center was headed by interim director Matthew Holman.[8] Under his leadership, the MPC experienced a significant period of reorganization and growth, doubling both its staff size and the volume of observations processed per year. Upon Holmans resignation on February 9, 2021 (announced on February 19, 2021) Matthew Payne became acting director of the MPC.[9][10]
NISAR (satellite).  The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission is a joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch an Earth observation satellite (EOS) equipped with dual-frequency synthetic aperture radar (SAR) in 2025. It will be the first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies. It will be used for remote sensing, to observe and understand natural processes on Earth. For example, its left-facing instruments will study the Antarctic cryosphere.[7] With a total cost estimated at US$1.5 billion, NISAR is likely to be the worlds most expensive Earth-imaging satellite.[8] The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar, or NISAR satellite, will use advanced radar imaging to map the elevation of Earths land and ice masses four to six times a month at resolutions of 5 to 10 meters.[9] It is designed to observe and measure some of the planets most complex natural processes, including ecosystem disturbances, ice-sheet collapse, and natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and landslides.[10][11] The mission is a partnership between NASA and ISRO.[10] Under the terms of the agreement, NASA will provide the missions L-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR), a high-rate telecommunication subsystem for scientific data GPS receivers, a solid-state recorder, and a payload data subsystem. ISRO will provide the satellite bus, an S-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR), the launch vehicle, and associated launch services.[12] All data from NISAR will be freely available one to two days after observation and within hours in case of emergencies like natural disasters.[9] Data collected from NISAR will reveal information about the evolution and state of Earths crust, help scientists better understand our planets natural processes and changing climate, and aid future resource and hazard management.[10]
United States.  The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the semi-exclave of Alaska in the northwest and the archipelago of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands in Oceania and the Caribbean.[j] It is a megadiverse country, with the worlds third-largest land area[c] and third-largest population, exceeding 340 million.[k] Paleo-Indians migrated from North Asia to North America over 12,000 years ago, and formed various civilizations. Spanish colonization established Spanish Florida in 1513, the first European colony in what is now the continental United States. British colonization followed with the 1607 settlement of Virginia, the first of the Thirteen Colonies. Forced migration of enslaved Africans supplied the labor force to sustain the Southern Colonies plantation economy. Clashes with the British Crown over taxation and lack of parliamentary representation sparked the American Revolution, leading to the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Victory in the 1775–1783 Revolutionary War brought international recognition of U.S. sovereignty and fueled westward expansion, dispossessing native inhabitants. As more states were admitted, a North–South division over slavery led the Confederate States of America to attempt secession and fight the Union in the 1861–1865 American Civil War. With the United States victory and reunification, slavery was abolished nationally. By 1900, the country had established itself as a great power, a status solidified after its involvement in World War I. Following Japans attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S. entered World War II. Its aftermath left the U.S. and the Soviet Union as rival superpowers, competing for ideological dominance and international influence during the Cold War. The Soviet Unions collapse in 1991 ended the Cold War, leaving the U.S. as the worlds sole superpower. The U.S. national government is a presidential constitutional federal republic and representative democracy with three separate branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It has a bicameral national legislature composed of the House of Representatives (a lower house based on population) and the Senate (an upper house based on equal representation for each state). Federalism grants substantial autonomy to the 50 states. In addition, 574 Native American tribes have sovereignty rights, and there are 326 Native American reservations. Since the 1850s, the Democratic and Republican parties have dominated American politics, while American values are based on a democratic tradition inspired by the American Enlightenment movement. A developed country, the U.S. ranks high in economic competitiveness, innovation, and higher education. Accounting for over a quarter of nominal global GDP, its economy has been the worlds largest since about 1890. It is the wealthiest country, with the highest disposable household income per capita among OECD members, though its wealth inequality is highly pronounced. Shaped by centuries of immigration, the culture of the U.S. is diverse and globally influential. Making up more than a third of global military spending, the country has one of the strongest militaries and is a designated nuclear state. A member of numerous international organizations, the U.S. plays a major role in global political, cultural, economic, and military affairs.
Astrometry. Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and this galaxy, the Milky Way. The history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors Timocharis and Aristillus to discover Earths precession. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today.[1] Hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions.[2] Hipparchuss successor, Ptolemy, included a catalogue of 1,022 stars in his work the Almagest, giving their location, coordinates, and brightness.[3] In the 10th century, the Iranian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes and star color; furthermore, he provided drawings for each constellation, which are depicted in his Book of Fixed Stars. Egyptian mathematician Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Suns position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in Canadian–American astronomer Simon Newcombs investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations of the motions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn inspired French scholar Laplaces Obliquity of the Ecliptic and Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn.[4] In the 15th century, the Timurid astronomer Ulugh Beg compiled the Zij-i-Sultani, in which he catalogued 1,019 stars. Like the earlier catalogs of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Ulugh Begs catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 minutes of arc.[5] In the 16th century, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe used improved instruments, including large mural instruments, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15–35 arcsec.[6] Ottoman scholar Taqi al-Din measured the right ascension of the stars at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din using the observational clock he invented.[7] When telescopes became commonplace, setting circles sped measurements English astronomer James Bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope, but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the Earths axis. His cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by German astronomer Friedrich Bessel, the father of modern astrometry. He made the first measurement of stellar parallax: 0.3 arcsec for the binary star 61 Cygni. In 1872, British astronomer William Huggins used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of several prominent stars, including Sirius.[8]
List of capitals in the United States.   This is a list of capital cities of the United States, including places that serve or have served as federal, state, insular area, territorial, colonial and Native American capitals. Washington, D.C. has been the federal capital of the United States since 1800. Each U.S. state has its own capital city, as do many of its insular areas. Most states have not changed their capital city since becoming a state, but the capital cities of their respective preceding colonies, territories, kingdoms, and republics typically changed multiple times. There have also been other governments within the current borders of the United States with their own capitals, such as the Republic of Texas, Native American nations, and other unrecognized governments. The buildings in cities identified in the chart below served either as official capitals of the United States under the United States Constitution, or, prior to its ratification, sites where the Second Continental Congress or Congress of the Confederation met. The United States did not have a permanent capital under the Articles of Confederation.
Boston College (disambiguation). Boston College is an American private research university in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. Boston College may also refer to several other educational institutions:
Sojourner (rover).  The robotic Sojourner rover reached Mars on July 4, 1997 as part of the Mars Pathfinder mission. Sojourner was operational on Mars for 92 sols (95 Earth days), and was the first wheeled vehicle to operate on an astronomical object other than the Earth or Moon. The landing site was in the Ares Vallis channel in the Chryse Planitia region of the Oxia Palus quadrangle.[1] The rover was equipped with front and rear cameras, and hardware that was used to conduct several scientific experiments. It was designed for a mission lasting 7 sols, with a possible extension to 30 sols,[2] and was active for 83 sols (85 Earth days). The rover communicated with Earth through the Pathfinder base station, which had its last successful communication session with Earth at 3:23 a.m. PDT on September 27, 1997.[3] The last signal from the rover was received on the morning of October 7, 1997.[4] Sojourner traveled just over 100 meters (330 ft) by the time communication was lost.[5] Its final confirmed command was to remain stationary until October 5, 1997, (sol 91) and then drive around the lander;[6] there is no indication it was able to do so. The Sojourner mission formally ended on March 10, 1998, after all further options were exhausted. Sojourner was an experimental vehicle whose main mission was to test in the Martian environment technical solutions that were developed by engineers of the NASA research laboratories.[7] It was necessary to verify whether the design strategy followed had resulted in the construction of a vehicle suitable for the environment it would encounter, despite the limited knowledge of it. Careful analysis of the operations on Mars would make it possible to develop solutions to critical problems identified and to introduce improvements for subsequent planetary exploration missions. One of the missions main aims was to prove the faster, better, cheaper approach embraced by the NASA administration. Development took three years and cost under $150 million for the lander, and $25 million for the rover; development was faster and less costly than all previous missions.[8]
Mars 2020.  Mars 2020 is a NASA mission that includes the rover Perseverance, the now-retired small robotic helicopter Ingenuity, and associated delivery systems, as part of the Mars Exploration Program. Mars 2020 was launched on an Atlas V rocket at 11:50:01 UTC on July 30, 2020,[4] and landed in the Martian crater Jezero on February 18, 2021, with confirmation received at 20:55 UTC.[5] On March 5, 2021, NASA named the landing site Octavia E. Butler Landing.[6] As of 13 September 2025, Perseverance has been on Mars for 1623 sols (1668 total days; 4 years, 207 days).[7][8][9][10][11] Ingenuity operated on Mars for 1042 sols (1071 total days; 2 years, 341 days) before sustaining serious damage to its rotor blades, possibly all four, causing NASA to retire the craft on January 25, 2024.[12][13] Perseverance is investigating an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars for its surface geological processes and history, and assessing its past habitability, the possibility of past life on Mars, and the potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials.[14][15] It will cache sample containers along its route for retrieval by a potential future Mars sample-return mission.[15][16][17] The Mars 2020 mission was announced by NASA in December 2012 at the fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco. Perseverances design is derived from the rover Curiosity, and it uses many components already fabricated and tested in addition to new scientific instruments and a core drill.[18] The rover also employs nineteen cameras and two microphones,[19] allowing for the audio recording of the Martian environment. On April 30, 2021, Perseverance became the first spacecraft to hear and record another spacecraft, the Ingenuity helicopter, on another planet. The launch of Mars 2020 was the third of three space missions sent toward Mars during the July 2020 Mars launch window, with missions also launched by the national space agencies of the United Arab Emirates (the Emirates Mars Mission with the orbiter Hope on July 19, 2020) and China (the Tianwen-1 mission on July 23, 2020, with an orbiter, deployable and remote cameras, lander, and Zhurong rover). The Mars 2020 mission was announced by NASA on December 4, 2012, at the fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco.[20] The selection of Mars as the target of NASAs flagship mission elicited surprise from some members of the scientific community. Some criticized NASA for continuing to focus on Mars exploration instead of other Solar System destinations in constrained budget times.[21][22] Support came from California U.S. Representative Adam Schiff, who said he was interested in the possibility of advancing the launch date, which would enable a larger payload.[20] Science educator Bill Nye endorsed the Mars sample-return role, saying this would be extraordinarily fantastic and world-changing and worthy.[23]
Ever to Excel. Ever to Excel is the English translation of the Ancient Greek phrase αἰὲν ἀριστεύειν aièn aristeúein. It has been used as motto by a number of educational institutions. The phrase is derived from the sixth book of Homers Iliad, in which it is used in a speech Glaucus delivers to Diomedes. During a battle between the Greeks and Trojans, Diomedes is impressed by the bravery of a mysterious young man and demands to know his identity. Glaucus replies: Hippolochus begat me. I claim to be his son, and he sent me to Troy with strict instructions: Ever to excel, to do better than others, and to bring glory to your forebears, who indeed were very great ... This is my ancestry; this is the blood I am proud to inherit. It is the motto of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff. The phrase has also been used as the motto of a number of schools and universities, mainly in the United Kingdom, notably the University of St Andrews,[1] but also in the United States and Canada. These include schools such as Caistor Grammar School, the Edinburgh Academy,[2] Kelvinside Academy[3] and Old Scona Academic High School,[4] as well as Boston College.[5]
Neo-futurism.  Neo-futurism is a late-20th to early-21st-century movement in the arts, design, and architecture.[2][3] Described as an avant-garde movement,[4] as well as a futuristic rethinking of the thought behind aesthetics and functionality of design in growing cities, the movement has its origins in the mid-20th-century structural expressionist work of architects such as Alvar Aalto and Buckminster Fuller.[2] Futurist architecture began in the early 20th century in Italy focusing on the future, valuing speed, risk and heroism; while Neo-futurism was defined in the 1980s as a broader movement that appeared in the 1950s and continues today.[5][6] Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s by architects such as Buckminster Fuller[7] and John C. Portman Jr.;[8][9][failed verification] architect and industrial designer Eero Saarinen,[10] Archigram, an avant-garde architectural group (Peter Cook, Warren Chalk, Ron Herron, Dennis Crompton, Michael Webb and David Greene, Jan Kaplický and others);[11][12][13][14][15][16] it is considered in part an evolution out of high-tech architecture, developing many of the same themes and ideas.[17]
Geographic coordinate system.   A geographic coordinate system (GCS) is a spherical or geodetic coordinate system for measuring and communicating positions directly on Earth as latitude and longitude.[1] It is the simplest, oldest, and most widely used type of the various spatial reference systems that are in use, and forms the basis for most others. Although latitude and longitude form a coordinate tuple like a cartesian coordinate system, geographic coordinate systems are not cartesian because the measurements are angles and are not on a planar surface.[2] A full GCS specification, such as those listed in the EPSG and ISO 19111 standards, also includes a choice of geodetic datum (including an Earth ellipsoid), as different datums will yield different latitude and longitude values for the same location.[3] The invention of a geographic coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who composed his now-lost Geography at the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC.[4] A century later, Hipparchus of Nicaea improved on this system by determining latitude from stellar measurements rather than solar altitude and determining longitude by timings of lunar eclipses, rather than dead reckoning. In the 1st or 2nd century, Marinus of Tyre compiled an extensive gazetteer and mathematically plotted world map using coordinates measured east from a prime meridian at the westernmost known land, designated the Fortunate Isles, off the coast of western Africa around the Canary or Cape Verde Islands, and measured north or south of the island of Rhodes off Asia Minor. Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the midsummer day.[5]
Sumida, Tokyo. Sumida (墨田区, Sumida-ku) is a special ward in the Tokyo Metropolis in Japan. The English translation of its Japanese self-designation is Sumida City. As of 1 April 2025, the ward has an estimated population of 287,766 and a population density of 20,120 persons per km2. Its total area is 13.77 km2. Sumidas city office is located in Azumabashi, while its commercial center is the area around Kinshicho Station in the south. Sumida is in the north-eastern part of the mainland portion of Tokyo. The Sumida and Arakawa are the major rivers, and form parts of its boundaries. Its neighbors are all special wards: Adachi to the north; Arakawa to the northwest; Katsushika to the east; Edogawa to the southeast; Taitō to the west; Chūō to the southwest; and Kōtō to the south. The ward was founded on March 15, 1947. It was previously the (ordinary) wards Honjo and Mukojima. Mukojima, formed in 1932, contained the former town of Sumida, which along with the river gave the ward its name.
Late Pleistocene.  The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as the Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale, preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian (commonly known as the Middle Pleistocene).[4] The beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the transition between the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and the beginning of the Last Interglacial around 130,000 years ago (corresponding with the beginning of Marine Isotope Stage 5).[5] The Late Pleistocene ends with the termination of the Younger Dryas, some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began.[2] The term Upper Pleistocene is currently in use as a provisional or quasi-formal designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Although the three oldest ages of the Pleistocene (the Gelasian, the Calabrian and the Chibanian) have been officially defined, the late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined.[6] Following the brief Last Interglacial warm period (~130–115,000 years ago), where temperatures were comparable to or warmer than the Holocene, the Late Pleistocene was dominated by the cool Last Glacial Period, with temperatures gradually lowering throughout the period, reaching their lowest during the Last Glacial Maximum around 26–20,000 years ago. In palaeoanthropology, the Late Pleistocene contains the Upper Palaeolithic stage of human development, including the early human migrations of modern humans outside of Africa, and the extinction of all archaic human species.
Boston University.  Boston University (BU) is a private research university in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. BU was founded in 1839 by a group of Boston Methodists with its original campus in Newbury, Vermont. It was chartered in Boston in 1869. The university is a member of the Association of American Universities and the Boston Consortium for Higher Education.[13][14] The university has nearly 38,000 students and more than 4,000 faculty members[15] and is one of Bostons largest employers.[16] It offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on three urban campuses.[17] BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier.  The Boston University Terriers compete in NCAA Division I. The university is nonsectarian, though it retains its historical affiliation with the United Methodist Church.[5][6][7]  The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway–Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, while the Boston University Medical Campus is located in Bostons South End neighborhood. The Fenway campus houses the Wheelock College of Education and Human Development, formerly Wheelock College, which merged with BU in 2018.[18] The university is classified among R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity.[19] Boston University traces its roots to the establishment of the Newbury Biblical Institute in Newbury, Vermont, in 1839,[20] and was chartered with the name Boston University by the Massachusetts Legislature in 1869. The university organized formal centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969.[21] One or the other, or both dates, may appear on various official seals used by different schools of the university.
Latin.  Latin (lingua Latina or Latinum[I]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area around Rome, Italy.[1] Through the expansion of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire. It has greatly influenced many languages,  including English, having contributed many words to the English lexicon, particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest. Latin roots appear frequently in the technical vocabulary used by fields such as theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers, attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence[2] and the author Petronius. While often called a dead language,[3] Latin did not undergo language death. Between the 6th and 9th centuries, natural language change in the vernacular Latin of different regions evolved into distinct Romance languages. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Latin remained the common language of international communication, science, scholarship and academia in Europe into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary form of the language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance, which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin. This was the basis for Neo-Latin, which evolved during the early modern period. Latin was taught to be written and spoken at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode; Contemporary Latin is generally studied to be read rather than spoken. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin grammar is highly fusional, with classes of inflections for case, number, person, gender, tense, mood, voice, and aspect. The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets.
Alvan Clark. Alvan Clark (March 8, 1804 – August 19, 1887)  was an American astronomer and telescope maker. Born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, Clark started as a portrait painter and engraver (c.1830s–1850s), and at the age of 40 became involved in telescope making. Using glass blanks made by Chance Brothers of Birmingham, England, and Feil-Mantois of Paris, France, his firm Alvan Clark & Sons ground lenses for refracting telescopes. Their lenses included the largest in the world at the time: the 18.5-inch (47 cm) at Dearborn Observatory at the Old University of Chicago (the lens originally intended for Ole Miss); also the two 26-inch (66 cm) telescopes at the United States Naval Observatory and McCormick Observatory, the 30-inch (76 cm) at Pulkovo Observatory, which was destroyed in the Siege of Leningrad (only the lens survives), the 36-inch (91 cm) telescope at Lick Observatory (still the third-largest), and later the 40-inch (100 cm) at Yerkes Observatory, which remains the largest successful refracting telescope in the world. Although not specifically searching for double stars, he did make a number of discoveries while testing his completed telescope objectives,[1] including Mu Herculis, 8 Sextantis, and 95 Ceti.[2] One of Clarks sons, Alvan Graham Clark, discovered the dim companion of Sirius. Two craters bear Clark Sr.s name. The crater Clark on the Moon is jointly named for him and his son, Alvan Graham Clark, and one on Mars is named in his honour.[3] His other son was George Bassett Clark; both sons were partners in the firm. Clark was also competitive in target shooting and received a patent for his device to allow bullets to be seated into a muzzle-loading rifle without damage to either the bullet or the rifles muzzle. Exclusive license to this patent (1,565 of April 24, 1840) was made to Edwin Wesson, brother of Daniel B. Wesson.[4] In 1880, Clark was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.[5]
Yamatai. Yamatai or Yamatai-koku (邪馬台国) (c. 1st century – c. 3rd century) is the Sino-Japanese name of an ancient country in Wa (Japan) during the late Yayoi period (c. 1,000 BCE – c. 300 CE). The Chinese text Records of the Three Kingdoms first recorded the name as /*ja-maB-də̂/ (邪馬臺)[1] or /*ja-maB-ʔit/ (邪馬壹) (using reconstructed Eastern Han Chinese pronunciations)[1][2] followed by the character 國 for country, describing the place as the domain of Priest-Queen Himiko (卑弥呼) (died c. 248 CE). Generations of Japanese historians, linguists, and archeologists have debated where Yamatai was located and whether it was related to the later Yamato (大和国).[3][4][5] The oldest accounts of Yamatai are found in the official Chinese dynastic Twenty-Four Histories for the 1st- and 2nd-century Eastern Han dynasty, the 3rd-century Wei kingdom, and the 6th-century Sui dynasty. The c. 297 CE Records of Wèi (traditional Chinese: 魏志), which is part of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三國志), first mentions the country Yamatai, usually spelled as 邪馬臺 (/*ja-maB-də̂/), written instead with the spelling 邪馬壹 (/*ja-maB-ʔit/), or Yamaichi in modern Japanese pronunciation.[3] Most Wei Zhi commentators accept the 邪馬臺 (/*ja-maB-də̂/) transcription in later texts and dismiss this initial spelling using 壹 (/ʔit/) meaning one (the  anti-fraud character variant for 一 one) as a miscopy, or perhaps a naming taboo avoidance, of 臺 (/dʌi/) meaning platform; terrace. This history describes ancient Wa based upon detailed reports of 3rd-century Chinese envoys who traveled throughout the Japanese archipelago: Going south by water for twenty days, one comes to the country of Toma, where the official is called mimi and his lieutenant, miminari. Here there are about fifty thousand households. Then going toward the south, one arrives at the country of Yamadai, where a Queen holds her court. [This journey] takes ten days by water and one month by land. Among the officials there are the ikima and, next in rank, the mimasho; then the mimagushi, then the nakato. There are probably more than seventy thousands households. (115, tr. Tsunoda 1951:9)
Yayoi period. The Yayoi period (弥生時代, Yayoi jidai) (c. 300 BC – 300 AD) is one of the major historical periods of the Japanese archipelago. It is generally defined as the era between the beginning of food production in Japan and the emergence of keyhole-shaped burial mounds (前方後円墳, zenpō-kōen-fun). Chronologically, it spans from around the 10th century BCE or 9th–8th century BCE to the mid-3rd century CE.[1][2] Following the Jōmon period, which was characterized by a hunter-gatherer economy, the Yayoi period marked the transition to a productive economy based on wet-rice agriculture. In the latter half of the late Yayoi period (around the 1st century CE), large regional powers emerged throughout western Japan, including the Tokai and Hokuriku regions. By the end of the 2nd century, the political entity known as Wa-koku (倭国) had formed. It is generally considered that the Yayoi period transitioned into the Kofun period around the mid-3rd century, although the precise starting point of the Kofun period remains debated among scholars.[1][2] The name “Yayoi” was given in the 19th century by archaeologists, after artifacts and remains characteristic of this period were discovered in the Yayoi district of Tokyo. [1]The most distinctive features of the Yayoi period are the emergence of a new style of pottery and the beginning of intensive rice cultivation in paddy fields. Yayoi pottery is more utilitarian and simpler in design compared to the decorative and intricate Jōmon pottery. With the advent of rice farming, people began to settle in one place for extended periods. Metallurgical techniques based on bronze and iron were introduced, and the inhabitants began to weave hemp, and to live in raised-floor dwellings with thatched roofs.[3][4] From an archaeological perspective, the term Yayoi people refers collectively to agricultural migrants from the Korean Peninsula and regions to the south, such as the South Pacific, who arrived during the Yayoi period. It does not denote a single ethnic group. These migrants gradually assimilated with the indigenous Jōmon population, forming the foundation of the modern Japanese people.[5] The degree of Yayoi cultural influence varied by region: Kyushu, Okinawa, and the Tōhoku region retained stronger Jōmon traits, while Kansai and Shikoku exhibited more pronounced Yayoi characteristics.[6]
Greek language.  Greek (Modern Greek: Ελληνικά, romanized: Elliniká, [eliniˈka] ⓘ; Ancient Greek: Ἑλληνική, romanized: Hellēnikḗ, [helːɛːnikɛ́ː]) is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), southern Albania, and other regions of the Balkans, Caucasus, the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor, and the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records.[10] Its writing system is the Greek alphabet, which has been used for approximately 2,800 years;[11][12] previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary.[13] The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics of Homer, ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek.[14][15] Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics. During antiquity, Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world.[16] It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek.[17] In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora. Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary.
Lovell Telescope.  The Lovell Telescope (/ˈlʌvəl/ LUV-əl) is a radio telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, near Goostrey, Cheshire, in the north-west of England. When construction was finished in 1957, the telescope was the largest steerable dish radio telescope in the world at 76.2 metres (250 feet) in diameter;[1] it is now the third-largest, after the Green Bank telescope in West Virginia, United States, and the Effelsberg telescope in Germany.[2] It was originally known as the 250 ft telescope or the Radio Telescope at Jodrell Bank, before becoming the Mark I telescope around 1961 when future telescopes (the Mark II, III, and IV) were being discussed.[3] It was renamed to the Lovell Telescope in 1987 after Sir Bernard Lovell,[4] and became a Grade I listed building in 1988.[5][6][7] The telescope forms part of the MERLIN and European VLBI Network arrays of radio telescopes. Both Bernard Lovell and Charles Husband were knighted for their roles in creating the telescope.[8] In September 2006, the telescope won the BBCs online competition to find the UKs greatest Unsung Landmark.[9] 2007 marked the 50th anniversary of the telescope. If the air is clear enough, the Mark I telescope can be seen from high-rise buildings in Manchester such as the Beetham Tower, and from as far away as the Pennines, Winter Hill in Lancashire, Snowdonia, Beeston Castle in Cheshire, and the Peak District. It can also be seen from the south-facing windows of the Terminal 1 restaurant area and departure lounges of Manchester Airport. Bernard Lovell built the Transit Telescope at Jodrell Bank in the late 1940s. This was a 218 ft (66 m)-diameter radio telescope that could only point directly upwards; the next logical step was to build a telescope that could look at all parts of the sky so that more sources could be observed, as well as for longer integration times. Although the Transit Telescope had been designed and constructed by the astronomers that used it, a fully steerable telescope would need to be professionally designed and constructed; the first challenge was to find an engineer willing to do the job. This turned out to be Charles Husband, whom Lovell first met on 8 September 1949.[10][11]
Tobu Railway. The Tobu Railway Company, Ltd. (東武鉄道株式会社, Tōbu Tetsudō kabushiki gaisha) is a Japanese commuter railway and keiretsu holding company in the Greater Tokyo Area as well as an intercity and regional operator in the Kantō region. Excluding the Japan Railways Group companies, Tobus 463.3 km (287.9 mi) rail system is the second longest in Japan after Kintetsu. It serves large portions of Saitama Prefecture, Gunma Prefecture and Tochigi Prefecture, as well as northern Tokyo and western Chiba Prefecture. The Tobu Railway Company is listed in the First Section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 index. The Tobu corporate group is also engaged in road transportation (bus/taxi), real estate, and retail. It is the owner of the Tokyo Skytree, the third tallest tower in the world. The company is a member of the Fuyo Group keiretsu. The name Tobu is formed from the kanji for east (東) and Musashi (武蔵), the initial area served. Tobu is one of the oldest railway companies in Japan. It was established in November 1897 and began operation between Kita-Senju and Kuki in August 1899. The Tojo Railway was founded in 1911 as a separate company, but shared its president and head office with Tobu.[3] In 1905, Nezu Kaichirō became the president of Tobu Railway and successfully helped to grow the company to one of the largest private rail operators in the Kanto region.[4]
Kanji (disambiguation). Kanji (Japanese: 漢字) is a Japanese writing system that can refer to all Chinese characters in general, especially in the Japanese Language. Kanji may also refer to:
Wa (name of Japan).  Wa[a] is the oldest attested name of Japan[b] and ethnonym of the Japanese people. From c. the 2nd century AD Chinese and Korean scribes used the Chinese character 倭; submissive, distant, dwarf to refer to the various inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago, although it might have been just used to transcribe the phonetic value of a Japonic ethnonym with a respectively differing semantic connotation. In the 8th century, the Japanese started using the character 和, wa, harmony, peace, balance instead due to the offensive nature of the former. Although the etymological origins of Wa remain uncertain, Chinese historical texts recorded an ancient people residing in the Japanese archipelago (perhaps Kyūshū), named something like *ɁWâ, transcribed with Chinese character 倭, pronounced *ʔuɑi < *ʔwɑi in Eastern Han Chinese.[1] In modern Chinese dictionaries, Carr surveys prevalent proposals for Was etymology ranging from a transcription of the Japanese first-person pronouns waga 我が my; our and ware 我 I; oneself; thou to Wa as 倭 implying dwarf barbarians, and summarizes interpretations for *ʼWâ Japanese into variations on two etymologies: behaviorally submissive or physically short.[2] The first submissive; obedient explanation began with the (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi dictionary. It defines 倭 as shùnmào 順皃 obedient/submissive,[3] graphically explains the person; human radical with a wěi 委 bent phonetic, and quotes the above Shi Jing poem. According to the 1716 Kangxi Dictionary (倭又人名 魯宣公名倭), 倭 was the name of King Tuyen (魯宣公) of Lu (Chinese: 魯國; pinyin: Lǔ Guó, c. 1042 – 249 BCE). Conceivably, when Chinese first met Japanese, Carr suggests they transcribed Wa as *ʼWâ bent back signifying compliant bowing/obeisance. Bowing is noted in early historical references to Japan.[4] Examples include Respect is shown by squatting,[5] and they either squat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect..[6] Koji Nakayama interprets wēi 逶 winding as very far away and euphemistically translates Wō 倭 as separated from the continent. The second etymology of wō 倭 meaning dwarf; short person has possible cognates in ǎi 矮 short (of stature); midget, dwarf; low, wō 踒 strain; sprain; bent legs, and wò 臥 lie down; crouch; sit (animals and birds). Early Chinese dynastic histories refer to a Zhūrúguó 侏儒國 pygmy/dwarf country located south of Japan, associated with possibly Okinawa Island or the Ryukyu Islands. Carr cites the historical precedence of construing Wa as submissive people and the Country of Dwarfs legend as evidence that the little people etymology was a secondary development.
Last Glacial Maximum.  The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period,[1] was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent between 26,000 and 20,000 years ago.[2]  Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America, Northern Europe, and Asia and profoundly affected Earths climate by causing a major expansion of deserts,[3] along with a large drop in sea levels.[4] Based on changes in position of ice sheet margins dated via terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating, growth of ice sheets in the southern hemisphere commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum coverage has been estimated to have occurred sometime between 26,500 years ago[1] and 20,000 years ago.[5] After this, deglaciation caused an abrupt rise in sea level. Decline of the West Antarctica ice sheet occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the sea level about 14,500 years ago.[6][7] Glacier fluctuations around the Strait of Magellan suggest the peak in glacial surface area was constrained to between 25,200 and 23,100 years ago.[8] There are no agreed dates for the beginning and end of the LGM, and researchers select dates depending on their criteria and the data set consulted. Jennifer French, an archeologist specialising in the European Palaeolithic, dates its onset at 27,500 years ago, with ice sheets at their maximum by around 26,000 years ago and deglaciation commencing between 20,000 and 19,000 years ago.[9] The LGM is referred to in Britain as the  Dimlington Stadial, dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years ago.[10][11] The average global temperature about 21,000 years ago was about 6 °C (11 °F) colder than today.[12][13][14] According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earths surface and 25% of the land area during the last glacial maximum.[15] The USGS also states that sea level was about 125 meters (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012).[15] When comparing to the present, the average global temperature was 15 °C (59 °F) for the 2013–2017 period.[16] As of 2012 about 3.1% of Earths surface and 10.7% of the land area is covered in year-round ice.[15]
List of named minor planets (alphabetical).  This is a list of named minor planets in an alphabetical, case-insensitive order grouped by the first letter of their name.[a][b] New namings, typically proposed by the discoverer and approved by the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature (WGSBN) of the International Astronomical Union, are published nowadays in their WGSBN Bulletin and summarized in a dedicated list several times a year.[1] Over the last four decades, the list has grown significantly with an average rate of 492 new namings published every year (or 1.35 namings per day). While in March 1979,[2] only 1924 minor planets had received a name and completed the designation process, as of 15 July 2024[update], the list contains 24,836 named objects.[1] This, however, only accounts for 3.45% of all numbered bodies, as there are over 720,000 minor planets with a well established orbit which is a precondition for receiving a name. Of all these minor-planet names, 1311 contain diacritical marks.[3] 
Logogram. In a written language, a logogram (from Ancient Greek logos word, and gramma that which is drawn or written), also logograph or lexigraph, is a written character that represents a semantic component of a language, such as a word or morpheme. Chinese characters as used in Chinese as well as other languages are logograms, as are Egyptian hieroglyphs and characters in cuneiform script. A writing system that primarily uses logograms is called a logography. Non-logographic writing systems, such as alphabets and syllabaries, are phonemic: their individual symbols represent sounds directly and lack any inherent meaning. However, all known logographies have some phonetic component, generally based on the rebus principle, and the addition of a phonetic component to pure ideographs is considered to be a key innovation in enabling the writing system to adequately encode human language. Some of the earliest recorded writing systems are logographic; the first historical civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and Mesoamerica all used some form of logographic writing.[1][2] All logographic scripts ever used for natural languages rely on the rebus principle to extend a relatively limited set of logograms: A subset of characters is used for their phonetic values, either consonantal or syllabic. The term logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the phonetic domain is the syllable. In Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cholti, and in Chinese, there has been the additional development of determinatives, which are combined with logograms to narrow down their possible meaning. In Chinese, they are fused with logographic elements used phonetically; such radical and phonetic characters make up the bulk of the script. Ancient Egyptian and Chinese relegated the active use of rebus to the spelling of foreign and dialectical words. Logoconsonantal scripts have graphemes that may be extended phonetically according to the consonants of the words they represent, ignoring the vowels. For example, Egyptian was used to write both sȝ duck and sȝ son, though it is likely that these words were not pronounced the same except for their consonants.  The primary examples of logoconsonantal scripts are Egyptian hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic: Ancient Egyptian.
Furigana.  Furigana (振り仮名; Japanese pronunciation: [ɸɯɾigaꜜna] or [ɸɯɾigana]) is a Japanese reading aid consisting of smaller kana (syllabic characters) printed either above or next to kanji (logographic characters) or other characters to indicate their pronunciation. It is one type of ruby text. Furigana is also known as yomigana (読み仮名) and rubi (ルビ; [ɾɯꜜbi]) in Japanese. In modern Japanese, it is usually used to gloss rare kanji, to clarify rare, nonstandard or ambiguous kanji readings, or in childrens or learners materials. Before the post-World War II script reforms, it was more widespread.[1] Furigana is most often written in hiragana, though in certain cases it may be written in katakana, Roman alphabet letters or in other, simpler kanji. In vertical text, tategaki, the furigana is placed to the right of the line of text; in horizontal text, yokogaki, it is placed above the line of text, as illustrated below. or 
Tokyo.  Tokyo,[a] officially the Tokyo Metropolis,[b] is the capital and most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is one of the most populous urban areas in the world. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and parts of six neighboring prefectures, is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, with 41 million residents as of 2024[update]. Lying at the head of Tokyo Bay, Tokyo is part of the Kantō region, on the central coast of Honshu, Japans largest island. It is Japans economic center and the seat of the Japanese government and the Emperor of Japan. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government administers Tokyos central 23 special wards, which formerly made up Tokyo City; various commuter towns and suburbs in its western area; and two outlying island chains, the Tokyo Islands. Although most of the world recognizes Tokyo as a city, since 1943 its governing structure has been more akin to that of a prefecture, with an accompanying Governor and Assembly taking precedence over the smaller municipal governments that make up the metropolis. Special wards in Tokyo include Chiyoda, the site of the National Diet Building and the Tokyo Imperial Palace; Shinjuku, the citys administrative center; and Shibuya, a hub of commerce and business. Tokyo, originally known as Edo, rose to political prominence in 1603 when it became the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate, and by the mid-18th century, Edo had evolved from a small fishing village into one of the largest cities in the world, with a population surpassing one million. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the imperial capital in Kyoto was moved to Edo, and the city was renamed Tokyo (lit. Eastern Capital). Tokyo was greatly damaged by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and by allied bombing raids during World War II. From the late 1940s, Tokyo underwent rapid reconstruction and expansion, which fueled the Japanese economic miracle, in which Japans economy became the second-largest in the world at the time, behind that of the United States.[9] As of 2023[update], Tokyo is home to 29 of the worlds 500 largest companies, as listed in the annual Fortune Global 500—the second highest number of any city.[10] Tokyo was the first city in Asia to host the Summer Olympics and Paralympics, in 1964 and then in 2021. It also hosted three G7 summits, in 1979, 1986, and 1993. Tokyo is an international hub of research and development and an academic center, with several major universities, including the University of Tokyo, the top-ranking university in Japan.[11][12] Tokyo Station is the central hub for the Shinkansen, the countrys high-speed railway network; and the citys Shinjuku Station is the worlds busiest train station. Tokyo Skytree is the worlds tallest tower.[13] The Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, which opened in 1927, is the oldest underground metro line in Asia.[14]
Small Solar System body. A small Solar System body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The term was first defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as follows: All other objects, except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as Small Solar System Bodies.[1] This encompasses all comets and all minor planets other than those that are dwarf planets. Thus SSSBs are: the comets; the classical asteroids, with the exception of the dwarf planet Ceres; the trojans; and the centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects, with the exception of the dwarf planets Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Quaoar, Orcus, Sedna, Gonggong and Eris and others that may turn out to be dwarf planets. The current definition was included in the 2006 IAU resolution that defined the term planet, demoting the status of Pluto to that of dwarf planet. In the context, it should be interpreted as, All objects other than planets and dwarf planets orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as Small Solar System Bodies. The definition excludes interstellar objects traveling through the Solar System, such as the interstellar interlopers 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov. It is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as interplanetary dust, particles of solar wind and free particles of hydrogen.) Except for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.
Flagstaff, Arizona.  Flagstaff (/ˈflæɡ.stæf/ FLAG-staf), known locally as Flag, is a city in and the county seat of Coconino County, Arizona, United States. As of the 2020 United States census, the citys population was 76,831. Flagstaff is the principal city of the Flagstaff metropolitan area, which includes all of Coconino County, and has a population of 145,101. Flagstaff lies near the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau and within the San Francisco volcanic field, along the western side of the largest contiguous ponderosa pine forest in the continental United States. The city sits at around 7,000 feet (2,100 m) and is next to Mount Elden, just south of the San Francisco Peaks, the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona. Humphreys Peak, the highest point in Arizona at 12,637 feet (3,852 m), is about 10 miles (16 km) north of Flagstaff in Kachina Peaks Wilderness. The geology of the area includes exposed rock from the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras, with Moenkopi Formation red sandstone having once been quarried in the city; many of the historic downtown buildings were constructed with it. The Rio de Flag river runs through the city, but only flows in response to rain or snowmelt. Originally settled by the pre-Columbian native Sinagua people, the area of Flagstaff has fertile land from volcanic ash after eruptions in the 11th century. It was first settled as the present-day city in 1876. Local businessmen lobbied for Route 66 to pass through the city, which it did, turning the local industry from lumber to tourism and developing downtown Flagstaff. In 1930, Pluto was discovered from Flagstaff. The city developed further through to the end of the 1960s, with various observatories also used to choose Moon landing sites for the Apollo missions. Through the 1970s and 1980s, downtown fell into disrepair, but was revitalized with a major cultural heritage project in the 1990s. The city remains an important distribution hub for companies such as Nestlé Purina PetCare, and is home to the U.S. Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station, the U.S. Geological Survey, and Northern Arizona University. Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to Grand Canyon National Park, Oak Creek Canyon, the Arizona Snowbowl, Meteor Crater, and Historic Route 66.
Chris Strait. Christopher Alan Strait (born January 14, 1976) is an American comedian and writer. He is best known for being a regular contributor to TruTVs Worlds Dumbest.... Strait was born in Inglewood, California, and grew up in the Ladera Heights section of Los Angeles near Baldwin Hills. He is the older of two sons, and also has a half-sister (from fathers side).  Strait is of predominately English and German descent, although he claims to be a European mutt. He graduated from Culver City High School in 1994, and subsequently earned a bachelors degree in history from California State University, Dominguez Hills in 1999. Strait then received his masters degree in psychology from Antioch University in 2001. He had intended to be a psychotherapist, but was told by supervisors that his problem-solving style was too aggressive. He began his comedy career while still in graduate school, in the summer of 2000. His Masters Thesis was on the subject of humor. Early influences included Mel Brooks, Bill Cosby, Bob Newhart, and The Smothers Brothers. Later his admiration shifted to the likes of George Carlin, Bill Hicks, Richard Pryor, and Louis CK.  In addition to his comedy career, Strait has also been employed in real estate, finance, behavioral therapy, and journalism. Strait was previously married from 2004 to 2017.  He has a daughter (born 2007), and a son (born 2011). He and his second wife had a son in 2018.  They married legally in December 2019, but their official wedding was delayed to June 2021, due to the Covid-19 Pandemic.
Brian Strait.  Brian James Strait (born January 4, 1988) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman who is an unrestricted free agent. He last played for the Binghamton Devils of the American Hockey League (AHL) while under contract to the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has previously played with the Pittsburgh Penguins, New York Islanders and the Winnipeg Jets in the NHL. As a youth, Strait played in the 2002 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Middlesex Islanders minor ice hockey team.[1] Strait played two seasons at the Northfield Mount Hermon School, recording 12 points during his freshman season, and 20 the next year. Beginning in 2004 he joined the U.S. National Development Team in the North American Hockey League. He was the captain of the gold-medal U.S. team at the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships.[2] After graduating from Ann Arbor Pioneer High School in 2006, Strait attended Boston University, where he began playing for the Boston Terriers mens ice hockey team. In his freshman season, Strait was twice selected as Hockey East rookie of the week. He served as captain of the U.S. team at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, where the team finished fourth. That season he also was selected runner-up for the Hockey East Best Defensive Defenseman award.[2] During his junior season at Boston, Strait served as an alternate captain. That season, the Terriers won the Beanpot, Hockey East and the NCAA Division I national championship.[3]
Edward M. Strait.  Edward M. Strait (June 23, 1930 – December 20, 2008) was an American labor leader. He was President of the Amalgamated Council of Greyhound Local Unions, representing more than 9,300 employees,[1] and head of the Amalgamated Transit Unions bargaining unit during the strike beginning March 2, 1990, and ending in April 1993.[2]  As Council President, Strait discussed the terms of all possible negotiations with the 16 local union presidents.[3]  Believing the company was motivated by a preconceived desire to bust the union, Strait explained that they negotiated us into a strike. I think this has been planned. The company wants to get rid of the union.[4][5] Initial strike negotiations were stalled by acts of violence.[6]  While Greyhound CEO Fred Currey argued that no American worth his salt negotiates with terrorists, Strait responded that managements failure to negotiate amounted to putting the negotiations back into  the hands of terrorists.[7] Shortly after Currey declared victory and called the strike irrelevant,[8] Greyhound was forced to declare bankruptcy in June, 1990, which Strait predicted in a debate with Executive Vice President and Chief Negotiator Anthony Lannie on Jim Lehrers NewsHour.[9] After Greyhound declared bankruptcy, Strait was primarily concerned with obtaining seniority rehiring for the striking workers, explaining, They promised these scabs jobs.  They just dont want to negotiate seniority. If you have a dollar amount, but no seniority, you dont have a job. Without seniority you dont have anything.[10] Prior to the 1990 strike, Strait was active in the 1983 Greyhound strike as president of Amalgamated Transit Union Local 1098 in Washington, DC.[11]  His initial involvement with Greyhound began when he began driving buses in the 1960s.[12]
Strait. A strait is a water body connecting two seas or water basins. The surface water is, for the most part, at the same elevation on both sides and can flow through the strait in either direction, although the topography generally constricts the flow somewhat. In some straits, there is a dominant directional current. Most commonly, the strait is a narrow channel that lies between two land masses. Straits are loci for sediment accumulation, with sand-sized deposits usually occurring on the two strait exits, forming subaqueous fans or deltas. Some straits are not navigable because, for example, they are too narrow or too shallow, or due to the presence of a reef or archipelago. The terms channel, pass, or passage can be synonymous and used interchangeably with strait, although each is sometimes differentiated with varying senses. In Scotland, firth or Kyle are also sometimes used as synonyms for strait. Many straits are economically important. Straits can be important shipping routes and wars have been fought for control of them. Numerous artificial channels, called canals, have been constructed to connect two oceans or seas over land, such as the Suez Canal.  Although rivers and canals often provide passage between two large lakes, and these seem to suit the formal definition of strait, they are not usually referred to as such. Rivers and often canals, generally have a directional flow tied to changes in elevation, whereas straits often are free flowing in either direction or switch direction, maintaining the same elevation. The term strait is typically reserved for much larger, wider features of the marine environment. There are exceptions, with straits being called canals; Pearse Canal, for example. Straits are the converse of isthmuses. That is, while a strait lies between two land masses and connects two large areas of ocean, an isthmus lies between two areas of ocean and connects two large land masses.
Kanbun.  Kanbun (漢文 Han writing) is a system for writing Literary Chinese used in Japan from the Nara period until the 20th century. Much of Japanese literature was written in this style and it was the general writing style for official and intellectual works throughout the period. As a result, Sino-Japanese vocabulary makes up a large portion of the Japanese lexicon and much classical Chinese literature is accessible to Japanese readers in some resemblance of the original. The Japanese writing system originated through adoption and adaptation of written Chinese. Some of Japans oldest books (e.g. the Nihon Shoki) and dictionaries (e.g. the Tenrei Banshō Meigi and Wamyō Ruijushō) were written in kanbun. Other Japanese literary genres have parallels; the Kaifūsō is the oldest collection of kanshi (漢詩; Chinese poetry). Burton Watsons English translations of kanbun compositions provide an introduction to this literary field.[1][2] Samuel Martin coined the term Sino-Xenic in 1953 to describe Chinese as written in Japan, Korea, and other foreign (hence -xenic) zones on Chinas periphery.[3] Roy Andrew Miller notes that although Japanese kanbun conventions have Sino-Xenic parallels with other traditions for reading Literary Chinese like Korean hanmun and Vietnamese Hán Văn, only kanbun has survived to the present day.[4] He explains how in the Japanese kanbun reading tradition a Chinese text is simultaneously punctuated, analyzed, and translated into classical Japanese. It operates according to a limited canon of Japanese forms and syntactic structures which are treated as existing in a one-to-one alignment with the vocabulary and structures of classical Chinese. At its worst, this system for reading Chinese as if it were Japanese became a kind of lazy schoolboys trot to a classical text; at its best, it has preserved the analysis and interpretation of large body of literary Chinese texts which would otherwise have been completely lost; hence, the kanbun tradition can often be of great value for an understanding of early Chinese literature.
Derrick Strait.  Derrick Lee Strait (born August 27, 1980) is an American former professional football player who was a cornerback for three seasons in the National Football League (NFL) during the early 2000s.  He played college football for the Oklahoma Sooners, earning unanimous All-American honors in 2003.  The New York Jets chose him in the third round of the 2004 NFL draft, and he also played professionally for the Chicago Bears and Carolina Panthers of the NFL. Strait was born in Austin, Texas.  He attended Lanier High School in Austin, playing football for coach and former University of Texas player Wade Johnson. While in high school, Strait was selected to the Texas Top 100 by the Houston Chronicle and a Max Emfinger National Top 500 selection. Strait saw action as a quarterback, defensive back and running back during his senior season, where he rushed for 1,439 yards and 17 touchdowns, recording eight runs of 20 or more yards, including one of 81 yards and also threw three touchdowns. He also had, 118 tackles (52 solos), one quarterback sack, two forced fumbles, four fumble recoveries, 11 pass deflections and two interceptions on defense. He returned one fumble 42 yards for a touchdown. Strait combined for more than 1,500 yards as a junior (790 passing and 712 rushing). He was an All-District standout as well as being selected to the All-CenTex team. Strait received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Oklahoma, and played for coach Bob Stoopss Oklahoma Sooners football team from 2000 to 2003.  He was a starter at the cornerback position all four years.  Derrick was a two-time All-American, recipient of the 2003 Bronko Nagurski Trophy, and the 2003 Jim Thorpe Award after his senior season.  He holds a team record with five fumble recoveries in a single season.  He was named to the Sports Illustrated All-Decade Team in 2009. In 2000, Strait was selected as the Big 12 Conference Defensive Newcomer of the Year by the Associated Press, Freshman All-America selection by The Sporting News, a third-team All-Big 12 selection by the Big 12 Coaches. Strait started every game at right cornerback and finished his first season fourth in tackles with 62. He also recorded five tackles for loss, two sacks and 15 pass deflections. He recorded the second most deflections on the team and fourth most for an Oklahoma defensive back in a single season. Strait recorded one of his biggest deflections late in the Oklahoma State game when he broke up a pass in the end zone on fourth and goal, which helped Oklahoma secure the victory. Strait also had another key breakup in the Orange Bowl against Florida State, with he deflected a possible touchdown pass in the fourth quarter, he also had five tackles in the game. Strait had a pair of interceptions, including a third quarter pick against Nebraska which he returned 32 yards for a touchdown, he was also one of five Sooners to return an interception for a touchdown. He recorded a career-high 10 tackles against Texas. He also recorded five tackles, two tackles for loss and one sack a week later at Kansas State. Strait also had seven tackles and an interception in the final home game of the year against Texas Tech.
The Straits.  The Straits is an Australian television drama series for ABC1[2] filmed in Cairns, the Torres Strait Islands and other Far North Queensland locations. The series is based on an idea by actor Aaron Faaoso and produced by Penny Chapman and Helen Panckhurst from Matchbox Pictures. It is directed by Peter Andrikidis, Rachel Ward, and Rowan Woods. It is written by Louis Nowra, Blake Ayshford, Nick Parsons, Kristen Dunphy, and Jaime Browne. On 19 October 2012, it was announced that a second series would not be produced.[3] In December 2012, the show began airing exclusively on Hulu.[4] The series follows the Montebello family, whose business involves smuggling drugs into Australia, and guns and exotic wildlife out, making use of ties of blood and loyalty in the Torres Strait Islands. When Harry Montebello, the head of the family, starts to plan his succession, he sparks a vicious family power struggle. While under attack from ambitious bikers and mercurial Papua New Guinea Raskol gangs, the family must hold together through torture, assassination, and imprisonment.[2]
Fujiyama (disambiguation). Fujiyama, better known in English as Mount Fuji, is the highest mountain in Japan. Fujiyama may also refer to:
Ōwakudani. Ōwakudani (大涌谷, lit. Great Boiling Valley) is a volcanic valley with active sulphur vents and hot springs in Hakone, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. It was created around 3,000 years ago, as a result of the explosion of the Hakone volcano.[1] It is a popular tourist site for its scenic views, volcanic activity, and kuro-tamago (黒卵, lit. black egg) — a local variety of hard-boiled eggs that uses the hot springs in their preparation.[2] As a result of them being boiled in the mineral-rich waters of the valley, which contain high levels of sulfur, the egg shells turn black and give off a slightly sulfuric odour; eating one is said to add seven years to your life.[3] Upon seeing the hellish scenery, when Kōbō Daishi visited Owakudani more than a thousand years ago, he offered prayer to Bodhisattva. The Enmei-jizō in Owakudani is said to have its origin in the prayer.[4] Access to Ōwakudani is via a funitel, the Hakone Ropeway (Ōwakudani Station),[5] or a bus line from Odawara Station, Hakone-Yumoto Station, Kowakidani Station / Kojiri, the Izuhakone Bus (Ōwakudani Bus Stop).[6] There is a road to a visitor center just below the Kuro-tamago hot springs site. Most visitors used to hike the roughly 1 km (0.62 mi) trail (which has been closed since 2015 due to increased volcanic activity) or take the Hakone Ropeway to close to where the eggs are boiled to participate in the ritual egg eating. The funitel offers a vast view of Mount Fuji (on clear days) and the sulphur vents just below the visitor center.
Topographic prominence. In topography, prominence (also referred to as autonomous height, and shoulder drop in US English, and drop in British English) is the relative height of a mountain or hills summit relative to the lowest contour line encircling it but containing no higher summit within it. It is a measure of the independence of a summit. The key col (saddle) around the peak is a unique point on this contour line and the parent peak (if any) is some higher mountain, selected according to various criteria. The prominence of a peak is the least drop in height necessary in order to get from the summit to any higher terrain. This can be calculated for a given peak in the following manner: for every path connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the path; the key col (or highest saddle, or linking col, or link) is defined as the highest of these points, along all connecting paths; the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of its key col. On a given landmass, the highest peaks prominence will be identical to its elevation.[1] An alternative equivalent definition is that the prominence is the height of the peaks summit above the lowest contour line encircling it, but containing no higher summit within it; see Figure 1. The parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak.  The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua in Argentina at a distance of 17,755 km (11,032 miles), as well as the parent of the South Summit of Mount Everest at a distance of 360 m (1200 feet).  The key col may also be close to the subject peak or far from it.  The key col for Aconcagua, if sea level is disregarded, is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km (8,485 miles).  The key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m (330 feet) distant. A way to visualize prominence is to imagine raising sea level so the parent peak and subject peak are two separate islands. Then lower it until a tiny land bridge forms between the two islands. This land bridge is the key col of the subject peak, and the peaks prominence is its elevation from that key col. One can also refer to it as the tallest possible path between the two peaks, where the key col is the lowest point on that path.
Bob Strait. Bob Strait (born April 12, 1949) is an American stock car racing driver.[1] He was one of the pioneer NASCAR SuperTruck Series drivers. He has sixteen ARCA victories. (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)
Dire Straits.  Dire Straits were a British rock band formed in London in 1977 by Mark Knopfler (lead vocals, lead guitar), David Knopfler (rhythm guitar, backing vocals), John Illsley (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Pick Withers (drums, percussion). The band was active from 1977 to 1988 and again from 1990 to 1995.[2] Their first single, Sultans of Swing, from their 1978 self-titled debut album, reached the top ten in the UK and US charts. It was followed by a series of hit singles including Romeo and Juliet (1981), Private Investigations (1982), Twisting by the Pool (1983), Money for Nothing (1985), and Walk of Life (1985).[3] Their most commercially successful album, Brothers in Arms (1985), has sold more than 30 million copies worldwide; it was the first album to sell a million copies on CD[4][5] and is the eighth-best-selling album in UK history. According to the Guinness Book of British Hit Albums, as of 2005, Dire Straits had spent over 1,100 weeks on the UK Albums Chart, the fifth-most at that time.[6] Dire Straits drew from influences including country, folk, the blues rock of J. J. Cale, and jazz.[7] Their stripped-down sound contrasted with punk rock and demonstrated a roots rock influence that emerged from pub rock. The band experienced several changes in personnel, with Mark Knopfler and Illsley being the only members who remained with the band for its entire history.[8] After their first breakup in 1988, Knopfler told Rolling Stone: A lot of press reports were saying we were the biggest band in the world. Theres not an accent then on the music, theres an accent on popularity. I needed a rest.[9] They regrouped in 1990 and disbanded permanently in June 1995, after which Knopfler launched a solo career full-time. He has declined numerous reunion offers,[10] and confirmed in April 2024 that he would never play as part of the group again.[11] Dire Straits were called the biggest British rock band of the 80s by Classic Rock magazine;[12] their 1985–1986 world tour, which included a performance at Live Aid in July 1985, set a record in Australasia.[13] Their final world tour from 1991 to 1992 sold 7.1 million tickets. The band won four Grammy Awards, three Brit Awards (including Best British Group twice) and two MTV Video Music Awards, among various others.[14] They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018.  Dire Straits have sold between 100 million and 120 million records worldwide, including 51.4 million certified units, making them one of the best-selling music artists of all time.[15][16]
Old Japanese.  Old Japanese (上代日本語, Jōdai Nihon-go) is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language, recorded in documents from the Nara period (8th century). It became Early Middle Japanese in the succeeding Heian period, but the precise delimitation of the stages is controversial. Old Japanese was an early member of the Japonic language family. No genetic links to other language families have been proven. Old Japanese was written using manyōgana, which is a writing system that employs Chinese characters as syllabograms or (occasionally) logograms. It featured a few phonemic differences from later forms, such as a simpler syllable structure and distinctions between several pairs of syllables that have been pronounced identically since Early Middle Japanese. The phonetic realization of these distinctions is uncertain. Internal reconstruction points to a pre-Old Japanese phase with fewer consonants and vowels. As is typical of Japonic languages, Old Japanese was primarily an agglutinative language with a subject–object–verb word order, adjectives and adverbs preceding the nouns and verbs they modified and auxiliary verbs and particles appended to the main verb. Unlike in later periods, Old Japanese adjectives could be used uninflected to modify following nouns. Old Japanese verbs had a rich system of tense and aspect suffixes. Old Japanese is usually defined as the language of the Nara period (710–794), when the capital was Heijō-kyō (now Nara).[1][2] That is the period of the earliest connected texts in Japanese, the 112 songs included in the Kojiki (712). The other major literary sources of the period are the 128 songs included in the Nihon Shoki (720) and the Manyōshū (c. 759), a compilation of over 4,500 poems.[3][4] Shorter samples are 25 poems in the Fudoki (720) and the 21 poems of the Bussokuseki-kahi (c. 752). The latter has the virtue of being an original inscription, whereas the oldest surviving manuscripts of all the other texts are the results of centuries of copying, with the attendant risk of scribal errors.[5] Prose texts are more limited but are thought to reflect the syntax of Old Japanese more accurately than verse texts do. The most important are the 27 Norito (liturgies) recorded in the Engishiki (compiled in 927) and the 62 Senmyō (literally announced order, meaning imperial edicts) recorded in the Shoku Nihongi (797).[4][6]
List of unnumbered minor planets. The following is a list of unnumbered minor planets in chronological order of their principal provisional designation. Contrary to their numbered counterparts, unnumbered minor planets have a poorly determined orbit due to insufficient observational data. This also includes lost minor planets which have not been observed for many years, or even decades. As of August 2023[update], the Minor Planet Center (MPC) accounts for 676,755 unnumbered minor planets which represent 52% of the overall minor planet population.[1][a] Unnumbered minor planets can be further divided into 129,103 single-opposition objects with short observation arcs, prone to mismatch and loss, and 547,652 objects that have been observed multiple times during opposition, when astrometric conditions are most favorable.[1] The JPL Small-Body Database gives a running total of 676,786 unnumbered minor planets.[2][a] The tables below contain 151 objects with a principal designation assigned between 1927 and 1994. Additional partial lists cover the period from 1995 to 2004.[a] Unnumbered minor planets detected after 2004 are not listed due to their large number. The orbital uncertainty parameter (U) ranges from low (0) to very high (9). For some single-opposition objects no numeric uncertainty is given (–), with E indicating an estimated, rather than determined orbital eccentricity. Furthermore, a color code is used to indicate a bodys basic dynamical classification, with additional information given in columns class and description and notes (especially for near-Earth objects, Jupiter trojans and distant objects).[1][3][4] If available, mean diameters are taken from the latest NEOWISE publication,[5] or, if not available, estimated based on an objects absolute magnitude and displayed in italics.[6] In the Minor Planet Circular from July 2018, the MPC announced that changes in their data processing pipeline will enable numberings to occur more frequently. It is stated that the new method will clear the backlog of unnumbered minor planets with an already well-established orbit without changing the criteria for numbering. Previously, this was not possible because of the difficulty of determining who was the discoverer.[7] Despite this announcement, however, the total of unnumbered minor planets has since significantly increased rather than decreased. The year of principal provisional designation for most unnumbered minor planets is younger than 2004 (see § Statistics). They are not listed in any of the partial lists due to their large number and frequent changes. New partial lists may be created in the future, as additional observations ultimately lead to new numberings and to fewer unnumbered bodies.
Lists of mountains. Mountains are listed according to various criteria: 
List of mountain peaks by prominence.  This is a list of mountain peaks ordered by their topographic prominence. The prominence of a peak is the minimum height of climb to the summit on any route from a higher peak, or from sea level if there is no higher peak. The lowest point on that route is the col. For full definitions and explanations of topographic prominence, key col, and parent, see topographic prominence. In particular, the different definitions of the parent of a peak are addressed at length in that article. Height on the other hand simply means elevation of the summit above sea level. Regarding parents, the prominence parent of peak A can be found by dividing the island or region in question into territories, by tracing the runoff from the key col (mountain pass) of every peak that is more prominent than peak A. The parent is the peak whose territory peak A resides in.
Littoral zone. The littoral zone, also called litoral or nearshore, is the part of a sea, lake, or river that is close to the shore.[1] In coastal ecology, the littoral zone includes the intertidal zone extending from the high water mark (which is rarely inundated), to coastal areas that are permanently submerged known as the foreshore. However, the geographical meaning of littoral zone extends well beyond the intertidal zone to include all neritic waters within the bounds of continental shelves. The word littoral may be used both as a noun and as an adjective. It derives from the Latin noun litus, litoris, meaning shore. (The doubled t is a late-medieval innovation, and the word is sometimes seen in the more classical-looking spelling litoral.)[2] The term has no single definition. What is regarded as the full extent of the littoral zone, and the way the littoral zone is divided into subregions, varies in different contexts. For lakes, the littoral zone is the nearshore habitat where photosynthetically active radiation penetrates to the lake bottom in sufficient quantities to support photosynthesis.[1] The use of the term also varies from one part of the world to another, and between different disciplines. For example, military commanders speak of the littoral in ways that are quite different from the definition used by marine biologists. The adjacency of water gives a number of distinctive characteristics to littoral regions. The erosive power of water results in particular types of landforms, such as sand dunes, and estuaries. The natural movement of the littoral along the coast is called the littoral drift. Biologically, the ready availability of water enables a greater variety of plant and animal life, and particularly the formation of extensive wetlands. In addition, the additional local humidity due to evaporation usually creates a microclimate supporting unique types of organisms. In oceanography and marine biology, the idea of the littoral zone is extended roughly to the edge of the continental shelf. Starting from the shoreline, the littoral zone begins at the spray region just above the high tide mark. From here, it moves to the intertidal region between the high and low water marks, and then out as far as the edge of the continental shelf. These three subregions are called, in order, the supralittoral zone, the eulittoral zone, and the sublittoral zone.
Marine ecosystem. Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earths aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earths water supply[1][2] and 90% of habitable space on Earth.[3] Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems.[4] Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as      whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, kelp forests and lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web. Marine ecosystems are characterized by the biological community of organisms that they are associated with and their physical environment. Classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Marine ecosystems are important sources of ecosystem services and food and jobs for significant portions of the global population. Human uses of marine ecosystems and pollution in marine ecosystems are significantly threats to the stability of these ecosystems. Environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources (for example overfishing of certain species), marine pollution, climate change, and building on coastal areas. Moreover, much of the carbon dioxide causing global warming and heat captured by global warming are absorbed by the ocean, ocean chemistry is changing through processes like ocean acidification which in turn threatens marine ecosystems. Because of the opportunities in marine ecosystems for humans and the threats created by humans, the international community has prioritized Life below water as Sustainable Development Goal 14.[5] The goal is to Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.[6] Coral reefs are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems in the world, with the largest being the Great Barrier Reef. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a variety of species living together. The corals form multiple symbiotic relationships with the organisms around them.[7]
List of observatory codes. This is a list of observatory codes (IAU codes or MPC codes) published by the Minor Planet Center.[1] For a detailed description, see observations of small Solar System bodies. bla de Vallbona
Intertidal zone. The intertidal zone or foreshore is the area above water level at low tide and underwater at high tide; in other words, it is the part of the littoral zone within the tidal range. This area can include several types of habitats with various species of life, such as sea stars, sea urchins, and many species of coral with regional differences in biodiversity. Sometimes it is referred to as the littoral zone or seashore, although those can be defined as a wider region. The intertidal zone also includes steep rocky cliffs, sandy beaches, bogs or wetlands (e.g., vast mudflats). This area can be a narrow strip, such as in Pacific islands that have only a narrow tidal range, or can include many meters of shoreline where shallow beach slopes interact with high tidal excursion. The peritidal zone is similar but somewhat wider, extending from above the highest tide level to below the lowest. Organisms in the intertidal zone are well-adapted to their environment, facing high levels of interspecific competition and the rapidly changing conditions that come with the tides.[1] The intertidal zone is also home to several species from many different phyla (Porifera, Annelida, Coelenterata, Mollusca, Arthropoda, etc.). The water that comes with the tides can vary from brackish waters, fresh with rain, to highly saline and dry salt, with drying between tidal inundations. Wave splash can dislodge residents from the littoral zone. With the intertidal zones high exposure to sunlight, the temperature can range from very hot with full sunshine to near freezing in colder climates. Some microclimates in the littoral zone are moderated by local features and larger plants such as mangroves. Adaptations in the littoral zone allow the utilization of nutrients supplied in high volume on a regular basis from the sea, which is actively moved to the zone by tides. The edges of habitats, in this case the land and sea, are themselves often significant ecosystems, and the littoral zone is a prime example. A typical rocky shore can be divided into a spray zone or splash zone (also known as the supratidal zone), which is above the spring high-tide line and is covered by water only during storms, and an intertidal zone, which lies between the high and low tidal extremes. Along most shores, the intertidal zone can be clearly separated into the following subzones: high tide zone, middle tide zone, and low tide zone. The intertidal zone is one of a number of marine biomes or habitats, including estuaries, the neritic zone, the photic zone, and deep zones. Marine biologists divide the intertidal region into three zones (low, middle, and high), based on the overall average exposure of the zone.[2] The low intertidal zone, which borders on the shallow subtidal zone, is only exposed to air at the lowest of low tides and is primarily marine in character. The mid intertidal zone is regularly exposed and submerged by average tides. The high intertidal zone is only covered by the highest of the high tides, and spends much of its time as terrestrial habitat. The high intertidal zone borders on the splash zone (the region above the highest still-tide level, but which receives wave splash). On shores exposed to heavy wave action, the intertidal zone will be influenced by waves, as the spray from breaking waves will extend the intertidal zone.
Estuary. An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.[1] Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments and are an example of an ecotone. Estuaries are subject both to marine influences such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water, and to fluvial influences such as flows of freshwater and sediment. The mixing of seawater and freshwater provides high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.[2] Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10,000–12,000 years ago.[3] Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns. They can have many different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets, or sounds, although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet the above definition of an estuary and could be fully saline. Many estuaries suffer degeneration from a variety of factors including soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, overfishing and the filling of wetlands. Eutrophication may lead to excessive nutrients from nitrogen run off, sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs, and diking or damming for flood control or water diversion.[3][4] The word estuary is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, which in itself is derived from the term aestus, meaning tide. There have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. The most widely accepted definition is: a semi-enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea, and within which seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage.[1] However, this definition excludes a number of coastal water bodies such as coastal lagoons and brackish seas. A more comprehensive definition of an estuary is a semi-enclosed body of water connected to the sea as far as the tidal limit or the salt intrusion limit and receiving freshwater runoff; however the freshwater inflow may not be perennial, the connection to the sea may be closed for part of the year and tidal influence may be negligible.[3] This broad definition also includes fjords, lagoons, river mouths, and tidal creeks. An estuary is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides. The effects of tides on estuaries can show nonlinear effects on the movement of water which can have important impacts on the ecosystem and waterflow. The seawater entering the estuary is diluted by the fresh water flowing from rivers and streams. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on the volume of freshwater, the tidal range, and the extent of evaporation of the water in the estuary.[2]
Peter Westergaard. Peter Talbot Westergaard (28 May 1931[1] – 26 June 2019)[2] was an American composer and music theorist. He was Professor Emeritus of music at Princeton University. Westergaard was born on 28 May 1931[3] in Champaign, Illinois. He pursued undergraduate studies at Harvard University, graduating in 1953, and in 1956 obtained an M.F.A. degree from Princeton University. He studied with Roger Sessions, Walter Piston, Darius Milhaud, Edward Cone, Milton Babbitt and Wolfgang Fortner (Pratt 2001) in Freiburg/Germany.[citation needed] He taught at Columbia University, Amherst College, and Princeton University before retiring in 2001. He continued to be active as a composer, mainly of opera and chamber music. He died in June 2019 at the age of 88.[4] Amongst former pupils of Babbitt, Westergaard stands out for his contributions to serial theory, as well as for his compositions, which are characterized by a delight in symmetry and mirror relationships, together with a concern for the systematic and integrated use of all the parameters of music, producing multileveled, clear, beautiful, and audible patterns (Griffiths 1981, 160–61). Film version of Alice in Wonderland published by Albany records.[full citation needed]
Alice in Wonderland (musical).  Alice in Wonderland is a musical by Henry Savile Clarke[1] (book and lyrics) and Walter Slaughter (music), based on Lewis Carrolls books Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871).[2] It debuted at the Prince of Waless Theatre in the West End on 23 December 1886. Aubrey Hopwood (lyrics) and Walter Slaughter (music) wrote additional songs which were first used for the 1900 revival. The piece, billed as A musical dream play in two acts, achieved considerable popularity.  At Carrolls request, Slaughter retained the old tunes in the parodies such as Bonny Dundee.[3] There were several amateur productions of Alice after the books publication, and Carroll himself considered dramatizing the story for the professional stage. In 1877 he wrote to Arthur Sullivan (of Gilbert and Sullivan) in an attempt to persuade him to write the songs for a musical production. Sullivan was interested in the idea and proposed that he would compose a score to Carrolls libretto. Carroll hesitated, partly at the high fee Sullivan suggested for his work. Wanting to know what he would get for his money, Carroll suggested that Sullivan first score a song or two. After this the proposed collaboration fizzled out.[4] In August 1886 the dramatist and critic Henry Savile Clarke wrote to Carroll asking to adapt Alice in Wonderland for the stage.[4] Carroll gave permission but with several stipulations:
List of observatory codes. This is a list of observatory codes (IAU codes or MPC codes) published by the Minor Planet Center.[1] For a detailed description, see observations of small Solar System bodies. bla de Vallbona
Alice in Wonderland (opera). Alice in Wonderland is a 2007 operatic adaptation of the novels Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871) by Lewis Carroll.[1] It is the first opera of Korean composer Unsuk Chin, who co-wrote the English libretto with the Asian-American playwright David Henry Hwang. It had its world premiere on 30 June 2007.[2] However, the jacket and notice of the DVD of the world premiere indicates that the recording was made on 27 June at the Bavarian State Opera as part of the 2007 Munich Opera Festival.[3] Conducted by Kent Nagano and featuring Sally Matthews in the title role and Dame Gwyneth Jones as the Queen of Hearts, the production was hailed as World Premiere of the Year by the German opera magazine Opernwelt.[4] A DVD was subsequently released by Euroarts. The American Premier took place in 2012 at Opera Theatre of Saint Louis conducted by Michael Christie under the direction of James Robinson featuring Ashley Emerson, Tracy Dahl, Jenni Bank, David Trudgen, Aubrey Allicock, and Julie Makerov. The most notable subsequent production was a co-production with the Los Angeles Philharmonic and The Barbican Center in London. The LA production was conceived by director Netia Jones and conducted in Los Angeles by Susanna Mälkki and in London by Baldur Brönnimann. The cast featured Rachele Gilmore, Andrew Watts, Marie Arnet, Jenni Bank, Jane Henschel, and Dietrich Henschel. The Opera also exists in a condensed concert version which has been performed by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic, The Bergen Philharmonic in Bergen and Oslo, and the Seoul Philharmonic. This version originated for Soprano and Alto but a Baritone was added for the Seoul version. The concert version has been performed by Sally Matthews(soprano), Rachele Gilmore(soprano), Jenni Bank(mezzo-soprano), and Dietrich Henschel(baritone).
North Africa.  North Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of the Western Sahara in the west, to Egypt and Sudans Red Sea coast in the east.[6] The most common definition for the regions boundaries includes Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara, the territory disputed between Morocco and the partially recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The United Nations’ definition includes all these countries as well as Sudan.[7] The African Union defines the region similarly, only differing from the UN in excluding the Sudan and including Mauritania.[8] The Sahel, south of the Sahara Desert, can be considered as the southern boundary of North Africa.[9][10][11] North Africa includes the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla, and the plazas de soberanía. It can also be considered to include Malta, as well as other Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish regions such as Lampedusa and Lampione, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, which are all either closer to the African continent than Europe or as close to the African continent as Europe. Northwest Africa has been inhabited by Berbers since the beginning of recorded history, while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Ancient Egyptians and Nubians. In the seventh and eighth centuries, Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula swept across the region during the early Muslim conquests. The Arab migrations to the Maghreb began immediately after, which started a long process of Islamization and Arabization that has altered the demographic breakdown of the region and defined the cultural landscape of North Africa ever since.[12] Many but not all Berbers and Ancient Egyptians gradually merged into Arab-Islamic culture, and today, the Arabs constitute the majority of the population in all North African countries.[13] The countries and people of North Africa share a large amount of their genetic, ethnic, cultural and linguistic identity and influence with the Middle East/West Asia, a process that began with the Neolithic Revolution c. 10,000 BC and pre Dynastic Egypt. The countries of North Africa are also a major part of the Arab world. The Islamic and Arab influence in North Africa has remained dominant ever since, with the region being major part of the Muslim world. North Africa is associated with the Middle East in the realm of geopolitics to form the Middle East-North Africa region.[14]
Division (business). A division, sometimes called a business sector or business unit (segment), is one of the parts into which a business, organization or company is divided.[1] Divisions are distinct parts of a business. If these divisions are all part of the same company, then that company is legally responsible for all of the obligations and debts of the divisions.[1][2][3] In the banking industry, an example would be East West Bancorp and its primary subsidiary, East West Bank.[4] Subsidiaries are separate, distinct legal entities for the purposes of taxation, regulation and liability. For this reason, they differ from divisions, which are businesses fully integrated within the main company, and not legally or otherwise distinct from it.[5][6] The Houston Chronicle highlighted that the creation of a division is substantially easier than developing subsidiaries. Because a division is an internal segment of a company, not an entirely separate entity, business owners create and end divisions at their whim. Also, because individuals in each division are employed by the same company, its easier to modify staffing to fit with this setup.[7] 
Dogū.  Dogu (Japanese: 土偶; IPA: [doɡɯː]; literally earthen figure) are small humanoid and animal figurines made during the later part of the Jōmon period (14,000–400 BC) of prehistoric Japan.[a] Dogū come exclusively from the Jōmon period, and were no longer made by the following Yayoi period. There are various styles of dogū, depending on the exhumation area and time period.[1][3] The National Museum of Japanese History estimates that the total number of dogū is approximately 15,000, while The Japan Times places the figure at approximately 18,000.[1][3] Dogū were made across all of Japan, except Okinawa. Most of the dogū have been found in eastern Japan and it is rare to find one in western Japan. The purpose of the dogū remains unknown and should not be confused with the clay haniwa funerary objects of the Kofun period (250 – 538 C.E.).[4] Everyday ceramic items from the period are called Jōmon pottery. Some scholars theorize the dogū acted as effigies of people, that manifested some kind of sympathetic magic.[5] For example, it may have been believed that illnesses could be transferred into the dogū, which were then destroyed, clearing the illness, or any other misfortune.[6]
Alices Adventures in Wonderland (ballet).  Alices Adventures in Wonderland is a ballet in three acts by Christopher Wheeldon with a scenario by Nicholas Wright, based on Alices Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. It was commissioned by The Royal Ballet, Covent Garden, and the National Ballet of Canada, and had its world premiere on Monday, 28 February 2011. The music by Joby Talbot is the first full-length score (1 hour 40 minutes) for the Royal Ballet in 20 years.[1] It is also the first full-length narrative ballet commissioned by The Royal Ballet since 1995.[2] The work is based on Lewis Carrolls 1865 well-known childrens book Alices Adventures in Wonderland. Wheeldon was attracted by the physicality of the characters and the perfect central role for a ballerina: The Royal Ballet already has a wealth of full-blooded ballets. I wanted to create something lighter and more friendly. He chose Lauren Cuthbertson for the lead role of Alice as someone who could captivate the audience and make them believe in Alice. As for the music, Talbot explained that he wanted to find a new sound, the right timbre for Wonderland. His orchestral score has a large percussion section and four female voices.[3] Karen Kain, the artistic director of National Ballet of Canada contacted the Royal Ballet and proposed a co-production after learning about the ballet.[4] The company had the productions North American premiere in 2011, starring Jillian Vanstone.[5] By 2012, Wheeldon had changed the structure of the ballet so that it consisted of three acts instead of the original two and had inserted an additional pas de deux for Alice and the Knave.[6]
Kofun.  Kofun (古墳; from Sino-Japanese ancient burial mound) are megalithic tombs or tumuli in Northeast Asia. Kofun were mainly constructed in the Japanese archipelago between the middle of the 3rd century to the early 7th century AD.[1] The term is the origin of the name of the Kofun period, which indicates the middle 3rd century to early–middle 6th century. Many kofun have distinctive keyhole-shaped mounds (zempō-kōen fun (前方後円墳)). The Mozu-Furuichi kofungun or tumulus clusters were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2019, while Ishibutai Kofun is one of a number in Asuka-Fujiwara residing on the Tentative List.[2][3] The kofun tumuli have assumed various shapes throughout history. The most common type of kofun is known as a zenpō-kōen-fun (前方後円墳), which is shaped like a keyhole, having one square end and one circular end, when viewed from above. There are also circular-type (empun [ja] (円墳)), two conjoined rectangles typed (zenpō-kōhō-fun [ja] (前方後方墳)), and square-type (hōfun [ja] (方墳)) kofun. Orientation of kofun is not specified. For example, in the Mozu kofun group, in Sakai, several of the circular parts are facing north, while other face east. However, there is no such formation in the Yanagimoto kofun group. Haniwa, terracotta figures, were arrayed above and in the surroundings to delimit and protect the sacred areas. Kofun range from several metres to over 400 m long. The largest, which has been attributed to Emperor Nintoku, is Daisen Kofun in Sakai City, Osaka Prefecture.
Kofun period. The Kofun period (古墳時代, Kofun jidai) is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is the earliest era of recorded history in Japan, but studies depend heavily on archaeology since the chronology of historical sources tends to be distorted. Kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mound dating from this era. It was a period of cultural import. Continuing from the Yayoi period, the Kofun period is characterized by influence from China and the Korean peninsula; archaeologists consider it a shared culture across the southern Korean peninsula, Kyushu and Honshu.[1] On the other hand, the most prosperous keyhole-shaped burial mounds in Japan during this period were approximately 5,000 in Japan from the middle of the 3rd century in the Yayoi period to the 7th century in the Asuka period, and many of them had huge tombs,[2][3] but in the southern Korean peninsula there were only 13 from the 5th century to the 6th century, and the tombs were small. Wall decorations and Japanese-style armor, which are characteristic of older Japanese burial mounds, were excavated from 5th century burial mounds in the southern Korean peninsula. This shows that Japan and the southern Korean peninsula influenced each other.[4][5] According to the Nihon Shoki (720), Buddhism and the Chinese writing system were introduced near the end of the period from Baekje. The Kofun period recorded Japans earliest political centralization, when the Yamato clan rose to power in southwestern Japan, established the Imperial House, and helped control trade routes across the region.[6] Kofun (from Middle Chinese kú 古 ancient + bjun 墳 burial mound)[7][8] are burial mounds built for members of the ruling class from the 3rd to the 7th centuries in Japan,[9] and the Kofun period takes its name from the distinctive earthen mounds. The mounds contained large stone burial chambers, and some are surrounded by moats. Kofun have four basic shapes: round and square are the most common, followed by scallop-shell and keyhole. The keyhole tomb is a distinct style found only in Japan, with a square front and round back. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters long, and unglazed pottery figures (Haniwa) were often buried under a kofuns circumference.
Wonderland (musical). Wonderland, formerly called Wonderland: Alices New Musical Adventure or Wonderland: A New Alice, is a musical play with a book by Jack Murphy and Gregory Boyd, lyrics by Murphy, and music by Frank Wildhorn. The story, a contemporary version of the novels Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871) by Lewis Carroll, is set in New York City and focuses on writer Alice Cornwinkle and her 10-year-old daughter Chloe. After various workshops and productions of the musical in Tampa, Florida and Houston, Texas, the show premiered on Broadway on April 17, 2011, closing a month later, on May 15, 2011. Frank Wildhorn and Jack Murphy previously collaborated on The Civil War, Waiting For The Moon, The Count of Monte Cristo, and the unproduced musical Havana, and have written songs for Linda Eder. Gregory Boyd has directed productions of Wildhorns Svengali (for which he penned the lyrics), Jekyll & Hyde, and The Civil War (for which he contributed lyrics and dialogue with Murphy). Wonderland is the first production mounted by the Broadway Genesis Project, whose goal is to help create new theatre works specifically for the Tampa Bay market, after which they may be staged in other performing arts centers or move to Broadway.[1] Wildhorn began working on the project in the late 1990s. He initially conceived an Alice similar to the one in the 1951 Disney animated feature and envisioned his then-fiancé, Brandi Burkhardt, in the title role, but as time passed, the two ended their engagement, and the role seemed to be passed to another Wildhorn leading lady Lauren Kennedy. In 2005, Wildhorn announced that the musical would premiere in 2006 in Europe, but this did not occur.  The show was workshopped starring Burkhardt in the title role in Tampa, Florida in 2007, with a presentation of four songs (these still appear in the show in some form). The project then focused on the scripts, and TBPAC agreed to make the show its first project.[citation needed]
Arabic.  Arabic[c] is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world.[13] The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic, including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic,[14] which is derived from Classical Arabic. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā (اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ[15] the eloquent Arabic) or simply al-fuṣḥā (اَلْفُصْحَىٰ). Arabic is the third most widespread official language after English and French,[16] one of six official languages of the United Nations,[17] and the liturgical language of Islam.[18] Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media.[18] During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Catalan, and Sicilian) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet.[19] The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian, have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu),[20] Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Maldivian, Pashto, Punjabi, Albanian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog, Sindhi, Odia,[21] Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa, Amharic, Tigrinya, Somali, Tamazight, and Swahili. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to a lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world,[1] making it the fifth most spoken language in the world[22] and the fourth most used language on the Internet in terms of users.[23][24] It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims.[17] In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic the fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese, and French.[25] Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, an abjad script that is written from right to left.
Takamatsu. Takamatsu (高松市, Takamatsu-shi; Japanese: [takaꜜmatsɯ]) is a capital city located in Kagawa Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 November 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 414,134 in 190,120 households and a population density of 1,100 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 375.41 square kilometres (144.95 sq mi). It is the capital city of the prefecture. Takamatsu is located in central Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. The city is located in the Takamatsu Plain, which is part of the Sanuki Plain, and is occupied by a gentle slope as a whole. The northern part faces the Seto Inland Sea, forming a semicircular urban area centered on Takamatsu Port and Takamatsu New Port (commonly known as Shinminato).The western part of the city consists of an alluvial fan formed by the sedimentation of the Koto River. The eastern part is a flooded plain formed by the Kasuga River and Shinkawa River. In the northeastern part of the island, there is Yashima, a table-shaped plateau protruding into the Seto Inland Sea, which was the site of the Battle of Yashima in the Genpei War, and Cape Takei, the northernmost tip of the main island of Shikoku. Parts of the city are located within the borders of the Setonaikai National Park. The city area also includes a number of small inhabited islands in the Seto Inland Sea. Kagawa Prefecture Tokushima Prefecture Takamatsu has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot, humid summers, and cool winters. Some rain falls throughout the year, but the months from May to September have the heaviest rain.
Tottori Sand Dunes. 35°32′24″N 134°13′39″E / 35.54000°N 134.22750°E / 35.54000; 134.22750 The Tottori Sand Dunes (鳥取砂丘, Tottori sakyū) are sand dunes located outside the city center of Tottori in Tottori Prefecture, Japan. With a length of 9 miles (14 km) and a width of less than 1.5 miles (2.4 km), it is the largest sand dune in Japan. The sand dunes are part of the Sanin Kaigan Geopark, which is part of the UNESCO Global Geoparks.[1] The sand formations were created when sediment deposits carried from the Chūgoku Mountains by the Sendai River were thrown away into the Sea of Japan. Strong winds then shaped the dunes over a span of 100,000 years.[2] The area of the dunes has been steadily decreasing due to a government reforestation program following World War II. Concrete barriers have been built along the coast to prevent the formations from eroding. Authorities have adopted measures to stop the shrinkage of the dunes, partly because they attract a significant amount of tourism to the area.[3] The Tottori Sand Dunes stretch from Iwato in Fukube-cho, Tottori City to Hakuto, Tottori City, on both sides of the Sendai River. However, the Hamasaka Dunes area of 545 hectares on the eastern side of the river is the most famous tourist destination.[4] Lake Tanegaike, formed when the dunes separated it from the sea, lies to the southeast.
Iberian Peninsula.  The Iberian Peninsula (IPA: /aɪˈbɪəriən/ eye-BEER-ee-ən),[a] also known as Iberia,[b] is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of Peninsular Spain[c] and Continental Portugal, comprising most of the region, as well as the tiny adjuncts of Andorra, Gibraltar, and, pursuant to the traditional definition of the Pyrenees as the peninsulas northeastern boundary, a small part of France.[2] With an area of approximately 583,254 square kilometres (225,196 sq mi),[3] and a population of roughly 53 million,[1] it is the second-largest European peninsula by area, after the Scandinavian Peninsula. The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River Ebro (Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin). The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state. For example, Ibēria was the country this side of the Ibērus in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of the peninsula Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.[4] The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian,[5] uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius[6] states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination. The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed Iberian. Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown.
Government.  A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy. While all types of organizations have governance, the term government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations. The main types of modern political systems recognized are democracies, totalitarian regimes, and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with a variety of hybrid regimes.[1][2] Modern classification systems also include monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[3][4] Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, and tyranny. These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and mixed governments are common. The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession.
Kanagawa Prefecture. Kanagawa Prefecture (神奈川県, Kanagawa-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [ka.naꜜ.ɡa.wa, -ŋa.wa, -na.ɡa.waꜜ.keɴ, -ŋa.waꜜ-][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu.[3] Kanagawa Prefecture is the second-most populous prefecture of Japan at 9,221,129 (1 April 2022) and third-densest at 3,800 inhabitants per square kilometre (9,800/sq mi). Its geographic area of 2,415 km2 (932 sq mi) makes it fifth-smallest. Kanagawa Prefecture borders Tokyo to the north, Yamanashi Prefecture to the northwest and Shizuoka Prefecture to the west. Yokohama is the capital and largest city of Kanagawa Prefecture and the second-largest city in Japan, with other major cities including Kawasaki, Sagamihara, and Fujisawa.[4] Kanagawa Prefecture is located on Japans eastern Pacific coast on Tokyo Bay and Sagami Bay, separated by the Miura Peninsula, across from Chiba Prefecture on the Bōsō Peninsula. Kanagawa Prefecture is part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the most populous metropolitan area in the world, with Yokohama and many of its cities being major commercial hubs and southern suburbs of Tokyo. Kanagawa Prefecture was the political and economic center of Japan during the Kamakura period when Kamakura was the de facto capital and largest city of Japan as the seat of the Kamakura shogunate from 1185 to 1333. Kanagawa Prefecture is a popular tourist area in the Tokyo region, with Kamakura and Hakone being two popular side trip destinations. The prefecture has some archaeological sites going back to the Jōmon period (around 400 BCE). About 3,000 years ago, Mount Hakone produced a volcanic explosion which resulted in Lake Ashi on the western area of the prefecture.[citation needed] It is believed[by whom?] that the imperial dynasty ruled this area from the 5th century onwards. In the ancient era, its plains were very sparsely inhabited.[citation needed] In medieval Japan, Kanagawa was part of the provinces of Sagami and Musashi.[5] Kamakura in central Sagami was the capital of Japan during the Kamakura period (1185–1333).
Coral reef.  A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate.[1] Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. Coral belongs to the class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. Coral reefs first appeared 485 million years ago, at the dawn of the Early Ordovician, displacing the microbial and sponge reefs of the Cambrian.[2] Sometimes called rainforests of the sea,[3] shallow coral reefs form some of Earths most diverse ecosystems. They occupy less than 0.1% of the worlds ocean area, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all marine species,[4][5][6][7] including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates and other cnidarians.[8] Coral reefs flourish in ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas.[9] Shallow tropical coral reefs have declined by 50% since 1950, partly because they are sensitive to water conditions.[10] They are under threat from excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), rising ocean heat content and acidification, overfishing (e.g., from blast fishing, cyanide fishing, spearfishing on scuba), sunscreen use,[11] and harmful land-use practices, including runoff and seeps (e.g., from injection wells and cesspools).[12][13][14]
List of forms of government.  This article lists forms of government and political systems, which are not mutually exclusive, and often have much overlap.[1] According to Yale professor Juan José Linz there are three main types of political systems today: democracies,  totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with hybrid regimes.[2][3] Another modern classification system includes monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[4] Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or  totalitarianism.[5][2][6] The ancient Greek philosopher Plato discusses in the Republic five types of regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny.  [7] The question raised by Plato in the Republic: What kind of state is best? Generational changes informed by new political and cultural beliefs, technological progress, values and morality over millenniums have resulted in considerable shifts in the belief about the origination of political authority, who may participate in matters of state, how people might participate, the determination of what is just, and so forth. Index of Forms of Government.[1] Systems resembling anarchism can be a natural, temporary result of civil war in a country, when an established state has been destroyed and the region is in a transitional period without definitive leadership.[9] It has also been proposed as a historical state of human society, especially before the concentration of power afforded by agriculture.[10] It has been presented as a viable long-term choice by individuals known as anarchists who oppose the state and other forms of coercive hierarchies. These systems are often highly organized, and include institutional or cultural systems to prevent the concentration of power. Anarchism typically advocates for social organization in non-hierarchical, voluntary associations where people voluntarily help each other.[11] There are a variety of forms of anarchy that attempt to discourage the use of coercion, violence, force and authority, while still producing a productive and desirable society.
List of countries by system of government.   This is a list of sovereign states by their de jure systems of government, as specified by the incumbent regimes constitutional law. This list does not measure the degree of democracy, political corruption, or state capacity of governments. These are systems in which the head of state is a constitutional monarch; the existence of their office and their ability to exercise their authority is established and restrained by constitutional law. Systems in which a prime minister is the active head of the executive branch of government. In some cases, the prime minister is also the leader of the legislature, while in other cases the executive branch is clearly separated from legislature (although the entire cabinet or individual ministers must step down in the case of a vote of no confidence).[1][2] The head of state is a monarch who normally only exercises their powers with the consent of the government, the people and/or their representatives (except in emergencies, e.g. a constitutional crisis or a political deadlock).[a]
Federation.  A federation (also called a federal state) is an entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision, neither by the component states nor the federal political body without constitutional amendment. Sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs.[1] Overriding powers of a central authority theoretically can include the constitutional authority to suspend a constituent states government by invoking gross mismanagement or civil unrest, or to adopt national legislation that overrides or infringes on the constituent states powers by invoking the central governments constitutional authority to ensure peace and good government[citation needed] or to implement obligations contracted under an international treaty. The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is considered to be federalist, or to be an example of federalism. It can be considered in comparison with the unitary state. France and Japan, for example, have been unitary for many centuries. The Austrian Empire was a unitary state with crown lands; after the transformation into the Austria-Hungary monarchy, the remaining crown lands of so-called Cisleithania became federated as Länder of the Republic of Austria through the implementation of its constitution. Germany, with its 16 states, or Länder, and Nigeria, with its 36 states and federal capital territory, are examples of federations. Federations are often multi-ethnic and cover a large area of territory (such as Russia, the United States, Canada, India, Brazil, Pakistan or Australia), but neither is necessarily the case (such as Saint Kitts and Nevis or the Federated States of Micronesia).[2] About 40% of the world population lives in a federation.[3]
English language.  English is a West Germanic language that emerged in early medieval England and has since become a global lingua franca.[4][5][6] The namesake of the language is the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Britain after the end of Roman rule. English is the most spoken language in the world, primarily due to the global influences of the former British Empire (succeeded by the Commonwealth of Nations) and the United States. It is the most widely learned second language in the world, with more second-language speakers than native speakers. However, English is only the third-most spoken native language, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[3] English is either the official language, or one of the official languages, in 57 sovereign states and 30 dependent territories, making it the most geographically widespread language in the world. In the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, it is the dominant language for historical reasons without being explicitly defined by law.[7] It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union, and many other international and regional organisations. It has also become the de facto lingua franca of diplomacy, science, technology, international trade, logistics, tourism, aviation, entertainment, and the Internet.[8] Ethnologue estimated that there were over 1.4 billion speakers worldwide as of 2021[update].[3] Old English emerged from a group of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons. Late Old English borrowed some grammar and core vocabulary from Old Norse, a North Germanic language.[9][10][11] Then, Middle English borrowed vocabulary extensively from French dialects, which are the source of approximately 28 percent of Modern English words, and from Latin, which is the source of an additional 28 percent.[12] While Latin and the Romance languages are thus the source for a majority of its lexicon taken as a whole, English grammar and phonology retain a family resemblance with the Germanic languages, and most of its basic everyday vocabulary remains Germanic in origin. English exists on a dialect continuum with Scots; it is next-most closely related to Low Saxon and Frisian. English is a member of the Indo-European language family, belonging to the West Germanic branch of Germanic languages.[13] Owing to their descent from a shared ancestor language known as Proto-Germanic, English and other Germanic languages – which include Dutch, German, and Swedish[14] – have characteristic features in common, including a division of verbs into strong and weak classes, the use of modal verbs, and sound changes affecting Proto-Indo-European consonants known as Grimms and Verners laws.[15]
Political polarization. Political polarization (spelled polarisation in British English, Australian English, and New Zealand English) is the divergence of political attitudes away from the center, towards ideological extremes.[1][2][3] Scholars distinguish between ideological polarization (differences between the policy positions) and affective polarization (an emotional dislike and distrust of political out-groups).[4] Most discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In two-party systems, political polarization usually embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities.[1][2][3][5][6][7] However, some political scientists assert that contemporary polarization depends less on policy differences on a left and right scale but increasingly on other divisions such as religious against secular, nationalist against globalist, traditional against modern, or rural against urban.[8] Polarization is associated with the process of politicization.[9] Polarization itself is typically understood as a prominent division or conflict that forms between major groups in a society or political system and that is marked by the clustering and radicalisation of views and beliefs at two distant and antagonistic poles. as defined by the Institute for Integrated Transitions and Ford Foundation.[10] Political scientists typically distinguish between two levels of political polarization: elite and mass. Elite polarization focuses on the polarization of the political elites, like party organizers and elected officials. Mass polarization (or popular polarization) focuses on the polarization of the masses, most often the electorate or general public.[11][12][13][14] Elite polarization refers to polarization between the party-in-government and the party-in-opposition.[2] Polarized political parties are internally cohesive, unified, programmatic, and ideologically distinct; they are typically found in a parliamentary system of democratic governance.[15][11][13][14]
List of capitals in Japan. A prefectural capital is a city where a prefectural government and assembly is located. In Japan, a prefectural capital is officially called todōfukenchō shozaichi (都道府県庁所在地; seat of a prefectural government, singular: 都庁所在地,tochō shozaichi in the [Tōkyō]-to, 道庁所在地, dōchō shozaichi in the [Hokkai]-dō, 府庁所在地, fuchō shozaichi in -fu, 県庁所在地, kenchō shozaichi in -ken), but the term kento (県都; prefectural capital) is also used (dōto (道都; in the -dō, but never futo or toto)). Notes: ¹ As of 1 May 2008[update] In most cases, a city that shares a name with its prefecture is a prefectural capital. However, there are some municipalities that are not capitals. Those in italics are prefectural capitals, or metropolitan areas of them.
Tottori (city).  Tottori (鳥取市, Tottori-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [tot.to.ɾʲi, tot.to.ɾʲiꜜ.ɕi][2]) is the capital and the largest city of Tottori Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. As of 30 November 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 183,383 in 81,732 households and a population density of 240 persons per km2.[3] The total area of the city is 765.31 square kilometres (295.49 sq mi). Most of the city is within the Sanin Kaigan Geopark.[4] The city of Tottori is located in the east of the prefecture at the foot of the Chūgoku Mountains at the mouth of the Sendai River. While it is  about 300 km by road to Hiroshima city, which is the regional hub of the Chūgoku region, it is only 180 km from Kobe, 190 km from Osaka, and 220 km from Kyoto. Within Japan the city is best known for the Tottori Sand Dunes which are a popular tourist attraction, drawing visitors from outside the prefecture. The sand dunes are also important as a centre for research into arid agriculture, hosting Tottori Universitys Arid Land Research Center. Hyōgo Prefecture Okayama Prefecture
Sanin region. The Sanin Region (山陰地方, Sanin Chihō) is an area in the southwest of Honshū, the main island of Japan. It consists of the northern part of the Chūgoku region, facing the Sea of Japan.[1] Specifically, it is the two prefectures of Shimane and Tottori. The name Sanin in the Japanese language is formed from two kanji characters. The first, 山, mountain, and the second, 陰 represents the yin of yin and yang. The name means the northern, shady side of the mountains in contrast to the yang  southern, sunny Sanyō region to the south. The Sanin region has numerous Paleolithic and Jōmon period (14,000 – 300 BC) remains, but its Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD) remains are the largest in Japan. The Mukibanda Yayoi remains in the low foothills of Mount Daisen[2] in the cities of Daisen and Yonago, Tottori Prefecture are the largest in Japan.[3] The site is still only partially excavated, but indicates that the Sanin was a regional center of power in the period. The mythology of the Shinto religion is largely based in the Izumo area of the region,[4] and the Izumo-taisha, or Izumo Grand Shrine in Izumo, Shimane Prefecture, is one of the most ancient and important Shinto shrines in Japan.[5] The eastern part of Shimane Prefecture also had cultural and economic connections to the Asian mainland from an early period.[4] The Sanin region corresponds to Sanindō (山陰道), one of the gokishichidō, or five provinces and seven circuits established in the Asuka period (538–710) under the Ritsuryō legal system.[6] Sanindō refers not only to the ancient geographic region, but also the main road through the region that connected it to the capital in Kyoto.[7] The Sanin encompassed the pre-Meiji provincial areas of Tanba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hōki, Izumo, Iwami and Oki.[8][9] While the Sanindō route was used for military logistics in numerous conflicts after the Asuka period, it more importantly served as a route for the transport of good to and from the region. The route reached its highest period of importance in the Edo period (1603–1867) when the Tokugawa shogunate formalized its route and shukuba post stations. The daimyō regional rulers used the Sanindō for their sankin-kōtai mandatory journeys to Edo (modern Tokyo).
Tottori (city).  Tottori (鳥取市, Tottori-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [tot.to.ɾʲi, tot.to.ɾʲiꜜ.ɕi][2]) is the capital and the largest city of Tottori Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. As of 30 November 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 183,383 in 81,732 households and a population density of 240 persons per km2.[3] The total area of the city is 765.31 square kilometres (295.49 sq mi). Most of the city is within the Sanin Kaigan Geopark.[4] The city of Tottori is located in the east of the prefecture at the foot of the Chūgoku Mountains at the mouth of the Sendai River. While it is  about 300 km by road to Hiroshima city, which is the regional hub of the Chūgoku region, it is only 180 km from Kobe, 190 km from Osaka, and 220 km from Kyoto. Within Japan the city is best known for the Tottori Sand Dunes which are a popular tourist attraction, drawing visitors from outside the prefecture. The sand dunes are also important as a centre for research into arid agriculture, hosting Tottori Universitys Arid Land Research Center. Hyōgo Prefecture Okayama Prefecture
Lists of time zones. International: Country-specific:
Takamatsu. Takamatsu (高松市, Takamatsu-shi; Japanese: [takaꜜmatsɯ]) is a capital city located in Kagawa Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 November 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 414,134 in 190,120 households and a population density of 1,100 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 375.41 square kilometres (144.95 sq mi). It is the capital city of the prefecture. Takamatsu is located in central Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. The city is located in the Takamatsu Plain, which is part of the Sanuki Plain, and is occupied by a gentle slope as a whole. The northern part faces the Seto Inland Sea, forming a semicircular urban area centered on Takamatsu Port and Takamatsu New Port (commonly known as Shinminato).The western part of the city consists of an alluvial fan formed by the sedimentation of the Koto River. The eastern part is a flooded plain formed by the Kasuga River and Shinkawa River. In the northeastern part of the island, there is Yashima, a table-shaped plateau protruding into the Seto Inland Sea, which was the site of the Battle of Yashima in the Genpei War, and Cape Takei, the northernmost tip of the main island of Shikoku. Parts of the city are located within the borders of the Setonaikai National Park. The city area also includes a number of small inhabited islands in the Seto Inland Sea. Kagawa Prefecture Tokushima Prefecture Takamatsu has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot, humid summers, and cool winters. Some rain falls throughout the year, but the months from May to September have the heaviest rain.
Standard time.  Standard time is the synchronization of clocks within a geographical region to a single time standard, rather than a local mean time standard. The term is also used to contrast with daylight saving time, a period of the year when clocks are shifted ahead one hour, supposedly to make better use of daily sunlight from spring to fall. Applied globally in the 20th century, the geographical regions became time zones. The standard time in each time zone has come to be defined as an offset from Universal Time. A further offset is applied for part of the year in regions with daylight saving time. Generally, standard time agrees with the local mean time at some meridian that passes through the region, often near the centre of the region. Historically, standard time was established during the 19th century to aid weather forecasting and train travel. The adoption of standard time, because of the inseparable correspondence between longitude and time, solidified the concept of halving the globe into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, with one Prime Meridian replacing the various prime meridians that had previously been used. During the 19th century, scheduled steamships and trains required time standardisation in the industrialized world. A standardised time system was first used by British railways on 1 December 1847, when they switched from local mean time, which varied from place to place, to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). It was also given the name railway time, reflecting the important role the railway companies played in bringing it about. The vast majority of Great Britains public clocks were standardised to GMT by 1855.
Time zone (disambiguation). A time zone is a region of the Earth that has adopted the same standard time. Time zone can also refer to:
List of time zones by country.  This is a list representing time zones by country. Countries are ranked by total number of time zones on their territory. Time zones of a country include that of dependent territories (except Antarctic claims). France, including its overseas territories, has the most time zones with 12 (13 including its claim in Antarctica and all other counties). Many countries have daylight saving time, one added hour during the local summer, but this list does not include that information. The UTC offset in the list is not valid in practice during daylight saving time. [6]
Illustrator. An illustrator is an artist who specializes in enhancing writing or elucidating concepts by providing a visual representation that corresponds to the content of the associated text or idea. The illustration may be intended to clarify complicated concepts or objects that are difficult to describe textually, which is the reason illustrations are often found in childrens books.[1] Illustration is the art of making images that work with something and add to it without needing direct attention and without distracting from what they illustrate. The other thing is the focus of the attention, and the illustrations role is to add personality and character without competing with that other thing.[2] Illustrations have been used in advertisements, architectural rendering, greeting cards, posters, books, graphic novels, storyboards, business, technical communications, magazines, shirts, video games, tutorials,[3] and newspapers. A cartoon illustration can add humour to  certain  stories or essays.[4] Use reference images to create scenes and characters. This can be as simple as looking at an image to inspire your artwork or creating character sketches and detailed scenes from different angles to create the basis of a picture book world. Some traditional illustration techniques include watercolor, pen and ink, airbrush art, oil painting, pastels, wood engraving, and linoleum cuts. John Held, Jr. was an illustrator who worked in a variety of styles and media, including linoleum cuts, pen and ink drawings, magazine cover paintings, cartoons, comic strips, and set design, while also creating fine art with his animal sculptures and watercolor, many established illustrators attended an art school or college of some sort and were trained in different painting and drawing techniques.
Sir. Sir is a formal honorific address in English for men, derived from Sire in the High Middle Ages. Both are derived from the old French Sieur (Lord), brought to England by the French-speaking Normans, and which now exist in (English) French only as part of Monsieur, with the equivalent My Lord in English.[citation needed] Traditionally, as governed by law and custom, Sir is used for men who are knights and belong to certain orders of chivalry, as well as later applied to baronets and other offices. As the female equivalent for knighthood is damehood, the suo jure female equivalent term is typically Dame. The wife of a knight or baronet tends to be addressed as Lady, although a few exceptions and interchanges of these uses exist. Additionally, since the late modern period, Sir has been used as a respectful way to address a man of superior social status or military rank. Equivalent terms of address for women are Madam (shortened to Maam), in addition to social honorifics such as Mrs, Ms, or Miss. Sir derives from the honorific title sire; sire developed alongside the word seigneur, also used to refer to a feudal lord. Both derived from the Vulgar Latin senior, sire comes from the nominative case declension senior and seigneur, the accusative case declension seniōrem.[1]
Democracy.  Democracy (from Ancient Greek: δημοκρατία, romanized: dēmokratía, dêmos people and krátos rule)[1] is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state.[2][3][4] Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive or maximalist definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections.[5][6][4] In a direct democracy, the people have the direct authority to deliberate and decide legislation. In a representative democracy, the people choose governing officials through elections to do so. The definition of the people and the ways authority is shared among them or delegated by them have changed over time and at varying rates in different countries. Features of democracy oftentimes include freedom of assembly, association, personal property, freedom of religion and speech, citizenship, consent of the governed, voting rights, freedom from unwarranted governmental deprivation of the right to life and liberty, and minority rights. The notion of democracy has evolved considerably over time. Throughout history, one can find evidence of direct democracy, in which communities make decisions through popular assembly. Today, the dominant form of democracy is representative democracy, where citizens elect government officials to govern on their behalf such as in a parliamentary or presidential democracy. In the common variant of liberal democracy, the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but a constitution and supreme court limit the majority and protect the minority—usually through securing the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, such as freedom of speech or freedom of association.[7][8] The term appeared in the 5th century BC in Greek city-states, notably Classical Athens, to mean rule of the people, in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning rule of an elite.[9] In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship was initially restricted to an elite class, which was later extended to all adult citizens. In most modern democracies, this was achieved through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
IUCN protected area categories. IUCN protected area categories, or IUCN protected area management categories, are categories used to classify protected areas in a system developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).[1][2] The enlisting of such areas is part of a strategy being used toward the conservation of the worlds natural environment and biodiversity. The IUCN has developed the protected area management categories system to define, record and classify the wide variety of specific aims and concerns when categorising protected areas and their objectives. Further supplementary guidelines have been developed specific to marine protected areas (MPAs).[3] This categorisation method is recognised on a global scale by national governments and international bodies such as the United Nations and the Convention on Biological Diversity.[4] A strict nature reserve (IUCN Category Ia) is an area which is protected from all but light human use in order to protect its biodiversity and also possibly its geological/geomorphical features.[5] These areas are often home to dense native ecosystems where all human disturbance except scientific study, environmental monitoring and education is prohibited. Because these areas are so strictly protected, they provide ideal pristine environments that enable measurement of external human influence by means of comparison with other areas. In some cases, strict nature reserves are of spiritual significance for surrounding communities and are also protected for this reason. The people engaged in the practice of their faith within the region have the right to continue to do so, providing it aligns with the areas conservation and management objectives.
Jabberwocky.  Jabberwocky is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll about the killing of a creature named the Jabberwock. It was included in his 1871 novel Through the Looking-Glass, the sequel to Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865). The book tells of Alices adventures within the back-to-front world of the Looking-Glass world. In an early scene in which she first encounters the chess piece characters White King and White Queen, Alice finds a book written in a seemingly unintelligible language. Realising that she is travelling through an inverted world, she recognises that the verses on the pages are written in mirror writing. She holds a mirror to one of the poems and reads the reflected verse of Jabberwocky. She finds the nonsense verse as puzzling as the odd land she has passed into, later revealed as a dreamscape.[1] Jabberwocky is considered one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English.[2][3] Its playful, whimsical language has given English nonsense words and neologisms such as galumphing and chortle. A decade before the publication of Alices Adventures in Wonderland and the sequel Through the Looking-Glass, Carroll wrote the first stanza to what would become Jabberwocky while in Croft-on-Tees, where his parents resided. It was printed in 1855 in Mischmasch, a periodical he wrote and illustrated for the amusement of his family. The piece, titled Stanza of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, reads:
Swimming. Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, such as saltwater or freshwater environments, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Swimmers achieve locomotion by coordinating limb and body movements to achieve hydrodynamic thrust that results in directional motion. Newborns can instinctively hold their breath underwater and exhibit rudimentary swimming movements as part of a survival reflex. Swimming requires endurance, skill and efficient techniques to maximize speed and minimize energy consumption.[1] Swimming is a popular activity and competitive sport where certain techniques are deployed to move through water. It offers numerous health benefits, such as strengthened cardiovascular health, muscle strength, and increased flexibility. It is suitable for people of all ages and fitness levels. Swimming is consistently among the top public recreational activities,[2][3][4][5] and in some countries, swimming lessons are a compulsory part of the educational curriculum.[6]  As a formalized sport, swimming is featured in various local, national, and international competitions, including every modern Summer Olympics. Swimming involves repeated motions known as strokes to propel the body forward. While the front crawl, also known as freestyle, is widely regarded as the fastest of the four main strokes, other strokes are practiced for special purposes, such as training. Swimming comes with many risks, mainly because of the aquatic environment where it takes place. For instance, swimmers may find themselves incapacitated by panic and exhaustion, both potential causes of death by drowning. Other dangers may arise from exposure to infection or hostile aquatic fauna. To minimize such eventualities, most facilities employ a lifeguard to keep alert for any signs of distress.
Political cartoon.  A political cartoon, also known as an editorial cartoon, is a cartoon graphic with caricatures of public figures, expressing the artists opinion. An artist who writes and draws such images is known as an editorial cartoonist. They typically combine artistic skill, hyperbole and satire in order to either question authority or draw attention to corruption, political violence and other social ills.[2][3] Developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century, the political cartoon was pioneered by James Gillray,[4] although his and others in the flourishing English industry were sold as individual prints in print shops.  Founded in 1841, the British periodical Punch appropriated the term cartoon to refer to its political cartoons, which led to the terms widespread use. The pictorial satire has been credited as the precursor to the political cartoons in England: John J. Richetti, in The Cambridge history of English literature, 1660–1780, states that English graphic satire really begins with Hogarths Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme.[7][8] William Hogarths pictures combined social criticism with sequential artistic scenes. A frequent target of his satire was the corruption of early 18th century British politics. An early satirical work was an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (c. 1721), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720 known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money.[9] His art often had a strong moralizing element to it, such as in his masterpiece of 1732–33, A Rakes Progress, engraved in 1734. It consisted of eight pictures that depicted the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends all of his money on luxurious living, services from sex workers, and gambling—the characters life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital.[10]
Tokyo Bay. Tokyo Bay (東京湾, Tōkyō-wan) is a bay located in the southern Kantō region of Japan spanning the coasts of Tokyo, Kanagawa Prefecture, and Chiba Prefecture, on the southern coast of the island of Honshu. Tokyo Bay is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Uraga Channel. The Tokyo Bay region is the most populous and the largest industrialized area in Japan.[1][2][3][4][5] In ancient times, the Japanese knew Tokyo Bay as the uchi-umi (内海) , which means inner sea. By the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) the area had become known as Edo Bay (江戸湾, Edo-wan) after the city of Edo. The bay took its present name in modern times, after the Imperial court moved to Edo and renamed the city Tokyo in 1868.[6] Tokyo Bay juts prominently into the Kantō Plain.[4] It is surrounded by the Bōsō Peninsula in Chiba Prefecture to the east and the Miura Peninsula in Kanagawa Prefecture to the west.[1][2] The shore of Tokyo Bay consists of a diluvial plateau and is subject to rapid marine erosion. Sediments on the shore of the bay make for a smooth, continuous shoreline.[5] In a narrow sense, Tokyo Bay is the area north of the straight line from Cape Kannon on the west of Miura Peninsula to Cape Futtsu on the east Bōsō Peninsula. This area covers about 922 km2 (356 sq mi) in 2012, reclamation projects continue to slowly shrink the bay.[4][5] In a broader sense, Tokyo Bay includes the Uraga Channel. By this definition the bay opens from an area north of the straight line from Cape Tsurugisaki on the east of Miura Peninsula to Cape Sunosaki on the west of the Boso Peninsula. This area covers about 1,100 km2 (420 sq mi). The area of Tokyo Bay combined with the Uraga Channel covers 1,500 km2 (580 sq mi).[3][4][5]
List of industrial regions. An industrial region or industrial area is a geographical region with extremely dense industry. It is usually heavily urbanized. Industrial region Thracia is an industrial zone made up of several municipalities within the area of Plovdiv, Bulgaria.
Daresbury.  Daresbury is a village and civil parish in the Borough of Halton, Cheshire, England. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 246.[1] The name means Deors fortification, derived from an Old English personal name and the word burh (a fortified place).[2] The population was recorded over time at 134 in the census of 1801, 157 in 1851, 153 in 1901, 235 in 1951 and reaching 216 by 2001.[3] Opened in 1850 on the Birkenhead Railway, the area was served by Daresbury railway station in the nearby village of Moore. The station closed to passengers in 1952 and to goods in 1965, although the line through the station site remains in use.[4]
Surfing.  Surfing is a surface water sport in which an individual, a surfer (or two in tandem surfing), uses a board to ride on the forward section, or face, of a moving wave of water, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found on ocean shores, but can also be found as standing waves in the open ocean, in lakes, in rivers in the form of a tidal bore, or wave pools. Surfing includes all forms of wave-riding using a board, regardless of the stance. There are several types of boards. The Moche of Peru would often surf on reed craft, while the native peoples of the Pacific surfed waves on alaia, paipo, and other such watercraft. Ancient cultures often surfed on their belly and knees, while modern-day surfing is most often stand-up surfing, in which a surfer rides a wave while standing on a surfboard. Another prominent form of surfing is body boarding, where a surfer rides the wave on a bodyboard, either lying on their belly, drop knee (one foot and one knee on the board), or sometimes even standing up on a body board. Other types of surfing include knee boarding, surf matting (riding inflatable mats) and using foils. Body surfing, in which the wave is caught and ridden using the surfers own body rather than a board, is very common and is considered by some surfers to be the purest form of surfing. The closest form of body surfing using a board is a handboard which normally has one strap over it to fit on one hand. Surfers who body board, body surf, or handboard feel more drag as they move through the water than stand up surfers do. This holds body surfers into a more turbulent part of the wave (often completely submerged by whitewater). In contrast, surfers who instead ride a hydrofoil feel substantially less drag and may ride unbroken waves in the open ocean. Three major subdivisions within stand-up surfing are stand-up paddling, long boarding and short boarding with several major differences including the board design and length, the riding style and the kind of wave that is ridden.
Urayasu. Urayasu (浦安市, Urayasu-shi) is a city located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 November 2020[update], the city had an estimated population of  170,533 in 81,136 households and a population density of 9,900 inhabitants per square kilometre (26,000/sq mi).[1] The total area of the city is 17.30 square kilometres (6.68 sq mi).  Urayasu is best known as the home of Tokyo Disney Resort, which opened in April 1983,[2] and the headquarters of The Oriental Land Company.[3] The area around Urayasu was tenryō territory within Shimōsa Province controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate during the Edo period. Urayasu served as an important fishing village for the Edo capitol.[2] Until the industrialization of the city it was a major center of production of nori, an edible seaweed, hamaguri, and asari clams.[4] All three are important elements of the traditional Japanese diet. Urayasu is located in the northwestern part of Chiba Prefecture, about 20 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and within 10 to 20 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. It consists of a low-lying natural levee, a delta and a reclaimed land on the left bank of the mouth of the Edo River. The river runs along the western side of the city and separates it from the Edogawa ward of Tokyo.[4] There are two parts to Urayasu:  the original fishing village on natural levee on both banks of the Sakai River, which is a tributary of the Edo River, and the newer reclaimed land portion which occupies about three-quarters of the city area, created since the 1960s. The new landfill area is called Shin-Urayasu (New-Urayasu), and has an American inspired layout, with a grid-like map of wide streets, large sidewalks, palm trees and parks.  The buildings are tall, modern apartments, some having views on Tokyo Bay. Urayasu is one of the most sought after areas in the metropolitan area for young families to live. Urayasu has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Urayasu is 15.6 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1435 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.0 °C, and lowest in January, at around 6.2 °C.[9] Chiba Prefecture
Childrens literature. Childrens literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are created for children. In addition to conventional literary genres, modern childrens literature is classified by the intended age of the reader, ranging from picture books for the very young to young adult fiction for those nearing maturity. Childrens literature can be traced to traditional stories like fairy tales, which have only been identified as childrens literature since the eighteenth century, and songs, part of a wider oral tradition, which adults shared with children before publishing existed. The development of early childrens literature, before printing was invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became widespread, many classic childrens tales were originally created for adults and later adapted for a younger audience. Since the fifteenth century much literature has been aimed specifically at children, often with a moral or religious message. Childrens literature has been shaped by religious sources, like Puritan traditions, or by more philosophical and scientific standpoints with the influences of Charles Darwin and John Locke.[2] The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are known as the Golden Age of Childrens Literature because many classic childrens books were published then. There is no single or widely used definition of childrens literature.[3]: 15–17  It can be broadly defined as the body of written works and accompanying illustrations produced in order to entertain or instruct young people. The genre encompasses a wide range of works, including acknowledged classics of world literature, picture books and easy-to-read stories written exclusively for children, and fairy tales, lullabies, fables, folk songs, and other primarily orally transmitted materials or more specifically defined as fiction, non-fiction, poetry, or drama intended for and used by children and young people.[4][5]: xvii  One writer on childrens literature defines it as all books written for children, excluding works such as comic books, joke books, cartoon books, and non-fiction works that are not intended to be read from front to back, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other reference materials.[6] However, others would argue that childrens comics should also be included: Childrens Literature studies has traditionally treated comics fitfully and superficially despite the importance of comics as a global phenomenon associated with children.[7] The International Companion Encyclopedia of Childrens Literature notes that the boundaries of genre... are not fixed but blurred.[3]: 4  Sometimes, no agreement can be reached about whether a given work is best categorized as literature for adults or children. Some works defy easy categorization. J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series was written and marketed for children, but it is also popular among adults. The series extreme popularity led The New York Times to create a separate bestseller list for childrens books.[8] Despite the widespread association of childrens literature with picture books, spoken narratives existed before printing, and the root of many childrens tales go back to ancient storytellers.[9]: 30  Seth Lerer, in the opening of Childrens Literature: A Readers History from Aesop to Harry Potter, says, This book presents a history of what children have heard and read.... The history I write of is a history of reception.[10]: 2
Futtsu. Futtsu (富津市, Futtsu-shi) is a city located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 November 2020[update], the city had an estimated population of  42,476 in 18,115 households and a population density of 210 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 205.53 square kilometres (79.36 sq mi). Futtsu is located  in the southern part of Chiba prefecture, about 40 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and 40 to 50 kilometers from the center of Tokyo. It is on the southwest coast of Bōsō Peninsula, facing the Uraga Channel at the southern end of Tokyo Bay. Cape Futtsu protrudes into Tokyo Bay, and the coastal areas are part of the Minami Bōsō Quasi-National Park. Although considered to be within the Kantō Plain,  inland areas of the city are hilly. Chiba Prefecture Futtsu has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Futtsu is 15.7 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1695 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.5 °C, and lowest in January, at around 6.0 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Futtsu has declined in recent decades.
Bōsō Peninsula. The Bōsō Peninsula (房総半島, Bōsō-hantō) is a peninsula that encompasses the entirety of Chiba Prefecture on Honshu, the largest island of Japan. It is part of the Greater Tokyo Area. It forms the eastern edge of Tokyo Bay, separating it from the Pacific Ocean. The peninsula covers approximately 5,034 square kilometres (1,944 sq mi).[1][2] The Bōsō Peninsula is defined by the Pacific Ocean to its east and south, Tokyo Bay to the west, and the Edo and Tone rivers to the north.[1] The Bōsō Hill Range forms the backbone of the south of the peninsula, and much of the area is hilly.[3] Mount Atago in Minamibōsō and Kamogawa is the highest point on the peninsula with an altitude of 408.2 m (1,339 ft).[4] From south to north the Bōsō Hill Range gives way to the Shimōsa Plateau, which covers much of the area of northern Chiba Prefecture, and ends in the lower areas around the Tone River.[1] The northern and western parts of the Bōsō Peninsula are highly urbanized. The Shimōsa Plateau and the coastal lowlands and interior river valleys are chiefly used for rice cultivation. The western coast of the peninsula is home to the Keiyō Industrial Zone, which ranges from Urayasu on the border of Tokyo in the northwest of the peninsula to Futtsu to the south.[2] The Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line, a bridge-tunnel across Tokyo Bay, connects Kisarazu with the city of Kawasaki in Kanagawa Prefecture. The northeast of the peninsula is home to Suigo-Tsukuba Quasi-National Park, which spans across both Ibaraki and Chiba prefectures, and much of the remainder of the eastern coast of the peninsula is designated as Minami Bōsō Quasi-National Park.[2] The peninsula gets its name and kanji from the former provinces that were located there: Awa (安房),  Kazusa (上総) and Shimōsa (下総). The Japan Meteorological Agency refers to the west and east coasts of the peninsula as Uchibō (内房) and Sotobō (外房) respectively. 35°20′19″N 140°08′50″E / 35.33861°N 140.14722°E / 35.33861; 140.14722
Mount Cemetery.  Mount Cemetery, also known as Guildford Cemetery, is a cemetery in Guildford, Surrey, England.  It is the location of Bookers Tower. Guildford Cemetery is surrounded by low-density houses with gardens and a covered reservoir beyond the east corner, immediately south of the successive residential streets of the Guildford Park and Farnham Road neighbourhoods west of Guildford, on the Guildown or Mount section of the western North Downs here forming the widest section of the Hogs Back. Guildford Cemetery has in part views overlooking the town centre.  Plots have been laid out to the maximum number its civic authority owner permits under rules set out in the 2000s. Burials are permitted in plots reserved or within an existing family grave to the deceased subject to a maximum of four related burials per plot.[1] The cemetery contains the war graves of 33 Commonwealth service personnel, 14 from the First World War and 19 from the Second World War.[2]
Greater Tokyo Area.  The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, consisting of the Kantō region of Japan (including Tokyo Metropolis and the prefectures of Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, and Tochigi) as well as the prefecture of Yamanashi of the neighboring Chūbu region. In Japanese, it is referred to by various terms, one of the most common being Capital Region (首都圏, Shuto-ken). As of 2016, the United Nations estimates the total population at 38,140,000.[3][needs update] It covers an area of approximately 13,500 km2 (5,200 mi2),[4] giving it a population density of 2,642 people/km2. It is the second-largest single metropolitan area in the world in terms of built-up or urban function landmass at 8,547 km2 (3,300 mi2), behind only the New York City metropolitan area at 11,642 km2 (4,495 mi2).[5] With over US$2 trillion in GDP, Tokyo remains the second-largest metropolitan economy in the world, also behind New York. There are various definitions of the Greater Tokyo Area, each of which tries to incorporate different aspects.  Some definitions are clearly defined by law or government regulation, some are based coarsely on administrative areas, while others are for research purposes such as commuting patterns or distance from Central Tokyo. Each definition has a different population figure, granularity, methodology, and spatial association. Notes and sources: All figures issued by Japan Statistics Bureau,[10][11] except for Metro Employment Area, a study by Center for Spatial Information Service, the University of Tokyo. Abbreviations: CF for National Census Final Data (every 5 years by JSB), CR for Civil Registry (compiled by local governments, monthly as per legal requirement), CP for Census Preliminary.
Capital city.  A capital city, or just capital, is the municipality holding primary status in a country, state, province, department, or other subnational division, usually as its seat of the government. A capital is typically a city that physically encompasses the governments offices and meeting places; the status as capital is often designated by its law or constitution. In some jurisdictions, including several countries, different branches of government are in different settlements, sometimes meaning multiple official capitals. In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. English-language media often use the name of the capital metonymically to refer to the government sitting there. Thus, London-Washington relations is widely understood to mean diplomatic relations between Great Britain and the United States.[1] The word capital derives from the Latin word caput (genitive capitis), meaning head, later borrowed from Medieval Latin capitālis (of the head).[2] The Latin phrase Roma Caput Mundi (lit. Rome head of the world) was already used by the poet Ovid in the 1st century BC.[3] It originates out of a classical European understanding of the known world: Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The phrase is related to the enduring power of the city first as the capital of the Republic and the Empire, and later as the centre of the Catholic Church.[4][5][6] In several English-speaking states, the terms county town and county seat are also used in lower administrative divisions. In some unitary states, subnational capitals may be known as administrative centres. The capital is often the largest city of its constituent, though not always.
Stroke order.  Stroke order is the order in which the strokes of a Chinese character are written. A stroke is a movement of a writing instrument on a writing surface. Chinese characters are logograms constructed with strokes. Over the millennia a set of generally agreed rules have been developed by custom. Minor variations exist between countries, but the basic principles remain the same, namely that writing characters should be economical, with the fewest hand movements to write the most strokes possible. This promotes writing speed, accuracy, and readability. This idea is particularly important since as learners progress, characters often get more complex. Since stroke order also aids learning and memorization, students are often taught about it from a very early age in schools and encouraged to follow them. The Eight Principles of Yong uses the single character 永 (eternity) to teach eight of the most basic strokes in regular script. In ancient China, the Oracle bone script carved on ox scapula and tortoise plastrons showed no indication of stroke order. The characters show huge variations from piece to piece, sometimes even within one piece. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone (to be carved in a workshop later). Although the brush-written stroke order is not discernible after carving, there exists some evidence that it was not entirely idiosyncratic: a few of the characters, often marginal administrative notations recording the provenance of the shells or bones, were not later re-carved, and the stroke order of these characters tends to resemble traditional and modern stroke order.[1] For those characters (the vast majority) which were later engraved into the hard surface using a knife, perhaps by a separate individual, there is evidence (from incompletely engraved pieces) that in at least some cases all the strokes running one way were carved, then the piece was turned, and strokes running another way were then carved.[1]
Cheshire.  Cheshire (/ˈtʃɛʃər, -ɪər/ CHESH-ər, -⁠eer)[3] is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Merseyside to the north-west, Greater Manchester to the north-east, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire to the south-east, and Shropshire to the south; to the west it is bordered by the Welsh counties of Flintshire and Wrexham, and has a short coastline on the Dee Estuary. The largest settlement is Warrington. The county has an area of 905 square miles (2,344 km2) and had a population of 1,095,500 at the 2021 census.[a] The areas around the River Mersey in the north of the county are the most densely populated, with Warrington, Runcorn, Widnes, and Ellesmere Port located on the river. The city of Chester lies in the west of the county, Crewe in the south, and Macclesfield in the east. For local government purposes Cheshire comprises four unitary authority areas: Cheshire East, Cheshire West and Chester, Halton, and Warrington. The county historically included all of the Wirral Peninsula and parts of southern Greater Manchester and northern Derbyshire, but excluded Widnes and Warrington. The landscape of the county is dominated by the Cheshire Plain, an area of relatively flat land divided by the Mid-Cheshire Ridge. To the west, Cheshire contains the south of the Wirral Peninsula, and to the east the landscape rises to the Pennines, where the county contains part of the Peak District. The River Mersey runs through the north of Cheshire before broadening into its wide estuary; the River Dee forms part of the countys border with Wales, then fully enters England and flows through Chester before re-entering Wales upstream of its estuary. Red Triassic sandstone forms the bedrock of much of the county, and was used in the construction of many of its buildings. Cheshires name was originally derived from an early name for Chester, and was first recorded as Legeceasterscir in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,[8] meaning the shire of the city of legions.[9] Although the name first appears in 980, it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920.[9] In the Domesday Book, Cheshire was recorded as having the name Cestrescir (Chestershire), derived from the name for Chester at the time.[8] Through the next few centuries a series of changes that occurred in the English language, which have included simplifications and elision, has resulted in the name Cheshire.[10]
Transcription into Japanese. In contemporary Japanese writing, foreign-language loanwords and foreign names are normally written in the katakana script, which is one component of the Japanese writing system. As far as possible, sounds in the source language are matched to the nearest sounds in the Japanese language, and the result is transcribed using standard katakana characters, each of which represents one syllable (strictly mora). For example, America is written アメリカ (A-me-ri-ka). To accommodate various foreign-language sounds not present in Japanese, a system of extended katakana has also developed to augment standard katakana. A much less common form of transcription, Ateji, uses kanji characters for their phonetic values. Since Japanese has few closed syllables, syllable-final consonants in the source language are often represented using the -u (or sometimes -o or -i) kanas with implicitly silent vowels – though this vowel often is pronounced in Japanese – or the syllable coda is not represented at all. For example, the name Jim is written ジム (Ji-mu). A similar principle applies to consonant clusters; for example spring would be transcribed as スプリング (su-pu-ri-n-gu), and scratch would be transcribed as スクラッチ (su-ku-ra-tchi). Japanese has only five native vowel sounds, each a pure vowel (monophthong) with a long and short form, and some degree of approximation is necessary when representing vowels from, for example, English. Diphthongs are represented by vowel sequences, as in ブラウン Bu-ra-u-n Brown, ナイス na-i-su nice, ディア di-a dear/deer, レア re-a rare. etc. The English spelling <ore> (phonologically /ɔː/ (RP) or /ɔːr/ (GA)) is usually diphthongized as o-a in Japanese (e.g. コア ko-a core), possibly because it is also pronounced as a diphthong (/oə/) in some accents of English. English /eɪ/ is transcribed to either e-e (エース e-e-su ace) or e-i (スペイン Su-pe-i-n Spain); similarly, /əʊ/ is transcribed to either o-o (ショー sho-o show) or o-u (シャドウ sha-do-u shadow). Long vowels are generally written with ー to indicate lengthening, as in コーラ kōra (cola), rather than writing a distinct vowel ×コウラ *koura. There are two irregularities of note here. Firstly, lengthening of the final vowel may be ambiguous, and vary over time or between users. For example, in present Japan, computer is generally represented as コンピューター konpyūtā (long final), but in some cases, such as the computer industry, following Japanese Industrial Standards, it is represented as コンピュータ konpyūta (short final).[1] Secondly, in modern Chinese loanwords, notably food names, in careful transcription diphthongs are represented by separate vowels, even if in Japanese they would appear to be a long vowel; this is particularly common with òu, especially in 豆 dòu (soy) bean, usually rendered as トウ. Further, long vowels in the Japanese transcription need not reflect Chinese pronunciation. For example, the dish 東坡肉 Dongpo pork, in pinyin dōngpōròu (dōng·pō·ròu), is represented in Japanese as ドンポーロウ donpōrou, or more commonly トンポーロウ tonpōrou. Note that in Chinese pinyin ō represents a high tone, while in Japanese ō represents a long vowel, and /d/ is pronounced differently (Chinese /d/ is similar to Japanese or English /t/). This distinction is not always followed, and varies by term: the spelling トンポーロー tonpōrō is also common; and in terms such as 回鍋肉 twice cooked pork, the spelling ホイコーロー is more common, despite representing diphthongs.
Surrey.  Surrey (/ˈsʌri/)[5] is a ceremonial county in South East England. It is bordered by Greater London to the northeast, Kent to the east, East and West Sussex to the south, and Hampshire and Berkshire to the west. The largest settlement is Woking. The county has an area of 1,663 km2 (642 square miles) and a population of 1,214,540. Much of the north of the county forms part of the Greater London Built-up Area, which includes the suburbs within the M25 motorway as well as Woking (103,900), Guildford (77,057), and Leatherhead (32,522). The west of the county contains part of built-up area which includes Camberley, Farnham, and Frimley and which extends into Hampshire and Berkshire. The south of the county is rural, and its largest settlements are Horley (22,693) and Godalming (22,689). For local government purposes Surrey is a non-metropolitan county with eleven districts. The county historically included much of south-west Greater London but excluded what is now the borough of Spelthorne, which was part of Middlesex. It is one of the home counties. The defining geographical feature of the county is the North Downs, a chalk escarpment which runs from the south-west to north-east and divides the densely populated north from the more rural south; it is pierced by the rivers Wey and Mole, both tributaries of the Thames. The north of the county is a lowland, part of the Thames basin. The south-east is part of the Weald, and the south-west contains the Surrey Hills and Thursley, Hankley and Frensham Commons, an extensive area of heath. The county has the densest woodland cover in England, at 22.4 per cent. Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east–west. The ridge is pierced by the rivers Wey and Mole, tributaries of the Thames, which formed the northern border of the county before modern redrawing of county boundaries, which has left part of its north bank within the county.[6] To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, forming part of the basin of the Thames.[6] The geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers.
Cape (geography).  In geography, a cape is a headland, peninsula or promontory extending into a body of water, usually a sea.[1] A cape usually represents a marked change in trend of the coastline,[2] often making them important landmarks in sea navigation. This also makes them prone to natural forms of erosion, mainly tidal actions, resulting in a relatively short geological lifespan. Capes can be formed by glaciers, volcanoes, and changes in sea level.[2] Erosion plays a large role in each of these methods of formation.[3] Coastal erosion by waves and currents can create capes by wearing away softer rock and leaving behind harder rock formations. Movements of the Earths crust can uplift land, forming capes. For example, the Cape of Good Hope was formed by tectonic forces. Volcanic eruptions can create capes by depositing lava that solidifies into new landforms. Cape Verde, (also known as Cabo Verde) is an example of a volcanic cape.[4] Glaciers can carve out capes by eroding the landscape as they advance and retreat. Cape Cod in the United States was formed by glacial activity during the last Ice Age.[3] Capes (and other headlands) are conspicuous visual landmarks along a coast, and sailors have relied on them for navigation since antiquity.[5][6] The Greeks and Romans considered some to be sacred capes and erected temples to the sea god nearby. Greek peripli describe capes and other headlands a sailor will encounter along a route. The Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, for instance, illustrates a clockwise journey around Sicily using three capes that define its triangular shape: Cape Peloro in the northeast, Cape Pachynus in the southeast, and Cape Lilybaeum in the west.[5] Sicily itself was referred to as Trinacria (or Three Capes) in antiquity.[7]
Law.  Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,[1] with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate.[2][3][4] It has been variously described as a science[5][6] and as the art of justice.[7][8][9] State-enforced laws can be made by a legislature, resulting in statutes; by the executive through decrees and regulations; or by judges decisions, which form precedent in common law jurisdictions. An autocrat may exercise those functions within their realm. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people. Legal systems vary between jurisdictions, with their differences analysed in comparative law. In civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates the law. In common law systems, judges may make binding case law through precedent,[10] although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature.[11] Religious law is in use in some religious communities and states, and has historically influenced secular law.[12][13][14][15][16] The scope of law can be divided into two domains: public law concerns government and society, including constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law; while private law deals with legal disputes between parties in areas such as contracts, property, torts, delicts and commercial law.[17] This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of administrative courts;[18][19] by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions.[20][21] Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history,[22] philosophy,[23] economic analysis[24] and sociology.[25] Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice.[26][27]
London.  London[c] is the capital and largest city[d] of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of 9,841,000 in 2025.[3] Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 15.1 million.[5] London stands on the River Thames in southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) tidal estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years.[8] Its ancient core and financial centre, the City of London, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and has retained its medieval boundaries.[e][9] The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host of the national government and parliament. London grew rapidly in the 19th century, becoming the worlds largest city at the time. Since the 19th century[10] the name London has referred to the metropolis around the City of London, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire,[11] which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area of Greater London, governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.[f][12] As one of the worlds major global cities,[13][14] London exerts a strong influence on world art, entertainment, fashion, commerce, finance, education, healthcare, media, science, technology, tourism, transport and communications.[15][16] London is Europe’s most economically powerful city, and is one of the worlds major financial centres.[17] London hosts Europes largest concentration of higher education institutions,[18] comprising over 50 universities and colleges and enrolling more than 500,000 students as at 2023.[19] It is home to several of the worlds leading academic institutions: Imperial College London, internationally recognised for its excellence in natural and applied sciences, and University College London (UCL), a comprehensive research-intensive university, consistently rank among the top ten globally.[20][21] Other notable institutions include Kings College London (KCL), highly regarded in law, humanities, and health sciences; the London School of Economics (LSE), globally prominent in social sciences and economics; and specialised institutions such as the Royal College of Art (RCA), Royal Academy of Music (RAM), the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) and London Business School (LBS).[22] It is the most-visited city in Europe and has the worlds busiest city airport system.[23] The London Underground is the worlds oldest rapid transit system.[24] Londons diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.[25] The 2025 population of Greater London of just over 9.8 million made it Europes third-most populous city, accounting for 13.1 per cent of the United Kingdoms population and 15.5 per cent of Englands population.[3][26] The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011.[4][27] The London metropolitan area is the third-most-populous in Europe, with about 15 million inhabitants as of 2025, making London a megacity.[g][28][29] Four World Heritage Sites are located in London: Kew Gardens; the Tower of London; the site featuring the Palace of Westminster, the Church of St Margaret, and Westminster Abbey; and the historic settlement in Greenwich where the Royal Observatory defines the prime meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time.[30] Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge and Trafalgar Square. The city has the most museums, art galleries, libraries and cultural venues in the UK, including the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, the British Library and numerous West End theatres.[31] Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final, the Wimbledon Tennis Championships and the London Marathon. It became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games upon hosting the 2012 Summer Olympics.[32]
Chōshi. Chōshi (Japanese: 銚子市, romanized: Chōshi-shi, pronounced [tɕoːɕi]) is a city located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 December 2020[update], the city had an estimated population of  59,174 in 27,160 households and a population density of 700 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,800/sq mi).[1] The total area of the city is 84.19 km2 (32.5 sq mi). Chōshi is located in the northeastern part of Chiba prefecture, about 65 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and 90 to 100 kilometers from central Tokyo. Cape Inubō, within the city, is the easternmost point in the Kantō region. Chōshi is noted for its dramatic sea coast on the Pacific Ocean.[2] The Tone River runs through the northern part of the city. Takagami Atagoyama (elevation 73.6 meters) is the highest peak. Chiba Prefecture Ibaraki Prefecture Chōshi has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Chōshi is 15.8 °C (60.4 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,712.4 mm (67.42 in) with October as the wettest month. The temperature is highest on average in August, at around 25.5 °C (77.9 °F), and lowest in January, at around 6.6 °C (43.9 °F).[3]
Jōyō kanji. The jōyō kanji (常用漢字; Japanese pronunciation: [dʑoːjoːkaꜜɲdʑi] ⓘ, lit. regular-use kanji) are those kanji listed on the Jōyō kanji hyō (常用漢字表; literally regular-use kanji list), officially announced by the Japanese Ministry of Education. The current list of 2,136 characters was issued in 2010. It is a slightly modified version of the tōyō kanji, which was the initial list of secondary school-level kanji standardized after World War II. The list is not a comprehensive list of all characters and readings in regular use; rather, it is intended as a literacy baseline for those who have completed compulsory education, as well as a list of permitted characters and readings for use in official government documents. Due to the requirement that official government documents make use of only jōyō kanji and their readings, several rare characters are also included due to their use in the Constitution of Japan, which was being written at the same time the original 1,850-character tōyō kanji list was compiled. The 2,136 kanji in the jōyō kanji consist of: In 1981, the jōyō kanji replaced the tōyō kanji as the standardized list of common kanji. The differences between the two consisted of 95 additional characters, and the simplification of 燈 as 灯. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology instructed teachers to start teaching the new characters in fiscal 2012, so that junior high school students would be able to read them and high school students would be able to write them. High schools and universities started using the characters in their entrance exams in the 2015 academic year.[6]
Guildford.  Guildford (/ˈɡɪlfərd/ ⓘ)[2] is a town in west Surrey, England, around 27 mi (43 km) south-west of central London. As of the 2011 census, the town had a population of about 77,000;[1] it is the seat of the wider Borough of Guildford, which had around 145,673 inhabitants in 2022.[3] The name Guildford is thought to derive from a crossing of the River Wey, a tributary of the River Thames that flows through the town centre. The earliest evidence of human activity in the area is from the Mesolithic and Guildford is mentioned in the will of Alfred the Great from c. 880. The exact location of the main Anglo-Saxon settlement is unclear and the current site of the modern town centre may not have been occupied until the early 11th century. Following the Norman Conquest, a motte-and-bailey castle was constructed; which was developed into a royal residence by Henry III. During the late Middle Ages, Guildford prospered as a result of the wool trade and the town was granted a charter of incorporation by Henry VII in 1488. The River Wey Navigation between Guildford and the Thames was opened in 1653, facilitating the transport of produce, building materials and manufactured items to new markets in London. The arrival of the railways in the 1840s attracted further investment and the town began to grow with the construction of its first new suburb at Charlotteville in the 1860s. The town became the centre of a new Anglican diocese in 1927 and the foundation stone of the cathedral was laid in 1936. Guildford became a university town in September 1966, when the University of Surrey was established by Royal Charter. Guildford is surrounded on three sides by the Surrey Hills National Landscape, which severely limits its potential for expansion to the east, west and south. Recent development has been focused to the north of the town in the direction of Woking. Guildford now officially forms the southwestern tip of the Greater London Built-up Area, as defined by the Office for National Statistics.
Japanese writing system.   The modern Japanese writing system uses a combination of logographic kanji, which are adopted Chinese characters, and syllabic kana. Kana itself consists of a pair of syllabaries: hiragana, used primarily for native or naturalized Japanese words and grammatical elements; and katakana, used primarily for foreign words and names, loanwords, onomatopoeia, scientific names, and sometimes for emphasis. Almost all written Japanese sentences contain a mixture of kanji and kana. Because of this mixture of scripts, in addition to a large inventory of kanji characters, the Japanese writing system is considered to be one of the most complicated currently in use.[1][2][3] Several thousand kanji characters are in regular use, which mostly originate from traditional Chinese characters. Others made in Japan are referred to as Japanese kanji (和製漢字, wasei kanji), also known as [our] countrys kanji (国字, kokuji). Each character has an intrinsic meaning (or range of meanings), and most have more than one pronunciation, the choice of which depends on context. Japanese primary and secondary school students are required to learn 2,136 jōyō kanji as of 2010.[4] The total number of kanji is well over 50,000, though this includes tens of thousands of characters only present in historical writings and never used in modern Japanese. In modern Japanese, the hiragana and katakana syllabaries each contain 46 basic characters, or 71 including diacritics. With one or two minor exceptions, each different sound in the Japanese language (that is, each different syllable, strictly each mora) corresponds to one character in each syllabary. Unlike kanji, these characters intrinsically represent sounds only; they convey meaning only as part of words. Hiragana and katakana characters also originally derive from Chinese characters, but they have been simplified and modified to such an extent that their origins are no longer visually obvious.
Video game developer. A video game developer is a software developer specializing in video game development – the process and related disciplines of creating video games.[1][2] A game developer can range from one person who undertakes all tasks[3] to a large business with employee responsibilities split between individual disciplines, such as programmers, designers, artists, etc. Most game development companies have video game publisher financial and usually marketing support.[4] Self-funded developers are known as independent or indie developers and usually make indie games.[5] A developer may specialize in specific game engines or specific video game consoles, or may develop for several systems (including personal computers and mobile devices). Some focus on porting games from one system to another, or translating games from one language to another. Less commonly, some do software development work in addition to games. Most video game publishers maintain development studios (such as Electronic Artss EA Canada, Square Enixs studios, Activisions Radical Entertainment, Nintendo EPD and Sonys Polyphony Digital and Naughty Dog). However, since publishing is still their primary activity they are generally described as publishers rather than developers. Developers may be private as well. In the video game industry, a first-party developer is part of a company that manufactures a video game console and develops mainly for it. First-party developers may use the name of the company itself (such as Nintendo), have a specific division name (such as Sonys Polyphony Digital) or have been an independent studio before being acquired by the console manufacturer (such as Rare or Naughty Dog).[6] Whether by purchasing an independent studio or by founding a new team, the acquisition of a first-party developer involves a huge financial investment on the part of the console manufacturer, which is wasted if the developer fails to produce a hit game on time.[7] However, using first-party developers saves the cost of having to make royalty payments on a games profits.[7] Current examples of first-party studios include Nintendo EPD for Nintendo, PlayStation Studios for Sony, and Xbox Game Studios for Microsoft Gaming. Second-party developer is a colloquial term often used by gaming enthusiasts and media to describe game studios that take development contracts from platform holders and develop games exclusive to that platform, i.e. a non-owned developer making games for a first-party company.[8] As a balance to not being able to release their game for other platforms, second-party developers are usually offered higher royalty rates than third-party developers.[7] These studios may have exclusive publishing agreements (or other business relationships) with the platform holder, but maintain independence so that upon completion or termination of their contracts, they are able to continue developing games for other publishers if they choose to. For example, while HAL Laboratory initially began developing games on personal computers like the MSX, they became one of the earliest second-party developers for Nintendo, developing exclusively for Nintendos consoles starting with the Famicom, though they would self-publish their mobile games.[9][10]
Japanese archipelago. The Japanese archipelago (Japanese: 日本列島, Hepburn: Nippon/Nihon Rettō; Japanese pronunciation: [ɲip.pon/ɲi.hon ɾeꜜt.toː][1]) is an archipelago of 14,125 islands that form the country of Japan.[2] It extends over 3,000 km (1,900 mi)[3] from the Sea of Okhotsk in the northeast to the East China and Philippine seas in the southwest along the Pacific coast of the Eurasian continent, and consists of three island arcs from north to south: the Northeastern Japan Arc, the Southwestern Japan Arc, and the Ryukyu Island Arc. The Daitō Islands, the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc, and the Kuril Islands neighbor the archipelago. Japan is the largest island country in East Asia and the fourth-largest island country in the world with 377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi).[4][5] It has an exclusive economic zone of 4,470,000 km2 (1,730,000 sq mi).[6] The term Mainland Japan is used to distinguish the large islands of the Japanese archipelago from the remote, smaller islands; it refers to the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku.[7] From 1943 until the end of the Pacific War, Karafuto Prefecture (south Sakhalin) was designated part of the mainland. Geographically speaking the term mainland is somewhat inaccurate, as this refers to an expanse of territory that is attached to a continental landmass. The term home islands was used at the end of World War II to define the area where Japanese sovereignty and constitutional rule of its emperor would be restricted.[citation needed] The term is also commonly used today to distinguish the archipelago from Japans colonies and other territories.[8] The archipelago consists of 14,125 islands[2] (here defined as land more than 100 m in circumference), of which 430 are inhabited.[9] The five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa.[7] Honshu is the largest and is referred to as the Japanese mainland.[10]
Video game publisher.  A video game publisher is a company that publishes video games that have been developed either internally by the publisher or externally by a video game developer. They often finance the development, sometimes by paying a video game developer (the publisher calls this external development) and sometimes by paying an internal staff of developers called a studio.[1] The large video game publishers also distribute the games they publish, while some smaller publishers instead hire distribution companies (or larger video game publishers) to distribute the games they publish. Other functions usually performed by the publisher include deciding on and paying for any licenses that are used by the game; paying for localization; layout, printing, and possibly the writing of the user manual; and the creation of graphic design elements such as the box design. Some large publishers with vertical structure also own publishing subsidiaries (labels). Large publishers also attempt to boost efficiency across all internal and external development teams by providing services such as sound design and code packages for commonly needed functionality. Because the publisher often finances development, they usually try to manage development risk along with a staff of producers or project managers to monitor the developers progress, critique ongoing development, and assist as necessary. Most video games created by an external video game developer are paid for with periodic advances on royalties. These advances are paid when the developer reaches certain stages of development, called milestones. Video game publishing is associated with high risk:
Game Freak.  Game Freak Inc.[a] is a Japanese video game developer, best known as the primary developer and co-owners of the Pokémon series of role-playing video games. Predating the video game company, Game Freak was a self-published video game magazine created by Satoshi Tajiri and Ken Sugimori in the 1980s. The first issue was published in 1983 by Tajiri.[3] Sugimori would join the magazine at a later date as an illustrator after finding the magazine in a shop and liking it.[4] Tajiri also used Game Freak as his pen name when he wrote as a freelance writer to publications such as Family Computer Magazine and Famicom Tsūshin.[5][6] On April 26, 1989, Tajiri, Sugimori and Junichi Masuda started a video game development company with the same name.[7][8] One of Game Freaks first games was the Nintendo Entertainment System action and puzzle game Quinty, which was released in North America as Mendel Palace. Its most popular series, Pokémon—the romanized portmanteau of the Japanese brand Pocket Monsters (ポケットモンスター, Poketto Monsutā)[9]—is published and distributed respectively by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo worldwide. In October 2015, Game Freak acquired Koa Games, a mobile development company.[10] The company was subsequently merged into Game Freak on December 1, 2015.[11]
Honshu.  Honshu (Japanese: 本州, Hepburn: Honshū; pronounced [hoꜜɰ̃.ɕɯː] ⓘ; lit. main island), historically known as Akitsushima (秋津島; lit. dragonfly island),[3][4][5] is the largest of Japans four main islands.[6][7] It lies between the Pacific Ocean (east) and the Sea of Japan (west). It is the seventh-largest island in the world, and the second-most populous after the Indonesian island of Java.[8][9][10] Honshu had a population of 104 million as of 2017[update], constituting 81.3% of the entire population of Japan,[11] and mostly concentrated in the coastal areas and plains. Approximately 30% of the total population resides in the Greater Tokyo Area on the Kantō Plain. As the historical center of Japanese cultural and political power,[12] the island includes several past Japanese capitals, including Kyōto, Nara, and Kamakura. Much of the islands southern shore forms part of the Taiheiyō Belt, a megalopolis that spans several of the Japanese islands.[12] Honshu also contains Japans highest mountain, Mount Fuji, and its largest lake, Lake Biwa.[13] Most of Japans industry is located in a belt running along Honshus southern coast, from Tokyo to Nagoya, Kyōto, Osaka, Kobe, and Hiroshima.[12][14] The island is linked to the other three major Japanese islands by a number of bridges and tunnels. The island primarily shares two climates, with Northern Honshu having four seasons with largely varying temperatures while the south experiences long, hot summers and cool to mild winters.[15] The name of the island, Honshū (本州), stems from Middle Chinese. It directly translates to main province or home land in English.[16][17][18]
Yen (disambiguation). The Japanese yen is the unit of currency in Japan (since 1871). Yen or YEN may also refer to:
List of kanji radicals by stroke count.  Kanji radicals  are graphemes, or graphical parts, that are used in organizing Japanese kanji in dictionaries. They are derived from the 214 Chinese Kangxi radicals. The following table shows the 214 Kangxi radicals, which are derived from 47,035 characters. The frequency list is derived from the 47,035 characters in the Chinese language. The Jōyō frequency is from the set of 2,136 Jōyō kanji.[1]
Creative director. A creative director is a person who makes high-level creative decisions; oversees the creation of creative assets such as advertisements, products, events, or logos; and directs and translates the creative people who produce the end results.[1] Creative director positions are often found within the music, film, video game, fashion, marketing, or entertainment industries, but may be found in other creative organizations such as web development and software development firms as well. A creative director is a vital role in all of the arts and entertainment industries and can be seen as another element in any product development process. The creative director may also assume the roles of an art director, copywriter, or lead designer. The responsibilities of a creative director include leading the communication design, interactive design, and concept forward in any work assigned. For example, this responsibility is often seen in industries related to advertisement. The creative director is known to guide a team of employees with skills and experience related to graphic design, fine arts, motion graphics, and other creative industry fields. Some example works can include visual layout, brainstorming, and copywriting. In the advertising industry, a creative director is determined to develop various marketing schemes and strategies for a company or client that they are hired by. Assuming one is hired by a company that is fairly well known and established, there would be some type of creative department or management that the director would work with. The creative director would also serve as the project manager that works directly with employers, and in most circumstances, they would be responsible for designing concepts for advertisements and other promotional needs for their clients. Some examples of their duties involve copywriting and laying out chronological advertisement plans which explain the ongoing process of a project. It is important for an advertisement creative director to meet their goals at specific deadline with maximum efficiency as possible. To do so, they must be able to guide the creative department effectively from start to finish. Educational requirements of this position involve a blending of skills in business and journalism. To even be considered as a creative director, one would need to have years of experience in advertising (as little as five to as many as ten years).[2] Advertising creative directors are usually promoted from copywriting or art directing positions. Familiarity with film-making techniques is also common. Creative directors rise to become executive creative directors or chief creative officers, a position with executive responsibility for the entire creative department, and some progress to chairman of a firm. Creative directors usually possess a communication design, fine arts or animation degree. Copywriters may have degrees in journalism, language arts, or media innovation, or may develop more emphasis on advertising copywriting while pursuing a communication design degree.
10,000 yen note.  The ¥10,000 note (Japanese: 1万円紙幣, Hepburn: Ichiman-En Shihei) is a yen banknote circulated in Japan. It is the highest denomination of banknote currently issued by the Bank of Japan. Apart from the commemorative 100,000 yen coin, it is the highest denomination of the Japanese yen. It was first introduced in Japan in 1958 to the third series of banknote releases, Series C. The latest release is Series F, with printing of this series commencing in 2024. The note was introduced on 1 December 1958. The brown-green note includes Prince Shōtoku on the front and a pillar painting of Hōō (鳳凰, Fenghuang), in the Hall of the Phoenix, Byōdō-in, Kyoto on the back. The note was released on 12 September 1984. The brown note has Fukuzawa Yukichi, a Meiji era philosopher and the founder of Keio University, on the front[1] and a pair of green pheasants on the back.[2]
Bi-metallic coin. Bi-metallic coins are coins consisting of two (bi-) metals or alloys, generally arranged with an outer ring around a contrasting center.[1] The bi-metal form is typically used to protect against counterfeiting.[2] Common circulating examples include the European €1 and €2, United Kingdom £1 and £2, Canadian $2, South Africa R5, Egyptian £1, Turkish 1 lira and 50 kurus, Indian ₹10 and ₹20, Indonesian Rp1,000, Polish 2 and 5 zł, Czech 50 Kč, Hungarian 100 and 200 Ft, Bulgarian 1 and 2 lv., Hong Kong $10, Argentine $1 and $2, Brazilian R$1, Chilean $100 and $500, Colombian $500 and $1000, Peruvian S/2 and S/5, Albanian 100 Lekë, Thai 10 baht and all Mexican coins of $1 or higher denomination. For a more complete list, see List of bi-metallic coins. Bi-metallic coins and medals have been issued for a long time. The Roman Empire issued special-occasion, large medallions with a center of bronze or copper and an outer ring of orichalcum, starting with the reign of Hadrian. Meanwhile, circulating bi-metallic coins are known from the 17th century.[3][4] English farthings from 1684 through 1693 were made of tin with a central plug of copper for value. The silver-center cent pattern produced by the United States in 1792 is another example.[3] In the 1830s and 1840s, British medalist Joseph Moore produced large numbers of bi-metallic penny model and less common halfpenny model tokens, as a proposal to replace the relatively large penny and halfpenny coins.[5][6] Though not legal tender, Moores tokens were circulated widely and accepted at face value by many merchants. Despite their popularity, the Royal Mint rejected the proposal, and did not reduce the size of the penny and halfpenny until decimalization.[7] The first modern circulating bi-metallic coin was the Italian 500 lire, first issued in 1982.[8]
Nintendo.  34°58′11″N 135°45′22.3″E / 34.96972°N 135.756194°E / 34.96972; 135.756194 Nintendo Co., Ltd.[c] is a Japanese multinational video game company headquartered in Kyoto. It develops, publishes, and releases both video games and video game consoles. The history of Nintendo began when craftsman Fusajiro Yamauchi founded the company to produce handmade hanafuda playing cards. After venturing into various lines of business and becoming a public company, Nintendo began producing toys in the 1960s, and later video games. Nintendo developed its first arcade games in the 1970s, and distributed its first system, the Color TV-Game in 1977. The company became internationally dominant in the 1980s after the arcade release of Donkey Kong (1981) and the Nintendo Entertainment System, which launched outside of Japan alongside Super Mario Bros. in 1985. Since then, Nintendo has produced some of the most successful consoles in the video game industry, including the Game Boy (1989), the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (1991), the Nintendo DS (2004), the Wii (2006), and the Nintendo Switch (2017). It has created or published numerous major franchises, including Mario, Donkey Kong, The Legend of Zelda, Animal Crossing, and Pokémon. The companys mascot, Mario, is among the most famous fictional characters, and Nintendos other characters—including Luigi, Donkey Kong, Samus, Link, Kirby, and Pikachu—have attained international recognition. Several films and a theme park area based on the companys franchises have been created. Nintendos game consoles have sold over 860 million units worldwide as of May 2025, for which more than 5.9 billion individual games have been sold. The company has numerous subsidiaries in Japan and worldwide, in addition to second-party developers including HAL Laboratory, Intelligent Systems, and Game Freak. It is one of the wealthiest and most valuable companies in the Japanese market.
Fantasy Fiction.  Fantasy Fiction was an American fantasy magazine that published two issues in 1950.  The first issue was dated May 1950, with a planned quarterly schedule; the second was retitled Fantasy Stories and appeared in November 1950.  The fiction was mixture of reprints, mostly of 1930s fiction that had originally appeared in Argosy, and new material. Science fiction historian Mike Ashley comments that while the reprints were good quality, the new stories were obviously written in response to an editorial policy of sensationalism and are of no significance.  The reprints were given lurid new titles: for example, Irvin S. Cobbs Fishhead was retitled Blood-Brother of the Swamp Cats.  Readers were asked to send in accounts of fantastical experiences, and to help find a haunted house. The cover of both issues was a photograph, rather an artwork; the photographer was Bill Stone, whose work had been on the cover of the first issue of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction.[1] Fantasy Fiction  was published by Magabook, Inc, a Chicago publisher with editorial offices in New York.  The issues were dated May and November 1950; both were digest, 128 pages, and priced at 25 cents.  The editor was Curtis Mitchell.[1]
Fantasy (disambiguation). Fantasy is a genre of fiction. Fantasy, Fantasie, or Fantasies may also refer to:
Ikkō Narahara. Ikkō Narahara[n 1] (奈良原 一高, Narahara Ikkō; November 3, 1931 – January 19, 2020)[1][2] was a Japanese photographer. His work is held in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Born in Fukuoka, Narahara studied law at Chuo University (graduating in 1954) and, influenced by statues of Buddha at Nara, art history at the graduate school of Waseda University, from which he received an MA in 1959. He had his first solo exhibition, Ningen no tochi (Human land), at the Matsushima Gallery (Ginza) in 1956. In this Narahara showed Kurokamimura, a village on Sakurajima. The exhibition brought instant renown. In his second exhibition, Domains, at the Fuji Photo Salon in 1958, he showed a Trappist monastery in Tobetsu (Hokkaidō), and a womens prison in Wakayama. In the meantime, Narahara had shown his works in the first (1957) of three exhibitions titled The Eyes of Ten; exhibited in all three, and went on to co-found the short-lived Vivo collective.[1] From 1962 to 1965 he stayed in Paris, and after a time in Tokyo, from 1970 to 1974 in New York City. During this time he took part in a class by the American photographer Diane Arbus. He recorded Arbus speech during these classes. These recordings would become an interesting document of the artists statements about her own work shortly before she committed suicide.[3] Naraharas work often depicted isolated communities and extreme conditions. He made much use of wide-angle lenses, even hemispherical-coverage (circular) fisheye lenses.
Gannet.  Moris Gannets are seabirds comprising the genus Morus in the family Sulidae, closely related to boobies. They are known as solan or solan goose in Scotland. A common misconception is that the Scottish name is guga but this is the Gaelic name referring to the chicks only. Gannets are large white birds with yellowish heads, black-tipped wings and long bills. Northern gannets are the largest seabirds in the North Atlantic, having a wingspan of up to two metres (6+1⁄2 feet). The other two species occur in the temperate seas around southern Africa, southern Australia, and New Zealand. Gannet is derived from Old English ganot meaning strong or masculine, ultimately from the same Old Germanic root as gander.[1]
The Fairy Aurora. The Fairy Aurora (in Romanian: Zâna Zorilor, lit. Fairy of Dawn) is a fairy tale written by Ioan Slavici and published in June 1872.[1] Mihai Eminescu urged him to write his first story, which was read at Junimea in two sessions and was published in the magazine Convorbiri Literare.[2] It appeared in English as The Fairy Aurora in the Roumanian Fairy Tales with 18 Romanian stories published in 1885 by Henry Holt and Company in New York City.[3] The ruler of a vast empire has one eye that laughs and one eye that cries, and the reason is only known to him. His three sons, Florea, Costan, and Petru each ask him about it on different occasions. Only the youngest, Petru, obtains the answer: the emperor cries because he thinks that after he dies his son will not be able to protect their realm from enemies and that only the water from the fountain of the Fairy of the Dawn will be able to make both his eyes laugh again. Florea and Costan depart on the quest first, but after escaping a vicious dragon on the bridge, never return home. Petru tries his luck but is less successful than his brothers. His old nurse, back at the palace, advises him to take the emperors trusty old horse to cross the bridge. The horse is magical and can reach different speeds. With this fabulous steed, Prince Petru kills the dragon, crosses the bridge, and arrives in a desert. His fathers horse asks what speeds they should traverse: like the wind, the drought the desire, or a curse? Petru agrees they should apply different speeds so as to not tire out and to cross the desert as fast as possible. And so they do.
Sanyō region. The Sanyō Region (山陽地方 Sanyō-chihō) is an area in the south of Honshū, the main island of Japan.[1][2] It consists of the southern part of the Chūgoku region, facing the Seto Inland Sea. The name Sanyō means southern, sunny (yō) side of the mountains and contrasts with the Sanin or northern, shady (in) side of the mountains. The region is generally considered to include the prefectures of Okayama, Hiroshima and Yamaguchi. Sometimes, the section of Hyōgo Prefecture that formerly comprised Harima Province is considered to be within the region as well. The Sanyō encompasses the pre-Meiji provincial areas of Harima, Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchu, Bingo, Aki, Suō and Nagato.[3] The region is served by the Sanyō Main Line and Sanyō Shinkansen. The Sanin subregion is a subregion of Chūgoku region that composes of the prefectures of Shimane, Tottori, and sometimes the northern portion of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The northern portion of Yamaguchi Prefecture composes of Abu, Hagi, and Nagato. The Sanyo subregion is a subregion of  Chūgoku region and is composed of the prefectures of Hiroshima, Okayama, and Yamaguchi in its entirety.
500 yen coin. The 500 yen coin (Japanese: 五百円硬貨, Hepburn: Gohyaku-en kōka) is the largest denomination of Japanese yen coin issued for circulation. These coins were first struck in 1982 as the vending machine industry needed a higher valued coin for use in their machines. The denomination had previously been issued as paper currency which co-circulated with the new coins until 1994. Originally the 500 yen coin was made up of cupronickel, but was later changed to nickel brass, and then to bi-metallic to deter counterfeiting. This illegal practice has been a constant issue since the coin was first released due to its high purchase value. With a history spanning 3 imperial eras, 500 yen coins are also collectibles. The 500 yen coin was first minted in 1982 as another coin denomination was needed for use in vending machines.[2] The obverse of the cupronickel based 500 yen coin features a paulownia crest, while the reverse is designed with bamboo and Tachibana. These elements were chosen as they are regarded as symbols of good luck and people were already familiar with seeing them on the 500 yen notes.[3] The diameter of the coin was set at 26.5 mm with a measured thickness of 1.85 mm. The inscription NIPPON 500 was placed on the rim.[4] As with other denominations created in the post World War II era, the newly issued coins circulated concurrently with their paper money counterparts. When the 500 yen coin was placed into circulation it acted as a replacement for the bill, which became supplementary currency.[5] The 500 yen bill was phased out in 1984 in favor of the new coins, co-circulation continued until 1994 when the bills were withdrawn from circulation.[6][7][a] Towards the end of Emperor Shōwas (Hirohitos) reign mintage figures fell for the 500 yen coin. An all time low came when only 2,775,000 coins were minted in 1987 (year 62).[8] The production of cupronickel 500 yen coins ended in 1999 due to incidents of counterfeit coins being used to rig vending machines.[4] The second design for the 500 yen coin was first minted in 2000 with new anti-counterfeiting devices. Nickel-brass was used as a replacement for cupronickel giving the coins a slightly golden appearance in comparison. This metallic change made it easier for vending machines to tell the difference between genuine versus counterfeit coins.[4] The weight of the 500 yen coin was lowered from 7.2g to 7, and the thickness from 1.85 to 1.81 mm.[4][9] Changes also effected the edge as the inscriptions of NIPPON 500 were replaced with a helically reeded edge. The overall design was not changed but enhanced with anti-counterfeiting technology which include microprinting, and features viewed only at certain angles.[10][11] This design later won the Mint Directors Conference award in 2002 as the Most Innovative Coin Concept. But counterfeiters switched to using raw materials to get around the new security features.[12] While in April 2019 the Ministry of Finance announced that the 500 yen coin would be redesigned, the new coins werent released into circulation until November 2021.[13][14] The most recent 500 yen coins feature a bi-metallic three-layer structure that is also used for European coinage.[14][15] One major difference are the edges of the coins, which use contour edging that utilize helical ridges with varied shaping.[3] Two different colors are visible when looking at the coin giving it the name bicolor clad. The center of the coin is made up of a silvery cupronickel, while the outer ring is golden nickel-brass.[3] Aside from an increase in weight of 0.1g the coins diameter remains the same as it has been since 1982.[14] The overall design is the same except for a missing bamboo leaf under 500 which is replaced by the date (era).[3] Enhanced features such as JAPAN and 500YEN are also applied to the edge of the coin along with microprinting and angled features already present on the previous nickel brass issue.[4] The cost of redesigning the 500 yen coin was estimated to be 490 billion yen as it required the refurbishment of cash handling equipment.[16] The COVID-19 pandemic pushed back schedules to circulate the coin which had initially been between April and September 2021. Other factors such as modifying vending machines and automated teller machines to accept the coins added to the delay.[17] The new coins were finally released into circulation in early November 2021.[14] This release did not invalidate old coins already in circulation as the cupronickel and nickel-brass coins are still considered legal tender.[9][18] While these coins are still valid, vending machines may no longer accept them due to their metallic signature.[c] There continues to be a strong demand for 500 yen coins, and they are unlikely to be affected by electronic money.[20]
ISO 4217.  ISO 4217 is a standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that defines alpha codes and numeric codes for the representation of currencies and provides information about the relationships between individual currencies and their minor units. This data is published in three tables:[1] The first edition of ISO 4217 was published in 1978. The tables, history and ongoing discussion are maintained by SIX Group on behalf of ISO and the Swiss Association for Standardization.[2] The ISO 4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. In many countries, the ISO 4217 alpha codes for the more common currencies are so well known publicly that exchange rates published in newspapers or posted in banks use only these to delineate the currencies, instead of translated currency names or ambiguous currency symbols. ISO 4217 alpha codes are used on airline tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978), the related UN/ECE Group of Experts agreed that the three-letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, Codes for the representation of currencies and funds, would be suitable for use in international trade.[citation needed]
Districts of Japan. In Japan, a district (郡, gun) is composed of one or more rural municipalities (towns or villages) within a prefecture. Districts have no governing function, and are only used for geographic or statistical purposes such as mailing addresses. Cities are not part of districts. Historically, districts have at times functioned as an administrative unit.  From 1878[1] to 1921[2] district governments were roughly equivalent to a county of the United States, ranking below prefecture and above town or village, on the same level as a city.[3] District governments were entirely abolished by 1926.[2] The bureaucratic administration of Japan is divided into three basic levels: national, prefectural, and municipal. Below the national government there are 47 prefectures, six of which are further subdivided into subprefectures to better service large geographical areas or remote islands. The municipalities (cities, towns and villages) are the lowest level of government; the twenty most-populated cities outside Tokyo Metropolis are known as designated cities and are subdivided into wards. The district was initially called kōri and has ancient roots in Japan. Although the Nihon Shoki says they were established during the Taika Reforms, kōri was originally written 評.[4] It was not until the Taihō Code that kōri came to be written as 郡 (imitating the Chinese division). Under the Taihō Code, the administrative unit of province (国, kuni) was above district, and the village (里 or 郷 sato) was below. As the power of the central government decayed (and in some periods revived) over the centuries, the provinces and districts, although never formally abolished and still connected to administrative positions handed out by the Imperial court (or whoever controlled it), largely lost their relevance as administrative units and were superseded by a hierarchy of feudal holdings. In the Edo period, the primary subdivisions were the shogunate cities, governed by urban administrators (machi-bugyō), the shogunate domain (bakuryō, usually meant to include the smaller holdings of Hatamoto, etc.), major holdings (han/domains), and there was also a number of minor territories such as spiritual (shrine/temple) holdings; while the shogunate domain comprised vast, contiguous territories, domains consisted of generally only one castle and castle town, usually a compact territory in the surrounding area, but beyond that sometimes a string of disconnected exclaves and enclaves, in some cases distributed over several districts in several provinces. For this reason alone, they were impractical as geographical units, and in addition, Edo period feudalism was tied to the nominal income of a territory, not the territory itself, so the shogunate could and did redistribute territories between domains, their borders were generally subject to change, even if in some places holdings remained unchanged for centuries. Provinces and districts remained the most important geographical frame of reference throughout the middle and early modern ages up to the restoration and beyond – initially, the prefectures were created in direct succession to the shogunate era feudal divisions and their borders kept shifting through mergers, splits and territorial transfers until they reached largely their present state in the 1890s. Cities (-shi), since their introduction in 1889, have always belonged directly to prefectures and are independent from districts. Before 1878, districts had subdivided the whole country with only few exceptions (Edo/Tokyo as shogunate capital and some island groups). In 1878, the districts were reactivated as administrative units, but the major cities were separated from the districts. All prefectures (at that time only -fu and -ken) were – except for some remote islands – contiguously subdivided into [rural] districts/counties (-gun) and urban districts/cites  (-ku), the precursors to the 1889 shi. Geographically, the rural districts were mainly based on the ancient districts, but in many places they were merged, split up or renamed, in some areas, prefectural borders went through ancient districts and the districts were reorganized to match; urban districts were completely separated from the rural districts, most of them covered one city at large, but the largest and most important cities, the Edo period three capitals Edo/Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka comprised several urban districts. (This refers only to the city areas which were not organized as a single administrative unit before 1889, not the prefectures Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka which had initially been created in 1868 as successor to the shogunate city administrations, but were soon expanded to surrounding shogunate rural domain and feudal holdings and by 1878 also contained rural districts and in the case of Osaka, one other urban district/city from 1881.)
Katsuta District, Okayama. Katsuta (勝田郡, Katsuta-gun) is a district located in Okayama Prefecture, Japan. As of May 1, 2004, the population was 17,888. The area is 123.63 km2. Prior to February 28, Katsuta District consisted of: As of 2003, the district had an estimated population of 29,056 and a density of 113.58 persons per km2. The total area was 255.82 km2. 35°06′36″N 134°09′43″E / 35.110°N 134.162°E / 35.110; 134.162
Okayama. Okayama (岡山市, Okayama-shi; Japanese: [okaꜜjama]) is the capital city of Okayama Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. The Okayama metropolitan area, centered around the city, has the largest urban employment zone in the Chugoku region of western Japan. The city was founded on June 1, 1889.[1] As of February 2023[update], the city has an estimated population of 700,940 and a population density of 890 people per km2.[2] The total area is 789.95 square kilometres (305.00 square miles). The city is the site of Kōraku-en, known as one of the top three traditional gardens in Japan, and Okayama Castle, which is ranked among the best 100 Japanese castles.[3] The city is famous as the setting of the Japanese fable Momotarō.[4] Okayama joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2016. In the late 16th century, during the Sengoku period (also called the Warring states period), Ukita Naoie consolidated a stronghold at Ishiyama beside the Asahi River. His successor, Ukita Hideie, shifted the main enclosure to the hill called Okayama and completed Okayama Castle, traditionally dated to 1597; hydrological works redirected river channels to serve as moats, and a castle town was laid out on a north–south axis.[5] After the Battle of Sekigahara, Kobayakawa Hideaki became the lord of the Okayama Domain and reconfigured the outer defenses, including the Hatsuka-bori (an outer moat reputedly finished in twenty days) and gates that defined the citys perimeter.[6] Ikeda Tadatugu, who was the feudal lord of Himeji Domain, became the next lord of Okayama. The Ikeda clan subsequently ruled Okayama and expanded the castle town.[5] On August 29, 1871, the new Meiji government of the Empire of Japan replaced the traditional feudal domain system with centralized government authority. Okayama became the capital of Okayama Prefecture. In 1889, Okayama City was founded with the establishment of the modern municipalities system. In the Meiji period, a Sanyo Main Line railroad and other local lines greatly enhanced the development of the city. The Sixth Higher Middle School (第六高等学校, Dairoku Kōtōgakkō) and Okayama Medical College (岡山医科大学, Okayama Ika-daigaku) were established in Okayama City. With modern state formation, the city developed as a regional hub for transport and education in western Japan.[7]
List of Japanese animation studios. This is a list of Japanese animation studios. 
Fukuoka.  Fukuoka (福岡市, Fukuoka-shi; [ɸɯ̥.kɯꜜ.o.ka, -kɯ.o.kaꜜ.ɕi] ⓘ[2]) is the sixth-largest city in Japan and the capital city of Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. The city is built along the shores of Hakata Bay, and has been a center of international commerce since ancient times. The area has long been considered the gateway to the country, as it is the nearest point among Japans main islands to the Asian mainland. Although humans occupied the area since the Jomon period, some of the earliest settlers of the Yayoi period arrived in the Fukuoka area. The city rose to prominence during the Yamato period. Because of the cross-cultural exposure, and the relatively great distance from the social and political centers of Kyoto, Osaka, and later, Edo (Tokyo), Fukuoka gained a distinctive local culture and dialect that has persisted to the present. Fukuoka is the most populous city on Kyūshū island, followed by Kitakyushu. It is the largest city and metropolitan area west of Keihanshin. The city was designated by government ordinance on April 1, 1972. Greater Fukuoka, with a population of 2.5 million people (2005 census), is part of the heavily industrialized Fukuoka–Kitakyushu zone. As of 2015[update], Fukuoka is Japans sixth largest city, having passed the population of Kobe.[3] In July 2011, Fukuoka surpassed the population of Kyoto. Since the founding of Kyoto in 794, this marks the first time that a city west of the Kansai region has had a larger population than Kyoto. Exchanges from the continent and the Northern Kyushu area date as far back as Old Stone Age.[4] It has been thought that waves of immigrants arrived in Northern Kyushu from mainland Asia.[5] Several Kofun exist.
Shōji Ueda. Shōji Ueda (植田 正治, Ueda Shōji; 27 March 1913 – 4 July 2000) was a Japanese photographer from Tottori, best known for his distinctive, dreamlike black-and-white images with staged figures, taken on the Tottori sand dunes. The term Ueda-chō (Ueda-tone) has been used to refer to his cool and mysterious atmospheric style. Ueda began using posed figures and objects in his photographs in 1939, but would be forced to cease his production due to Japans participation in World War II. His surreal Sand Dune series, of which the first images were published 1949, was overshadowed by the predominance of social realism, a major trend in Japanese post-war photography. His oeuvre was reconsidered by critics in 1971 after the publication of the widely-appreciated photobook Warabe Goyomi (Children the Year Round), containing images of children which masterfully balanced social realism and the playfulness of Uedas posed pictures. Since the 1970s, his work has won him international renown, and in 1995 the Ueda Shōji Museum of Photography was inaugurated. Throughout the entirety of his life, Ueda remained deeply attached to his native Sanin region, and in particular his hometown of Sakaiminato. Ueda Shōji was born to a merchant family in the port town of Sakaiminato, Tottori prefecture, on the western coast of the Sea of Japan. As a teenager, he showed interest in being a painter, but he started taking photographs instead after his father gave him his first camera when he was fifteen.[1]: 62
List of towns in Japan.  A town (町; chō or machi) is a local administrative unit in Japan.  It is a local public body along with prefecture (ken or other equivalents), city (shi), and village (mura).  Geographically, a town is contained within a district. The same word (町; machi or chō) is also used in names of smaller regions, usually a part of a ward in a city. This is a legacy of when smaller towns were formed on the outskirts of a city, only to eventually merge into it.
Mangrove forest. Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets or mangals, are productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones.[1][2] Mangrove forests grow mainly at tropical and subtropical latitudes because mangrove trees cannot withstand freezing temperatures. There are about 80 different species of mangroves, all of which grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate.[3] Many mangrove forests can be recognised by their dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water. This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides, as most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day. The roots slow the movement of tidal waters, causing sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom. Mangrove forests stabilise the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The intricate root system of mangroves also makes these forests attractive to fish and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators.[3] Mangrove forests live at the interface between the land, the ocean, and the atmosphere, and are centres for the flow of energy and matter between these systems. They have attracted much research interest because of the various ecological functions of the mangrove ecosystems, including runoff and flood prevention, storage and recycling of nutrients and wastes, cultivation and energy conversion.[4] The forests are major blue carbon systems, storing considerable amounts of carbon in marine sediments, thus becoming important regulators of climate change.[5] Marine microorganisms are key parts of these mangrove ecosystems. However, much remains to be discovered about how mangrove microbiomes contribute to high ecosystem productivity and efficient cycling of elements.[6] There are about 80 different species of mangrove trees. All of these trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. Mangrove forests grow only at tropical and subtropical latitudes near the equator because they cannot withstand freezing temperatures.[7] Many mangrove forests can be recognised by their dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water. This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides, which means that most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day. The roots slow the movement of tidal waters, causing sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom. Mangrove forests stabilise the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The intricate root system of mangroves makes these forests attractive to fishes and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators.[8] The main contribution of mangroves to the larger ecosystem comes from litter fall from the trees, which is then decomposed by primary consumers. Bacteria and protozoans colonise the plant litter and break it down chemically into organic compounds, minerals, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous wastes.[8] The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.[9][10] At low tide, organisms are exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.[10][9]
USD (disambiguation). USD is an abbreviation for the United States dollar, the official currency of the United States. USD may also refer to:
Honshu.  Honshu (Japanese: 本州, Hepburn: Honshū; pronounced [hoꜜɰ̃.ɕɯː] ⓘ; lit. main island), historically known as Akitsushima (秋津島; lit. dragonfly island),[3][4][5] is the largest of Japans four main islands.[6][7] It lies between the Pacific Ocean (east) and the Sea of Japan (west). It is the seventh-largest island in the world, and the second-most populous after the Indonesian island of Java.[8][9][10] Honshu had a population of 104 million as of 2017[update], constituting 81.3% of the entire population of Japan,[11] and mostly concentrated in the coastal areas and plains. Approximately 30% of the total population resides in the Greater Tokyo Area on the Kantō Plain. As the historical center of Japanese cultural and political power,[12] the island includes several past Japanese capitals, including Kyōto, Nara, and Kamakura. Much of the islands southern shore forms part of the Taiheiyō Belt, a megalopolis that spans several of the Japanese islands.[12] Honshu also contains Japans highest mountain, Mount Fuji, and its largest lake, Lake Biwa.[13] Most of Japans industry is located in a belt running along Honshus southern coast, from Tokyo to Nagoya, Kyōto, Osaka, Kobe, and Hiroshima.[12][14] The island is linked to the other three major Japanese islands by a number of bridges and tunnels. The island primarily shares two climates, with Northern Honshu having four seasons with largely varying temperatures while the south experiences long, hot summers and cool to mild winters.[15] The name of the island, Honshū (本州), stems from Middle Chinese. It directly translates to main province or home land in English.[16][17][18]
Fukuoka.  Fukuoka (福岡市, Fukuoka-shi; [ɸɯ̥.kɯꜜ.o.ka, -kɯ.o.kaꜜ.ɕi] ⓘ[2]) is the sixth-largest city in Japan and the capital city of Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. The city is built along the shores of Hakata Bay, and has been a center of international commerce since ancient times. The area has long been considered the gateway to the country, as it is the nearest point among Japans main islands to the Asian mainland. Although humans occupied the area since the Jomon period, some of the earliest settlers of the Yayoi period arrived in the Fukuoka area. The city rose to prominence during the Yamato period. Because of the cross-cultural exposure, and the relatively great distance from the social and political centers of Kyoto, Osaka, and later, Edo (Tokyo), Fukuoka gained a distinctive local culture and dialect that has persisted to the present. Fukuoka is the most populous city on Kyūshū island, followed by Kitakyushu. It is the largest city and metropolitan area west of Keihanshin. The city was designated by government ordinance on April 1, 1972. Greater Fukuoka, with a population of 2.5 million people (2005 census), is part of the heavily industrialized Fukuoka–Kitakyushu zone. As of 2015[update], Fukuoka is Japans sixth largest city, having passed the population of Kobe.[3] In July 2011, Fukuoka surpassed the population of Kyoto. Since the founding of Kyoto in 794, this marks the first time that a city west of the Kansai region has had a larger population than Kyoto. Exchanges from the continent and the Northern Kyushu area date as far back as Old Stone Age.[4] It has been thought that waves of immigrants arrived in Northern Kyushu from mainland Asia.[5] Several Kofun exist.
Federal Reserve Note.  Federal Reserve Notes are the currently issued banknotes of the United States dollar.[1] The United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing, within the Department of the Treasury, produces the notes under the authority of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913[2] and issues them to the Federal Reserve Banks at the discretion of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.[2] The Reserve Banks then circulate the notes to their member banks,[3] at which point they become liabilities of the Reserve Banks[4] and obligations of the United States.[2] Federal Reserve Notes are legal tender, with the words this note is legal tender for all debts, public and private printed on each note.[5] The notes are backed by financial assets that the Federal Reserve Banks pledge as collateral, which are mainly Treasury securities and mortgage agency securities[6] that they purchase on the open market by fiat payment. Following the enactment of the Constitution, states began chartering commercial banks that issued their own notes. These notes were known as state bank notes. State bank notes did not achieve widespread acceptance outside of their state of issue. The first institution to issue notes with national acceptance in the U.S. was the nationally chartered First Bank of the United States, chartered in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton. Its charter was not renewed in 1811. In 1816, the Second Bank of the United States was chartered and its notes also acquired widespread acceptance; its charter was not renewed in 1836, after President Andrew Jackson campaigned heavily for its disestablishment. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era, state bank notes were the only circulating paper currency again. From 1862 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act. Banks authorized under this act were known as National Banks and issued their own National Bank Notes. These did achieve national acceptance but the U.S. still lacked a central bank. It wasnt until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act that the United States finally had an institution that issued nationally accepted bank notes and had the powers of a central bank. Federal Reserve Notes have been printed from Series 1914 in large-note format, and from Series 1928 in modern-day (small-note) format. The latter dimensions originated from the size of the Philippine peso Silver Certificates issued in 1903 while William Howard Taft served as Philippine governor-general under the United States colonial administration. In view of its highly successful run, President Taft subsequently appointed a committee that reported favorably on the advantages and savings from adopting the dimensions of Philippine notes for use in the United States.[7] Final implementation of todays small-size format, however, only occurred in 1928.
Currency symbol. A currency symbol or currency sign is a graphic symbol used to denote a currency unit.[1] Usually it is defined by a monetary authority, such as the national central bank for the currency concerned. A symbol may be positioned in various ways, according to national convention: before, between or after the numeric amounts: €2.50, 2,50€ and 250. Symbols are neither defined nor listed by international standard ISO 4217, which only assigns three-letter codes. The generic currency sign, used as a placeholder, is the ¤ sign. When writing currency amounts, the location of the symbol varies by language. For currencies in English-speaking countries and in most of Latin America,[a] the symbol is placed before the amount, as in $20.50. In most other countries, including many in Europe and Francophone Canada, the symbol is placed after the amount, as in 20,50 €. Exceptionally, the symbol for the Cape Verdean escudo (like the now-lapsed Portuguese escudo, to which it was formerly pegged) is placed in the decimal separator position, as in 250.[2]
Gyoshū Hayami. Gyoshū Hayami (速水 御舟, Hayami Gyoshū; August 2, 1894 – March 20, 1935) was the pseudonym of a Japanese painter in the Nihonga style, active during the Taishō and Shōwa eras. His real name was Eiichi Maita. Gyoshū was born in the plebeian downtown district of Asakusa in Tokyo. He studied traditional painting techniques as an apprentice to Matsumoto Fuko from the age of 15. When he was 17, his talent was recognized by Shikō Imamura, who invited him to join the Kojikai circle of leading young artists. With the revival of the Japan Fine Arts Academy (Nihon Bijutsuin), Gyoshū became a founding member. He worked in many schools of painting, including Yamato-e, Rinpa and Bunjinga, with his style evolving gradually towards a detailed realism influenced also by his studies of Chinese paintings from the Song dynasty and the Yuan dynasty. His later works evolved further towards Symbolism. In 1914, Gyoshū formed a group called Sekiyokai to study new styles of Japanese painting. He had a leg amputated after being hit by a train in 1919, but the incident did not affect his artistic output. He devoted himself to creation, submitting numerous works to the Inten Exhibition, as well as touring Europe in 1930. His flower and bird drawings in India ink painting style and his portraits were especially well received by art critics. His most famous work, Dancing in the Flames (炎舞, Enbu) dates from 1925.
Shōeisha. Shōeisha Co., Ltd., sometimes abbreviated SE, is a publisher specializing in computer and software books. They have more than 1,000 publications, including programming books and application tutorials. Formerly, Shōeisha produced video games for various consoles, including the PlayStation, Dreamcast, and Sega Saturn. Twenty-three such titles were released 1995 through 2001.
Important Cultural Property (Japan). An Important Cultural Property (重要文化財, jūyō bunkazai)[note 1] is an item officially classified as Tangible Cultural Property by the Japanese governments Agency for Cultural Affairs (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) and judged to be of particular importance to the history, arts, and culture of the Japanese people.[1] To protect the cultural heritage of Japan, the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties was created as a designation system (指定制度) under which important items are appropriated as Cultural Properties,[note 2] thus imposing restrictions to their alteration, repair and export.[1] Besides the designation system, there exists a registration system (登録制度), which guarantees a lower level of protection and support to Registered Cultural Properties. Cultural Properties are classified according to their nature. Items designated as Tangible Cultural Properties (as opposed to Intangible Cultural Properties), cultural products of high historical or artistic value such as structures, paintings, sculptures, handicrafts, calligraphic works, ancient books, historic documents, archeological artifacts and other such items, can later, if they satisfy certain criteria, be designated either Important Cultural Properties or National Treasures (国宝), for especially valuable items.  The designation can take place at the city (市定重要文化財, city designated Important Cultural Property), prefectural (県定重要文化財, prefecturally designated Important Cultural Property) or national (国定重要文化財, nationally designated Important Cultural Property) level. In this last case the designating agency is often not specified. Varying levels of designation can coexist. For example, Sankei-en, a traditional Japanese-style garden in Naka Ward, Yokohama, is both city and nationally designated as an Important Cultural Properties.[2]
Suiheisha.  The Zenkoku Suiheisha (全国水平社; National Levelers Association) was a Japanese human rights organization founded on 3 March 1922 to advocate for the liberation of the Burakumin, a minority group subjected to discrimination. Launched in Kyoto in the liberal atmosphere of the Taishō era, the Suiheisha was the first national organization formed by the Burakumin to protest discrimination. It was preceded by smaller, government-sponsored improvement movements known as Yūwa (conciliation), but the Suiheisha distinguished itself by rejecting government assistance and advocating for self-liberation through direct action protest campaigns known as kyūdan (denunciation). The movement grew rapidly, establishing a national network and a newspaper, the Suihei Shimbun. Its ideology evolved from a broad human-rights focus to an engagement with leftist political theories, particularly anarchism and Bolshevism. This led to internal factional struggles throughout the 1920s, which, combined with increasing government repression under the Peace Preservation Law, brought the organization to the brink of collapse by the early 1930s. The Suiheisha was revived in 1933, spurred by a successful national campaign against a discriminatory court ruling and the development of a new, coherent theory of liberation known as Buraku Iinkai Katsudō (Buraku Committee Activity). This strategy linked local, practical demands for improved living conditions with a broader political struggle. However, under the rising tide of militarism and nationalism in the late 1930s, the Suiheishas leadership gradually abandoned its leftist positions. The organization began cooperating with the governments Yūwa policy and supporting the war effort. It was formally ordered to dissolve in January 1942 and was absorbed into the state-controlled Dōwa Hōkōkai (Dōwa Public Service Group). Despite its dissolution, the Suiheishas two-decade history of activism and theoretical debate provided a critical foundation for the post-war Buraku Liberation League. The Burakumin are a Japanese minority group who are descendants of the outcast communities of the Tokugawa period (1603–1868), principally the eta and hinin.[7] Historically, these groups were associated with occupations considered impure in Shinto and Buddhism, such as leatherworking, butchery, and handling the dead.[8] During the Tokugawa period, the government enforced a rigid social hierarchy, formalizing the Burakumins outcast status through legal restrictions on their dress, residence, and social interactions.[9]
Bandai Namco Filmworks.  Bandai Namco Filmworks Inc.[a] is a Japanese entertainment company owned by Bandai Namco Holdings with its business focused on the planning, production and management of anime films and television series. It was founded in September 1972 by former Mushi Production staff as Sunrise Studio, Limited,[b] the animation studio branch of Shoeisha Co., Ltd.[c]. In 1977, it gained independence from Shoeisha and Tohokushinsha and rebranded itself to Nippon Sunrise Inc.[d] In 1987, the studio rebranded to Sunrise Inc.,[e] a name which would remain in use for over 35 years. In 1994, the company was acquired by toy and entertainment company Bandai and was integrated into Namco Bandai Holdings in 2005. In 2022, as part of a major group restructuring of the Bandai Namco Group, the company would merge with the home video division of Bandai Namco Arts and Bandai Namco Rights Marketing to form Bandai Namco Filmworks. As part of this restructuring, Sunrise would continue to operate as a division within the company (officially known as a brand) with the changes taking effect on April 1, 2022.[4] Its current divisions include Sunrise (animation production), Bandai Visual (including Emotion, home video distribution) and Bandai Channel (streaming services) and currently owns other studios such as Bandai Namco Pictures, Actas, Eight Bit and the advertising agency Sotsu. From its establishment in 1972 to 2022, the company served as the legal operating entity for the Sunrise studio, serving as a full production company, specializing in animation production and character licensing.
Desdemona.  Desdemona (/ˌdɛzdəˈmoʊnə/) is a character in William Shakespeares play Othello (c. 1601–1604). Shakespeares Desdemona is a Venetian beauty who enrages and disappoints her father, a Venetian senator, when she elopes with Othello, a Moorish Venetian military prodigy. When her husband is deployed to Cyprus in the service of the Republic of Venice, Desdemona accompanies him. There, her husband is manipulated by his ensign Iago into believing she is an adulteress, and, in the last act, she is murdered by her estranged spouse. In the plays first act, Desdemona has eloped with Othello, a Moor in the service of the Venetian Republic. Before the Duke of Venice, his councilmen, and her father, she proclaims her love for Othello and defends her choice. Her father reluctantly accepts the union but warns Othello that she will someday deceive him. When Othello is sent to Cyprus in the line of duty, Desdemona accompanies him with his ensigns wife, Emilia, attending her. In act 2, Othellos lieutenant, Cassio, is disgraced in a brawl and falls from Othellos favour. Iago suggests to Cassio that he importune Desdemona to intercede for him, which she does. Meanwhile, Iago persuades Othello that Desdemona has formed an illicit relationship with Cassio. However, many critics argue that the first seed of doubt is not issued from Iago but by Desdemonas father: Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see. She hath deceived her father and may thee. (1.3)
Yamatane Museum. The Yamatane Museum of Art (山種美術館, Yamatane Bijutsukan) is a museum in Japan specializing in the nihonga style of Japanese watercolour painting. It is run by the Yamatane Art Foundation. The museum holds 7-8 exhibitions per year.[1] The Yamatane museum was opened in 1966 by the Yamatane art foundation, an organization based on the personal collection of Yamazaki Taneji and the corporate collection of Yamatane securities (now SMBC Friend Securities). There is a long-term exhibition of lesser works, with periodic displays organized. The foundation organizes moving exhibitions of works in their possession. The museum owns famous nihonga paintings including some with object of national cultural significance status. The quality of their collection is very high.[citation needed] The museums collection of over 1,800 works is centered on modern and contemporary nihonga from the Meiji period on. It also includes classic calligraphy, early modern paintings, ukiyo-e, and Western-style paintings. Works that have been designated Important Cultural Properties, six in total, are Court Ladies Enjoying Wayside Chrysanthemums by Iwasa Matabei (1578-1650), View of Mt. Kunō, by Tsubaki Chinzan (1801-1854), Tabby Cat, by Takeuchi Seihō (1864-1942), Nude, by Murakami Kagaku (1888-1939), Dancing in the Flames and Camellia Petals Scattering by Hayami Gyoshū (1894-1934). They are joined by Important Art Objects (ja) such as Autumn Plants and Quails by Sakai Hōitsu (1761-1828). In addition to 120 paintings by Hayami Gyoshū and seventy by Kawai Gyokudō (1873-1957), the Yamatane collection is also known for its 135 works by Togyū Okumura (1889-1990), including the majority of the paintings he showed in the postwar Inten (Japan Art Institute Exhibition), such as Maelstroms at Naruto and Cherry Blossoms at Daigo-ji Temple. The collection also numbers works by artists who must be included in any discussion of modern nihonga, including Sakuemons House and Divine Spirit: Mt. Fuji, by Yokoyama Taikan (1868-1958), Ancient Pine Tree and White Wisterias, by Shimomura Kanzan (1873-1930), Scene from the Noh Play Kinuta, by Uemura Shōen (1875-1949), Agalloch Pillow, by Kaburaki Kiyokata (1878-1972), Scenes from the Legend of Kiyohime, a set of eight paintings by Kobayashi Kokei (1883-1957), Oda Nobunaga Dancing before His Departure for the Front, by Yasuda Yukihiko (1884-1978), Yoshida Shōin in Rendai-ji Temple near Shimoda, by Maeda Seison (1885-1977), Maelstroms at Naruto, by Kawabata Ryūshi (1885-1966), and End of the Year, by Higashiyama Kaii (1908-1999).[citation needed] The museum has published a number of books about its collection and exhibitions, including the following: 35°39′12″N 139°42′49″E / 35.6532°N 139.7137°E / 35.6532; 139.7137
ISO 4217.  ISO 4217 is a standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that defines alpha codes and numeric codes for the representation of currencies and provides information about the relationships between individual currencies and their minor units. This data is published in three tables:[1] The first edition of ISO 4217 was published in 1978. The tables, history and ongoing discussion are maintained by SIX Group on behalf of ISO and the Swiss Association for Standardization.[2] The ISO 4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. In many countries, the ISO 4217 alpha codes for the more common currencies are so well known publicly that exchange rates published in newspapers or posted in banks use only these to delineate the currencies, instead of translated currency names or ambiguous currency symbols. ISO 4217 alpha codes are used on airline tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978), the related UN/ECE Group of Experts agreed that the three-letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, Codes for the representation of currencies and funds, would be suitable for use in international trade.[citation needed]
Chiyoda, Tokyo. Chiyoda (Japanese: 千代田区, Hepburn: Chiyoda-ku; IPA: [tɕijoda] ⓘ), known as Chiyoda City in English,[2] is a special ward of Tokyo, Japan. Located in the heart of Tokyos 23 special wards, Chiyoda consists of the Imperial Palace and a surrounding radius of about a kilometer (1000 yards), and is known as the political and financial center of Japan. As of October 2020, the ward has a population of 66,680, and a population density of 5,709 people per km2 (14,786 per sq. mi.), making it by far the least populated of the special wards. The residential part of Chiyoda is at the heart of Yamanote, Tokyos traditional upper-class residential area, with Banchō, Kōjimachi, and Kioichō considered the most exclusive neighbourhoods in the entire city. The total area is 11.66 km2 (4½ sq. mi.), of which the Imperial Palace, Hibiya Park, National Museum of Modern Art, and Yasukuni Shrine take up approximately 2.6 km2 (1 sq. mi.), or 22%. Chiyoda is known as the economic center of Japan; the districts of Otemachi, Marunouchi and Yurakucho east of the palace (an area colloquially known as Daimaruyu) house the headquarters of 19 Fortune 500 companies, is the source of roughly 10% of the combined revenue of all Japanese companies,[3] and produced the equivalent of around a quarter of the countrys GDP in 2017.[4] With a day population of around 850,000, its day/night population ratio is by far the highest of all municipalities in Japan. Tokyo Station, Tokyos main inter-city rail terminal and the busiest train station in Japan in terms of scheduled trains, is also located in Chiyoda. Chiyoda is also the political center of the country.[5] Chiyoda, literally meaning field of a thousand generations, inherited the name from the Chiyoda Castle, the other name for Edo Castle, which is the site of the present-day Imperial Palace. With the seat of the Emperor in the Imperial Palace at the wards center, many government institutions, such as the National Diet, the Prime Ministers Official Residence, the Supreme Court, ministries in Kasumigaseki, and agencies are also located in Chiyoda, as are Tokyo landmarks such as Yasukuni Shrine and the Nippon Budokan. Other notable neighborhoods of Chiyoda include Akihabara, Iidabashi and Kanda. The ward was formed in 1947 as a merger of Kanda and Kōjimachi wards following Tokyo Citys transformation into Tokyo Metropolis. The modern Chiyoda ward exhibits contrasting Shitamachi and Yamanote geographical and cultural divisions. The Kanda area is in the core of Shitamachi,[6] the original commercial center of Edo-Tokyo. On the other hand, the western part of the Kōjimachi area typically represents a Yamanote district. Chiyoda has been a site of a number of historical events.
Yōga. Yōga (洋画; literally Western-style painting) is a style of artistic painting in Japan, typically of Japanese subjects, themes, or landscapes, but using Western (European) artistic conventions, techniques, and materials.  The term was coined in the Meiji period (1868–1912) to distinguish Western-influenced artwork from indigenous, or more traditional Japanese paintings, or Nihonga (日本画). European painting was introduced to Japan during the late Muromachi period along with Christian missionaries from Portugal in 1543.[1] Early religious works by Japanese artists in imitation of works brought by the missionaries can be considered some of the earliest forms of Yōga. However, the policy of national seclusion introduced by the Tokugawa bakufu in the Edo period effectively ended the influence of western art on Japanese painting, with the exception of the use of perspective, which was discovered by Japanese artists in sketches found in European medical and scientific texts imported from the Dutch via Nagasaki. Some Japanese artists incorporated the technique, such as Utagawa Toyoharu in Perspective Pictures of Places in Japan (c. 1772–1781).[2] During the first half of the nineteenth century, some painting works showed influences of Western Art such as prints of Katsushika Hokusai. (c.1760–1849).[3] In 1855, the Tokugawa bakufu established the Bansho Shirabesho (Institute for the Study of Barbarian Documents), a translation and research institute for western studies, including a section to investigate western art.[4] This section was headed by Kawakami Tōgai,[1] whose assistant Takahashi Yuichi was a student of English artist Charles Wirgman. In 1868, Togai started a private art school and published A Guide to Western Style Painting (1871).[1] Takahashi is regarded by many as the first true Yōga painter.[1] Yuichi believed that Western style could help to build a Japanese national identity.[1] In 1876, the Kobu Bijutsu Gakkō (Technical Art School) was established by the Meiji government as Japans first dedicated Yōga art school.[4] Foreign advisors, such as the Italian artists Antonio Fontanesi, Vicenzo Ragusa and Giovanni Cappelletti were hired by the government to teach Japanese artists,[4] such as Asai Chū in the latest western techniques. French artist Raphael Collin also taught the Western-style to Japanese artists such as Kuroda Seiki, Fuji Masazo, and Asai Chū. Despite that Impressionism was emerging, Collin was more interested in Neoclassical Academic painting and Naturalism of the Barbizon school.[1]
Giovanni Battista Giraldi. Giovanni Battista Giraldi (November[1] 1504 – 30 December 1573) was an Italian novelist and poet. He appended the nickname Cinthio to his name and is commonly referred to by that name (which is also rendered as Cynthius, Cintio or, in Italian, Cinzio). Cinthio was born in Ferrara, then the capital of the Duchy of Ferrara. He was educated at the University of Ferrara, and he became a professor of natural philosophy in 1525. Twelve years later, he succeeded Celio Calcagnini in the chair of belles-lettres. Between 1542 and 1560, he was a private secretary, first to Ercole II and afterwards to Alfonso II dEste; but having, in connection with a literary quarrel, lost the favour of his patron, he moved to Mondovì, where he remained as a teacher of literature until 1568. Subsequently, on the invitation of the Senate of Milan, he occupied the chair of rhetoric at Pavia until 1573, when, in search of health, he returned to Ferrara, where he later died. Besides an epic entitled Ercole (1557), in twenty-six cantos, Cinthio wrote nine tragedies, the best known of which, Orbecche, was produced in 1541. The bloodthirsty nature of the play, and its style, are, in the opinion of many of its critics, almost redeemed by occasional bursts of genuine and impassioned poetry. His literary work was ideologically influenced by the Catholic Reformation. In the theatrical works there appears a vein of experimentation that anticipates some typical elements of taste of the modern European theatre, for example the Elizabethan theatre and baroque styles, where psychological violence and horror are used in function and dramatic action structured in real time.
IATA airport code.  An IATA airport code, also known as an IATA location identifier, IATA station code, or simply a location identifier, is a unique three-letter geocode designating many airports, cities (with one or more airports) and metropolitan areas (cities with more than one airport) around the world, defined by the International Air Transport Association (IATA).[1] The characters prominently displayed on baggage tags attached at airport check-in desks are an example of a way these codes are used.[2][3][4] The assignment of these codes is governed by IATA Resolution 763,[5] and it is administered by the IATAs headquarters in Montreal, Canada. The codes are published semi-annually in the IATA Airline Coding Directory. IATA also provides codes for airport handling entities, and for certain railway stations.[6] Alphabetical lists of airports sorted by IATA code are available. A list of railway station codes, shared in agreements between airlines and rail lines such as Amtrak, SNCF, and Deutsche Bahn, is available. However, many railway administrations have their own list of codes for their stations, such as Amtrak station codes.
Meiji era.  The Meiji era (明治時代, Meiji jidai[a]) was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912.[2] The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization by Western powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized nation state and emergent great power, influenced by Western scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As a result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas, the changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of Emperor Meiji. It was preceded by the Keiō era and was succeeded by the Taishō era, upon the accession of Emperor Taishō. The rapid modernization during the Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from the former samurai class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously Saigō Takamori, who led the Satsuma Rebellion. However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as Itō Hirobumi and Itagaki Taisuke. On February 3, 1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei, to the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 122nd emperor. This coincided with pressure on the ruling shogunate to modernize Japan, combining modern advances with traditional values. Mutsuhito was sympathetic to these ideas, leading to a call for the restoration of the governing power to the emperor. On November 9, 1867, then-shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to the Emperor, and put his prerogatives at the Emperor’s disposal, formally stepping down ten days later.[3] Imperial restoration occurred the next year on January 3, 1868, with the formation of the new government. The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, and a new era, Meiji, was proclaimed.
Location identifier. A location identifier is a symbolic representation for the name and the location of an airport, navigation aid, or weather station, and is used for staffed air traffic control facilities in air traffic control, telecommunications, computer programming, weather reports, and related services. The International Civil Aviation Organization establishes sets of four-letter location indicators which are published in ICAO Publication 7910.  These are used by air traffic control agencies to identify airports and by weather agencies to produce METAR weather reports.  The first letter indicates the region; for example, K for the contiguous United States, C for Canada, E for northern Europe, R for the Asian Far East, and Y for Australia.  Examples of ICAO location indicators are RPLL for Manila Ninoy Aquino Airport, KCEF for Westover Joint Air Reserve Base and EGLL for London Heathrow Airport. The International Air Transport Association uses sets of three-letter IATA identifiers which are used for airline operations, baggage routing, and ticketing.  There is no specific organization scheme to IATA identifiers; typically they take on the abbreviation of the airport or city such as MNL for Manila Ninoy Aquino Airport. In the United States, the IATA identifier usually equals the FAA identifier, but this is not always the case.  A prominent example is Sawyer International Airport in Marquette, Michigan, which uses the FAA identifier SAW and the IATA identifier MQT. The Federal Aviation Administration location identifier (FAA LID) is a three- to five-character alphanumeric code identifying aviation-related facilities inside the United States, though some codes are reserved for, and are managed by other entities.[1]: §1–2-1
Hyōgo-ku, Kobe. Hyogo (兵庫区, Hyōgo-ku) is one of nine wards of Kobe, Japan. It has an area of 14.68 km2 and a population of 109,144 (as of 2020).[1] The areas location with a natural harbour near the Akashi Strait which links Osaka Bay and the Seto inland sea has been an important location throughout the history of Japan. The capital of Japan was located in the area for a short period in the 12th century. Today the area is an important manufacturing zone.[2] The modern ward of Hyogo was formed as Sōsai-ku (湊西区, Minato (a surname) West Ward) when Kobe adopted the system of wards in 1931. Its name was changed to Hyogo in 1933 and its current boundaries were settled in 1971. The floral emblem of the ward is the pansy.[3] The literal meaning of the two kanji that make up the name Hyogo is weapons warehouse.[4] From the Heian period, the area was also known as Ōwada-no-Tomari (大輪田泊, Ōwada-no-tomari).[5] The features of the natural harbour around Wadamisaki Peninsula has meant the port in Hyogo has been an important gateway to the Seto inland sea since the 8th-century Nara period.[1] In the 12th century, in the latter part of the Heian period, Taira no Kiyomori recognized the strategic benefit of the location and developed the harbor,[1] including the building of Kyogashima (ja:経が島), a man-made island completed in 1173 and described as 37 hectares in size in The Tale of the Heike. Kiyomori, the de facto ruler of Japan between 1160 and 1180, moved his official residence to Fukuhara, in what is modern-day Hyogo.[6][7] Fukuhara became the capital of Japan for a brief period near the end of Kiyomoris rule.[1][8] A monument erected shortly after his death, the Kiyomori-zuka, stands in the gardens of a shrine opposite Kiyomori Bridge, also named in his honour.[9][10]
Haneda Airport. Haneda Airport (羽田空港, Haneda Kūkō) (IATA: HND, ICAO: RJTT), officially Tokyo International Airport (東京国際空港, Tōkyō kokusai Kūkō) and sometimes abbreviated to Tokyo-Haneda, is the busier of the two international airports serving the Greater Tokyo Area, the other being Narita International Airport (NRT). It serves as the primary domestic base of Japans two largest airlines, Japan Airlines (Terminal 1) and All Nippon Airways (Terminal 2), as well as RegionalPlus Wings Corp. (Air Do and Solaseed Air), Skymark Airlines, and StarFlyer. It is located in Ōta, Tokyo, 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) south of Tokyo Station. The facility covers 1,522 hectares (3,761 acres) of land.[2] Haneda previously carried the IATA airport code TYO, which is now used by airline reservation systems and travel agencies within the Greater Tokyo Area, and was the primary international airport serving Tokyo until 1978; from 1978 to 2010, Haneda handled almost all domestic flights to and from Tokyo as well as scheduled charter flights to a small number of major cities in East and Southeast Asia, while Narita handled the vast majority of international flights from further locations. In 2010, a dedicated international terminal, currently Terminal 3, was opened at Haneda in conjunction with the completion of a fourth runway, allowing long-haul flights to operate during night-time.[3] Haneda opened up to long-haul service during the daytime in March 2014, with carriers offering nonstop service to 25 cities in 17 countries.[4] Since the resuming of international flights, airlines in Japan strategize Haneda as Hub of Japan: providing connections between intercontinental flights with Japanese domestic flights, while envisioning Narita as the Hub of Asia between intercontinental destinations with Asian destinations.[5] The Japanese government encourages the use of Haneda for premium business routes and the use of Narita for leisure routes and by low-cost carriers.  However, the major full-service carriers may have a choice to fly to both airports.[6] Haneda handled 87,098,683 passengers in 2018; by passenger throughput, it was the third-busiest airport in Asia and the fourth-busiest in the world. It returned to the second-busiest airport in Asia after Dubai International Airport in 2023 in the Airports Council International rankings.[7] It is able to handle 90 million passengers per year following its expansion in 2018. With Haneda and Narita combined, Tokyo has the third-busiest city airport system in the world, after London and New York. In 2020, Haneda was named the second-best airport after Singapores Changi Airport[8] and the Worlds Best Domestic Airport.[9] It maintained its second place in Skytrax’s worlds top 100 airports for 2021 and 2022, in-between Qatars Hamad International Airport and Singapores Changi Airport, and maintaining its best Domestic Airport title from the previous year.[10][9] Before the construction of Haneda, the area was a prosperous resort centered around Anamori Inari Shrine, and Tokyos primary airport was Tachikawa Airfield. It was the main operating base of Japan Air Transport, then the countrys flag carrier. But as it was a military base and 35 kilometres (22 mi) away from central Tokyo, aviators in Tokyo used various beaches of Tokyo Bay as airstrips, including beaches near the current site of Haneda (Haneda was a town located on Tokyo Bay, which merged into the Tokyo ward of Kamata in 1932).[11] In 1930, the Japanese postal ministry purchased a 53-hectare (130-acre) portion of reclaimed land from a private individual in order to construct an airport.[12]
Rokkō Island. Rokkō Island (六甲アイランド, Rokkō Airando) is a man-made island in Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyōgo, Japan. Located in the southeast region of the Port of Kobe, the island has a 3.4 km × 2 km (2.1 mi × 1.2 mi) rectangular shape and covers 5.80 km2 (2.24 sq mi). The islands central region features a residential area, separated from the industrial and port zones by a green belt. International schools on the island serve students from abroad, alongside certain exclusive foreign condominiums built when Procter & Gambles Asia headquarters were in the vicinity. Kobe is a long and narrow city situated between the coast to the south and the Rokkō Mountains to the north. Due to the citys geographic constraints and growing population, there was limited space for urban expansion. This is a common problem in Japan, as dense forests cover much of the land. As a solution, urban planners in Kobe created the island using rock excavated from nearby mountains. [1] Workers used the tops from heavily wooded local mountains to the northwest of the city. A ten-mile-long underground conveyor belt was created to move the reclaimed land to the sea. A conveyor carried the rock and earth to barges, which dumped their contents two miles out into the bay. The project took almost twenty years to complete, from 1973 until 1992. The 1,400 acres (570 ha) island is shaped like a rectangle. Rokkō Island is not the first man-made island in Kobe. Port Island was completed in the same area in 1987, with later additions being built to the original structure in 2009.[2] In 1173, Taira no Kiyomori, a military leader of the late Heian period, also built an island known as Kyogashima.[3] There are two main forms of public transportation to the island: the Kobe Minato Kanko Bus and the Rokkō Liner. The Rokkō liner is an automated guideway transit system that runs on an elevated viaduct through the central axis of the island and connects to the mainland. The Rokkō Liner stops at three stations on the island: Marine Park, Island Center, and Island Kita-Guchi. It connects Rokkō Island to Minami Uozaki and Uozaki Station on the Hanshin Line, and Sumiyoshi Station on the JR Kobe Line.
Wajin (ancient people). Wajin (倭人, Wajin; literally Wa people) is In general the Wajin that established themselves on the Japanese archipelago became the Yayoi people, the ancestors of the Yamato people.[1] The word Wajin also refers to related groups outside of Japan. The first secure appearance of Wajin is in Treatise on Geography (地理志) of the Book of Han (漢書). After that, in Gishi Wajinden ((魏志倭人伝), a Japanese abbreviation for the account of Wajin in the Biographies of the Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Dongyi (烏丸鮮卑東夷傳), Volume 30 of the Book of Wei (魏書) of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志)),[2] their lifestyle, habits and the way of society are described and by cultural commonality such as lifestyle, customs and languages, they are distinguished themselves from Kanjin (han people (韓人)) and Waijin (Wai people (濊人)). Descriptions about Wajin can be found in the Old Book of Tang (945 AD) and the New Book of Tang (1060 AD) Several linguists, including Alexander Vovin and Juha Janhunen, suggest that Japonic languages were spoken by Wajin and were present in large parts of the southern Korean Peninsula. According to Vovin, these Peninsular Japonic languages were replaced by Koreanic-speakers (possibly belonging to the Han-branch). This event was possibly the reason for the Yayoi-migration into Japan.[3] Janhunen also suggests that early Baekje was still predominantly Japonic-speaking before they got replaced or assimilated into the new Korean society.[4]
Higashinada-ku, Kobe. Higashinada (東灘区, Higashinada-ku) is one of 9 wards of Kobe, Japan. It has an area of 30.36 km2. and a population of 212,111 (2012). South of the Hanshin Main Line, it is also home to some notable sake brewing areas, including Uozaki and Mikage.[1] Universities: Public high schools: Private high school: International schools:
Republic of Venice.  The Republic of Venice,[a] officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima,[b] was a sovereign state and maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 by Paolo Lucio Anafesto, over the course of its 1,100 years of history it established itself as one of the major European commercial and naval powers. Initially extended in the Dogado area (a territory currently comparable to the Metropolitan City of Venice), during its history it annexed a large part of Northeast Italy, Istria, Dalmatia, the coasts of present-day Montenegro and Albania as well as numerous islands in the Adriatic and eastern Ionian seas. At the height of its expansion, between the 13th and 16th centuries, it also governed Crete, Cyprus, the Peloponnese, a number of Greek islands, as well as several cities and ports in the eastern Mediterranean. The islands of the Venetian Lagoon in the 7th century, after having experienced a period of substantial increase in population, were organized into Maritime Venice, a Byzantine duchy dependent on the Exarchate of Ravenna. With the fall of the Exarchate and the weakening of Byzantine power, the Duchy of Venice arose, led by a doge and established on the island of Rialto; it prospered from maritime trade with the Byzantine Empire and other eastern states. To safeguard the trade routes, between the 9th and 11th centuries the Duchy waged several wars, which ensured its complete dominion over the Adriatic. Owing to its participation in the Crusades, Venice increasingly penetrated into eastern markets and, between the 12th and 13th centuries, managed to extend its power into numerous eastern emporiums and commercial ports. The supremacy over the Mediterranean Sea led the Republic to the clash with Genoa, which lasted until the 14th century, when, after having risked complete collapse during the War of Chioggia (with the Genoese army and fleet in the lagoon for a long period), Venice quickly managed to recover from the territorial losses suffered with the Treaty of Turin of 1381 and begin expansion on the mainland. Venetian expansion, however, led to the coalition of the Habsburg monarchy, Spain and France in the League of Cambrai, which in 1509 defeated the Republic of Venice in the Battle of Agnadello. While maintaining most of its mainland possessions, Venice was defeated, and the attempt to expand the eastern dominions caused a long series of wars against the Ottoman Empire, which ended only in the 18th century with the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718 and which caused the loss of all possessions in the Aegean. Although still a thriving cultural centre, the Republic of Venice was occupied by Napoleons French troops and its territories were divided with the Habsburg monarchy following the ratification of the Treaty of Campo Formio. Throughout its history, the Republic of Venice was characterized by its political order. Inherited from the previous Byzantine administrative structures, its head of state was the doge, a position which became elective from the end of the 9th century. In addition to the doge, the administration of the Republic was directed by various assemblies: the Great Council, with legislative functions, which was supported by the Minor Council, the Council of Forty and the Council of Ten, responsible for judicial matters, and the Senate.
ICAO airport code. The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-letter code designating aerodromes around the world. These codes, as defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization and published quarterly in ICAO Document 7910: Location Indicators, are used by air traffic control and airline operations such as flight planning. ICAO codes are also used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, international flight service stations, or area control centers (and by extension their flight information regions), regardless of whether they are located at airports. The recommendations for ICAO airport codes were adopted on 24 March 1959, and came into force on 1 October the same year.[1] ICAO codes are separate and different from the three-letter IATA codes, which are generally used for airline timetables, reservations, and baggage tags. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR and its ICAO code is EGLL. In general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes (in the broad sense) have ICAO codes than IATA codes, which are sometimes assigned to railway stations as well. The selection of ICAO codes is partly delegated to authorities in each country, while IATA codes, which have no geographic structure, must be decided centrally by IATA. The first one or two letters of the ICAO code indicate the country or large region of a country; the remaining letters identify the airport. For example, the ICAO code for Heathrow International Airport in London, is EGLL, with EG reflecting that it is based in the United Kingdom. By contrast, IATA codes do not provide geographic reference. For example, LHR, representing Heathrow, does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty; it is William T. Piper Memorial Airport in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania in the United States.
Kobe.  Kobe (/ˈkoʊbeɪ/ KOH-bay; Japanese: 神戸, romanized: Kōbe, pronounced [koꜜː.be] ⓘ), officially Kobe City (神戸市, Kōbe-shi; [koː.beꜜ.ɕi]), is the capital city of Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. With a population of around 1.5 million, Kobe is Japans seventh-largest city and the third-largest port city after Tokyo and Yokohama. It is located in the Kansai region, which makes up the southern side of the main island of Honshū, on the north shore of Osaka Bay. It is part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kyoto.[2] The Kobe city centre is located about 35 km (22 mi) west of Osaka and 70 km (43 mi) southwest of Kyoto. The earliest written records regarding the region come from the Nihon Shoki, which describes the founding of the Ikuta Shrine by Empress Jingū in AD 201.[3][4] For most of its history, the area was never a single political entity, even during the Tokugawa period, when the port was controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate. Kobe did not exist in its current form until its founding in 1889. Its name comes from Kanbe (神戸; an archaic title for supporters of the citys Ikuta Shrine).[5][6] Kobe became one of Japans designated cities in 1956. Kobe was one of the cities to open for trade with the West following the 1853 end of the policy of seclusion and has retained its cosmopolitan character ever since with a rich architectural heritage dating back to the Meiji era. While the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake diminished some of Kobes prominence as a port city, it remains Japans fourth-busiest container port.[7] Companies headquartered in Kobe include ASICS, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Kobe Steel, while over 100 international corporations have their Asian or Japanese headquarters in the city, including Eli Lilly and Company, Procter & Gamble, Boehringer Ingelheim, and Nestlé.[8][9] The city is the point of origin and namesake of Kobe beef, the home of Kobe University, and the site of one of Japans most famous hot spring resorts, Arima Onsen. Tools found in western Kobe demonstrate that the area was populated at least from the Jōmon period.[10]
Irreligion.  Irreligion is the absence or rejection of religious beliefs or practices. It encompasses a wide range of viewpoints drawn from various philosophical and intellectual perspectives, including atheism, agnosticism, religious skepticism, rationalism, secularism, and non-religious spirituality. These perspectives can vary, with individuals who identify as irreligious holding diverse beliefs about religion and its role in their lives.[1] Relatively little scholarly research was published on irreligion until around the year 2010.[2] Over the past several decades,[when?] the number of secular people has increased, with a rapid rise in the early 21st century, in many countries.[3][4]: 4 [1][5]: 112 [6] In virtually every high-income country and many poor countries, religion has declined.[5]: 112  Highly secular societies tend to be societally healthy and successful.[7] Social scientists have predicted declines in religious beliefs and their replacement with more scientific/naturalistic outlooks (secularization hypothesis).[8] According to Ronald Inglehart, this trend seems likely to continue and a reverse rarely lasts long because the trend is driven by technological innovation.[9] However, other researchers disagree (contra-secularization hypothesis).[8] By 2050, Pew Research Center (Pew) expects irreligious people to probably decline as a share of the world population (16.4% to 13.2%), at least for a time, because of faster population growth in highly religious countries and shrinking populations in at least some less religious countries.[1][10] Many countries may also be gradually becoming more secular, generation by generation.[10] Younger generations tend to be less religious than their elders.[10][11]: 5  They might become more religious as they age, but still be less religious than previous generations if their countries become more affluent and stable.[11]: 13  Nonetheless, secularization is compatible with religion since most versions of secularity do not lead to atheism or irreligion.[12] Religious congruence, that is consistency between beliefs and behaviors, in individuals is rare.[13]: 2  Religious incongruence is not the same thing as religious insincerity or hypocrisy.[13]: 5  The widespread religious congruence fallacy occurs when interpretations or explanations unjustifiably presume religious congruence.[13]: 19  This fallacy also infects New Atheist critiques of religion.[13]: 21 Estimating the number of irreligious people in the world is difficult.[14][1] Those who do not affiliate with a religion are diverse. In many countries censuses and demographic surveys do not separate atheists, agnostics and those responding nothing in particular as distinct populations, obscuring significant differences that may exist between them.[15]: 60  People can feel reasonable anxieties about giving a politically ‘wrong’ answer – in either direction.[14] Measurement of irreligiosity requires a high degree of cultural sensitivity, especially outside the West, where the concepts of religion or the secular are not always rooted in local culture and may not even be present.[4]: 31–34  The sharp distinction, and often antagonism, between religious and secular is culturally and historically unique to the West since in most of human history and cultures, there was little differentiation between the natural and supernatural and concepts do not always transfer across cultures.[4]: 31  Forms of secularity always reflect the societal, historical, cultural and religious contexts in which they emerge, and distinctions are sharp in religiously dominant contexts.[4]: 31  Also, theres considerable prevalence of atheism and agnosticism in ancient Asian texts.[16] Atheistic traditions have played a significant part in those cultures for millennia.[16] Cultural religion must be taken into account: non-religious people can be found in religious categories, especially where religion has very deep-seated religious roots in a culture.[15]: 59  Many of the religiously unaffiliated have some religious beliefs and participate in religious practices.[17][18][19][20]
Imam. Imam (/ɪˈmɑːm/; Arabic: إمام, imām; pl.: أئمة, aimmah) is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. Thus for Sunnis, anyone can study the basic Islamic teachings and become an imam. Its Christian equivalent/counterpart is a pastor or a priest. For most Shia Muslims, the Imams are absolute infallible leaders of the Islamic community after the Prophet. Shias consider the term to be only applicable to the members and descendants of the Ahl al-Bayt, the family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In Twelver Shiism there are 14 infallibles, 12 of which are Imams, the final being Imam Mahdi who will return at the end of times.[1] The title was also used by the Zaidi Shia Imams of Yemen, who eventually founded the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1918–1970). Sunni Islam does not conceive of the role of imams in the same sense as Shia Islam: an important distinction often overlooked by non-Muslims. In everyday terms, an imam for Sunni Muslims is the person charged with leading formal Islamic prayers (Fard)—even in locations besides the mosque—whenever prayer is performed in a group of two or more. The imam leads the worship and the congregation copies his actions. Friday sermons are most often given by an appointed imam. All mosques have an imam to lead the congregational prayers—even though it may sometimes just be a member from the gathered congregation rather than an officially appointed, salaried person. Women cannot be imams when men are present but are allowed to be when no men are present. An imam should be chosen, according to Hadith,[which?] based on his knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah and his moral character. Another well-known use of the term is as an honorary title for a recognized religious scholarly authority in Islam. It is especially used for a jurist (faqih) and often for the founders of the four Sunni madhhabs or schools of jurisprudence (fiqh), as well as an authority on Quranic exegesis (tafsir), such as Al-Tabari or Ibn Kathir. It may also refer to the Muhaddithūn or scholars who created the analytical sciences related to Hadith; due to their scholarly authority, the term may also refer to the heads of Muhammads family in their generational times.[2]
William Shakespeare.  William Shakespeare[a] (c. 23 April 1564[b] – 23 April 1616)[c] was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet and the Bard of Avon or simply the Bard. His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, 154 sonnets, three long narrative poems and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted. Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592 he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner (sharer) of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlains Men, later known as the Kings Men after the ascension of King James VI of Scotland to the English throne. At age 49 (around 1613) he appears to have retired to Stratford, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeares private life survive; this has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, his sexuality, his religious beliefs and even certain fringe theories as to whether the works attributed to him were written by others. Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories and are regarded as some of the best works produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until 1608, among them Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth, all considered to be among the finest works in English. In the last phase of his life he wrote tragicomedies (also known as romances) such as The Winters Tale and The Tempest, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of Shakespeares plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime. However, in 1623 John Heminges and Henry Condell, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeares, published a more definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of Shakespeares dramatic works that includes 36 of his plays. Its preface includes a prescient poem by Ben Jonson, a former rival of Shakespeare, who hailed Shakespeare with the now-famous epithet: not of an age, but for all time.
Ryukyu Islands.  The Ryukyu[a] Islands (琉球列島, Ryūkyū Rettō[b]), also known as the Nansei Islands (南西諸島, Nansei Shotō[c]; lit. Southwest Islands) or the Ryukyu Arc (琉球弧, Ryūkyū-ko), are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ryukyu Islands are divided into the Satsunan Islands (Ōsumi, Tokara and Amami) and Okinawa Prefecture (Daitō, Miyako, Yaeyama, Senkaku, Okinawa, Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), and Yonaguni as the westernmost). The larger ones are mostly volcanic islands and the smaller mostly coral. The largest is Okinawa Island.[citation needed] The climate of the islands ranges from humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) in the north to tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) in the south.[4] Precipitation is very high and is affected by the rainy season and typhoons. Except the outlying Daitō Islands, the island chain has two major geologic boundaries, the Tokara Strait (between the Tokara and Amami Islands) and the Kerama Gap (between the Okinawa and Miyako Islands). The islands beyond the Tokara Strait are characterized by their coral reefs.[citation needed] The Ōsumi and Tokara Islands, the northernmost of the islands, fall under the cultural sphere of the Kyushu region of Japan; local inhabitants speak a variation of the Kagoshima dialect of Japanese. The Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama Islands have a native population collectively called the Ryukyuan people, named for the former Ryukyu Kingdom (1429–1875) that ruled them. The varied Ryukyuan languages are traditionally spoken on these islands, and the major islands have their own distinct languages. In modern times, the Japanese language has been the primary language of the islands, with the Okinawan Japanese dialect prevalently spoken. The outlying Daitō Islands were uninhabited until the Meiji period, when their development was started mainly by people from the Izu Islands south of Tokyo, with the people there speaking the Hachijō language.[citation needed] The islands were held by the United States after the 1951 Treaty of San Francisco concluded the Pacific War. They were returned to Japan under the 1971 Okinawa reversion agreement, with China disputing the Senkaku Islands.
Otello Profazio. Otello Profazio (26 December 1934 – 23 July 2023) was an Italian cantastorie, folk singer-songwriter, and author. Born Otello Ermanno Profazio in Rende, Province of Cosenza, Profazio made his debut in 1953, participating in the radio music competition Il microfono è vostro with the song U Ciucciu.[1] A prominent promoter of traditional folk music from southern Italy—particularly from Sicily and Calabria—he received widespread critical acclaim in 1964 for the album Il treno del sole, which featured poems by Ignazio Buttitta set to music. This album also marked the beginning of a progressive evolution in his style, becoming increasingly original and distinctive.[1] His career reached its peak in the 1970s, notably with the success of the album Il brigante Musolino, a musical retelling of the life of Giuseppe Musolino, and Qua si campa daria, which sold over a million copies and was awarded a gold disc.[1][2] From the 1980s he focused his activities on live performances and concerts.[1] Profazio also presented several music programmes on television, notably Quando la gente canta for five years on Secondo Canale.[2] For 15 years he also wrote weekly columns (Profaziate) in the newspaper Gazzetta del Sud, which were later collected in a series of books.[1] Otello Profazio died on 23 July 2023, at the age of 88.[3]
Othello Hunter.  Tegba Othello Hunter (born May 28, 1986) is an American-Liberian[1] former professional basketball player. Standing at 6 ft 8 in (2.03 m), he played at the center position. Hunter played four seasons of college basketball including two seasons for Hillsborough CC and two seasons for Ohio State University. Hunter attended Richard J. Reynolds High School, in his hometown of Winston-Salem, North Carolina where he played high school basketball.[2] After high school, Hunter attended Hillsborough Community College, in Tampa, Hillsborough County, FL for two years, and he became a part of the Ohio State Universitys 2006 Thad Five recruiting class. After playing two seasons at Ohio State University, with the Buckeyes, during which he managed to post the seventh-best single-season field-goal percentage in school history, he entered the 2008 NBA draft, in which he was not selected. Hunter joined the Atlanta Hawks summer league squad in the summer of 2008. In five summer league games, he posted 13.2 points per game, 2.0 assists per game, 1.2 steals per game, and led his team with 6.2 rebounds per game. On August 11, 2008, the Hawks announced that they had signed Hunter to a contract.[3] Hunter was waived by the Hawks in January 2010.[4]
Kimono.  The kimono (着物; Japanese pronunciation: [kʲi.mo.no],[2] lit. thing to wear)[a] is a traditional Japanese garment and the national dress of Japan. The kimono is a wrapped-front garment with square sleeves and a rectangular body, and is worn left side wrapped over right, unless the wearer is deceased.[4] The kimono is traditionally worn with a broad sash, called an obi, and is commonly worn with accessories such as zōri sandals and tabi socks. Kimonos have a set method of construction and are typically made from a long, narrow bolt of cloth known as a tanmono, though Western-style fabric bolts are also sometimes used.[5] There are different types of kimono for men, women, and children, varying based on the occasion, the season, the wearers age, and – less commonly in the modern day – the wearers marital status. Despite the kimonos reputation as a formal and difficult-to-wear garment, there are types of kimono suitable for both formal and informal occasions. The way a person wears their kimono is known as kitsuke (着付け, lit. dressing). The history of the kimono can be tracked back to the Heian period (794–1185), when Japans nobility embraced a distinctive style of clothing derived from Han China. Formerly the most common Japanese garment, the kimono has fallen out of favour and is rarely worn as everyday dress now. They are most often seen at summer festivals, where people frequently wear the yukata, the most informal type of kimono. More formal types are worn to funerals, weddings, graduations, and other formal events. Geisha and maiko are required to wear a kimono as part of their profession, and rikishi (sumo wrestlers) must wear kimonos at all times in public.[6] Despite the small number of people who wear it regularly and its reputation as a complicated garment, the kimono has experienced revivals in previous decades, and is still worn today as fashionable clothing in Japan. Before the Kofun period, reliable sources are scarce, so judgments are mainly based on the shapes of excavated artifacts such as haniwa. From these, we can already see garments of the kosode type, such as tsutsusode and tari-eri, as well as clothing considered to be prototypes of hakama.[7][8]
Sakhalin.  Sakhalin (Russian: Сахали́н, IPA: [səxɐˈlʲin]) is an island in Northeast Asia. Its north coast lies 6.5 km (4.0 mi) off the southeastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, while its southern tip lies 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Japanese island of Hokkaido. An island of the West Pacific, Sakhalin divides the Sea of Okhotsk to its east from the Sea of Japan to its southwest. It is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast and is the largest island of Russia,[3] with an area of 72,492 square kilometres (27,989 sq mi). The island has a population of roughly 500,000, the majority of whom are Russians. The indigenous peoples of the island are the Ainu, Oroks, and Nivkhs, who are now present in very small numbers.[4] The islands name is derived from the Manchu word Sahaliyan (ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ), which was the name of the Qing dynasty city of Aigun. The Ainu people of Sakhalin paid tribute to the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties and accepted official appointments from them. Sometimes the relationship was forced but control from dynasties in China was loose for the most part.[5][6] The ownership of the island has been contested during the past millienium, with China, Russia, and Japan all making claims on the territory at different times.  Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries it was Russia and Japan, and the disputes sometimes involved military conflicts and divisions of the island between the two powers. In 1875, Japan ceded its claims to Russia in exchange for the northern Kuril Islands. In 1897 more than half of the population were Russians and other European and Asian minorities.[7] In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War, the island was divided, with Southern Sakhalin going to Japan. After the Siberian intervention, Japan invaded the northern parts of Sakhalin, and ruled the entire island from 1918 to 1925. Russia has held all of the island since seizing the Japanese portion in the final days of World War II in 1945, as well as all of the Kurils. Japan no longer claims any of Sakhalin, although it does still claim the southern Kuril Islands. Most Ainu on Sakhalin moved to Hokkaido, 43 kilometres (27 mi) to the south across the La Pérouse Strait, when Japanese civilians were displaced from the island in 1949.[8] Sakhalin has several names including Karafuto (Japanese: 樺太 [ka̠ɾa̠ɸɯ̟to̞] ⓘ), Kuye (simplified Chinese: 库页岛; traditional Chinese: 庫頁島; pinyin: Kùyèdǎo), Sahaliyan (Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ), Bugata nā (Orok: Бугата на̄),  Yh-mif (Nivkh: Ых-миф).
Akihito (given name). Akihito (written: 明仁, 明人, 昭仁, 顕仁, 章仁, 暁人, 彰人, 昭人 or 章人) is a masculine Japanese given name. Notable people with the name include:
Syria (region).  Syria (Arabic: ٱلشَّام, romanized: Ash-Shām or Shaam), also known as Greater Syria or Syria-Palestine,[2] is a historical region located east of the Mediterranean Sea in West Asia, broadly synonymous with the Levant.[3] The region boundaries have changed throughout history. However, in modern times, the term Syria alone is used to refer to the Syrian Arab Republic. The term is originally derived from Assyria, an ancient Semitic-speaking civilization centered in northern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq.[4][5] During the Hellenistic period, the term Syria was applied to the entire Levant as Coele-Syria. Under Roman rule, the term was used to refer to the province of Syria, later divided into Syria Phoenicia and Coele Syria, and to the province of Syria Palaestina. Under the Byzantines, the provinces of Syria Prima and Syria Secunda emerged out of Coele Syria. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the term was superseded by the Arabic equivalent Shām, and under the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid caliphates, Bilad al-Sham was the name of a metropolitan province encompassing most of the region. In the 19th century, the name Syria was revived in its modem Arabic form to denote the whole of Bilad al-Sham, either as Suriyah or the modern form Suriyya, which eventually replaced the Arabic name of Bilad al-Sham.[6] After World War I, the boundaries of the region were last defined in modern times by the proclamation of and subsequent definition by French and British mandatory agreement, as laid out in the Sykes–Picot Agreement. Following the Arab Revolt and Franco-Syrian War, the area was divided and passed to French and British League of Nations mandates. Subsequently, five states — Greater Lebanon, the State of Damascus, the State of Aleppo, the State of Alawites, and the State of Jabal Druze — were established by the French, while the British controlled Mandatory Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan. The term Syria itself was applied to several mandate states under French rule and the contemporaneous but short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria. The Syrian-mandate states were gradually unified as the State of Syria and finally became the independent Syrian Republic in 1946. Throughout this period, pan-Syrian nationalists advocated for the creation of a Greater Syria as a step toward achieving a broader pan-Arab state.[7] Several sources indicate that the name Syria itself is derived from Luwian term Sura/i, and the derivative ancient Greek name: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, both of which originally derived from Aššūrāyu (Assyria) in northern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq and greater Syria[4][5][8][9] For Herodotus in the 5th century BC, Syria extended as far north as the Halys (the modern Kızılırmak River) and as far south as Arabia and Egypt. For Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela, Syria covered the entire Fertile Crescent.
Akihito (fish).  Akihito is a genus of gobies native to streams in Vanuatu. This genus is named after Japanese Emperor Akihito who has contributed much to the study of gobies.[1] There are currently two recognized species in this genus:[2] 
Israeli Basketball Premier League. Ligat HaAl (Hebrew: ליגת העל, lit., Supreme League or Premier League), or the Israeli Basketball Premier League, is a professional basketball league in Israel and the highest level of basketball in the country. The leagues name is abbreviated as either BSL (Basketball Super League) or ISBL (Israeli Basketball Super League). For sponsorship reasons, the league is also referred to as Ligat Winner Sal (Hebrew: ליגת ווינר סל), lit. Winner Basket League, with Winner being the name of a game operated by the leagues primary sponsor, Toto Winner.[1] The league is run by the Israeli Basketball Super League Administration Ltd.[2] Ligat HaAl comprises the top 12 basketball clubs in Israel, and was founded in 1954. The league itself is most known in Europe, due to the success of the Israeli teams in European-wide competitions, such as the EuroLeague, EuroCup (formerly called the ULEB Cup), and FIBAs EuroChallenge (formerly called the FIBA EuroCup). Many non-drafted and free agent players from Europe and the NBA play in the Israeli league, as an alternative to NBA competition. The league is the first division in Israeli basketball: the team that finishes last in a season is relegated to the Second Division, while the Second Divisions top eight teams compete in a play-off system right after the end of the regular season, with the team that reaches the finals series being promoted to the Premier League for the following season.
Othello Henderson.  Othello Methelda Henderson III (born August 23, 1972) is an American former professional football defensive back who played two seasons with the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He was selected by the New Orleans Saints in the seventh round of the 1993 NFL draft after playing college football at the University of California, Los Angeles. Othello Methelda Henderson III was born on August 23, 1972, in Killeen, Texas.[1] He attended Ellison High School in Killeen.[1] Henderson was a three-year letterman for the UCLA Bruins of the University of California, Los Angeles from 1990 to 1992.[1] He recorded two interceptions in 1991 and one interception in 1992.[2] He was named second-team All-Pac-10 by the coaches in 1992.[3] Henderson skipped his senior year to enter the 1993 NFL draft.[4] Henderson was selected by the New Orleans Saints in the seventh round, with the 193rd overall pick, of the 1993 NFL draft.[5] He officially signed with the team on June 22.[6] He was released on August 30 and signed to the practice squad the next day.[6] Henderson was promoted to the active roster on October 14, 1993.[6] He played in five games, starting one, for the Saints during the 1993 season and posted 12 tackles.[5] He appeared in all 16 games in 1994, totaling 11 solo tackles, one assisted tackles, and two fumble recoveries.[5]
Baalbek.   Baalbek[a] (/ˈbɑːlbɛk, ˈbeɪəlbɛk/;[5] Arabic: بَعْلَبَكّ, romanized: Baʿlabakk; Syriac: ܒܥܠܒܟ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanons Beqaa Valley, about 67 km (42 mi) northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate.[6] In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608.[7] Most of the population consists of Shia Muslims, followed by Sunni Muslims and Christians;[7] in 2017, there was also a large presence of Syrian refugees.[8] Baalbeks history dates back at least 11,000 years. After Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 BCE, he renamed it Heliopolis (Ἡλιούπολις, Greek for Sun City). The city flourished under Roman rule. However, it underwent transformations during the Christianization period and the subsequent rise of Islam following the Arab conquest in the 7th century. In later periods, the city was sacked by the Mongols and faced a series of earthquakes, resulting in a decline in importance during the Ottoman and modern periods.[9] In the modern era, Baalbek is a tourist destination.[10] It is known for the ruins of the Roman temple complex, which includes the Temple of Bacchus and the Temple of Jupiter, and was inscribed in 1984 as a UNESCO World Heritage site. Other tourist attractions are the Great Umayyad Mosque, the Baalbek International Festival, the mausoleum of Sit Khawla, and a Roman quarry site named Hajar al-Hibla.[9] Baalbeks tourism sector has encountered challenges due to conflicts in Lebanon, particularly the 1975–1990 civil war, the ongoing Syrian civil war since 2011,[9][11] and the Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present).[12]
Islamic Golden Age.  The Islamic Golden Age was a period of scientific, economic, and cultural flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.[1][2][3] This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom, which saw scholars from all over the Muslim world flock to Baghdad, the worlds largest city at the time, to translate the known worlds classical knowledge into Arabic and Persian.[4] The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.[5] There are a few alternative timelines. Some scholars extend the end date of the golden age to around 1350, including the Timurid Renaissance within it,[6][7] while others place the end of the Islamic Golden Age as late as the end of 15th to 16th centuries, including the rise of the Islamic gunpowder empires.[1][2][3] The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th-century literature about Islamic history, in the context of the western aesthetic fashion known as Orientalism. The author of a Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine in 1868 observed that the most beautiful mosques of Damascus were like Mohammedanism itself, now rapidly decaying and relics of the golden age of Islam.[8]
Beirut.  Beirut (/beɪˈruːt/ ⓘ bay-ROOT;[4] Arabic: بيروت, romanized: Bayrūtⓘ) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As of 2014[update], Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, just under half of Lebanons population,[5] which makes it the twelfth-largest city in the Levant region and the sixteenth-largest in the Arab world. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanons Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been inhabited for more than 5,000 years, making it one of the oldest cities in the world. Beirut is Lebanons seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country and region, and rated a Beta- World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[6] Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War, the 2006 Lebanon War, and the 2020 massive explosion in the Port of Beirut, and was subsequently rebuilt after each of these events. Its architectural and demographic structure underwent major change in recent decades.[7][8][9][10] The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name Bayrūt (بيروت). The same names transcription into French is Beyrouth, which was sometimes used during Lebanons French mandate. The Arabic name derives from Phoenician bēʾrūt (𐤁𐤀‏𐤓𐤕‎ bʾrt). This was a modification of the Phoenician word bīʾrōt later bēʾrūt, meaning wells,[11] in reference to the sites accessible water table.[12][13] The name is first attested in the 14th century BC, when it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform[13] tablets of the Amarna letters,[14] letters sent by King Ammunira of Biruta[15] to Amenhotep III or Amenhotep IV of Egypt.[16] Biruta was also mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos.[17] The Greeks hellenised the name as Bērytós (Ancient Greek: Βηρυτός), which the Romans latinised as Berytus.[a] When it attained the status of a Roman colony, it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended to Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus to include its imperial sponsors.
Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino. Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioaccino (c. 1792, Ottoman Empire – after 1828) was a soldier and servant during the Napoleonic Wars.[1] Born to an Egyptian family in Ottoman Egypt, Otello was taken by French officials during their expedition to Egypt in 1798 under general Napoleon Bonaparte. Otello was a gift to Joachim Murat and became his servant when he was 6 years old.[1] He later became an aide and bodyguard of Murat, and a servant to Caroline Bonaparte, serving as Carolines personal assistant in the Schloss Frohsdorf estate after her marriage to Francesco MacDonald.[3] Little is known about Otellos early life in Egypt. He was born sometime around 1792,[1] and was the son of an Egyptian family living in the Nile delta. Although referred to as Arab or Moorish throughout his life, Otello was likely Sudanese or Upper Egyptian, and had ancestry tracing back to African settlements of Egypt.[4] In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led an expedition to Egypt ordered by the Directorate of France. After successive defeats, hundreds of Mamelukes defected and joined the ranks of Napoleon. Napoleon would use these Mamelukes to officially create a Mameluke corps, the precursor to the Mamelukes of the Guard. On October 19, 1799, Jean-Baptiste Kléber proclaimed that every General of France would receive 10 Mamelukes, while every General of Brigade would receive 6 Mamelukes.[5] Similarly to Roustam Raza, Otello was one of these Mamelukes offered as a gift to French generals. Joachim Murat would eventually keep Otello as his personal servant.[5] Otello would serve as Murats servant during the campaign in Egypt, eventually becoming his personal aide, specifically tending to his horse in the rough Egyptian weather.[4] Otello would continue to serve Murat after the French withdrew from Egypt. Murat now entrusted Otello to go on campaign with him. He would do so in 1805 in Germany, 1808 at Capri, 1812 in Russia, 1813 in Germany, and 1815 in Italy.[6]
Japanese nationality law.  The primary law governing nationality of Japan is the 1950 Nationality Law, which came into force on July 1, 1950. Children born to at least one Japanese parent are generally automatically nationals at birth. Birth in Japan does not by itself entitle a child to Japanese nationality, except when a child would otherwise be stateless. Foreign nationals may acquire citizenship by naturalization after living in the country for at least five years and renouncing any previous nationalities. The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country. Generally, nationality refers a persons legal belonging to a country and is the common term used in international treaties when referring to members of a state; citizenship refers to the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation.[2] The term nationality (国籍, kokuseki) is used in Japanese to refer to state membership. A naturalized individual receives the same rights as a native-born Japanese person after obtaining kokuseki and becoming a national (国民, kokumin). The word citizenship (市民権, shiminken) has several meanings but is typically used to describe a persons political rights and status in a country.[3]
Japanese diaspora.  The Japanese diaspora and its individual members, known as Nikkei (Japanese: 日系, IPA: [ɲikkeː]) or as Nikkeijin (Japanese: 日系人, IPA: [ɲikkeꜜːʑiɴ]), comprise the Japanese emigrants from Japan (and their descendants) residing in a country outside Japan. Emigration from Japan was recorded as early as the 15th century to the Philippines,[24][25][26][27] but did not become a mass phenomenon until the Meiji period (1868–1912), when Japanese emigrated to the Philippines[28] and to the Americas.[29][30] There was significant emigration to the territories of the Empire of Japan during the period of Japanese colonial expansion (1875–1945); however, most of these emigrants repatriated to Japan after the 1945 surrender of Japan ended World War II in Asia.[31] According to the Association of Nikkei and Japanese Abroad, about 4 million Nikkei live in their adopted countries.[1] The largest of these foreign communities are in Brazil, the United States, the Philippines,[32] China, Canada, and Peru. Descendants of emigrants from the Meiji period still maintain recognizable communities in those countries, forming separate ethnic groups from Japanese people in Japan.[33] The largest of these foreign communities are in the Brazilian states of São Paulo and Paraná. There are also significant cohesive Japanese communities in the Philippines, Peru and in the American state of Hawaii. Nevertheless, most emigrant Japanese are largely assimilated outside of Japan. As of 2024[update], the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported the five countries with the highest number of Japanese expatriates as the United States (413,380), Australia (104,141), China (97,538), Canada (77,294), and Thailand (70,421).[8] The term Nikkei, from the Japanese word nikkei (日系; lit. of Japanese lineage), is often used to refer to Japanese people who emigrated from Japan and their descendants.[34] These groups were historically differentiated by the terms issei (first-generation Nikkei), nisei (second-generation Nikkei), sansei (third-generation Nikkei) and yonsei (fourth-generation Nikkei). In this context emigration refers to permanent settlers, excluding transient Japanese abroad, although the term may not strictly relate to citizenship status. The Japanese government defines Nikkei people as foreign citizens with the ability to provide proof of Japanese lineage within three generations. On the other hand, in the United States and some other places where Nikkei people have developed their own communities and identities, first-generation Japanese immigrants with Japanese citizenship tend to be included if they are involved in the local community.[35]
Javanais. Javanais (French pronunciation: [ʒavanɛ]) is a type of French slang where the extra syllable ⟨av⟩ is infixed inside a word after every consonant that is followed by a vowel, in order to render it incomprehensible. Some common examples are gros ([ɡʁo], fat) which becomes gravos ([ɡʁavo]); bonjour ([bɔ̃ʒuʁ], hello), which becomes bavonjavour ([bavɔ̃ʒavuʁ]); and pénible ([penibl], annoying), becomes pavénaviblave ([pavenaviblav]). Paris ([paʁi]) becomes Pavaravis ([pavaʁavi]).[1] Javanais is determined by the production rule:  CV → CavV.  There are also many variations that can be made upon the same pattern such as: CabV, CalV, CanV, etc. In French the word Javanais is also used to refer to the Javanese language. Around 1957, Boris Vian wrote a song La Java Javanaise. The lyrics are a didactical method to learn the javanais. Each verse is firstly articulated in regular French, then translated in slang. As the title suggests, the song is a Java, a Parisian dance craze. In 1962, Serge Gainsbourg wrote and sang a song called La Javanaise, a pun playing on Javanese dancing and the javanais style of speaking. The song heavily employs unaltered French words that naturally have an ⟨av⟩ sequence; thus the lyrics resemble the word game of javanais. Its also possible to substitute other sounds in place of av, at and ab being the most popular.  It works well in English as well as French.  For example, the sentence: Today I decided to order some nice chocolates.  Could be: Tabodabay abi dabecabidabed tabo abordaber sabome nabice chabocabolabates.  The language is best spoken very fast to throw off listeners and care must be used when answering simple questions with yes/no.  Its usually best to come up with code words for yes/no such that those listening cannot catch on to the trick.
JavaScript.  JavaScript (JS)[a] is a programming language and core technology of the web platform, alongside HTML and CSS. Ninety-nine percent of websites on the World Wide Web use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior.[10] Web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine that executes the client code. These engines are also utilized in some servers and a variety of apps. The most popular runtime system for non-browser usage is Node.js[citation needed]. JavaScript is a high-level, often just-in-time–compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript standard.[11] It has dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions. It is multi-paradigm, supporting event-driven, functional, and imperative programming styles. It has application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions, standard data structures, and the Document Object Model (DOM). The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O.
Issue (genealogy). In genealogy and wills, a persons issue means all their lineal descendants. Issue typically means a persons lineal descendants—all genetic descendants of a person, regardless of degree.[1] Issue is a narrower category than heirs, which includes spouses, and collaterals (siblings, cousins, aunts, and uncles).[2] This meaning of issue arises most often in wills and trusts.[3] A person who has no living lineal descendants is said to have died without issue. A child or children are first-generation descendants and are a subset of issue.[4] This law-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Java (programming language).  Java is a high-level, general-purpose, memory-safe, object-oriented programming language. It is intended to let programmers write once, run anywhere (WORA),[18] meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need to recompile.[19] Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless of the underlying computer architecture. The syntax of Java is similar to C and C++, but has fewer low-level facilities than either of them. The Java runtime provides dynamic capabilities (such as reflection and runtime code modification) that are typically not available in traditional compiled languages. Java gained popularity shortly after its release, and has been a popular programming language since then.[20] Java was the third most popular programming language in 2022[update] according to GitHub.[21] Although still widely popular, there has been a gradual decline in use of Java in recent years with other languages using JVM gaining popularity.[22] Java was designed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems. It was released in May 1995 as a core component of Suns Java platform. The original and reference implementation Java compilers, virtual machines, and class libraries were released by Sun under proprietary licenses. As of May 2007, in compliance with the specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun had relicensed most of its Java technologies under the GPL-2.0-only license. Oracle, which bought Sun in 2010, offers its own HotSpot Java Virtual Machine. However, the official reference implementation is the OpenJDK JVM, which is open-source software used by most developers and is the default JVM for almost all Linux distributions. Java 24 is the version current as of March 2025[update]. Java 8, 11, 17, and 21 are long-term support versions still under maintenance.
Tegali language. Tegali (also spelled Tagale, Tegele, Tekele, Togole) is a Kordofanian language in the Rashad family, which is thought by some to belong to the hypothetical Niger–Congo phylum (Greenberg 1963, Schadeberg 1981, Williamson & Blench 2000).[2] It is spoken in South Kordofan state, Sudan. The Rashad family of language consists of two dialect clusters, Tegali and Tagoi, which share about 70% basic vocabulary on the 100-word Swadesh list. They are spoken on two mountain ranges to the north and north-west of Rashad.[3] These languages are spoken in the Tegali Hills in the north-east of the Nuba Mountains, the home of the former Tegali Kingdom.[4] The most conspicuous difference between the two dialect clusters is that Tagoi has a complex system of noun classes while Tegali does not. Different explanations exist for why Tegali dialects lack a noun class system. Greenberg (1963) excludes the possibility of mass borrowing of basic vocabulary in Tagoi and assumes the loss of noun classes in the Tegali dialects.[5] Tegali has three varieties, Rashad (Gom, Kom, Kome, Ngakom), Tegali, and Tingal (Kajaja, Kajakja). Ethnologue states that Rashed and Tegali dialects are nearly identical.[1] Tucker and Bryan list Rashad as almost identical to Tegali, perhaps a mere variation of one language;[6] however, Greenberg lists it as a separate language.[7] Welmers suggests Tingal as a dialect of Tegali;[8] Tucker and Bryan report this as different from Tegali and Rashad, but as definitely belonging to the Tegali branch.[6] There are 108,000 native speakers of Tegali in South Kordofan state, Sudan.[1] Speakers are distributed in the hills between the Rashud-Rashad and Rashad-Umm Ruwaba roads, with a few outlying hills west of Rashad (including Tagoi and Tarjok) and scattered hills south of Rashad.[9] Among the three dialects, Tegali has about 88,000 speakers located on the Tegali range. Rashad has about 20,000 speakers in the Rashad hills in the southern part of the Tegali range, also in Rashad town. Tingal (Kajakja) has about 2,100 speakers.[9]
Tragedy (event). A tragedy is an event of great loss, usually of human life.  Such an event is said to be tragic. Traditionally, the event would require some element of moral failure, some flaw in character, or some extraordinary combination of elements[1] to be tragic. Not every death is considered a tragedy. Rather, it is a precise set of symptoms surrounding the loss that define it as such.[2] There are a variety of factors that define a death as tragic. An event in which a massive number of deaths occur may be seen as a tragedy. This can be re-enforced by media attention or other public outcry.[3] A tragedy does not necessarily involve massive death. The death of a single person, e.g., a public figure or a child, may be seen as a tragedy.[3] The person need not necessarily have been famous before death. Generally, the label of tragedy is given to an event based on public perception.[4] There are a number of factors that can make a death be considered a tragedy.
Emperor Konoe. Emperor Konoe (近衛天皇, Konoe-tennō; June 16, 1139 – August 22, 1155) was the 76th emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Konoes reign spanned the years from 1142 through 1155.[3] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina)[4] was Narihito-shinnō (体仁親王).[5]  He was also known as Tosihito-shinnō.[6] Emperor Konoe was the eighth son of Emperor Toba.[6] His mother was Fujiwara no Nariko (1117–1160), the wife of Emperor Toba. [7] Konoe was named heir shortly after he was born in 1139; and he was proclaimed emperor at the age of 3.
Island (disambiguation). An island is a land mass entirely surrounded by water. Island(s) may also refer to:
Tragedy (disambiguation). Tragedy is a genre of drama. Tragedy may also refer to:
Fujiwara no Kiyoko. Fujiwara no Kiyoko (藤原 聖子; 1122–1182),[1] later Kōkamonin (皇嘉門院), was an Empress consort of Japan as the consort of Emperor Sutoku.[2] Her father the former regent Fujiwara no Tadamichi, who had ruled during Emperor Sutokus childhood, and her mother was Fujiwara no Sōshi [ja].[3][4][5] Kōkamonin had no children.  She is known today for the cleverness of her strategies to ensure she controlled her own fortune and estates, despite the difficulty of doing so as woman (particularly a childless woman).[6][7] Her brother acted as custodian, yet she retained power. With her wealth, she supported various religious projects, such as sponsoring Buddhist buildings, as well as paying for memorial services for her father.[6] Her husband, Emperor Sutoku, was forced to abdicate the throne and retire, living as a retired emperor.[8] After the Hogen rebellion, in 1156, Sutoku was exiled; Kōkamonin chose to remain in Jyoti and she was ordained as a Buddhist nun, receiving the Dharma name Seijōe (清浄恵).[5]  In 1164 she renewed her ordination and received the name Rengaku (蓮覚).[9] Her brother, Fujiwara no Kanezane, was a well-known statesman and author, who built religious halls in her honour.[10]
Emperor Toba. Emperor Toba (鳥羽天皇, Toba-tennō; February 24, 1103 – July 20, 1156) was the 74th Emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Tobas reign spanned the years from 1107 through 1123.[3] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina)[4] was Munehito-shinnō (宗仁親王).[5] He was the son of Emperor Horikawa.  His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Ishi (藤原苡子) Toba had three Empresses, some consort ladies and 14 imperial sons and daughters.[6]
Catholic Church.  God Schools Relations with: The Catholic Church (Latin: Ecclesia Catholica), also known as the Roman Catholic Church,[note 1] is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025.[4][5][8] It is among the worlds oldest and largest international institutions and has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization.[9][10][11][12] The Church consists of 24 sui iuris (autonomous) churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies around the world, each overseen by one or more bishops.[13] The pope, who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church.[14]
Posthumous name.  A posthumous name is an honorary name given mainly to revered dead people in East Asian culture. It is predominantly used in Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan,  Malaysia and Thailand. Reflecting on the persons accomplishments or reputation, the title is assigned after death and essentially replaces the name used during life. Although most posthumous names are given to royalty, some posthumous names are given to honor significant people without hereditary titles, such as courtiers or military generals. To create a posthumous name, one or more adjectives are inserted before the deceaseds title. The name of the state or domain of the owner may be added to avoid ambiguity. Early mythological rulers such as Emperor Yao were known to have posthumous names.[1] Archaeological discoveries have shown that the titles of kings as far back as the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 to 256 BC) are posthumous names, as in the cases of King Wu and King Wen. Posthumous names commonly made tracing linear genealogies simpler and kept a bloodline apparent. In the Zhou dynasty, the posthumous name was usually only one character, such as Wen (cultured) or Wu (martial). Over time, rulers began adding more characters to their ancestors posthumous names. By the time of the first emperor of Tang, the length had grown to seven characters, which was taxing to pronounce or write. Therefore, emperors after the Tang dynasty are commonly referred to by either their temple name (Tang through Yuan dynasties) or era name (Ming and Qing dynasties), both of which are always two characters long.
Hawaiian Islands.  The Hawaiian Islands (Hawaiian: Mokupuni Hawaiʻi) are an archipelago of eight major volcanic islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) from the island of Hawaiʻi in the south to northernmost Kure Atoll. Formerly called the Sandwich Islands[a] by Europeans, the present name for the archipelago is derived from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. The archipelago sits on the Pacific Plate. The islands are exposed peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, formed by volcanic activity over the Hawaiian hotspot. The islands are about 1,860 miles (3,000 km) from the nearest continent and are part of the Polynesia subregion of Oceania. The U.S. state of Hawaii occupies the archipelago almost in its entirety (including the mostly uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands), with the sole exception of Midway Atoll (a United States Minor Outlying Island). Hawaii is the only U.S. state that is situated entirely on an archipelago, and the only state not geographically connected with North America.  The Northwestern islands (sometimes called the Leeward Islands) and surrounding seas are protected as a national monument and World Heritage Site. The Hawaiian Islands have a total land area of 6,423.4 square miles (16,636.5 km2). Except for Midway, which is an unincorporated unorganized territory of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as Hawaii—the 50th state of the United States.[1]
Peru.  Peru,[e] officially the Republic of Peru,[f] is a country in western South America. It is bordered to the north by Ecuador and Colombia, to the east by Brazil, to the southeast by Bolivia, to the south by Chile, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country, with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River.[10] Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America. Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE Caral–Supe civilization, the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization. Notable succeeding cultures and civilizations include the Nazca culture, the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco, and the Inca Empire, the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima.[11] Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551. Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns of Bernardo OHiggins, José de San Martín, and Simón Bolívar, as well as the decisive battle of Ayacucho, it completed its independence in 1824. In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of Plan Verde[12][13] shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under the authoritarian rule of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the formers political ideology of Fujimorism leaving a lasting imprint on the countrys governance that continues to present day.[14][15] The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities, exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and the COVID-19 pandemic, precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022.[16] The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology.[17] The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin Americas Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom;[18] it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Alliance, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization; and is considered as a middle power.[19]
Tragic (disambiguation). A tragic story, or tragedy, is a genre of drama. Tragic may also refer to:
Continent.  A continent is any of several large terrestrial geographical regions. Continents are generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria. A continent could be a single large landmass, a part of a very large landmass, as in the case of Asia or Europe within Eurasia, or a landmass and nearby islands within its continental shelf. Due to these varying definitions, the number of continents varies; up to seven or as few as four geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Most English-speaking countries recognize seven regions as continents. In order from largest to smallest in area, these seven regions are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia (sometimes called Oceania or Australasia). Different variations with fewer continents merge some of these regions; examples of this are merging Asia and Europe into Eurasia,[1] North America and South America into the Americas (or simply America), and Africa, Asia, and Europe into Afro-Eurasia. Oceanic islands are occasionally grouped with a nearby continent to divide all the worlds land into geographical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form the geographical region of Oceania.[2] In geology, a continent is defined as one of Earths major landmasses, including both dry land and continental shelves.[3] The geological continents correspond to seven large areas of continental crust that are found on the tectonic plates, but exclude small continental fragments such as Madagascar that are generally referred to as microcontinents. Continental crust is only known to exist on Earth.[4] The idea of continental drift gained recognition in the 20th century. It postulates that the current continents formed from the breaking up of a supercontinent (Pangaea) that formed hundreds of millions of years ago.
Tokyo Imperial Palace.  The Imperial Palace (皇居, Kōkyo; lit. Imperial Residence) is the main residence of the emperor of Japan. It is a large park-like area located in the Chiyoda district of the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo and contains several buildings including the Fukiage Palace (吹上御所, Fukiage gosho) where the emperor has his living quarters, the main palace (宮殿, Kyūden) where various ceremonies and receptions take place, some residences of the Imperial Family, an archive, museums and administrative offices. The 1.15-square-kilometer (0.44 sq mi) palace grounds and gardens are built on the site of the old Edo Castle.[1] After the capitulation of the shogunate and the Meiji Restoration, the inhabitants, including the Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, were required to vacate the premises of the Edo Castle. Leaving the Kyoto Imperial Palace on November 26, 1868, the Emperor arrived at the Edo Castle, made it to his new residence and renamed it to Tōkei Castle (東京城, Tōkei-jō). At this time, Tōkyō had also been called Tōkei. He left for Kyōto again, and after coming back on May 9, 1869, it was renamed to Imperial Castle (皇城, Kōjō).[2][user-generated source] Previous fires had destroyed the Honmaru area containing the old donjon (which itself burned in the 1657 Meireki fire). On the night of May 5, 1873, a fire consumed the Nishinomaru Palace (formerly the shōguns residence), and the new imperial Palace Castle (宮城, Kyūjō) was constructed on the site in 1888. The castle has many gardens.
Tragedian (disambiguation). Tragedian refers to:
Brazil.  Brazil,[b] officially the Federative Republic of Brazil,[c] is the largest country in South America. It is also the worlds fifth-largest country by area and the seventh-largest by population, with over 213 million people. The country is a federation composed of 26 states and a Federal District, which hosts the capital, Brasília. Its most populous city is São Paulo, followed by Rio de Janeiro. Brazil has the most Portuguese speakers in the world and is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language.[11][12] Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi).[13] Covering roughly half of South Americas land area, it borders all other countries and territories on the continent except Ecuador and Chile.[14] Brazil encompasses a wide range of tropical and subtropical landscapes, as well as wetlands, savannas, plateaus, and low mountains. It contains most of the Amazon basin, including the worlds largest river system and most extensive virgin tropical forest. Brazil has diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats.[13] The country ranks first among 17 megadiverse countries, with its natural heritage being the subject of significant global interest, as environmental degradation (through processes such as deforestation) directly affect global issues such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Brazil was inhabited by various indigenous peoples prior to the landing of Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500. It was claimed and settled by Portugal, which imported enslaved Africans to work on plantations. Brazil remained a colony until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of a united kingdom with Portugal after the transfer of the Portuguese court to Rio de Janeiro. Prince Pedro of Braganza declared the countrys independence in 1822 and, after waging a war against Portugal, established the Empire of Brazil. Brazils first constitution in 1824 established a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress, and enshrined principles such as freedom of religion and the press, but retained slavery, which was gradually abolished throughout the 19th century until its final abolition in 1888. Brazil became a presidential republic following a military coup détat in 1889. An armed revolution in 1930 put an end to the First Republic and brought Getúlio Vargas to power. While initially committing to democratic governance, Vargas assumed dictatorial powers following a self-coup in 1937, marking the beginning of the Estado Novo. Democracy was restored after Vargas ousting in 1945. An authoritarian military dictatorship emerged in 1964 with support from the United States and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazils current constitution, enacted in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic.[15] Brazil is a regional and middle power[16][17][18] and rising global power.[19][20][21][22] It is an emerging,[23][24] upper-middle income economy and newly industrialized country,[25] with one of the 10 largest economies in the world in both nominal and PPP terms,[7][26] the largest economy in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere, and the largest share of wealth in South America. With a complex and highly diversified economy, Brazil is one of the worlds major or primary exporters of various agricultural goods, mineral resources, and manufactured products.[27] The country ranks thirteenth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[28] Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, G4, Mercosur, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries; it is also an observer state of the Arab League and a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[29][30]
Japan Kennel Club. The Japan Kennel Club (ジャパンケネルクラブ) is the primary registry body for purebred dog pedigrees in Japan.[1] It hosts the FCI (Fédération Cynologique Internationale) Japan International Dog Show held annually at the Tokyo Big Sight;  the event also includes two grooming competitions, with the highest award regarded as the best in Japan title.[2][3] Other than conformation shows, the JKC promotes obedience trials for purebred dogs and confers championship and other titles in obedience and similar competitions; the JKC also certifies and examines groomers, trainers and other dog-related professionals.[citation needed] It also administers tests and certifies rescue dogs,[4] as well as host rescue dog competitions.[5] The precursor to the organization, the Japan Guard Dog Association (全日本警備犬協会, Zen Nihon keibi ken kyokai) was formed in 1949; this then became the Japan Kennel Club (ジャパン・ケンネル・クラブ, Japan kenneru kurabu) in 1952.[6][7] The Club became a member of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation) in 1979.[8][7] The Japanese name was amended to Japan keneru kurabu (ジャパンケネルクラブ) in 1999.[7] 
Fédération Cynologique Internationale. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale (French pronunciation: [fedeʁɑsjɔ̃ sinɔlɔʒik ɛ̃tɛʁnɑsjɔnal]; FCI; English: International Canine Federation) is the largest[1] international federation of national kennel clubs and purebred registries. The FCI is based in Thuin, Belgium and has 98 members and contract partners (one from each country). The FCI was founded in 1911 under the auspices of the kennel clubs of Austria, Belgium, France, Germany and the Netherlands. Its objective was to bring global uniformity to the breeding, exhibiting and judging of pure-bred dogs.[2][3][4] It was disbanded in World War I and recreated in 1921 by Belgium and France.[5] Since its foundation the FCIs membership has grown to include kennel clubs from the majority of countries worldwide, with members in Europe as well as Africa, the Americas, Asia and Oceania.[3] The purpose of the FCI is to make sure that the pedigrees and judges are mutually recognised by all the FCI member countries. In contrast to national kennel clubs, the FCI is not a registry and does not issue pedigrees to individual dogs, with the issue of pedigrees and record keeping of breeders and breeder addresses the responsibility of the national canine organisations recognised by the FCI.[6] At present the FCI recognises 356 breeds, with each breed being considered as the property of a specific country, usually based upon the country where the breed has first originated. These breed owner countries write the breed standard of the specific breed, with the breed standard being a detailed description of the ideal type of the breed, in partnership with and under the oversight of the Standards and Scientific Commissions of the FCI. The FCI is responsible for publication and maintenance of these breed standards,[7] along with the translation of breed standard into the four working languages of the FCI (English, French, German and Spanish).[6] The FCI breed standards act as the reference for the judges at shows held in the FCI member countries, as well as maintaining the qualification and license of judges in dog shows in FCI member countries.[6] For breeders, the FCI breed standards are used as the reference in their attempt to produce top-quality dogs according to the ideal type as set out by the FCI.[7] The FCI is considered to the largest kennel club in the world with only Africa and the Middle East poorly represented, partly through the absence of national kennel clubs or purebred registries in countries of these regions. In Europe, only the United Kingdom, Kosovo and Bulgaria are not represented by the FCI. Likewise, in the Americas only the USA and Canada are not members.[8]
Plate tectonics.  Plate tectonics (from Latin  tectonicus, from Ancient Greek  τεκτονικός (tektonikós) pertaining to building)[1] is the scientific theory that Earths lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago.[2][3][4] The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid- to late 1960s. The processes that result in plates and shape Earths crust are called tectonics. While Earth is the only planet known to currently have active plate tectonics, evidence suggests that other planets and moons have experienced or exhibit forms of tectonic activity. For example, Jupiters moon Europa shows signs of ice crustal plates moving and interacting, similar to Earths plate tectonics.[5] Additionally, Mars and Venus are thought to have had past tectonic activity, though not in the same form as Earth.[6] Earths lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or platelets. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually.[7] Faults tend to be geologically active, experiencing earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent plate boundaries, the process of subduction carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the mantle. This process reduces the total surface area (crust) of Earth. The lost surface is balanced by the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading, keeping the total surface area constant in a tectonic conveyor belt.
Empress Suiko.  Empress Suiko (推古天皇, Suiko-tennō) (554 – 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan,[1] and the countrys first and longest-reigning empress regnant, according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Suiko reigned from 593 until her death in 628.[3] Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (her imina)[4] was Mikekashiya-hime-no-mikoto,[5] also Toyomike Kashikiya hime no Mikoto.[6] Empress Suiko had several names including Princess Nukatabe and (possibly posthumously) Toyomike Kashikiya. She was a daughter of Emperor Kinmei. Her mother was Soga no Inames daughter, Soga no Kitashihime. Suiko was the younger sister of Emperor Yōmei.
Imperial House of Japan. The Imperial House (皇室, Kōshitsu) is the reigning dynasty of Japan, consisting of those members of the extended family of the reigning emperor of Japan who undertake official and public duties. Under the present constitution of Japan, the emperor is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Other members of the imperial family perform ceremonial and social duties, but have no role in the affairs of government. The duties as an emperor are passed down the line to their male children. The Japanese monarchy is the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world.[6]  The imperial dynasty does not have a name, therefore its direct members do not have a family name. The imperial house recognizes 126 monarchs, beginning with Emperor Jimmu (traditionally dated to 11 February 660 BCE), and continuing up to the current emperor, Naruhito. However, scholars have agreed that there is no evidence of Jimmus existence,[3][7] that the traditional narrative of the imperial familys founding is mythical, and that Jimmu is a mythical figure.[8] Historical evidence for the first 25 emperors is scant, and they are considered mythical, but there is sufficient evidence of an unbroken agnatic line since the early 6th century.[9] Historically, verifiable emperors of Japan start from 539 CE with Emperor Kinmei, the 29th tennō.[3][4][5] The earliest historic written mentions of Japan were in Chinese records, where it was referred to as Wa (倭 later 和), which later evolved into the Japanese name of Wakoku. Suishō (ca. 107 CE) was a king of Wa, the earliest Japanese monarch mentioned in Volume 85 of the Book of the Later Han from 445 CE. Further records mention the five kings of Wa, of which the last one Bu of Wa is generally considered to be Emperor Yūryaku (417/18 – 479 CE). The existence of his reign has been established through modern archaeological research. While the main line of the dynasty does not have a name and is referred to as Kōshitsu (皇室, imperial house), there are agnatic cadet branches which split during the course of centuries who received their own family names in order to distinguish them from the main line. They were considered a part of the imperial family (皇族 Kōzoku), with members carrying the title Imperial Highness, until the laws changed in 1947. The most important branches were the Shinnōke of which the most senior branch Fushimi-no-miya is first in the order of succession. Out of the Fushimi branch the Ōke branches split, which are the Kuni, Kaya, Asaka, Higashikuni  and Takeda families as of 2024. Furthermore there are branches created from sons of the emperor who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the court (kuge) or sword (buke) nobility. Such families are the Minamoto (源 also known as Genji), Taira (平 also known as Heishi), as well as through in-laws the Tachibana for example. Out of these families further branches split through male descent who were also considered noble Japanese clans. The line of legitimate direct male descendants of emperors is therefore numerous. Other terms used for the dynasty are also Kōka (皇家, Imperial House). Formerly the term Kyūshitsu (宮室, Palace Household) was also used under the old Imperial Constitution and the Imperial Household Law, as well as Teishitsu (帝室, Imperial Household).
Dog breed.  A dog breed is a particular type of dog that was purposefully bred by humans to perform specific tasks, such as herding, hunting, and guarding. Dogs are the most variable mammal on Earth, with artificial selection producing upward of 360 globally recognized breeds.[1] These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size and shape, tail phenotype, fur type, etc., but are only one species of dog.  Their behavioral traits include guarding, herding, and hunting, and personality traits such as hyper-social behavior, boldness, and aggression. Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years. As a result of their adaptability to many environments and breedability for human needs, today  dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are dispersed around the world.[2] A dog breed will consistently produce the physical traits, movement and temperament that were developed over decades of selective breeding. For each breed they recognize, kennel clubs and breed registries usually maintain and publish a breed standard which is a written description of the ideal specimen of the breed.[3][4][5] Other uses of the term breed when referring to dogs include pure breeds, cross-breeds, mixed breeds and natural breeds.[6] Prior to the standardization of dog breeds, there were many different types of dogs that were defined by their own, unique functions. Many different terms were used to describe dogs, such as breed, strain, type, kind, and variety. By the end of the Victorian era, society had changed and so did the role of dogs. The form was given a more prominent role than function.[7] Different types or breeds of dog were being developed by breeders who wanted to define specific characteristics and desirable features in their dogs. Driven by dog shows and the groups that hosted them, the term dog breed took on an entirely new meaning. Dog show competitions included best-in-breed winners, and the purebreds were winning.[7] Breed standards are the reason the breed came to be, and with those standards are key features, including form, function and fitness for purpose. The Kennel Club in the UK was founded in 1873, and was the worlds first national kennel club and breed registry.[8] The International Canine Federation was founded in 1911 as a worldwide organization. Its objective is to bring global uniformity to the breeding, exhibiting and judging of pure-bred dogs. It now has 99 member countries. According to BigThink, over 40% of the worlds dog breeds come from the United Kingdom, France and Germany. It states: Great Britain and France are the ground zero of dog fancying, with 57 registered breeds each. Germany is not far behind, with 47 breeds. These three countries alone represent more than 40% of all dog breeds recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale.[9] In 2017, a study showed that 9,000 years ago the domestic dog was present at what is now Zhokhov Island, arctic north-eastern Siberia, which was connected to the mainland at that time. The dogs were selectively bred as either sled dogs or as hunting dogs, which implies that a sled dog standard and a hunting dog standard existed at that time. The optimal maximum size for a sled dog is 20–25 kg (44–55 lb) based on thermo-regulation, and the ancient sled dogs were between 16–25 kg (35–55 lb). The same standard has been found in the remains of sled dogs from this region 2,000 years ago and in the modern Siberian Husky breed standard. Other dogs were larger at 30 kg (66 lb) and appear to be dogs that had been crossed with wolves and used for polar-bear hunting.[10]
Emperor Kanmu.  Emperor Kanmu (桓武天皇, Kammu-tennō; 735 – 9 April 806), or Kammu, was the 50th emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Kammu reigned from 781 to 806, and it was during his reign that the scope of the emperors powers reached its peak.[3] His reign saw the transition from the Nara period to the Heian period. Kammus personal name (imina) was Yamabe (山部).[4] He was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe (later known as Emperor Kōnin), and was born prior to Shirakabes ascension to the throne.[5] According to the Shoku Nihongi (続日本紀), Yamabes mother, Yamato no Niigasa (later called Takano no Niigasa), was a 10th generation descendant of Muryeong of Baekje (462–523).[6] After his father became emperor, Kammus half-brother, Prince Osabe was appointed to the rank of crown prince. His mother was Princess Inoe, a daughter of Emperor Shōmu; but instead of Osabe, it was Kammu who was later named to succeed their father. After Inoe and Prince Osabe were confined and then died in 775, Osabes sister – Kammus half-sister Princess Sakahito – became Kammus wife.[7] Later, when he ascended to the throne in 781, Kammu appointed his young brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa, as crown prince. Hikami no Kawatsugu, a son of Emperor Tenmus grandson Prince Shioyaki and Shōmus daughter Fuwa, attempted to carry out a coup détat in 782, but it failed and Kawatsugu and his mother were sent into exile. In 785 Sawara was expelled and died in exile. The Nara period saw the appointment of the first shōgun, Ōtomo no Otomaro by Emperor Kammu in 794 CE. The shōgun in this time was not the type of de facto military dictator of Japan as in later history but was appointed to pacify the northern borderlands. The full title Sei-i Taishōgun means Barbarian-subduing Great General.[8] Emperor Kammu granted the second title of shōgun to Sakanoue no Tamuramaro for subduing the Emishi in northern Honshu.[9]
El Limón, Samaná. 19°17′32″N 69°25′51″W / 19.292288°N 69.430820°W / 19.292288; -69.430820 El Limón (in English, The Lemon) is a municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná Province, Dominican Republic. It is on the north coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the Atlantic coast. There are other two municipal districts with the same name (El Limón) in the country: one in the Independencia province and the other in the Santiago province. In the last national census (2002), the population of El Limón is included with that of the city of Samaná.[1] El Limón district has a variety of mountains such as the Ermitaño Mountain, the Sugarloaf Mountain, the Spring Hill, among others. Between the road that connects El Limon with the municipality of Samana is the coffee hill which was paved in 2000.
Indonesia.  in ASEAN Indonesia,[b] officially named the Republic of Indonesia,[c] is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Comprising over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea, Indonesia is the worlds largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the worlds fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the worlds most populous island, is home to more than half of the countrys population. Indonesia operates as a presidential republic with an elected legislature and consists of 38 provinces, nine of which have special autonomous status. Jakarta, the largest city, is the worlds second-most-populous urban area. Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste, and East Malaysia, as well as maritime borders with Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the worlds highest levels of biodiversity. The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatras Srivijaya and later Javas Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945. Since then, it has faced challenges such as separatism, corruption, and natural disasters, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth.
Shunichi Nagasaki.  Shunichi Nagasaki (長崎俊一, Nagasaki Shunichi; 18 June 1956) is a Japanese film director and screenwriter. This biographical article related to film in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres.  Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (/ˈæŋɡrə/ ANG-grə; French: [ʒɑ̃ oɡyst dɔminik ɛ̃ɡʁ]; 29 August 1780 – 14 January 1867) was a French Neoclassical painter. Ingres was profoundly influenced by past artistic traditions and aspired to become the guardian of academic orthodoxy against the ascendant Romantic style. Although he considered himself a painter of history in the tradition of Nicolas Poussin and Jacques-Louis David, it is his portraits, both painted and drawn, that are recognized as his greatest legacy. His expressive distortions of form and space made him an important precursor of modern art, influencing Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and other modernists. Born into a modest family in Montauban, he travelled to Paris to study in the studio of David. In 1802 he made his Salon debut, and won the Prix de Rome for his painting The Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the tent of Achilles. By the time he departed in 1806 for his residency in Rome, his style—revealing his close study of Italian and Flemish Renaissance masters—was fully developed, and would change little for the rest of his life. While working in Rome and subsequently Florence from 1806 to 1824, he regularly sent paintings to the Paris Salon, where they were faulted by critics who found his style bizarre and archaic. He received few commissions during this period for the history paintings he aspired to paint, but was able to support himself and his wife as a portrait painter and draughtsman. He was finally recognized at the Salon in 1824, when his Raphaelesque painting, The Vow of Louis XIII, was met with acclaim, and Ingres was acknowledged as the leader of the Neoclassical school in France. Although the income from commissions for history paintings allowed him to paint fewer portraits, his Portrait of Monsieur Bertin marked his next popular success in 1833. The following year, his indignation at the harsh criticism of his ambitious composition The Martyrdom of Saint Symphorian caused him to return to Italy, where he assumed directorship of the French Academy in Rome in 1835. He returned to Paris for good in 1841. In his later years he painted new versions of many of his earlier compositions, a series of designs for stained glass windows, several important portraits of women, and The Turkish Bath, the last of his several Orientalist paintings of the female nude, which he finished at the age of 83. Ingres was born in Montauban, Tarn-et-Garonne, France, the first of seven children (five of whom survived infancy) of Jean-Marie-Joseph Ingres [fr] (1755–1814) and his wife Anne Moulet (1758–1817). His father was a successful jack-of-all-trades in the arts, a painter of miniatures, sculptor, decorative stonemason, and amateur musician; his mother was the nearly illiterate daughter of a master wigmaker.[1] From his father the young Ingres received early encouragement and instruction in drawing and music, and his first known drawing, a study after an antique cast, was made in 1789.[2] Starting in 1786, he attended the local school École des Frères de lÉducation Chrétienne, but his education was disrupted by the turmoil of the French Revolution, and the closing of the school in 1791 marked the end of his conventional education. The deficiency in his schooling would always remain for him a source of insecurity.[3]
Asmik Ace.  Asmik Ace, Inc. (Japanese: アスミック・エース株式会社, Hepburn: Asumikku ēsu kabushikigaisha), formerly Asmik Ace Entertainment, Inc. (アスミック・エース　エンタテインメント株式会社, Asumikku ēsu entateinmento Kabushiki gaisha), is a Japanese film production and distribution company. In the past, the company has distributed video games. It was formed in 1997 through a merger between the Asmik Corporation and Ace Entertainment, both in Japan. The name Asmik comes from its three founding companies: Ask (formerly ASK-Kodansha), Sumitomo and Kodansha. The company is headquartered on the third floor of the Lapiross Roppongi building in Minato, Tokyo, and is a wholly owned division of J:COM. Asmik Corporation was founded in 1985 as a subsidiary of the Sumitomo Corporation of Japan.  Its focus was in the area of video games for the video game console market, specifically the NES.  It quickly moved on to distribute motion pictures in Japan, and won several awards for doing so. It once had a North American subsidiary, Asmik Corporation of America.[citation needed] Ace Pictures Inc. was founded in 1981 as a division of Nippon Herald Films to produce Japanese films and distribute foreign art films.  Several of its pictures earned awards and hold positions as some of the highest-grossing films in Japan. Asmik Ace Entertainment has produced games for the Dreamcast, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PC Engine, Mega Drive/Genesis, Super NES, Nintendo 64, and GameCube, and distributes high quality films for the Japanese movie market.
Supernatural film. Supernatural film is a film genre that encompasses supernatural themes related to gods, goddesses, ghosts, apparitions, spirits, miracles, and other extraordinary phenomena. These themes are often blended with other film genres, such as comedy, science fiction, fantasy, and horror. Historically, the primary goal of supernatural films was not to terrify audiences but to offer entertainment, often in whimsical or romantic contexts.[1] The film genre is part of several hybrid genres, including supernatural comedy films, supernatural horror films, supernatural religious films, and supernatural thriller films.[2] Ghosts in cinema date back to the era of World War II, with post-war romantic comedies frequently featuring apparitions. Initially, these supernatural entities were portrayed more as entertainers rather than frighteners.[1] Notable examples include: By the mid-1940s, the narrative began to shift, portraying ghosts and the supernatural in more sinister contexts.[1]
Orientalism. In art history, literature, and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the Eastern world (or Orient) by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Orientalist painting, particularly of the Middle East,[1] was one of the many specialties of 19th-century academic art, and Western literature was influenced by a similar interest in Oriental themes. Since the publication of Edward Saids Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the term Orientalism to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian, and North African societies. In Saids analysis, the West essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped—thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced in the service of imperial power. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.[2] This allows Western imagination to see Eastern cultures and people as both alluring and a threat to Western civilization.[3] Journalist and art critic Jonathan Jones pushed back on Saids claims, and suggested that the majority of Orientalism was derived out of a genuine fascination and admiration of Eastern cultures, not prejudice or malice.[4] Orientalism refers to the Orient, in reference and opposition to the Occident; the East and the West, respectively.[5][6] The word Orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient. The root word oriēns, from the Latin Oriēns, has synonymous denotations: The eastern part of the world; the sky whence comes the sun; the east; the rising sun, etc.; yet the denotation changed as a term of geography. In the Monks Tale (1375), Geoffrey Chaucer wrote: That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee. The term orient refers to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe. In In Place of Fear (1952), Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended East Asia: the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas. Edward Said said that Orientalism enables the political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West, not just during colonial times, but also in the present.[7]
Masako Bandō. Masako Bandō (坂東 眞砂子, Bandō Masako; March 30, 1958 – January 27, 2014) was a Japanese novelist. She was awarded the prestigious Naoki Prize in 1996 for the novel Yamahaha. Born in Sakawa, Takaoka District, Kōchi Prefecture, she graduated from Nara Womens University, after which she studied for a while at the Polytechnic University of Milan. After returning to Japan, she became a freelance writer. She lived for some time in Tahiti and Lido di Venezia, and opened an Italian café in 2009 in her home province, Kōchi.[1] After being diagnosed with tongue cancer in 2013, she died on January 27, 2014.[2]
Romanticism. Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjectivity, imagination, and appreciation of nature in society and culture in response to the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. Romanticists rejected the social conventions of the time in favour of a moral outlook known as individualism. They argued that passion and intuition were crucial to understanding the world, and that beauty is more than merely an affair of form, but rather something that evokes a strong emotional response. With this philosophical foundation, the Romanticists elevated several key themes to which they were deeply committed: a reverence for nature and the supernatural, an idealization of the past as a nobler era, a fascination with the exotic and the mysterious, and a celebration of the heroic and the sublime. The Romanticist movement had a particular fondness for the Middle Ages, which to them represented an era of chivalry, heroism, and a more organic relationship between humans and their environment. This idealization contrasted sharply with the values of their contemporary industrial society, which they considered alienating for its economic materialism and environmental degradation. The movements illustration of the Middle Ages was a central theme in debates, with allegations that Romanticist portrayals often overlooked the downsides of medieval life. The consensus is that Romanticism peaked from 1800 until 1850.  However, a Late Romantic period and Neoromantic revivals are also discussed. These extensions of the movement are characterized by a resistance to the increasingly experimental and abstract forms that culminated in modern art, and the deconstruction of traditional tonal harmony in music. They continued the Romantic ideal, stressing depth of emotion in art and music while showcasing technical mastery in a mature Romantic style. By the time of World War I, though, the cultural and artistic climate had changed to such a degree that Romanticism essentially dispersed into subsequent movements. The final Late Romanticist figures to maintain the Romantic ideals died in the 1940s. Though they were still widely respected, they were seen as anachronisms at that point. Romanticism was a complex movement with a variety of viewpoints that permeated Western civilization across the globe. The movement and its opposing ideologies mutually shaped each other over time. After its end, Romantic thought and art exerted a sweeping influence on art and music, speculative fiction, philosophy, politics, and environmentalism that has endured to the present day, although the modern notion of romanticization and the act of romanticizing something often has little to do with the historical movement.
Rainbow Bridge (Tokyo). The Rainbow Bridge (レインボーブリッジ, Reinbō Buridji) is a suspension bridge crossing northern Tokyo Bay between Shibaura Pier and the Odaiba waterfront development in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. It is named Tōkyō Kō Renrakukyō (東京港連絡橋) as the official name in Japanese. It was built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries,[1][2] with construction starting in 1987 and completed in 1993.[3]  Officially called the Shuto Expressway No. 11 Daiba Route – Port of Tokyo Connector Bridge,[4] the double-decker bridge is 798 m (2,618 ft) long with a main span of 580 m (1,903 ft).[5] The name Rainbow Bridge was decided by the public. The towers supporting the bridge are white in color, designed to harmonize with the skyline of central Tokyo seen from Odaiba. There are lamps placed on the wires supporting the bridge, which are illuminated into three different colors, red, white, and green, every night using solar energy obtained during the day. The bridge can be accessed by foot from Tamachi Station (JR East) or Shibaura-futō Station (Yurikamome) on the mainland side.
Toho.  Toho Co., Ltd.[b] (東宝株式会社, Tōhō Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese entertainment company that primarily engages in producing and distributing films and exhibiting stage plays. It is headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is one of the core companies of the Osaka-based Hankyu Hanshin Toho Group. Toho is best known for producing and distributing many of Ishirō Honda and Eiji Tsuburayas kaiju and tokusatsu films as well as the films of Akira Kurosawa and the animated films produced by Studio Ghibli, Shin-Ei Animation, TMS Entertainment, CoMix Wave Films, and OLM, Inc. The company has released the majority of the highest-grossing Japanese films, and through its subsidiaries, is the largest film importer in Japan. The Doraemon film series, distributed by Toho since 1980, is the highest-grossing film series and animated film series in Japan. It is also one of the highest-grossing non-English language film series. Tohos most famous creation is Godzilla, featured in 33 of the companys films. Godzilla, Rodan, Mothra, King Ghidorah, and Mechagodzilla are described as Tohos Big Five due to their numerous appearances throughout the Godzilla franchise, as well as spin-offs. Toho has also been involved in the production of numerous anime titles. Its subdivisions are Toho-Towa Company, Limited (Japanese exclusive theatrical distributor of Universal Pictures via NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan), Towa Pictures Company Limited (Japanese exclusive theatrical distributor of Paramount Pictures), Toho Pictures Incorporated, Toho International Inc., Toho E. B. Company Limited, and Toho Music Corporation & Toho Costume Company Limited. The company is the largest shareholder (7.96%) of Fuji Media Holdings Inc. Toho is one of the four members of the Motion Picture Producers Association of Japan (MPPAJ), is the largest of Japans Big Four film studios, and is the only film studio that is a component of the Nikkei 225 index. Toho was created by the founder of the Hankyu Railway, Ichizō Kobayashi, in 1932 as the Tokyo-Takarazuka Theatre Company (株式会社東京宝塚劇場, Kabushiki gaisha Tōkyō Takarazuka Gekijō). It managed much of the kabuki in Tokyo and, among other properties, the eponymous Tokyo Takarazuka Theatre and the Imperial Garden Theater in Tokyo; Toho and Shochiku enjoyed a duopoly over theaters in Tokyo for many years.[3]
Reversis. Reversis, or more rarely Réversi, is a very old trick-taking card game in the Hearts family. Its origin is uncertain, but it may have emerged in Italy before spreading to Spain and France. It is considered one of the two probable ancestors of Hearts, Black Lady and Black Maria, the other being Coquimbert or Coquinbert. It was very popular with the French aristocracy in the 17th and 18th centuries, and much played elsewhere, except in Britain.[1] Initially quite simple, the game eventually developed more complex mechanics such as vast quantities of counters and a system of pools and side-payments. Its name may have possibly come from the reverse order and construction of the game itself, or even from its exceptional slam which, like shooting the moon in Black Lady, reverses the entire aim of the game. The game of Reversis was first mentioned in France in 1601, under the name Reversin, played with a 52-card pack and is the subject of a poem written around 1611 by Antoine du Brueil.[2] Jean-Baptiste Bullet suggested it was invented in the Court of Francis I.[3] In the earliest version of the rules there was no Quinola nor was there a pool or other embellishments that appeared later. The game was won and lost based on the points taken in tricks – the player with the fewest points being paid by every other player – but a player making the reversis i.e. a slam, won outright. It may have been this latter feature that distinguished it from Coquimbert or La Gana Perde with which it is sometimes equated in the literature. By 1634, it had given a special role to the ♥J, known as Quinola, and added the features such as trading Aces, a pool and points for successfully discarding key cards. Further important additions were made to this otherwise subtle game; in particular towards the end of the 18th century in the form of options. In the 19th century, the increasingly popular game of Reversis saw its rules becoming more and more complex with the exclusive use of preceding options making it a high-tension kind of game. It was long thought to be a game of Spanish origin, once a 48-card pack was used, besides its counter-clockwise rotation and the words Quinola, name of a 17th-century Spanish admiral, and Espagnolette, but it more probably originated in Italy where a negative variety of Tressette called Rovescino is still played. In most games the highest cards were best in the usual method of play, but in Reversis the lowest had the preference. The Jack was a better card to play than the King, and one of them, the Jack of Hearts, was called the Quinola, just as at Primero. The strange incongruity of this inverted order of things made the Spaniards, when this game became known to them, give it the appropriate denomination of La Gana pierde, that is, the winner loses.[4] Reversis is a trick-avoidance game where each player normally attempts to avoid taking tricks, especially those with counting cards (A K Q J) in them. However, in the rare event of having a very strong hand, a player may attempt to make the reversis, i.e. take all tricks. The game is normally played by four players with a 52-card, French-suited pack, in later rules lacking the 10s, and ranking A K Q J (10) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2, Aces being high. There are no trumps. The traditional, higher, card values were: Ace 5 points, King 4, Queen 3 and Jack 2, remainder 0, making a total of 56 in the game.[5] However, from the middle of 18th century, lower card values were introduced, being reduced to Ace 4, King 3, Queen 2 and Jack 1, giving a total of 40, while the ♥J or Quinola scored 4 if in the discard pile or partie. Deal and play are anticlockwise beginning with first hand. Each player plays one card to each trick. Players must follow suit if able, otherwise may play any card, some rules placing restrictions on what may be discarded. The player with the highest card of the led suit takes the trick and leads to the next.[5]
Imperial Household Agency.  Naruhito  Fumihito 
Tokyo (disambiguation). The Tokyo Metropolis or Tokyo (東京, Tōkyō) is the capital of Japan. Tokyo may also refer to:
Three Palace Sanctuaries. The Three Palace Sanctuaries (宮中三殿, Kyūchū sanden) are a group of structures in the precincts of the Tokyo Imperial Palace in Japan. They are used in imperial religious ceremonies, including weddings and enthronements. The three sanctuaries are: 35°40′54″N 139°44′59″E / 35.68167°N 139.74972°E / 35.68167; 139.74972  This Tokyo location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Edo Castle. Edo Castle (江戸城, Edo-jō) is a flatland castle that was built in 1457 by Ōta Dōkan in Edo, Toshima District, Musashi Province.[1] In modern times it is part of the Tokyo Imperial Palace  in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is therefore also known as Chiyoda Castle (千代田城, Chiyoda-jō). Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa shogunate there, and it was the residence of the shōgun and the headquarters of the military government during the Edo period (1603–1867) in Japanese history. After the resignation of the shōgun and the Meiji Restoration, it became the Tokyo Imperial Palace. Some moats, walls and ramparts of the castle survive to this day. However, the grounds were more extensive during the Edo period, with Tokyo Station and the Marunouchi section of the city lying within the outermost moat. It also encompassed Kitanomaru Park, the Nippon Budokan Hall and other current landmarks of the surrounding area.[2] The warrior Edo Shigetsugu built his residence in what is now the Honmaru and Ninomaru part of Edo Castle, around the end of the Heian period (794–1185) or beginning of the Kamakura period (1185–1333). The Edo clan left in the 15th century as a result of uprisings in the Kantō region, and Ōta Dōkan, a retainer of the Ogigayatsu Uesugi family, built Edo Castle in 1457. The castle came under the control of the Later Hōjō clan in 1524 after the Siege of Edo.[3] The castle was vacated in 1590 due to the Siege of Odawara. Tokugawa Ieyasu made Edo Castle his base after he was offered eight eastern provinces by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[1] He later defeated Toyotomi Hideyori, son of Hideyoshi, at the Siege of Osaka in 1615, and emerged as the political leader of Japan. Tokugawa Ieyasu received the title of Sei-i Taishōgun in 1603, and Edo became the center of Tokugawas administration. Initially, parts of the area were lying under water. The sea reached the present Nishinomaru area of Edo Castle, and Hibiya was a beach.[clarification needed] The landscape was changed for the construction of the castle.[4] Most construction started in 1593 and was completed in 1636 under Ieyasus grandson, Tokugawa Iemitsu. By this time, Edo had a population of 150,000.[5] The existing Honmaru, Ninomaru, and Sannomaru areas were extended with the addition of the Nishinomaru, Nishinomaru-shita, Fukiage, and Kitanomaru areas. The perimeter measured 16 km.
Paris.   Paris[a] is the capital and largest city of France, with an estimated population of 2,048,472 in January 2025[update][3] in an area of more than 105 km2 (41 sq mi). It is located in the centre of the Île-de-France region. Paris is the fourth-most populous city in the European Union. Nicknamed the City of Light, Paris has been one of the worlds major centres of finance, diplomacy, commerce, culture, fashion, and gastronomy since the 17th century. Paris is a major railway, highway, and air-transport hub served by three international airports: Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly Airport, and Beauvais–Tillé Airport. Paris has one of the most sustainable transportation systems[4] and is one of only two cities in the world that received the Sustainable Transport Award twice. Paris is known for its museums and architectural landmarks: the Musée dOrsay, Musée Marmottan Monet, and Musée de lOrangerie are noted for their collections of French Impressionist art. The Pompidou Centre, Musée National dArt Moderne, Musée Rodin and Musée Picasso are noted for their collections of modern and contemporary art.[citation needed] Part of the city along the Seine has been classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1991[update]. Paris is home to several United Nations organisations, including UNESCO, as well as other international organisations such as the OECD, the OECD Development Centre, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the International Energy Agency, the International Federation for Human Rights, along with European bodies such as the European Space Agency, the European Banking Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. The city hosts different sporting events, such as the French Open, and is the home of the association football club Paris St-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français; it hosted the Summer Olympics three times.
Palace.  A palace is a large residence, often serving as a royal residence or the home for a head of state or another high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop.[1] The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which housed the Imperial residences.[1] Most European languages have a version of the term (palats, palais, palazzo, palacio, etc.) and many use it to describe a broader range of buildings than English. In many parts of Europe, the equivalent term is also applied to large private houses in cities, especially of the aristocracy. It is also used for some large official buildings that have never had a residential function; for example in French-speaking countries Palais de Justice is the usual name of important courthouses.  Many historic palaces such as parliaments, museums, hotels, or office buildings are now put to other uses. The word is also sometimes used to describe an elaborate building used for public entertainment or exhibitions[1] such as a movie palace. A palace is typically distinguished from a castle in that the latter is fortified or has the style of a fortification, whereas a palace does not. The word palace comes from Old French palais (imperial residence), from Latin Palātium, the name of one of the seven hills of Rome.[1] The original palaces on the Palatine Hill were the seat of the imperial power. At the same time, the capitol on the Capitoline Hill was the religious nucleus of Rome. Long after the city grew to the seven hills, the Palatine remained a desirable residential area. Roman emperor Caesar Augustus lived there in a purposely modest house only set apart from his neighbours by the two laurel trees planted to flank the front door as a sign of triumph granted by the Senate. His descendants, especially Nero with his Domus Aurea (the Golden House), enlarged the building and its grounds over and over until it took up the hilltop. The word Palātium came to mean the residence of the emperor rather than the neighbourhood on top of the hill.[citation needed]
Dog.  The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant of the gray wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was selectively bred from a population of wolves during the Late Pleistocene by hunter-gatherers. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans, over 14,000 years ago and before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids. Dogs have been bred for desired behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They have the same number of bones (with the exception of the tail), powerful jaws that house around 42 teeth, and well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and sight. Compared to humans, dogs possess a superior sense of smell and hearing, but inferior visual acuity. Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, companionship, therapy, aiding disabled people, and assisting police and the military. Communication in dogs includes eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). They mark their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment. Over the millennia, dogs have uniquely adapted to human behavior; this adaptation includes being able to understand and communicate with humans. As such, the human–canine bond has been a topic of frequent study, and dogs influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of mans best friend. The global dog population is estimated at 700 million to 1 billion, distributed around the world. The dog is the most popular pet in the United States, present in 34–40% of households. Developed countries make up approximately 20% of the global dog population, while around 75% of dogs are estimated to be from developing countries, mainly in the form of feral and community dogs.
Tokyo Tower.  Tokyo Tower (東京タワー, Tōkyō Tawā; pronounced [toːkʲoː taɰᵝaː] ⓘ), also known as the Japan Radio Tower (日本電波塔, Nippon denpatō) is a communications and observation tower in the district of Shiba-koen in Minato, Tokyo, Japan, completed in 1958. At 332.9 m (1,092 ft), it was the tallest tower in Japan until the construction of Tokyo Skytree in 2012. It is a lattice tower inspired by the Eiffel Tower, and is painted white and international orange to comply with air safety regulations. The towers main sources of income are tourism and antenna leasing. FootTown, a four-story building directly under the tower, houses museums, restaurants, and shops. Departing from there, guests can visit two observation decks. The two-story Main Deck (formerly known as the Main Observatory) is at 150 m (490 ft), while the smaller Top Deck (formerly known as the Special Observatory) reaches a height of 249.6 m (819 ft). The names were changed following renovation of the top deck in 2018.[4] The tower is repainted every five years, taking a year to complete the process. In 1961, transmission antennae were added. They are used for radio and television broadcasting and now broadcast signals for media outlets such as NHK, TBS Television, and Fuji Television. The height of the tower was not suitable for Japans planned terrestrial digital broadcasting planned for July 2011, and for the Tokyo area. A taller digital broadcasting tower, known as Tokyo Skytree, was completed on 29 February 2012. Tokyo Tower has become a prominent landmark and frequently appears in media set in Tokyo. A large broadcasting tower was needed in the Kantō region after NHK, Japans public broadcasting station, began television broadcasting in 1953. Private broadcasting companies began operating in the months following the construction of NHKs own transmission tower. This communications boom led the Japanese government to believe that transmission towers would soon be built all over Tokyo, eventually overrunning the city. The proposed solution was the construction of one large tower capable of transmitting to the entire region.[5] Furthermore, because of the countrys postwar boom in the 1950s, Japan was searching for a monument to symbolize its national recovery from World War II, as one of the countries most ravaged by the war.[6][7]
Nishi-Shinjuku. Nishi-Shinjuku (西新宿; lit. West Shinjuku) is a neighborhood and skyscraper business district in Shinjuku Ward, Tokyo, Japan. The neighborhood is located west of Shinjuku Station and consists of 8 chōme (丁目), or Streets. The region was previously called Tsunohazu (角筈). Nishi-Shinjuku was Tokyos first major foray into building skyscrapers with the first appearing in the 1970s with Keio Plaza Inter-Continental. It is the location of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building, the headquarters of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Progress continues in Nishi-Shinjuku, which is heading away from the city centre and has the site of the proposed Nishi-Shinjuku 3-Chōme Redevelopment, with plans for what will be three of the four tallest buildings in Japan. The last scene of the 2003 film Lost in Translation was filmed at Chūō-dōri close to Shinjuku train station.[2] Livedoor has its headquarters in the Sumitomo Fudosan Nishishinjuku Building [ja] (住友不動産西新宿ビル, Sumitomo Fudōsan Nishi-Shinjuku Biru).[3] H.I.S. has its headquarters in the Shinjuku Oak Tower.[4] Seiko Epsons Tokyo Office is in the Shinjuku NS Building.[5] Capcoms Tokyo offices are located in the Shinjuku Mitsui Building[6] and Keihin Corporation is headquartered in the Shinjuku Nomura Building.[7] Taisei Corporation also has its headquarters in the district.[8]
Mind sport.  A mind sport is a game of skill based on intellectual ability. The first major use of the term was as a result of the Mind Sports Olympiad in 1997.[1] The phrase had been used prior to this event such as backgammon being described as a mind sport by Tony Buzan in 1996; Tony Buzan was also a co-founder of the Mind Sports Olympiad.[2] Bodies such as the World Memory Sports Council[3] use the term retrospectively. It is a term that became fixed from games trying to obtain equal status to sports. For example, from 2002 British Minister for Sport, Richard Caborn said: ...I believe we should have the same obligation to mental agility as we do to physical agility. Mind sports have to form UK national bodies and get together with the government to devise an acceptable amendment to the 1937 Act that clearly differentiates mind sports from parlour board games.[4][5]
Dog.  The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant of the gray wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was selectively bred from a population of wolves during the Late Pleistocene by hunter-gatherers. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans, over 14,000 years ago and before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids. Dogs have been bred for desired behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They have the same number of bones (with the exception of the tail), powerful jaws that house around 42 teeth, and well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and sight. Compared to humans, dogs possess a superior sense of smell and hearing, but inferior visual acuity. Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, companionship, therapy, aiding disabled people, and assisting police and the military. Communication in dogs includes eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). They mark their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment. Over the millennia, dogs have uniquely adapted to human behavior; this adaptation includes being able to understand and communicate with humans. As such, the human–canine bond has been a topic of frequent study, and dogs influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of mans best friend. The global dog population is estimated at 700 million to 1 billion, distributed around the world. The dog is the most popular pet in the United States, present in 34–40% of households. Developed countries make up approximately 20% of the global dog population, while around 75% of dogs are estimated to be from developing countries, mainly in the form of feral and community dogs.
Abstract strategy game. An abstract strategy game is a type of strategy game that has minimal or no narrative theme, an outcome determined only by player choice (with minimal or no randomness), and in which each player has perfect information about the game.[1][2] For example, Go is a pure abstract strategy game since it fulfills all three criteria; chess and related games are nearly so but feature a recognizable theme of ancient warfare; and Stratego is borderline since it is deterministic, loosely based on 19th-century Napoleonic warfare, and features concealed information. Combinatorial games have no randomizers such as dice, no simultaneous movement, nor hidden information. Some games that do have these elements are sometimes classified as abstract strategy games. (Games such as Continuo, Octiles, Cant Stop, and Sequence, could be considered abstract strategy games, despite having a luck or bluffing element.) A smaller category of abstract strategy games manages to incorporate hidden information without using any random elements; the best known example is Stratego. Traditional abstract strategy games are often treated as a separate game category, hence the term abstract games is often used for competitions that exclude them and can be thought of as referring to modern abstract strategy games. Two examples are the IAGO World Tour (2007–2010) and the Abstract Games World Championship held annually since 2008 as part of the Mind Sports Olympiad.[3] Some abstract strategy games have multiple starting positions of which it is required that one be randomly determined. For a game to be one of skill, a starting position needs to be chosen by impartial means. Some games, such as Arimaa and DVONN, have the players build the starting position in a separate initial phase which itself conforms strictly to combinatorial game principles. Most players, however, would consider that although one is then starting each game from a different position, the game itself contains no luck element. Indeed, Bobby Fischer promoted randomization of the starting position in chess in order to increase player dependence on thinking at the board.[4] As J. Mark Thompson wrote in his article Defining the Abstract, play is sometimes said to resemble a series of puzzles the players pose to each other:[5][6]
Archipelago.  An archipelago (/ˌɑːrkəˈpɛləɡoʊ/ ⓘ AR-kə-PEL-ə-goh),[1] sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the origin of the term), the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Stockholm Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago (which includes the Indonesian and Philippine Archipelagos), the Lucayan (Bahamian) Archipelago, the Japanese archipelago, and the Hawaiian Archipelago. The word archipelago is derived from the Italian arcipelago, used as a proper name for the Aegean Sea, itself perhaps a deformation of the Greek Αιγαίον Πέλαγος.[2][3] Later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea has a large number of islands). The erudite paretymology, deriving the word from Ancient Greek ἄρχι- (arkhi-, chief) and πέλαγος (pélagos, sea), proposed by Buondelmonti, can still be found.[4] Archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighboring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland, which form an archipelago. Depending on their geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments, or continental islands.[5]
Hepburn romanization.  Hepburn (Japanese: ヘボン式ローマ字, romanized: Hebon-shiki rōmaji, lit. Hepburn-style Roman letters) is the main system of romanization for the Japanese language. The system was originally published in 1867 by American Christian missionary and physician James Curtis Hepburn as the standard in the first edition of his Japanese–English dictionary. The system is distinct from other romanization methods in its use of English orthography to phonetically transcribe sounds: for example, the syllable [ɕi] (し) is written as shi and [tɕa] (ちゃ) is written as cha, reflecting their spellings in English (compare to si and tya in the more systematic Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki systems). In 1886, Hepburn published the third edition of his dictionary, codifying a revised version of the system that is known today as traditional Hepburn. A version with additional revisions, known as modified Hepburn, was published in 1908. Although Kunrei-shiki romanization is the style favored by the Japanese government, Hepburn remains the most popular method of Japanese romanization. It is learned by most foreign students of the language, and is used within Japan for romanizing personal names, locations, and other information, such as train tables and road signs. Because the systems orthography is based on English phonology instead of a systematic transcription of the Japanese syllabary, individuals who do not speak Japanese and know English phonology will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.[1] In 1867, American Presbyterian missionary doctor James Curtis Hepburn published the first Japanese–English dictionary, in which he introduced a new system for the romanization of Japanese into Latin script.[2] He published a second edition in 1872 and a third edition in 1886, which introduced minor changes.[3] The third editions system had been adopted in the previous year by the Rōmaji-kai (羅馬字会, Romanization Club), a group of Japanese and foreign scholars who promoted a replacement of the Japanese script with a romanized system.[4]
Ultra-prominent peak.  An ultra-prominent peak, or ultra for short, is a mountain summit with a topographic prominence of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) or more; it is also called a P1500.[1] The prominence of a peak is the minimum height of climb to the summit on any route from a higher peak, or from sea level if there is no higher peak. There are approximately 1,500 such peaks on Earth.[2] Some well-known peaks, such as the Matterhorn and Eiger, are not ultras because they are connected to higher mountains by high cols and thus do not achieve enough topographic prominence. The term ultra originated with earth scientist Steve Fry, from his studies of the prominence of peaks in Washington in the 1980s. His original term was ultra major mountain, referring to peaks with at least 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) of prominence.[3] Currently, over 1,500 ultras have been identified above sea level: 654 in Asia, 357 in North America, 209 in South America, 119 in Europe (including 12 in the Caucasus), 84 in Africa, 54 in Oceania, and 39 in Antarctica.[2] Many of the worlds largest mountains are ultras, including Mount Everest, K2, Kanchenjunga, Kilimanjaro, Mont Blanc, and Mount Olympus. On the other hand, others such as the Eiger and the Matterhorn are not ultras.  Many ultras lie in rarely visited and inhospitable parts of the world, including 39 in Greenland, the high points of the Arctic islands of Novaya Zemlya, Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, and many of the peaks of the Greater ranges of Asia. In British Columbia, some of the mountains listed do not even have generally recognized names.
Physical Geography (journal). Physical Geography is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of physical geography. It was established in 1980 and is published by Taylor & Francis. It was originally published by Bellwether Publishing until the start of the 34th volume in 2013, when it moved to Taylor & Francis.[1] The editor-in-chief is Chris Houser (University of Windsor). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 2.075.[2] This article about a journal on geography is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. See tips for writing articles about academic journals. Further suggestions might be found on the articles talk page.
Board game.  A board game is a type of tabletop game[2][3] that involves small objects (game pieces) that are placed and moved in particular ways on a specially designed patterned game board,[4][5][6][7][8][9][10] potentially including other components, e.g. dice.[6] The earliest known uses of the term board game are between the 1840s and 1850s.[7][4][9] While game boards are a necessary and sufficient condition of this genre, card games that do not use a standard deck of cards, as well as games that use neither cards nor a game board, are often colloquially included, with some referring to this genre generally as table and board games or simply tabletop games.[2][3] Board games have been played, traveled, and evolved in most cultures and societies throughout history[11] Board games have been discovered in a number of archaeological sites. The oldest discovered gaming pieces were discovered in southwest Turkey, a set of elaborate sculptured stones in sets of four designed for a chess-like game, which were created during the Bronze Age around 5,000 years ago.[12][13] Numerous archaeological finds of game boards exist that date from as early as the Neolithic period including, as of 2024, a total of 14 Neolithic sites reporting 51 game boards, ranging from mid-7th millennium to early 8th millennium.[14][15][16][17] The Royal Game of Ur, estimated to have originated from around 4,600 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia, an example of which was found in the royal tombs of ancient Mesopotamia (c. 2600 BC – c. 2400 BC),[18][19][20] is considered the oldest playable boardgame in the world, with well-defined games rules discovered written on a cuneiform tablet by a Babylonian astronomer in c. 177 BC – c. 176 BC.[21][15]
East China Sea.  The East China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly offshore from East China. China names the body of water along its eastern coast as East Sea (Dōng Hǎi, simplified Chinese: 东海; traditional Chinese: 東海) due to direction, the name of East China Sea is otherwise designated as a formal name by International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and used internationally.[1] It covers an area of roughly 1,249,000 square kilometers (482,000 sq mi).[citation needed] The seas northern extension between Korean Peninsula and mainland China is the Yellow Sea, separated by an imaginary line between the southwestern tip of South Koreas Jeju Island and the eastern tip of Qidong at the Yangtze River estuary. The East China Sea is bounded in the east and southeast by the middle portion of the first island chain off the eastern Eurasian continental mainland, including the Japanese island of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands, and in the south by the island of Taiwan. It connects with the Sea of Japan in the northeast through the Korea Strait, the South China Sea in the southwest via the Taiwan Strait, and the Philippine Sea in the southeast via gaps between the various Ryukyu Islands (e.g. Tokara Strait and Miyako Strait). Most of the East China Sea is shallow, with almost three-fourths of it being less than 200 metres (660 ft) deep, its average depth being 350 metres (1,150 ft), while the maximum depth, reached in the Okinawa Trough, is 2,716 metres (8,911 ft).[2]
Summit. A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak (mountain peak), and zenith are synonymous. The term top (mountain top) is generally used only for a mountain peak that is located at some distance from the nearest point of higher elevation. For example, a big, massive rock next to the main summit of a mountain is not considered a summit. Summits near a higher peak, with some prominence or isolation, but not reaching a certain cutoff value for the quantities, are often considered subsummits (or subpeaks) of the higher peak, and are considered part of the same mountain. A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top.  For summits that are permanently covered in significant layers of ice, the height may be measured by the highest point of rock (rock height) or the highest point of permanent solid ice (snow height). The highest summit in the world is Mount Everest with a height of 8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft) above sea level. The first official ascent was made by Tenzing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary. They reached the mountains peak in 1953.[2][3] Whether a highest point is classified as a summit, a sub peak or a separate mountain is subjective. The International Climbing and Mountaineering Federations definition of a 4,000 m peak is that it has a prominence of 30 metres (98 ft) or more; it is a mountain summit if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres (980 ft).[4] Otherwise, it is a subpeak. Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the Western United States, the term summit is used for the highest point along a road, highway, or railroad, more commonly referred to as a pass. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit and the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit. This can lead to confusion as to whether a labeled summit is a pass or a peak.
Geomorphology. Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek  γῆ (gê) earth  μορφή (morphḗ) form and  λόγος (lógos) study)[2] is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. Earths surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence, and shape the coastal geography. Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, wildfire, and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of topography under the force of gravity, and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate. Geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges, the growth of volcanoes, isostatic changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and the formation of deep sedimentary basins where the surface of the Earth drops and is filled with material eroded from other parts of the landscape. The Earths surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the Earths lithosphere with its hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The broad-scale topographies of the Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts are uplifted due to geologic processes. Denudation of these high uplifted regions produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast.[3] On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (uplift and deposition) and subtractive processes (subsidence and erosion). Often, these processes directly affect each other: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through flexural isostasy. Topography can modify the local climate, for example through orographic precipitation, which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for feedbacks between climate and tectonics, mediated by geomorphic processes.[4] In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such as moraines, eskers, and proglacial lakes, as well as glacial erosional features, to build chronologies of both small glaciers and large ice sheets and understand their motions and effects upon the landscape. Fluvial geomorphologists focus on rivers, how they transport sediment, migrate across the landscape, cut into bedrock, respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study how hillslopes form and change. Still others investigate the relationships between ecology and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets. Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on geochronology, using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.[5][6] Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earths surface, and include differential GPS, remotely sensed digital terrain models and laser scanning, to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps.[7]
Sea of Okhotsk. The Sea of Okhotsk[a] is a marginal sea of the northwestern Pacific Ocean.[1] It is located between Russias Kamchatka Peninsula on the east, the Kuril Islands on the southeast, Japans island of Hokkaido on the south, the island of Sakhalin along the west, and a stretch of eastern Siberian coast along the west and north. Its northeast corner is the Shelikhov Gulf. The sea is named for the port of Okhotsk, itself named for the Okhota River.[2] The Sea of Okhotsk covers an area of 1,583,000 square kilometres (611,000 sq mi), with a mean depth of 859 metres (2,818 ft) and a maximum depth of 3,372 metres (11,063 ft).[3][4] It is connected to the Sea of Japan on either side of Sakhalin: on the west through the Sakhalin Gulf and the Gulf of Tartary; on the south through the La Pérouse Strait. In winter, navigation on the Sea of Okhotsk is impeded by ice floes.[5] Ice floes form due to the large amount of freshwater from the Amur River, lowering the salinity of upper levels, often raising the freezing point of the sea surface. The distribution and thickness of ice floes depends on many factors: the location, the time of year, water currents, and the sea temperatures.[6] Cold air from Siberia forms sea ice in the northwestern Sea of Okhotsk.[7] As the ice forms, it expels salt into the deeper layers. This heavy water flows east toward the Pacific, carrying oxygen and nutrients, supporting abundant sea life. The Sea of Okhotsk has warmed in some places by as much as 3°C (5.4°F) since preindustrial times, three times faster than the global mean. Warming inhibits the formation of sea ice and also drives fish populations north. The salmon catch on the northern Japanese coast has fallen 70% in the last 15 years, while the Russian chum salmon catch has quadrupled.[8] With the exception of Hokkaido, one of the Japanese home islands, the sea is surrounded on all sides by territory administered by the Russian Federation. South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands were administered by Japan until 1945. Japan claims the southern Kuril Islands and refers to them as Northern Territories.[9]
Chocolate Hills.  The Chocolate Hills (Cebuano: Mga Bungtod sa Tsokolate, Filipino: Mga Tsokolateng Burol, or Mga Burol na Tsokolate) are a geological formation in the Philippine province of Bohol.[1] There is a minimum of 1,260 hills and possibly up to 1,776, spread over an area of more than 50 square kilometers (20 sq mi).[2] They are covered in green grass that turns a chocolate-brown during the dry season, hence the name. The Chocolate Hills are featured on the provincial flag and seal to symbolize the abundance of natural attractions in the province.[3] The site is on the Philippine Tourism Authoritys list of tourist destinations in the Philippines,[4] and it has been declared the countrys third national geological monument, as well as being proposed for inclusion in UNESCOs World Heritage List.[4] The Chocolate Hills form a rolling terrain of haycock-shaped hills—mounds of a generally conical and almost symmetrical shape.[5] With an estimated 1,268 to 1,776 individual mounds, these dome-shaped hills are actually made of grass-covered limestone. The domes vary in size from 30 to 50 meters (98 to 164 ft) high, with the largest being 120 meters (390 ft) in height.[6] One of Bohols best-known tourist attractions, these unique hills are scattered by the hundreds throughout the towns of Carmen, Batuan, and Sagbayan.[7] During the dry season, the grass-covered hills dry up and turn chocolate-brown.[4] The vegetation is dominated by grass species such as Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum. Several Compositae and ferns also grow on them. In between the hills, the flatlands are cultivated with rice and other cash crops. However, the natural vegetation on the Chocolate Hills is threatened by quarrying activities.[8]
Hirohito (disambiguation). Hirohito (1901–1989) posthumously Emperor Shōwa of Japan; reigned 1926 to 1989. Hirohito may also refer to:
Geography.  Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê Earth and gráphō write, literally Earth writing) is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.[1][2] Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science.[3] Geography has been called a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines.[4] Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who may have coined the term geographia (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC).[5] The first recorded use of the word γεωγραφία was as the title of a book by Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy (100 – 170 AD).[1] This work created the so-called Ptolemaic tradition of geography, which included Ptolemaic cartographic theory.[6] However, the concepts of geography (such as cartography) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient Babylon.[7] The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.[8][9][10][11][12][13] Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches.[14][4][15] Techniques employed can generally be broken down into quantitative[16] and qualitative[17] approaches, with many studies taking mixed-methods approaches.[18] Common techniques include cartography, remote sensing, interviews, and surveying. Geography is a systematic study of the Earth (other celestial bodies are specified, such as geography of Mars, or given another name, such as areography in the case of Mars, or selenography in the case of the Moon, or planetography for the general case), its features, and phenomena that take place on it.[19][20][21] For something to fall into the domain of geography, it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a map, such as coordinates, place names, or addresses. This has led to geography being associated with cartography and place names. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the Earths spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their environment.[22] Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants, and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns.[23][24] While narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to tremendous debate within the discipline, several sources have approached the topic.[25] The 1st edition of the book Key Concepts in Geography broke down this into chapters focusing on Space, Place, Time, Scale, and Landscape.[26] The 2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by adding Environmental systems, Social Systems, Nature, Globalization, Development, and Risk, demonstrating how challenging narrowing the field can be.[25] Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the Five themes of geography established by Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools, published jointly by the National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers in 1984.[27][28] These themes are Location, place, relationships within places (often summarized as Human-Environment Interaction), movement, and regions.[28][29] The five themes of geography have shaped how American education approaches the topic in the years since.[28][29]
Terrain. Terrain (from Latin  terra earth), alternatively relief or topographical relief, is the dimension and shape of a given surface of land. In physical geography, terrain is the lay of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns. Bathymetry is the study of underwater relief, while hypsometry studies terrain relative to sea level. The understanding of terrain is critical for many reasons: Relief (or local relief) refers specifically to the quantitative measurement of vertical elevation change in a landscape. It is the difference between maximum and minimum elevations within a given area, usually of limited extent.[5] A relief can be described qualitatively, such as a low relief or high relief plain or upland. The relief of a landscape can change with the size of the area over which it is measured, making the definition of the scale over which it is measured very important. Because it is related to the slope of surfaces within the area of interest and to the gradient of any streams present, the relief of a landscape is a useful metric in the study of the Earths surface. Relief energy, which may be defined inter alia as the maximum height range in a regular grid,[6] is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain. Geomorphology is the long term study of the formation of terrain or topography.[7] Terrain is formed by concurrent processes operating on the underlying geological structures over geological time: Tectonic processes such as orogenies and uplifts cause land to be elevated, whereas erosional and weathering processes wear the land away by smoothing and reducing topographic features.[8] The relationship of erosion and tectonics rarely (if ever) reaches equilibrium.[9][10][11] These processes are also codependent, however the full range of their interactions is still a topic of debate.[12][13][14]
Outline of geography. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography: Geography – study of Earth and its people.[1] As the bridge between the human and physical sciences, geography is divided into two main branches: Other branches include: Regional geography – study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as its natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions. Regional geography breaks down into the study of specific regions.
Planetary-mass object. A planetary-mass object (PMO), planemo,[2] or planetary body (sometimes referred to as a world) is, by geophysical definition of celestial objects, any celestial object massive enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium, but not enough to sustain core fusion like a star.[3][4] The purpose of this term is to classify together a broader range of celestial objects than planet, since many objects similar in geophysical terms do not conform to conventional expectations for a planet. Planetary-mass objects can be quite diverse in origin and location. They include planets, dwarf planets, planetary-mass satellites and free-floating planets, which may have been ejected from a system (rogue planets) or formed through cloud-collapse rather than accretion (sub-brown dwarfs). While the term technically includes exoplanets and other objects, it is often used for objects with an uncertain nature or objects that do not fit in one specific class. Cases in which the term is often used: The three largest satellites Ganymede, Titan, and Callisto are of similar size or larger than the planet Mercury; these and four more – Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton – are larger and more massive than the largest and most massive dwarf planets, Pluto and Eris. Another dozen smaller satellites are large enough to have become round at some point in their history through their own gravity, tidal heating from their parent planets, or both. In particular, Titan has a thick atmosphere and stable bodies of liquid on its surface, like Earth (though for Titan the liquid is methane rather than water). Proponents of the geophysical definition of planets argue that location should not matter and that only geophysical attributes should be taken into account in the definition of a planet. The term satellite planet is sometimes used for planet-sized satellites.[11] A dwarf planet is a planetary-mass object that is neither a true planet nor a natural satellite; it is in direct orbit of a star, and is massive enough for its gravity to compress it into a hydrostatically equilibrious shape (usually a spheroid), but has not cleared the neighborhood of other material around its orbit. Planetary scientist and New Horizons principal investigator Alan Stern, who proposed the term dwarf planet, has argued that location should not matter and that only geophysical attributes should be taken into account, and that dwarf planets are thus a subtype of planet. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) accepted the term (rather than the more neutral planetoid) but decided to classify dwarf planets as a separate category of object.[12]
Sarandë.  Sarandë (Albanian: [saˈɾandə]; Albanian definite form: Saranda; Greek: Άγιοι Σαράντα) is a city in the Republic of Albania and the seat of Sarandë Municipality. Geographically, the city is located on an open sea gulf of the Ionian Sea within the Mediterranean Sea. Stretching along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, Sarandë has a Mediterranean climate with over 300 sunny days a year. In ancient times, the city was known as Onchesmus or Onchesmos, and was a port-town of Chaonia in ancient Epirus. It owes its modern name to the nearby Byzantine monastery of the Forty Saints  by which it became known from the High Middle Ages. Sarandë today is known for its deep blue Mediterranean waters. Near Sarandë are the remains of the ancient city of Butrint, a UNESCO World Heritage site. In recent years, Sarandë has seen a steady increase in tourists, many of them coming by cruise ships. Visitors are attracted by the natural environment of Sarandë and its archaeological sites. Sarandë is inhabited by a majority of ethnic Albanians, and also has a minority Greek community and as such has been considered one of the two centers of the Greek minority in Albania.[2][3] Sarandë was named after the Byzantine monastery of the Agioi Saranda Forty Saints in Greek, that is, the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste.[4] Under Ottoman rule, the town in the Turkish language became known as Aya Sarandi and then Sarandoz. Owing to Venetian influence in the region, it often appeared under its Italian name Santi Quaranta on Western maps.[5] This usage continued even after the establishment of the Principality of Albania, owing to the first Italian occupation of the region. During the Italian occupation of Albania in World War II, Benito Mussolini changed the name to Porto Edda, in honor of his eldest daughter.[6][7] Following the restoration of Albanian independence, the city reverted to its Albanian name Saranda.[8]
History of geography.  The History of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. Geography derives from the Greek γεωγραφία – geographia,[1] literally Earth-writing, that is, description or writing about the Earth. The first person to use the word geography was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). However, there is evidence for recognizable practices of geography, such as cartography, prior to the use of the term. The known world of Ancient Egypt saw the Nile as the center, and the world as based upon the river.  Various oasis were known to the east and west, and were considered locations of various gods (e.g. Siwa, for Amon).  To the South lay the Kushitic region, known as far as the 4th cataract.  Punt was a region south along the shores of the Red Sea.  Various Asiatic peoples were known as Retenu, Kanaan, Que, Harranu, or Khatti (Hittites).  At various times especially in the Late Bronze Age Egyptians had diplomatic and trade relationships with Babylonia and Elam.  The Mediterranean was called the Great Green and was believed to be part of a world encircling ocean.  Europe was unknown although may have become part of the Egyptian world view in Phoenician times.  To the west of Asia lay the realms of Keftiu, possibly Crete, and Mycenae (thought to be part of a chain of islands, that joined Cyprus, Crete, Sicily and later perhaps Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics to Africa).[2] The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[3] The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[4] The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu[5] and several cities, in turn surrounded by a bitter river (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.[6] In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.[3]
Landscape. A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or human-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.[1] A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to peoples lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context.[2] In common usage however, a landscape refers either to all the visible features of an area of land (usually rural), often considered in terms of aesthetic appeal, or to a pictorial representation of an area of countryside, specifically within the genre of landscape painting. When people deliberately improve the aesthetic appearance of a piece of land—by changing contours and vegetation, etc.—it is said to have been landscaped,[1] though the result may not constitute a landscape according to some definitions. Color landscapes blend artificial elements like buildings, roads, and pavements with natural features such as mountains, forests, plants, sky, and rivers. These compositions of distant and near views can significantly impact peoples emotions. As urbanization rapidly advances, urban color landscape design has become essential for cities to differentiate and symbolize their unique character and atmosphere. However, this transformation has created challenges. First, the traditional color landscapes in some cities have been heavily influenced by natural geography, climate, local materials, ethnic culture, religion, and socioeconomic factors. Second, the growing problem of color pollution - through bright, solid-colored buildings, billboards, and lighting clusters - adversely affects people physically and psychologically. Third, homogenization of colors between cities is causing a loss of cultural identity, as many modern buildings share similar palettes, diluting local characteristics. Researchers have proposed more unified cityscape approaches to address these color landscape issues and help cities preserve their distinctive identities and create vibrant, emotionally engaging urban environments.[3] The word landscape (landscipe or landscaef) arrived in England—and therefore into the English language—after the fifth century, following the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons; these terms referred to a system of human-made spaces on the land. The term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery.[4] Land (a word from Germanic origin) may be taken in its sense of something to which people belong (as in England being the land of the English).[5] The suffix -scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix -ship.[5] The roots of -ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix -schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that -ship and shape are also etymologically linked. The modern form of the word, with its connotations of scenery, appeared in the late sixteenth century when the term landschap was introduced by Dutch painters who used it to refer to paintings of inland natural or rural scenery. The word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term.[6] The popular conception of the landscape that is reflected in dictionaries conveys both a particular and a general meaning, the particular referring to an area of the Earths surface and the general being that which can be seen by an observer. An example of this second usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer:
Vlorë County. Vlorë County (Albanian pronunciation: [vlɔɽ(ə)]; Albanian: Qarku i Vlorës) is one of the 12 counties of Albania with the city of Vlorë being the county capital. The county spans 2,706 square kilometres (1,045 sq mi) and has a total population of 146,681 people as of 2023.[2] It borders the counties of Fier and Gjirokastër, as well as the Adriatic and Ionian Sea. Greece borders Vlorë to the south. Vlorë is geographically a very mountainous county. The county stretches along the Adriatic Sea and especially the Ionian Sea, forming the Albanian Riviera. The county has a coastline of 244 kilometres (152 mi).[3] The coasts on the west can be very steep and rocky with green panoramic vistas and high mountains in the hinterland, including the Ceraunian Mountains. The highest natural point is Çikë, at 2,044 metres (6,706 ft). The northwest of the county is mostly located on the peninsula of Karaburun, with a rough relief, steep cliffs, bays and rocky beaches. With about than 146,000 inhabitants in 2023, Vlorë is the seventh most populous county within Albania, and the third most populous within the Southern Region. Albanians constitute the ethnic majority of the county, including the capital. Greeks, Aromanians, and a few Roma also are present in the ethnic composition of the county. The port city of Vlorë is the capital of Vlorë County. It is where the Albanian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed on November 28, 1912. Sarandë is one of the most important tourist attractions of the Albanian Riviera, situated on an open sea gulf of the Ionian Sea in the central Mediterranean, about 14 km (8.7 mi) east of the north end of the Greek island of Corfu. The Butrint National Park, Llogara National Park and Karaburun Sazan National Marine Park are located in Vlorë County. The ancient city of Butrint is an archeological site in Vlorë County, some 14 kilometres south of Sarandë. It is located on a hill overlooking the Vivari Channel and is part of the Butrint National Park. During Roman antiquity, the city of Vlorë, the homonymous county capital, was known as Aulón (Ancient Greek: Αυλών, Latin: Aulona, meaning channel or glen in Greek, and possibly a translation of another indigenous name).[4][5] The city was mentioned for the first time by Ptolemy (2nd century CE) among the towns of the Illyrian Taulantii.[6]
Aoyama, Tokyo. Aoyama (青山) is a neighborhood in Tokyo, located in the northwest portion of Minato Ward. The area is known for its international fashion houses, cafes and restaurants. Kita-Aoyama (北青山; North Aoyama) refers to the area on the north side of Aoyama-dori (Aoyama Street) between the Akasaka Palace and Aoyama Gakuin University, while Minami-Aoyama (南青山; South Aoyama) refers to the area to the south of Aoyama-dori and extends to the northern edge of Roppongi, Azabu and Hiroo. During the Edo period, Aoyama was home to various temples, shrines, and samurai residences. The name Aoyama is derived from a samurai named Aoyama Tadanari who served the Tokugawa shogunate and held his mansion in the area. Today, along with Shibuya and Harajuku, Omotesandō is one of the most popular entertainment and shopping areas for young people in Tokyo. It is well known for its fashion houses, restaurants, and shopping. Chichibunomiya Rugby Stadium is located in the north part of Aoyama. The Minato City Board of Education operates public elementary and junior high schools. Kita-Aoyama and Minami-Aoyama are zoned to different school districts.[2] 35°40′19″N 139°43′23″E / 35.672°N 139.723°E / 35.672; 139.723
Land.  Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earths surface and includes all continents and islands. Earths land surface is almost entirely covered by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals that forms the outer part of the crust. Land plays an important role in Earths climate system, being involved in the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and water cycle. One-third of land is covered in trees, another third is used for agriculture, and one-tenth is covered in permanent snow and glaciers. The remainder consists of desert, savannah, and prairie. Land terrain varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other landforms. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: Mountain ranges and relatively flat interiors called cratons. Both form over millions of years through plate tectonics. Streams – a major part of Earths water cycle – shape the landscape, carve rocks, transport sediments, and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or latitudes, snow is compacted and recrystallized over hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that they warp the Earths crust. About 30 percent of land has a dry climate, due to losing more water through evaporation than it gains from precipitation. Since warm air rises, this generates winds, though Earths rotation and uneven sun distribution also play a part. Land is commonly defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth. It can also refer to the collective natural resources that the land holds, including rivers, lakes, and the biosphere. Human manipulation of the land, including agriculture and architecture, can also be considered part of land. Land is formed from the continental crust, the layer of rock on which soil, groundwater, and human and animal activity sits. Though modern terrestrial plants and animals evolved from aquatic creatures, Earths first cellular life likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on fresh water from rivers, streams, lakes, and glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in habitable land areas supporting agriculture and various natural resources. In recent decades, scientists and policymakers have emphasized the need to manage land and its biosphere more sustainably, through measures such as restoring degraded soil, preserving biodiversity, protecting endangered species, and addressing climate change.
Emperor Taishō. Yoshihito (嘉仁; [a] 31 August 1879 – 25 December 1926), posthumously honored as Emperor Taishō (大正天皇, Taishō Tennō)[b], was the 123rd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 1912 until his death in 1926. His reign, known as the Taishō era[c], was characterized by a liberal and democratic shift in domestic political power, known as Taishō Democracy. Yoshihito also oversaw Japans participation in the First World War from 1914 to 1918, the Spanish flu pandemic, and the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923. Born to Emperor Meiji and his concubine Yanagiwara Naruko, Yoshihito was proclaimed crown prince and heir apparent in 1888, his two older siblings having died in infancy. He suffered various health problems as a child, including meningitis soon after his birth. In 1900, he married Sadako Kujō, a member of the Kujō family of the Fujiwara clan; the couple had four sons. In 1912, Yoshihito became emperor upon the death of his father, but as he suffered from neurological issues for much of his life, he played only a limited role in politics and undertook no official duties from 1919. His declining health led to appointment of his eldest son, Crown Prince Hirohito, as regent in 1921, and Hirohito succeeded him as emperor when he died in 1926. Prince Yoshihito was born at the Tōgū Palace in Akasaka, Tokyo to Emperor Meiji and Yanagiwara Naruko, a concubine with the official title of gon-no-tenji (imperial concubine). As was common practice at the time, Emperor Meijis consort, Empress Shōken, was officially regarded as his mother. He received the personal name of Yoshihito Shinnō and the title Haru-no-miya from the Emperor on 6 September 1879. His two older siblings had died in infancy, and he too was born sickly.[2] Prince Yoshihito contracted cerebral meningitis within three weeks of his birth.[3] As was the practice at the time, Prince Yoshihito was entrusted to the care of his great-grandfather, Marquess Nakayama Tadayasu, in whose house he lived from infancy until the age of seven. Prince Nakayama had also raised Taishōs father, the Emperor Meiji, as a child.[4]
Dymaxion map. The Dymaxion map projection, also called the Fuller projection, is a kind of polyhedral map projection of the Earths surface onto the unfolded net of an icosahedron. The resulting map is heavily interrupted in order to reduce shape and size distortion compared to other world maps, but the interruptions are chosen to lie in the ocean. The projection was invented by Buckminster Fuller. In 1943, Fuller proposed a projection onto a cuboctahedron, which he called the Dymaxion World, using the name Dymaxion which he also applied to several of his other inventions. In 1954, Fuller and cartographer Shoji Sadao produced an updated Dymaxion map, the Airocean World Map, based on an icosahedron with a few of the triangular faces cut to avoid breaks in landmasses. The Dymaxion projection is intended for representations of the entire Earth. The March 1, 1943, edition of Life magazine included a photographic essay titled Life Presents R. Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion World, illustrating a projection onto a cuboctahedron, including several examples of possible arrangements of the square and triangular pieces, and a pull-out section of one-sided magazine pages with the map faces printed on them, intended to be cut out and glued to card stock to make a three-dimensional cuboctahedron or its two-dimensional net.[1] Fuller applied for a patent in the United States in February 1944 for the cuboctahedron projection, which was issued in January 1946.[2] In 1954, Fuller and cartographer Shoji Sadao produced a new map onto an icosahedron instead of the cuboctahedron. It depicts Earths continents as one island, or nearly contiguous land masses. References today to the Fuller projection or Dymaxion usually indicate this version.
Takanawa Residence. The Takanawa Imperial Residence (高輪皇族邸, Takanawa Kōzokutei) is an Imperial residence in Tokyo. From 1931 to 2004, it was the residence of Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu, and his spouse, Kikuko, Princess Takamatsu. On 31 March 2020, the Emperor Emeritus Akihito and the Empress Emerita Michiko moved in. The official name of the residence was then changed to Sento Karigosho (仙洞仮御所; litt. Temporary Emeritus Imperial Palace). The residence was the site of the secondary Edo residence of the Hosokawa clan. In 1891, it was chosen to be the residence of Masako, Princess Tsune and Fusako, Princess Kane, two daughters of Emperor Meiji. Hirohito resided there as the Crown Prince between 1913 and 1924. It became the residence of his younger brother Nobuhito in 1931, and a building in Tudor style and a Japanese style building were built. They survived the war, but part of the grounds were confiscated. On those grounds were built the Takamatsu Junior high school and public residences. The western style building was dismantled in 1972, and a new reinforced concrete residence was built in its place. Nobuhitos widow Kikuko resided there until her death in 2004, after which the residence was unused. The Takanawa residence was chosen as a temporary palace for Akihito and Michiko during the refurbishment of the Akasaka Palace (current Togu palace), which will be their Sentō Imperial Palace (仙洞御所; litt. Emeritus Imperial Palace).[1] It became the Sentō Karigosho (仙洞仮御所; litt. Temporary Emeritus Imperial Palace) when they moved in on March 31, 2020.[2]
Landmass. A landmass, or land mass, is a large region or area of land that is in one piece and not noticeably broken up by oceans.[1][2] The term is often used to refer to lands surrounded by an ocean or sea, such as a continent or a large island.[3][4] In the field of geology, a landmass is a defined section of continental crust extending above sea level.[5] Continents are often thought of as distinct landmasses and may include any islands that are part of the associated continental shelf. When multiple continents form a single contiguous land connection, the connected continents may be viewed as a single landmass. Earths largest landmasses are (starting with largest):[6][7][8] Continental landmasses are not usually classified as islands despite being completely surrounded by water.[Note 1] However, because the definition of continent varies between geographers, the Americas are sometimes defined as two separate continents while mainland Australia is sometimes defined as an island as well as a continent. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this list, mainland Australia along with the other major landmasses have been listed as continental landmasses for comparison. The figures are approximations and are for the four major continental landmasses only.[Note 2] 126 countries6 de facto states 22 countriesFrench Guiana
Sesshō and Kampaku. In Japan, Sesshō (摂政) was a regent who was named to act on behalf of either a child emperor before his coming of age, or an empress regnant. The Kampaku (関白) was theoretically a sort of chief advisor for the Emperor, but was in practice the title of both first secretary and regent who assisted an adult Emperor. The duties of the Sesshō and Kampaku were to convey to the Emperor the policies formulated by the Sadaijin (左大臣, Minister of the Left) and other senior officials of the Daijō-kan (太政官, Council of State), and to convey the Emperors decisions to them. As regents of the Emperor, the Sesshō and Kampaku sometimes made decisions on behalf of the Emperor, but their positions were not defined by law and they had no specific political authority. The two titles were collectively known as sekkan (摂関), and the families that exclusively held the titles were called sekkan-ke (sekkan family).[1] During the Heian period (794–1185), from the middle of the 9th century, the Fujiwara clan began to marry off their daughters to the Emperor and assume the positions of Sesshō and Kampaku, thereby excluding other clans from the political centre and increasing their political power. From the 10th century, the Fujiwara clan monopolized the Sesshō and Kampaku, and at the end of the 10th century, around the time of Fujiwara no Michinaga and Fujiwara no Yorimichi, the power of the Fujiwara clan reached its zenith. In the mid-11th century, Emperor Go-Sanjo ran his own government, and the next Emperor, Shirakawa, abdicated to become Cloistered Emperor, beginning the cloistered rule. From then on, the cloistered rule of Cloistered Emperor took root, and the de facto Fujiwara regime, which used the positions of Sesshō and Kampaku, was over, and the Sesshō and Kampaku lost their real political power and became mere names.[1][2][3] During the Kamakura period (1185–1333), when the warrior class seized power and the Kamakura shogunate was established, the Fujiwara were divided into Five regent houses (五摂家, Go-sekke): the Konoe, Kujō, Nijō, Ichijo, and Takatsukasa families. From then on, these five families served as Sesshō and Kampaku on a rotating basis.[4] Toyotomi Hideyoshi was the first person in history to become a Kampaku who was not a noble by birth; his nephew Toyotomi Hidetsugu also became a Kampaku. Hideyoshi obtained this title, the highest position in the aristocracy, by being adopted into the Konoe family and formally becoming an aristocrat. A retired Kampaku was called Taikō (太閤), which came to commonly refer to Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[5][6] Both sesshō and kampaku were styled as denka or tenga (殿下) in historical pronunciation; translated as (Imperial) Highness, as were Imperial princes and princesses.
EDO. Edo or EDO may refer to:
Yedda. Yedda was an Israeli community-driven question-and-answer (Q&A) web service best known for its early commercial use of semantic search and vector-based similarity to match user questions with relevant answers and experts. Founded in late 2005 and launched publicly in early 2006, the platform grew through syndication partnerships before being acquired by AOL in November 2007. Yedda remained a wholly owned subsidiary and its technology was relaunched globally in 2010 under the brand AOL Answers, which for a period generated the highest volume of organic search traffic of any AOL property.[1] Yedda was created in 2005 by Avichay Nissenbaum (CEO), Yaniv Golan (CTO), Osher Frimerman (VP R&D), Eran Sandler and Daniel Verhovsky.[2]  The founders raised roughly US$2.5 million in seed funding and soft-launched the Q&A site in late 2006.[3] Rather than rely solely on its own domain, Yedda licensed embeddable Q&A widgets to other publishers. By late 2007 more than 50 partner sites—including ePals and The Job Network—contributed about 90 % of Yedda’s total traffic.[4] On 11 November 2007 AOL announced it would acquire Yedda for an undisclosed (widely reported “multi-million”) amount.[4][5]   The deal marked AOL’s **fifth Israeli acquisition**, following Mirabilis (ICQ), Relegence, Quigo and others.[6]   AOL retained Yedda’s Tel Aviv R&D centre and the full founding team as a wholly owned, independently managed subsidiary.[2] In August 2010 AOL relaunched the platform as AOL Answers.[7]  User accounts and historical content were migrated, while the new brand was promoted across AOL portals.  Analysts noted that although revenue per page was modest, the long-tail Q&A pages brought millions of search-driven visits, briefly making AOL Answers the company’s largest organic-traffic generator.[1]
Danish Realm.  The Danish Realm,[g] officially the Kingdom of Denmark,[i] or simply Denmark,[j] is a sovereign state consisting of a collection of constituent territories united by the Constitutional Act, which applies to the entire territory. It consists of metropolitan Denmark (sometimes called Denmark proper)[k]—the kingdoms territory in continental Europe and its proximate islands—and the realms two autonomous (but not sovereign) regions: the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America.[17] The relationship between the three parts of the kingdom is known as rigsfællesskabet (the unity of the realm,[l] which has also been translated into the Danish Commonwealth or the United Kingdom of Denmark). The Kingdom of Denmark is not a federation, but a concept encompassing the three autonomous legal systems of Denmark,[citation needed] the Faroe Islands and Greenland, united under its monarch. The Kingdom of Denmark is a unitary sovereign state. It has Arctic territorial claims in the Arctic Ocean: various sites near the North Pole (Lomonosov Ridge, Gakkel Ridge, and the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge complex). The Kingdom of Denmark constitutionally encompasses the realm or the country, but the Faroe Islands and Greenland have an extended degree of autonomy to govern their relations. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been under the Crown of Denmark since 1397 (de facto) when the Kalmar Union was ratified, and part of the Danish Realm since 1814 (de jure). Due to their separate historical and cultural identities, these parts of the realm now have an extensive degree of self-government and have assumed legislative and administrative responsibility in a substantial number of fields.[21] Legal matters in the country or realm are subject to the Constitution of the Realm of Denmark.[22] It stipulates that it applies for all parts of the Kingdom of Denmark and that legislative, executive and judicial powers are the responsibility of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Folketing), the Government of Denmark and the Supreme Court of Denmark. The Faroe Islands were granted home rule via an independence referendum in 1946, and Greenland obtained this in a 1979 referendum. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, which left the government of Denmark with little influence over the matters of internal affairs that are devolved to the local governments of Greenland and the Faroe Islands.[citation needed]
Yeddo, Indiana.  Yeddo is an unincorporated community in Millcreek Township, Fountain County, Indiana. Yeddo had a post office between 1881 and 1964.[3] Its name commemorates Yeddo, now known as Tokyo.[4]  This Fountain County, Indiana location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Benin City.  Benin City serves as the capital and largest  metropolitan centre of Edo State, situated in southern Nigeria.[3] It ranks as the fourth-most populous city in Nigeria, according to the 2006 national census, preceded by Lagos, Kano, and Ibadan.[2] Benin City is located in close proximity to the Benin River, situated approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the north, whilst its eastern perimeter lies 320 kilometres (200 mi) from Lagos via the arterial road network.[4] The citys municipal boundaries converge with those of several prominent neighbouring towns in southern Nigeria, notably Agbor, Oghara, and Ekpoma.[citation needed] Benin City boasts an exceptionally fertile agricultural landscape and serves as the epicentre of Nigerias thriving rubber industry.[5] Additionally, the production of palm oil constitutes a substantial sector, further underscoring the citys prominence in Nigerias agricultural economy.[6] The city of Benin served as the paramount settlement of the Edo Kingdom of Benin, a pre-colonial polity that flourished from the 13th to the 19th centuries. During its final centuries, the kingdom maintained significant trade relations with Portugal, prior to being captured, sacked, and razed in 1897 by a British punitive expedition. This expedition resulted in the looting of numerous bronze sculptures from the Benin City palace, collectively referred to as the Benin Bronzes. Subsequent to their punitive victory, the British gradually colonized the area, eventually incorporating the region into Colonial Nigeria.[7]
Folding screen. A folding screen, also known as pingfeng (Chinese: 屏風; pinyin: píngfēng), is a type of free-standing furniture consisting of several frames or panels, which are often connected by hinges or by other means. They have practical and decorative uses, and can be made in a variety of designs with different kinds of materials. Folding screens originated from ancient China, eventually spreading to the rest of East Asia, and were popular amongst Europeans. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BCE).[1][2] These were initially one-panel screens in contrast to folding screens.[3] Folding screens were invented during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE).[4] Depictions of those folding screens have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province.[1] A folding screen was often decorated with beautiful art; major themes included mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen.[1][2] An example of such a thematic occurrence of the folding screen is in the classical novel Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin.[5] The folding screen was a recurring element in Tang literature.[6] The Tang poet Li He (790–816) wrote the Song of the Screen (屛風曲), describing a folding screen of a newly-wed couple.[6] The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins.[6] Folding screens were originally made from wooden panels and painted on lacquered surfaces, eventually folding screens made from paper or silk became popular too.[3] Even though folding screens were known to have been used since antiquity, it became rapidly popular during the Tang dynasty (618–907).[7] During the Tang dynasty, folding screens were considered ideal ornaments for many painters to display their paintings and calligraphy on.[2][3] Many artists painted on paper or silk and applied it onto the folding screen.[2] There were two distinct artistic folding screens mentioned in historical literature of the era. One of it was known as the huaping (Chinese: 畫屛; lit. painted folding screen) and the other was known as the shuping (Chinese: 書屛; lit. calligraphed folding screen).[3][7] It was not uncommon for people to commission folding screens from artists, such as from Tang-era painter Cao Ba or Song-era painter Guo Xi.[2] The landscape paintings on folding screens reached its height during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[1] The lacquer techniques for the Coromandel screens, which is known as kuancai (款彩 incised colors), emerged during the late Ming dynasty (1368-1644)[8] and was applied to folding screens to create dark screens incised, painted, and inlaid with art of mother-of-pearl, ivory, or other materials.[9] The byeongpung (Korean: 병풍; Folding screen) became significant during the period of Unified Silla (668–935).[10] The most common uses for byeongpung were as decoration, as room dividers, or to block wind caused by draft from the Ondol heated floors which were common across Korea.[11] Commonly depicted on Korean folding screens were paintings of landscapes as well as flowers and artistic renditions of calligraphy. Prominent byeongpung screens known as irworobongdo were important elements in the throne room of some Joseon kings, placed immediately behind the throne. Several examples of irworobongdo can be seen across palaces in Korea such as at Gyeongbok Palace, Changdeok Palace and Changgyeonggung.
Hiroshige Sekō.  Hiroshige Seko (世耕 弘成, Sekō Hiroshige; born 9 November 1962) is a Japanese politician serving as a Member of the House of Councillors since 1998. He previously served as Secretary-General of the Liberal Democratic Party in the  House of Councillors, and was the Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry from August 2016 to September 2019 under Shinzo Abe. As Minister, he played a crucial role for announcing the export restrictions against South Korea in 2019.  A native of Wakayama Prefecture, he graduated from Waseda University and received a masters degree in corporate communications from Boston University. On 4 April 2024, Seko resigned from the LDP after he was reprimanded along with 38 other party members for their involvement in the 2023–2024 Japanese slush fund scandal.[1] In the 2024 election, Seko ran as an independent candidate in the Wakayama 2nd district of the House of Representatives,[2] and defeated the LDP candidate Nobuyasu Nikai, son of former cabinet minister Toshihiro Nikai. Seko has been described as one of the core members of the Abe Faction of the LDP.[2] 
Albania.  Albania,[b] officially the Republic of Albania,[c] is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south. With an area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi), it has a varied range of climatic, geological, hydrological and morphological conditions. Albanias landscapes range from rugged snow-capped mountains in the Albanian Alps and the Korab, Skanderbeg, Pindus and Ceraunian Mountains, to fertile lowland plains extending from the Adriatic and Ionian seacoasts. Tirana is the capital and largest city in the country, followed by Durrës, Vlorë, and Shkodër. Albania was inhabited by several Illyrian tribes, among them the Ardiaei, Bylliones, Dassaretii, Enchele, and Taulantians, with the Chaonians settled in the southwest. Several colonies were founded by the Ancient Greeks along the Albanian coast, most notably Apollonia. The Illyrians were the dominant power in Albania before the rise of Macedon.[8] Following the Illyrian Wars, Albania was integrated into the Roman Empire and remained in the Byzantine Empire after its partition. During the Middle Ages, several Albanian principalities emerged, most notably the Principality of Arbanon, Kingdom of Albania, Principality of Albania and Albania Veneta. In the 15th century, Albania became a center of resistance against Ottoman expansion under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, whose military campaigns repelled Ottoman advances for over two decades. Although incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, Albania retained distinct cultural and social identities throughout four centuries of foreign rule, culminating in the Albanian Renaissance in the 19th century. Albania declared independence in 1912, followed by a turbulent 20th century marked by monarchy, foreign occupation during both World Wars, and a repressive communist regime under Enver Hoxha.[9] Since its independence in 1912, Albania has undergone diverse political evolution, transitioning from a monarchy to a communist regime before becoming a sovereign parliamentary constitutional republic. Governed by a constitution prioritising the separation of powers, the countrys political structure includes a parliament, a ceremonial president, a functional prime minister and a hierarchy of courts. Albania is a developing country with an upper-middle income economy driven by the service sector, with manufacturing and tourism, which attracted over 11 million visitors in 2024, also playing significant roles.[10] After the dissolution of its communist system the country shifted from centralised planning to an open market economy. Albanian citizens have universal health care access and free primary and secondary education. The country is an official candidate for membership in the European Union and has been negotiating accession since 2022. 
Albanian language.  Albanian (endonym: shqip [ʃcip] ⓘ, gjuha shqipe [ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ] ⓘ, or arbërisht [aɾbəˈɾiʃt]) is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch, which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan group.[9] It is the native language of the Albanian people. Standard Albanian is the official language of Albania and Kosovo, and a co-official language in North Macedonia and Montenegro, where it is the primary language of significant Albanian minority communities. Albanian is recognized as a minority language in Italy, Croatia, Romania, and Serbia. It is also spoken in Greece and by the Albanian diaspora, which is generally concentrated in the Americas, Europe and Oceania.[2][10] Albanian is estimated to have as many as 7.5 million native speakers.[1][2] Albanian and other Paleo-Balkan languages had their formative core in the Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region.[11][12] Albanian in antiquity is often thought to have been an Illyrian language for obvious geographic and historical reasons,[13][14][15][16][17][18] or otherwise an unmentioned Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and Messapic.[19][20][21][22] The Indo-European subfamily that gave rise to Albanian is called Albanoid in reference to a specific ethnolinguistically pertinent and historically compact language group.[23] Whether descendants or sisters of what was called Illyrian by classical sources, Albanian and Messapic, on the basis of shared features and innovations, are grouped together in a common branch in the current phylogenetic classification of the Indo-European language family.[24][19][23][21][22] The first written mention of Albanian was in 1284 in a witness testimony from the Republic of Ragusa, while a letter written by Dominican Friar Gulielmus Adea in 1332 mentions the Albanians using the Latin alphabet in their writings. The oldest surviving attestation of modern Albanian is from 1462.[25] The two main Albanian dialect groups (or varieties), Gheg and Tosk, are primarily distinguished by phonological differences and are mutually intelligible in their standard varieties,[26][27] with Gheg spoken to the north and Tosk spoken to the south of the Shkumbin river.[28] Their characteristics[29][30] in the treatment of both native words and loanwords provide evidence that the split into the northern and the southern dialects occurred after Christianisation of the region (4th century AD),[31][32] and most likely not later than the 6th century AD,[33][34][35] hence possibly occupying roughly their present area divided by the Shkumbin river since the Post-Roman and Pre-Slavic period, straddling the Jireček Line.[36][37] Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian dialects can be found scattered in Greece (the Arvanites and some communities in Epirus, Western Macedonia and Western Thrace),[38] Croatia (the Arbanasi), Italy (the Arbëreshë)[39] as well as in Romania, Turkey and Ukraine.[40] The Malsia e Madhe Gheg Albanian[41][42] and two varieties of the Tosk dialect, Arvanitika in Greece and Arbëresh in southern Italy, have preserved archaic elements of the language.[43] Ethnic Albanians constitute a large diaspora, with many having long assimilated in different cultures and communities. Consequently, Albanian-speakers do not correspond to the total ethnic Albanian population, as many ethnic Albanians may identify as Albanian but are unable to speak the language.[44][45][46]
Taxonomy (biology).  In biology, taxonomy (from Ancient Greek  τάξις (taxis) arrangement and  -νομία (-nomia) method) is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon), and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, having developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms.[1] As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy.[8][9] For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy:[6]
Hiroshige III. Utagawa Hiroshige III (三代目 歌川 広重, Sandaime Utagawa Hiroshige; 1842 or 1843 – March 28, 1894) was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist who was a student of Utagawa Hiroshige. He was also referred to as Andō Tokubei (安藤徳兵). Born Gotō Torakichi (後藤寅吉), he was given the artistic name Shigemasa. In 1867, after Hiroshige II, a fellow pupil of the original Hiroshige, divorced the masters daughter Otatsu, Gotō married her and initially took on the name Hiroshige II as well, but by 1869 he began calling himself Hiroshige III.[1] Hiroshige III worked in the same artistic style as his master, but did not achieve anywhere near the same level of success. From The most beautiful place in Tokyo (東京名所第一の勝景, Tōkyō meisho dai ichi no shōkei) This Japanese artist–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hiroshige II. Hiroshige II (二代目 歌川広重, Ni-daime Utagawa Hiroshige; 1826 – 17 September 1869) was a Japanese designer of ukiyo-e art.  He inherited the name Hiroshige II following the death in 1858 of his master Hiroshige, whose daughter he married.  In 1865 he moved from Edo to Yokohama after dissolving his marriage and began using the name Kisai Risshō (喜斎立祥; alternate pronunciation: Ryūshō).  His work so resembles that of his master that scholars have often confused them. Born Suzuki Chinpei (鈴木鎮平) in 1826, it is said that he was born to a fireman, as was his master Hiroshige to whom he became apprenticed under the name Shigenobu at an unknown age.  His earliest known work is the illustrations for a book called Twenty-four Paragons of Japan and China from 1849.[1] Hiroshige II produced a large number of commissioned work in the 1850s in the style of the elder Hiroshige, and often signed his work Ichiryūsai mon (student of Ichiryūsai, another art name of Hiroshige Is), and from c. 1853 to 1858 simply as Ichiryūsai.  In 1858, he married Hiroshige Is daughter Otatsu after the masters death and inherited the Hiroshige name, as well as the names Ichiryūsai and Ryūsai.[1] The artist moved from Edo to Yokohama in 1865 after dissolving his marriage and began using the name Kisai Risshō (喜斎立祥; alternate pronunciation: Ryūshō).  During this decade he produced a number of collaborative print series, particularly with Kunisada, who had earlier worked with Hiroshige I.  In his final years he turned mainly to decorating works intended for export, such as tea chests, kites, and lanterns.[1] On 17 September 1869 he died at the age of 44.[1] Hiroshige I took on few students; Hiroshige II was the most successful of these.  His works have often been confounded with those of his master, which they resemble closely in style, subject, and signature.  Early Western scholars did not even recognize him as a separate artist.[1]
Hiroshige Koyama. Hiroshige Koyama (1937–2016) was a Japanese botanist and specialist of Asteraceae.[1][2] Koyamacalia, a genus of East Asian plants in the groundsel tribe Senecioneae,[3][4] was named for Koyama. It is listed as a synonym of Parasenecio.[5]  This article about a botanist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hiroshige Yanagimoto. Hiroshige Yanagimoto (柳本 啓成, Yanagimoto Hiroshige; born October 15, 1972) is a former Japanese football player. He played for Japan national team. Yanagimoto was born in Higashiosaka on October 15, 1972. After graduating from high school, he joined Mazda (later Sanfrecce Hiroshima) in 1991. He played as regular player at right side-back. The club won the 2nd place at 1994 J1 League, 1995 and 1996 Emperors Cup. In 1999, he moved to his local club Gamba Osaka. He moved to rival team, Cerezo Osaka in 2003. The club won the 2nd place at 2003 Emperors Cup. He retired end of 2006 season. In January 1995, Yanagimoto was selected for the Japan national team for the 1995 King Fahd Cup. At this competition, on January 8, he debuted against Argentina. After debut, he became a regular player at right side-back. In 1996, he played in all matches included 1996 Asian Cup. However at 1998 World Cup qualification in March 1997, he got hurt and subsequently dropped from the national team. He had played 30 games for Japan until 1997.[1] [1] Yanagimoto married Japanese actress, Atsuko Okamoto, in July 2005, but divorced in July 2017.[2]
Animal.  Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms comprising the biological kingdom Animalia (/ˌænɪˈmeɪliə/[4]). With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Animals form a clade, meaning that they arose from a single common ancestor. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described, of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology, and the study of animal behaviour is known as ethology. The animal kingdom is divided into five major clades, namely Porifera, Ctenophora, Placozoa, Cnidaria and Bilateria. Most living animal species belong to the clade Bilateria, a highly proliferative clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric and significantly cephalised body plan, and the vast majority of bilaterians belong to two large clades: the protostomes, which includes organisms such as arthropods, molluscs, flatworms, annelids and nematodes; and the deuterostomes, which include echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates, the latter of which contains the vertebrates. The much smaller basal phylum Xenacoelomorpha have an uncertain position within Bilateria. Animals first appeared in the fossil record in the late Cryogenian period and diversified in the subsequent Ediacaran period in what is known as the Avalon explosion. Earlier evidence of animals is still controversial; the sponge-like organism Otavia has been dated back to the Tonian period at the start of the Neoproterozoic, but its identity as an animal is heavily contested.[5] Nearly all modern animal phyla first appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago (Mya), and most classes during the Ordovician radiation 485.4 Mya. Common to all living animals, 6,331 groups of genes have been identified that may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived about 650 Mya during the Cryogenian period. Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa.
Tenno, Trentino. Tenno (Tén in local dialect) is a comune (municipality) in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 30 kilometres (19 mi) southwest of Trento. Tenno borders the following municipalities: Comano Terme, Fiavè, Arco, Ledro and Riva del Garda. Its neighborhood of Canale is one of I Borghi più belli dItalia (The most beautiful villages of Italy).[3] Tenno contains the waterfalls of Cascate del Varone. Tenno hosts an yearly summer festival called Quarta dAgosto (Fourth of August) which is celebrated the fourth Sunday of August, in Cologna.  This Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Tennō, Akita. Tennō (天王町, Tennō-machi) was a town located in Minamiakita District, Akita Prefecture, Japan. In 2003, the town had an estimated population of 22,115 and a density of 532.76 persons per km2. The total area was 41.51 km2. On March 22, 2005, Tennō, along with the towns of Iitagawa and Shōwa (all from Minamiakita District), merged to create the city of Katagami.[1] This Akita Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Lepidoptera.  Aglossata Glossata Heterobathmiina Zeugloptera Lepidoptera (/ˌlɛpɪˈdɒptərə/ LEP-ih-DOP-tər-ə) or lepidopterans is an order of winged insects which includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organisms,[1][2] making it the second largest insect order (behind Coleoptera) with 126 families[3] and 46 superfamilies,[1] and one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world.[4] Lepidopteran species are characterized by more than three derived features. The most apparent is the presence of scales that cover the bodies, large triangular wings, and a proboscis for siphoning nectars. The scales are modified, flattened hairs, and give butterflies and moths their wide variety of colors and patterns. Almost all species have some form of membranous wings, except for a few that have reduced wings or are wingless. Mating and the laying of eggs is normally performed near or on host plants for the larvae. Like most other insects, butterflies and moths are holometabolous, meaning they undergo complete metamorphosis. The larvae are commonly called caterpillars, and are completely different from their adult moth or butterfly forms, having a cylindrical body with a well-developed head, mandible mouth parts, three pairs of thoracic legs and from none up to five pairs of prolegs. As they grow, these larvae change in appearance, going through a series of stages called instars. Once fully matured, the larva develops into a pupa. A few butterflies and many moth species spin a silk casing or cocoon for protection prior to pupating, while others do not, instead going underground.[4] A butterfly pupa, called a chrysalis, has a hard skin, usually with no cocoon. Once the pupa has completed its metamorphosis, a sexually mature adult emerges. Lepidopterans first appeared in fossil record in the Triassic-Jurassic boundary and have coevolved with flowering plants since the angiosperm boom in the Middle/Late Cretaceous. They show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution. Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought,[5] and is among the five most species-rich orders (each with over 100,000 species) along with Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps and sawflies) and Hemiptera (cicadas, aphids and other true bugs).[4] They have, over millions of years, evolved a wide range of wing patterns and coloration ranging from drab moths akin to the related order Trichoptera, to the brightly colored and complex-patterned butterflies.[3] Accordingly, this is the most recognized and popular of insect orders with many people involved in the observation, study, collection, rearing of, and commerce in these insects. A person who collects or studies this order is referred to as a lepidopterist.
Dark Sector.  Dark Sector, stylized as darkSector, is a 2008 third-person shooter video game developed by Digital Extremes for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows. The game is set in the fictional Eastern Bloc country of Lasria, and centers on protagonist Hayden Tenno (voiced by Michael Rosenbaum), a morally ambivalent CIA clean-up man.[2] While trying to intercept a rogue agent named Robert Mezner, Haydens right arm is infected with the fictional Technocyte virus, which gives him the ability to grow a three-pronged Glaive at will. Dark Sector received mixed reviews for its visual design, originality of action and weapon-based gameplay. Many critics have compared the game to Resident Evil 4 and Gears of War, for their similar style of play and story. Digital Extremes would revisit the setting elements and themes of Dark Sector in their later release, Warframe. Gameplay of Dark Sector revolves around the use of the Glaive, a tri-blade throwing weapon similar to a boomerang which returns to Hayden after each throw. The Glaive can be used for long-distance combat, solving environmental puzzles, and picking up in-game items. When in close proximity to an enemy, context-sensitive actions may appear, allowing the player to execute enemies with finishers. Enemies hold onto Hayden while attacking, and the player must rapidly press a randomly prompted button to break free.
Hydrology (disambiguation). Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets. Hydrology may also refer to:
Insect.  Insects (from Latin insectum) are hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and a pair of antennae. Insects are the most diverse group of animals, with more than a million described species; they represent more than half of all animal species. The insect nervous system consists of a brain and a ventral nerve cord. Most insects reproduce by laying eggs. Insects breathe air through a system of paired openings along their sides, connected to small tubes that take air directly to the tissues. The blood therefore does not carry oxygen; it is only partly contained in vessels, and some circulates in an open hemocoel. Insect vision is mainly through their compound eyes, with additional small ocelli. Many insects can hear, using tympanal organs, which may be on the legs or other parts of the body. Their sense of smell is via receptors, usually on the antennae and the mouthparts. Nearly all insects hatch from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton, so development involves a series of molts. The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit, and habitat. Groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis often have a nearly immobile pupa. Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupa, developing through a series of increasingly adult-like nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonfly-like insects with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in). The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants. Adult insects typically move about by walking and flying; some can swim. Insects are the only invertebrates that can achieve sustained powered flight; insect flight evolved just once. Many insects are at least partly aquatic, and have larvae with gills; in some species, the adults too are aquatic. Some species, such as water striders, can walk on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Others, such as earwigs, provide maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light.
-logy.  -logy is a suffix in the English language, used with words originally adapted from Ancient Greek ending in -λογία (-logía).[1] The earliest English examples were anglicizations of the French -logie, which was in turn inherited from the Latin -logia.[2] The suffix became productive in English from the 18th century, allowing the formation of new terms with no Latin or Greek precedent. The English suffix has two separate main senses, reflecting two sources of the -λογία suffix in Greek:[3] Philology is an exception: while its meaning is closer to the first sense, the etymology of the word is similar to the second sense.[8] In English names for fields of study, the suffix -logy is most frequently found preceded by the euphonic connective vowel o so that the word ends in -ology.[9] In these Greek words, the root is always a noun and -o- is the combining vowel for all declensions of Greek nouns. However, when new names for fields of study are coined in modern English, the formations ending in -logy almost always add an -o-, except when the root word ends in an l or a vowel, as in these exceptions:[10] analogy, dekalogy, disanalogy, genealogy, genethlialogy, hexalogy; herbalogy (a variant of herbology), mammalogy, mineralogy, paralogy, petralogy (a variant of petrology); elogy; heptalogy; antilogy, festilogy; trilogy, tetralogy, pentalogy; palillogy, pyroballogy; dyslogy; eulogy; and brachylogy.[7] Linguists sometimes jokingly refer to haplology as haplogy (subjecting the word haplology to the process of haplology itself).
Arthropod.  For fossil groups, see text Arthropods (/ˈɑːrθrəˌpɒd/ AR-thrə-pod)[3][4] are invertebrates in the phylum Arthropoda. They possess an exoskeleton with a cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate, a body with differentiated (metameric) segments, and paired jointed appendages. In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process by which they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. They form an extremely diverse group of up to ten million species. Haemolymph is the analogue of blood for most arthropods.  An arthropod has an open circulatory system, with a body cavity called a haemocoel through which haemolymph circulates to the interior organs. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. They have ladder-like nervous systems, with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong. Arthropods use combinations of compound eyes and pigment-pit ocelli for vision. In most species, the ocelli can only detect the direction from which light is coming, and the compound eyes are the main source of information; however, in spiders, the main eyes are ocelli that can form images and, in a few cases, can swivel to track prey. Arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many bristles known as setae that project through their cuticles. Similarly, their reproduction and development are varied; all terrestrial species use internal fertilization, but this is sometimes by indirect transfer of the sperm via an appendage or the ground, rather than by direct injection. Aquatic species use either internal or external fertilization. Almost all arthropods lay eggs, with many species giving birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother; but a few are genuinely viviparous, such as aphids. Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. The level of maternal care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by social insects.
Warframe.  Warframe is a free-to-play action role-playing third-person shooter multiplayer online game developed and published by Digital Extremes. First released for Windows in March 2013, it was later ported to PlayStation 4 in November 2013, Xbox One in September 2014, Nintendo Switch in November 2018, PlayStation 5 in November 2020, Xbox Series X/S in April 2021, and iOS in February 2024. Support for cross-platform play was released in 2022. Cross-platform save began in December 2023,[1] rolling out in waves to different groups of players before becoming fully available to all players in January 2024. A port for Android is in development.[2] In Warframe, players control members of the Tenno, a caste of ancient warriors who have awoken from centuries of suspended animation far into Earths future to find themselves at war with different factions in the Origin System. The Tenno use their powered Warframes, along with a variety of weapons and abilities, to complete missions. While many of the games missions use procedurally generated levels, it also includes large open world areas similar to other massively multiplayer online games, as well as some story-specific missions with fixed level design. The game includes elements of shooting and melee games, parkour, and role-playing to allow players to advance their Tenno with improved gear. The game features both player versus environment and player versus player elements. It is supported by microtransactions, allowing players to purchase in-game items with money, while also offering the option to earn them at no cost through grinding. The concept for Warframe originated in 2000 when Digital Extremes began work on a new game titled Dark Sector. At the time, the company had been successful in supporting other developers and publishers but wanted to develop its own game in-house. Dark Sector suffered several delays and was eventually released in 2008, incorporating some of the initial framework but differing significantly from the original plan. By 2012, in the wake of the success of free-to-play games, the developers took their earlier Dark Sector ideas and art assets and incorporated them into a new project, their self-published Warframe. Initially, the growth of Warframe was slow, hindered by moderate critical reviews and low player counts. However, since its release, the game has experienced significant growth. It is one of Digital Extremes most successful titles, reaching nearly 50 million registered players by 2019.[3]
Kuiper quadrangle. The Kuiper quadrangle, located in a heavily cratered region of Mercury, includes the young, 55-km-diameter crater Kuiper (11° S., 31.5° ), which has the highest albedo recorded on the planet,[1] and the small crater Hun Kal (0.6° S., 20.0° ), which is the principal reference point for Mercurian longitude (Davies and Batson, 1975). Impact craters and basins, their numerous secondary craters, and heavily to lightly cratered plains are the characteristic landforms of the region. At least six multiringed basins ranging from 150 km to 440 km in diameter are present. Inasmuch as multiringed basins occur widely on that part of Mercury photographed by Mariner 10, as well as on the Moon and Mars, they offer a potentially valuable basis for comparison between these planetary bodies. Beethoven quadrangle is to the west of Kuiper quadrangle, and Derain quadrangle is to the east.  Victoria quadrangle is to the north, and Discovery quadrangle is to the south. The MESSENGER spacecraft orbited Mercury from 2011 to 2015 and mapped the planet in its entirety at much higher resolution and in more wavelengths of light than Mariner 10.  It obtained topographic, reflectance, magnetic, gravitational, and other types of geophysical data from orbit in addition to the photography. Note that much of the following discussion is based on information from Mariner 10, and while it is broadly correct, certain details are incorrect due to the superior MESSENGER information. Basic information about the planetary surface of the Kuiper quadrangle is provided by three sequences of high-quality photographs designated Mercury I, II, and III, obtained during the incoming phases of three encounters of the Mariner 10 spacecraft with Mercury. Mercury I includes 75 whole-frame photographs of the Kuiper quadrangle; Mercury II, 13 whole-frame photographs; and Mercury III, 70 quarter-frame photographs. The photographs include 19 stereopairs in the southern part of the quadrangle.[2] The most distant of the photographs was taken at an altitude of 89,879 km, the closest at an altitude of 7,546 km. Resolution, therefore, varies widely but ranges from about 1.5 to 2.0 km over most of the area. A wide range (more than 50 deg) of both viewing and solar illumination angles precludes a high degree of mapping consistency. The easternmost 10° of the quadrangle is beyond the evening terminator. A low angle of solar illumination and a high viewing angle make possible discrimination of topographic detail near the terminator. Higher angles of solar illumination and lower viewing angles make it increasingly difficult to discern topographic variations to the west. Many geologic units cannot be specifically identified because of unfavourable viewing geometry west of approximately 55 deg. Thus, mapping reliability decreases westward.
Yakusha-e.  Yakusha-e (役者絵), often referred to as actor prints in English, are Japanese woodblock prints or, rarely, paintings, of kabuki actors, particularly those done in the ukiyo-e style popular through the Edo period (1603–1867) and into the beginnings of the 20th century. Most strictly, the term yakusha-e refers solely to portraits of individual artists (or sometimes pairs, as seen in this work by Sharaku). However, prints of kabuki scenes and of other elements of the world of the theater are very closely related, and were more often than not produced and sold alongside portraits. Ukiyo-e images were almost exclusively images of urban life; the vast majority that were not landscapes were devoted to depicting courtesans, sumo, or kabuki. Realistic detail, inscriptions, the availability of playbills from the period, and a number of other resources have allowed many prints to be analyzed and identified in great detail. Scholars have been able to identify the subjects of many prints down to not only the play, roles, and actors portrayed, but often the theater, year, month, and even day of the month. Over the course of the Edo period, as ukiyo-e as a whole developed and changed as a genre, yakusha-e went through a number of changes as well. Many prints, particularly earlier ones, depict actors generically, and very plainly, showing in a sense their true natures as actors merely playing at roles. Many other prints, meanwhile, take something of the opposite tack; they show kabuki actors and scenes very elaborately, intentionally obscuring the distinction between a play and the actual events it seeks to evoke.
Utagawa Kuniyoshi. Utagawa Kuniyoshi (Japanese: 歌川 国芳, [ɯtaɡawa kɯɲiꜜjoɕi]; 1 January 1798[1] – 14 April 1861) was one of the last great masters of the Japanese ukiyo-e style of woodblock prints and painting.[2] He was a member of the Utagawa school.[3] The range of Kuniyoshis subjects included many genres: landscapes, women, Kabuki actors, cats, and mythical animals.  He is known for depictions of the battles of legendary samurai heroes.[4] His artwork incorporated aspects of Western representation in landscape painting and caricature.[2] Kuniyoshi was born on 1 January 1798, the son of a silk-dyer, Yanagiya Kichiyemon,[5] originally named Yoshisaburō. Apparently he assisted his fathers business as a pattern designer, and some have suggested that this experience influenced his rich use of color and textile patterns in prints. It is said that Kuniyoshi was impressed, at an early age of seven or eight, by ukiyo-e warrior prints, and by pictures of artisans and commoners (as depicted in craftsmen manuals), and it is possible these influenced his own later prints. Yoshisaburō proved his drawing talents at age 12, quickly attracting the attention of the famous ukiyo-e print master Utagawa Toyokuni.[3] He was officially admitted to Toyokunis studio in 1811, and became one of his chief pupils. He remained an apprentice until 1814, at which time he was given the name Kuniyoshi and set out as an independent artist. During this year he produced his first published work, the illustrations for the kusazōshi gōkan Gobuji Chūshingura, a parody of the original Chūshingura story. Between 1815 and 1817 he created a number of book illustrations for yomihon, kokkeibon, gōkan and hanashibon, and printed his stand-alone full color prints of warriors and kabuki actors. Despite his promising debut, the young Kuniyoshi failed to produce many works between 1818 and 1827, probably due to a lack of commissions from publishers, and the competition of other artists within the Utagawa school (Utagawa-ryū).[3] However, during this time he did produce pictures of beautiful women (bijin-ga) and experimented with large textile patterns and light-and-shadow effects found in Western art, although his attempts showed more imitation than real understanding of these principles.
Ancient Greek.   Ancient Greek (Ἑλληνῐκή, Hellēnikḗ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː])[1] includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (c. 1400–1200 BC), Dark Ages (c. 1200–800 BC), the Archaic or Homeric period (c. 800–500 BC), and the Classical period (c. 500–300 BC).[2] Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BC), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek, which is regarded as a separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek, and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek, and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense – being an ancient rather than medieval form of Greek, though over the centuries increasingly resembling Medieval and Modern Greek.
Water cycle.  The water cycle (or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth across different reservoirs. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time.[2] However, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. The processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global evaporation.[3] The water cycle is driven by energy exchanges in the form of heat transfers between different phases. The energy released or absorbed during a phase change can result in temperature changes.[4] Heat is absorbed as water transitions from the liquid to the vapor phase through evaporation. This heat is also known as the latent heat of vaporization.[5] Conversely, when water condenses or melts from solid ice it releases energy and heat. On a global scale, water plays a critical role in transferring heat from the tropics to the poles via ocean circulation.[6] The evaporative phase of the cycle also acts as a purification process by separating water molecules from salts and other particles that are present in its liquid phase.[7] The condensation phase in the atmosphere replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water transports minerals across the globe. It also reshapes the geological features of the Earth, through processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet. Human actions are greatly affecting the water cycle. Activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and the extraction of groundwater are altering natural landscapes (land use changes) all have an effect on the water cycle.[8]: 1153  On top of this, climate change is leading to an intensification of the water cycle. Research has shown that global warming is causing shifts in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall.[9]: 85  These water cycle changes affect ecosystems, water availability, agriculture, and human societies.
Utagawa Kunisada II.  Utagawa Kunisada II (歌川国貞, 1823 – 20 July 1880) was a Japanese ukiyo-e print designer, one of three to take the name Utagawa Kunisada.  He headed the Utagawa school.[1] Little is known of Kunisada IIs early life.  A pupil of Utagawa Kunisada I, he signed much of his early work Kunimasa III.  His earliest known prints date to 1844.  Kunisada I adopted him in 1846 after he married the masters daughter Osuzu.  He took the name Kunisada II c. 1850–51, about the time he inherited the house of Kunisada I.  He changed his name once more following his masters death, to Toyokuni III. However, since there were three artists called Toyokuni before him, Kunisada II is now often known as Toyokuni IV.[1] Kunisada II worked in the style of his master, but never achieved the same level of success.  His prints include over 40 series, mostly of actors (yakusha-e), as well portraits of beauties, illustrations of scenes from literature, erotica, and other subjects.  He illustrated nearly 200 books.[1] One of his most celebrated actor series, The Tale of the Eight Dog Heroes (Hakkendun inu no sōshi no uchi), dating from 1852, is drawn from Kyokutei Bakins epic novel, The Satomi Clan and the Eight Dogs (Nansō Satomi hakkenden), written from 1814 to 1842 and published in 106 volumes.[1] Kunisada IIs productivity waned in the Meiji period (1868–1912), and he appears to have stopped making prints after 1874.  He died on 20 July 1880 and was buried at Banshōin Kōunji.  His Buddhist posthumous name is Sankōin Hōkokujutei Shinji.  Students of his include Kunisada III (1848–1920).[1]
Greenland.  in the Kingdom of Denmark (light green) Greenland[d] is an autonomous territory[e] in the Kingdom of Denmark.[14][15] It is by far the largest geographically of three constituent parts of the kingdom; the other two are metropolitan Denmark and the Faroe Islands. It shares a small 1.2 km border with Canada on Hans Island. Citizens of Greenland are full citizens of Denmark and of the European Union. Greenland is one of the Overseas Countries and Territories of the European Union and is part of the Council of Europe.[16] It is the worlds largest island,[f] and lies between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenlands Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast, is the worlds northernmost undisputed point of land[g]—Cape Morris Jesup on the mainland was thought to be so until the 1960s. The capital and largest city is Nuuk.[16] Economically, Greenland is heavily reliant on aid from Denmark, amounting to nearly half of the territorys total public revenue. Though a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with the European kingdoms of Norway and Denmark for more than a millennium, beginning in 986.[18] Greenland has been inhabited at intervals over at least the last 4,500 years by circumpolar peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada.[19][20] Norsemen from Norway settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century (having previously settled Iceland), and their descendants lived in Greenland for 400 years until disappearing in the late 15th century. The 13th century saw the arrival of Inuit. From the late 15th century, the Portuguese attempted to find the northern route to Asia, which ultimately led to the earliest cartographic depiction of its coastline. In the 17th century, Dano-Norwegian explorers reached Greenland again, finding their earlier settlement extinct and reestablishing a permanent Scandinavian presence on the island. When Denmark and Norway separated in 1814, Greenland was transferred from the Norwegian to the Danish crown. The 1953 Constitution of Denmark ended Greenlands status as a colony, integrating it fully into the Danish state. In the 1979 Greenlandic home rule referendum, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland. In the 2008 Greenlandic self-government referendum, Greenlanders voted for the Self-Government Act, which transferred more power from the Danish government to the local Naalakkersuisut (Greenlandic government).[21] Under this structure, Greenland gradually assumed responsibility for a number of governmental services and areas of competence. The Danish government retains control of citizenship, monetary policy, security policies, and foreign affairs. With the melting of the ice due to global warming, its abundance of mineral wealth, and its strategic position between Eurasia, North America and the Arctic zone, Greenland holds strategic importance for the Kingdom of Denmark, NATO, and the EU.
Emperor of Japan.   Naruhito  Fumihito
MESSENGER.  MESSENGER was a NASA robotic space probe that orbited the planet Mercury between 2011 and 2015, studying Mercurys chemical composition, geology, and magnetic field.[9][10]  The name is a backronym for Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging, and a reference to the messenger god Mercury from Roman mythology. MESSENGER was launched aboard a Delta II rocket in August 2004.  Its path involved a complex series of flybys – the spacecraft flew by Earth once, Venus twice, and Mercury itself three times, allowing it to decelerate relative to Mercury using minimal fuel. During its first flyby of Mercury in January 2008, MESSENGER became the second mission, after Mariner 10 in 1975, to reach Mercury.[11][12][13] MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury on March 18, 2011, becoming the first spacecraft to do so.[9] It successfully completed its primary mission in 2012.[2] Following two mission extensions, the spacecraft used the last of its maneuvering propellant to deorbit, impacting the surface of Mercury on April 30, 2015.[14] MESSENGERs formal data collection mission began on April 4, 2011.[15] The primary mission was completed on March 17, 2012, having collected close to 100,000 images.[16] MESSENGER achieved 100% mapping of Mercury on March 6, 2013, and completed its first year-long extended mission on March 17, 2013.[2] The probes second extended mission lasted for over two years, but as its low orbit degraded, it required reboosts to avoid impact. It conducted its final reboost burns on October 24, 2014, and January 21, 2015, before crashing into Mercury on April 30, 2015.[17][18][19]
Hiroshige.  Utagawa Hiroshige[a] (歌川 広重) or Andō Hiroshige[b] (安藤 広重), born Andō Tokutarō (安藤 徳太郎; 1797 – 12 October 1858), was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist, considered the last great master of that tradition. Hiroshige is best known for his horizontal-format landscape series The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō and for his vertical-format landscape series One Hundred Famous Views of Edo.  The subjects of his work were atypical of the ukiyo-e genre, whose typical focus was on beautiful women, popular actors, and other scenes of the urban pleasure districts of Japans Edo period (1603–1868).  The popular series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji by Hokusai was a strong influence on Hiroshiges choice of subject, though Hiroshiges approach was more poetic and ambient than Hokusais bolder, more formal prints. Subtle use of color was essential in Hiroshiges prints, often printed with multiple impressions in the same area and with extensive use of bokashi (color gradation), both of which were rather labor-intensive techniques. For scholars and collectors, Hiroshiges death marked the beginning of a rapid decline in the ukiyo-e genre, especially in the face of the westernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Hiroshiges work came to have a marked influence on western European painting towards the close of the 19th century as a part of the trend in Japonism. Western European artists, such as Manet and Monet, collected and closely studied Hiroshiges compositions: Vincent van Gogh, for instance, painted copies of some Hiroshige prints. Hiroshige was born in 1797 in the Yayosu Quay section of the Yaesu area in Edo (modern Tokyo).[4]  He was of a samurai background,[4] and is the great-grandson of Tanaka Tokuemon, who held a position of power under the Tsugaru clan in the northern province of Mutsu.  Hiroshiges grandfather, Mitsuemon, was an archery instructor who worked under the name Sairyūken.  Hiroshiges father, Genemon, was adopted into the family of Andō Jūemon, whom he succeeded as fire warden for the Yayosu Quay area.[4]
Fine Wind, Clear Morning. Fine Wind, Clear Morning (Japanese: 凱風快晴, Hepburn: Gaifū kaisei; literally South Wind, Clear Sky)[a], also known as Red Fuji (赤富士, Akafuji),[3] is a woodblock print by Japanese artist Hokusai (1760–1849), part of his Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji series, dating from c. 1830 to 1832.[4] The work has been described as one of the simplest and at the same time one of the most outstanding of all Japanese prints.[4] In early autumn when, as the title describes, the wind is southerly and the sky is clear, the rising sun can turn Mount Fuji red. Hokusai captures this moment with compositional abstraction but meteorological specificity, especially when compared to the rest of the series. The three shades of deepening blue of the sky mirror the three hues of the mountain. The lingering remnants of snow at the peak of the mountain and dark shadows encompassing the forest at its base place it very precisely in time.[5] Mount Fujis solidly symmetrical shape on the right half of the image is balanced by the delicate clouds to the left, for a striking composition. There is however no specific location name unlike his other works, so the location from where the view was taken is a mystery. The earliest impressions appear faded when compared to the versions usually seen, but are closer to Hokusais original conception. They are known as Pink Fuji prints and are very rare. The early prints have a deliberately uneven blue sky, which increases the skys brightness and gives movement to the clouds. The peak is brought forward with a halo of Prussian blue. Subsequent prints have a strong, even blue tone, and the printer added a new block, overprinting the white clouds on the horizon with light blue. Later prints also typically employ a strong benigara (Bengal red) pigment, which has given the painting its common name of Red Fuji. The green block color was re-cut, lowering the meeting point between forest and mountain slope.[6][7] An alternative impression of the print was made with a completely different color-scheme. In this version, the clouds are only just visible in the upper portion. The sky is mostly rendered in a flat pale blue with a thin strip of grey at the top, and a graduated strip of Prussian blue along the horizon which extends up the slope of the mountain.[4]
Emperor Kinmei. Emperor Kinmei (欽明天皇, Kinmei-tennō; 509–571) was the 29th emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2][3] His reign is said to have spanned the years from 539 to 571. Most historians support either the view that Kinmei is the first historically verifiable Japanese emperor or the view that Yuryaku (the 21st) is.[4][3][5] Kinmeis contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning the great king who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Kinmei might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the Great King of Yamato. Because of several chronological discrepancies in the account of Emperor Kinmei in the Nihon Shoki, some believe that he was actually ruling a rival court to that of Emperors Ankan and Senka. Nevertheless, according to the traditional account, it was not until the death of Emperor Kinmeis older brother Emperor Senka that he gained the throne. According to this account, Emperor Senka died in 539 at the age of 73;[6] and succession passed to the third son of Emperor Keitai. This Imperial Prince was the next youngest brother of Emperor Senka. He would come to be known as Emperor Kinmei. He established his court at Shikishima no Kanazashi Palace (磯城嶋金刺宮) in Yamato.[7] The Emperors chief counselors were:
Nihon Shoki.  The Nihon Shoki (日本書紀) or Nihongi (日本紀), sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan. The Nihon Shoki was finished in 720 under the editorial supervision of Prince Toneri with the assistance of Ō no Yasumaro and presented to Empress Genshō.[1] The book is also a reflection of Chinese influence on Japanese civilization.[2] In Japan, the Sinicized court wanted written history that could be compared with the annals of the Chinese.[2] The Nihon Shoki begins with the Japanese creation myth, explaining the origin of the world and the first seven generations of divine beings (starting with Kuninotokotachi), and goes on with a number of myths as does the Kojiki, but continues its account through to events of the 8th century. It is believed to record accurately the latter reigns of Emperor Tenji, Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. The Nihon Shoki focuses on the merits of the virtuous rulers as well as the errors of the bad rulers. It describes episodes from mythological eras and diplomatic contacts with other countries. The Nihon Shoki was written in classical Chinese, as was common for official documents at that time. The Kojiki, on the other hand, is written in a combination of Chinese and phonetic transcription of Japanese (primarily for names and songs). The Nihon Shoki also contains numerous transliteration notes telling the reader how words were pronounced in Japanese. Collectively, the stories in this book and the Kojiki are referred to as the Kiki stories.[3] The tale of Urashima Tarō is developed from the brief mention in Nihon Shoki (Emperor Yūryaku Year 22) that a certain child of Urashima visited Horaisan and saw wonders. The later tale has plainly incorporated elements from the famous anecdote of Luck of the Sea and Luck of the Mountains (Hoderi and Hoori) found in Nihon Shoki. The later developed Urashima tale contains the Rip Van Winkle motif, so some may consider it an early example of fictional time travel.[4] The first translation was completed by William George Aston in 1896 (English).[5]
Hokusai (crater). Hokusai is a rayed impact crater on Mercury, which was discovered in 1991 by ground-based radar observations conducted at Goldstone Observatory.[2] The crater was initially known as feature B. Its appearance was so dissimilar to other impact craters that it was once thought to be a shield volcano. However, improved radar images by the Arecibo Observatory obtained later in 2000–2005 clearly showed that feature B is an impact crater with an extensive ray system. The bright appearance of rays in the radio images indicates that the crater is geologically young; fresh impact ejecta has a rough surface, which leads to strong scattering of radio waves.[2] Hokusai is named after Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849), a Japanese artist and printmaker of the Edo period.[3][1] The name Hokusai was suggested by radar astronomer John K. Harmon.[4] The crater has a diameter of about 100 km; the rays extend for thousands kilometers, covering much of the northern hemisphere.[5] Hokusai is the fourth-largest crater of the Kuiperian system on Mercury. The largest is Bartók crater.[6]  Hokusai is one of 110 peak ring basins on Mercury.[7]  
Corcyra (disambiguation). Corcyra is Latin for Corfu, a Greek island in the Ionian Sea. Corcyra or Korkyra may also refer to:
Anno Domini.  The terms Anno Domini (AD) and before Christ (BC) are used when designating years in the Gregorian and Julian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means in the year of the Lord[1] but is often presented using our Lord instead of the Lord,[2][3] taken from the full original phrase anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi, which translates to in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ. The form BC is specific to English, and equivalent abbreviations are used in other languages: the Latin form, rarely used in English, is ante Christum natum (ACN) or ante Christum (AC). This calendar era takes as its epoch the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus. Years AD are counted forward since that epoch and years BC are counted backward from the epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme; thus the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by  the Eastern Roman monk Dionysius Exiguus but was not widely used until the 9th century.[4][5] Modern scholars believe that the actual date of birth of Jesus was about 5 BC.[6][7][8][9] Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 do not use words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years (but not for BC years since the astronomical year 0 is 1 BC). Traditionally, English follows Latin usage by placing the AD abbreviation before the year number, though it is also found after the year.[10] In contrast, BC is always placed after the year number (for example: 70 BC but AD 70), which preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation AD is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in fourth century AD or second millennium AD (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions).[11] Since BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death (i.e., after the death of Jesus), which would mean that the approximately 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would be included in neither the BC nor the AD time scales.[12]
Ionian Islands (region). The Ionian Islands Region (/aɪˈoʊniən/ eye-OH-nee-ən; Greek: Περιφέρεια Ιονίων Νήσων, romanized: Periféria Ioníon Níson, [periˈferia ioˈnion ˈnison]) is the smallest by area of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece located in the Ionian Sea. It comprises all the Ionian Islands except Kythera, which, although historically part of the island group, was separated and integrated to the Attica Region. The population of the Ionian Islands in 2011 was 207,855, decreased by 1.5% compared to the population in 2001.[4] Nevertheless, the region remains the third by population density with 90.1/km2 nationwide, well above the national of 81.96/km2. The most populous of the major islands is Corfu with a population of 104,371, followed by Zante (40,759), Cephalonia (35,801), Leucas (23,693) and Ithaca (3,231). In 2001, the foreign-born population was 19,360 or 9.3%, the majority of which was concentrated in Corfu and Zante. Most of them originate from Albania (13,536). The fertility rate for 2011 according to Eurostat was 1.35 live births per woman.[5] The regional gross domestic product for 2010 was 4,029 million euros. The GDP per capita for the same year was 18,440 euros per capita which was lower than the national median of 20,481. However, the GDP per capita of Cephalonia and Zante, 23,275 and 24,616 respectively, was much higher than the national figure.[6] Additionally, unemployment for 2012 was 14.7, the lowest among all Greek regions, and much lower compared to the national unemployment of 24.2.[7] The region is a popular tourist destination. The airports of Corfu, Zante and Cephalonia were in the top ten in Greece by number of international arrivals, with 1,386,289 international arrivals for 2012, with Corfu being the sixth airport by number of arrivals nationwide, while Zante and Cephalonia also being in the top ten. Cephalonia Airport had the biggest increase nationwide by 13.11% compared to 2011, while Corfu had an increase of 6.31%.[8][9] The region was established in the 1987 administrative reform, comprising the prefectures of Corfu, Kefalonia and Ithaca, Lefkada and Zakynthos.
Literal translation.  Literal translation, direct translation, or word-for-word translation, or word-by-word translation, or word-to-word translation is the translation of a text done by translating each word separately without analysing how the words are used together in a phrase or sentence.[1][2] In translation theory, another term for literal translation is metaphrase (as opposed to paraphrase for an analogous translation). It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter).[3] Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms, which can be a serious problem for machine translation.[4] The term literal translation often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts.[5]
Edo. Edo (Japanese: 江戸, lit. bay-entrance or estuary), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo.[2] Edo, formerly a jōkamachi (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the de facto capital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate. Edo grew to become one of the largest cities in the world under the Tokugawa. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government renamed Edo to Tokyo (東京, Eastern Capital) and relocated the Emperor from the historic capital of Kyoto to the city. The era of Tokugawa rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868 is known as the Edo period. Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area. That name for the area first appears in the Azuma Kagami chronicles, which have probably been used since the second half of the Heian period. Edos development started in the late 11th century with a branch of the Kanmu-Taira clan (桓武平氏) called the Chichibu clan (秩父氏) coming from the banks of the then-Iruma River, present-day upstream of the Arakawa river. A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name Edo Shigetsugu (江戸重継), likely based on the name used for the place, and founded the Edo clan. Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the edge of the Musashino Terrace, that would become Edo castle. Shigetsugus son, Edo Shigenaga (江戸重長), took the Tairas side against Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became a gokenin for the Kamakura shogunate. At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of the Southern Court, and its influence declined during the Muromachi period. In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of the Uesugi clan started to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the name Ōta Dōkan. Dōkan lived in the castle until his assassination in 1486. Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, Odawara and other parts of Kanto and the country, Edo expanded as a jōkamachi, with the castle bordering a cove (now Hibiya Park) opening into Edo Bay, and the town developing along the Hirakawa River running into the cove, and on Edomaeto (江戸前島), the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (now roughly where Tokyo Station is). Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after the Ōnin War came to Edo during that period.
Impact crater.  An impact crater is a depression in the surface of a solid astronomical body formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller object. In contrast to volcanic craters, which result from explosion or internal collapse,[2] impact craters typically have raised rims and floors that are lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain.[3] Impact craters are typically circular, though they can be elliptical in shape or even irregular due to events such as landslides. Impact craters range in size from microscopic craters seen on lunar rocks returned by the Apollo Program[4] to  simple bowl-shaped depressions and vast, complex, multi-ringed impact basins. Meteor Crater is a well-known example of a small impact crater on Earth.[5] Impact craters are the dominant geographic features on many solid Solar System objects including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede, and most small moons and asteroids. On other planets and moons that experience more active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Europa, Io, Titan, and Triton, visible impact craters are less common because they become eroded, buried, or transformed by tectonic and volcanic processes over time. Where such processes have destroyed most of the original crater topography, the terms impact structure or astrobleme are more commonly used. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth.[6] The cratering records of very old surfaces, such as Mercury, the Moon, and the southern highlands of Mars, record a period of intense early bombardment in the inner Solar System around 3.9 billion years ago. The rate of crater production on Earth has since been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless. Earth experiences, on average, from one to three impacts large enough to produce a 20-kilometre-diameter (12 mi) crater every million years.[7][8] This indicates that there should be far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far. The cratering rate in the inner solar system fluctuates as a consequence of collisions in the asteroid belt that create a family of fragments that are often sent cascading into the inner solar system.[9] Formed in a collision 80 million years ago, the Baptistina family of asteroids is thought to have caused a large spike in the impact rate. The rate of impact cratering in the outer Solar System could be different from the inner Solar System.[10] Although Earths active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about 190 terrestrial impact craters have been identified.[11] These range in diameter from a few tens of meters up to about 300 km (190 mi), and they range in age from recent times (e.g. the Sikhote-Alin craters in Russia whose creation was witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years, though most are less than 500 million years old because geological processes tend to obliterate older craters. They are also selectively found in the stable interior regions of continents.[12] Few undersea craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying the sea floor, the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom, and the subduction of the ocean floor into Earths interior by processes of plate tectonics.
Corfu (disambiguation). Corfu (Greek: Κέρκυρα, Kerkyra) is a major island in Greece. Corfu, Kerkyra, Korkyra or Corcyra may also refer to:
Great Wave (disambiguation). The Great Wave usually refers to The Great Wave off Kanagawa (神奈川沖浪裏), a 19th-Century Japanese woodblock print by Hokusai. Great Wave or The Great Wave may also refer to:
Mercury (planet).  Mercury is the first planet from the Sun and the smallest in the Solar System. It is a rocky planet with a trace atmosphere and a surface gravity slightly higher than that of Mars. The surface of Mercury is similar to Earths Moon, being heavily cratered, with an expansive rupes system generated from thrust faults, and bright ray systems, formed by ejecta. Its largest crater, Caloris Planitia, has a diameter of 1,550 km (960 mi), which is about one-third the diameter of the planet (4,880 km or 3,030 mi).  Being the most inferior orbiting planet, it always appears close to the sun in Earths sky, either as a morning star or an evening star.” It is also the planet with the highest delta-v needed to travel to and from all other planets of the Solar System. Mercurys sidereal year (88.0 Earth days) and sidereal day (58.65 Earth days) are in a 3:2 ratio, in a spin–orbit resonance. Consequently, one solar day (sunrise to sunrise) on Mercury lasts for around 176 Earth days: twice the planets sidereal year. This means that one side of Mercury will remain in sunlight for one Mercurian year of 88 Earth days; while during the next orbit, that side will be in darkness all the time until the next sunrise after another 88 Earth days. Above the planets surface is an extremely tenuous exosphere and a faint magnetic field that is strong enough to deflect solar winds. Combined with its high orbital eccentricity, the planets surface has widely varying sunlight intensity and temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C (−270 °F) at night to 420 °C (790 °F) during sunlight. Due to its very small axial tilt, the planets poles are permanently shadowed. This strongly suggests that water ice could be present in the craters. Like the other planets in the Solar System, Mercury formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. There are many competing hypotheses about Mercurys origins and development, some of which incorporate collision with planetesimals and rock vaporization; as of the early 2020s, many broad details of Mercurys geological history are still under investigation or pending data from space probes. Its mantle is highly homogeneous, which suggests that Mercury had a magma ocean early in its history, like the Moon. According to current models, Mercury may have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlaying a solid outer core, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. Mercury is expected to be destroyed, along with Venus, and possibly the Earth and the Moon, when the Sun becomes a Red Giant in approximately seven or eight billion years[20]. Mercury is a classical planet that has been observed and recognized throughout history as a planet (or wandering star). In English, it is named after the ancient Roman god Mercurius (Mercury), god of commerce and communication, and the messenger of the gods. The first successful flyby of Mercury was conducted by Mariner 10 in 1974, and it has since been visited and explored by the MESSENGER and BepiColombo orbiters.
Regions of Greece. The regions of Greece (Greek: περιφέρειες, romanized: periféreies) are the countrys thirteen second-level administrative entities, counting decentralized administrations of Greece as first-level. Regions are divided into regional units, known as prefectures until 2011. The current regions were established in July 1986 (the presidential decree officially establishing them was signed in 1987), by decision of the interior minister, Menios Koutsogiorgas, as second-level administrative entities, complementing the prefectures (Law 1622/1986).[1] Before 1986, there was a traditional division into broad historical–geographical regions (γεωγραφικά διαμερίσματα), which, however, was often arbitrary; not all of the pre-1986 traditional historical-geographic regions had official administrative bodies. Although the post-1986 regions were mostly based on the earlier divisions, they are usually smaller and, in a few cases, do not overlap with the traditional definitions: for instance, the region of Western Greece, which had no previous analogue, comprises territory belonging to the Peloponnese peninsula and the traditional region of Central Greece. As part of a decentralization process inspired by Interior Minister Alekos Papadopoulos, they were accorded more powers in the 1997 Kapodistrias reform of local and regional government. They were transformed into fully separate entities by the 2010 Kallikratis Plan (Law 3852/2010), which entered into effect on 1 January 2011. In the 2011 changes, the government-appointed general secretary (γενικός γραμματέας) was replaced with a popularly elected regional governor (περιφερειάρχης) and a regional council (περιφερειακό συμβούλιο) with five-year terms. Many powers of the prefectures, which were also abolished or reformed into regional units, were transferred to the region level. The regional organs of the central government were in turn replaced by seven decentralized administrations, which group from one to three regions under a government-appointed general secretary.  Bordering the region of Central Macedonia there is one autonomous region, Mount Athos (Agion Oros, or Holy Mountain), an autonomous monastic community under Greek sovereignty. It is located on the easternmost of the three large peninsulas jutting into the Aegean from the Chalkidiki peninsula.
Scotland.  – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the United Kingdom (green) Scotland[e] is  a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdoms land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjacent islands, principally in the archipelagos of the Hebrides and the Northern Isles. In 2022, the countrys population was about 5.4 million.[10] Its capital city is Edinburgh, whilst Glasgow is the largest city and the most populous of the cities of Scotland. To the south-east, Scotland has its only land border, which is 96 miles (154 km) long and shared with England; the country is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, the North Sea to the north-east and east, and the Irish Sea to the south. The legislature, the Scottish Parliament, elects 129 MSPs to represent 73 constituencies across the country.[11] The Scottish Government is the executive arm of the devolved government, headed by the first minister who chairs the cabinet and responsible for government policy and international engagement.[12][13] The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the 9th century. In 1603, James VI succeeded to the thrones of England and Ireland, forming a personal union of the three kingdoms. On 1 May 1707, Scotland and England combined to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain,[14][15] with the Parliament of Scotland subsumed into the Parliament of Great Britain. In 1999, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, and has devolved authority over many areas of domestic policy.[16] The country has its own distinct legal system, education system and religious history, which have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity.[17] Scottish English and Scots are the most widely spoken languages in the country, existing on a dialect continuum with each other.[18] Scottish Gaelic speakers can be found all over Scotland, but the language is largely spoken natively by communities within the Hebrides;[19] Gaelic speakers now constitute less than 2% of the total population, though state-sponsored revitalisation attempts have led to a growing community of second language speakers.[20] The mainland of Scotland is broadly divided into three regions: the Highlands, a mountainous region in the north and north-west; the Lowlands, a flatter plain across the centre of the country; and the Southern Uplands, a hilly region along the southern border. The Highlands are the most mountainous region of the British Isles and contain its highest peak, Ben Nevis, at 4,413 feet (1,345 m).[10] The region also contains many lakes, called lochs; the term is also applied to the many saltwater inlets along the countrys deeply indented western coastline. The geography of the many islands is varied. Some, such as Mull and Skye, are noted for their mountainous terrain, while the likes of Tiree and Coll are much flatter.
Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji.  Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (Japanese: 富嶽三十六景, Hepburn: Fugaku Sanjūrokkei) is a series of landscape prints by the Japanese ukiyo-e artist Hokusai (1760–1849). The series depicts Mount Fuji from different locations and in various seasons and weather conditions. The immediate success of the publication led to another ten prints being added to the series. The series was produced from c. 1830 to 1832, when Hokusai was in his seventies and at the height of his career, and published  by Nishimura Yohachi.[1][2] Among the prints are three of Hokusais most famous: The Great Wave off Kanagawa, Fine Wind, Clear Morning, and Thunderstorm Beneath the Summit.[1] The lesser-known Kajikazawa in Kai Province is also considered one of the series best works.[3] The Thirty-six Views has been described as the artists indisputable colour-print masterpiece.[2] Mount Fuji is a popular subject for Japanese art due to its cultural and religious significance. This belief can be traced to The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, where a goddess deposits the elixir of life on the peak. As the historian Henry Smith[4] explains, Thus from an early time, Mt. Fuji was seen as the source of the secret of immortality, a tradition that was at the heart of Hokusais own obsession with the mountain.[5] Each image was made through a process whereby Hokusais drawing on paper was glued to a woodblock to guide the carving. The original design is therefore lost in the process. The block was then covered with ink and applied to paper to create the image (see Woodblock printing in Japan for further details). The complexity of Hokusais images includes the wide range of colors he used, which required the use of a separate block for each color appearing in the image.
History of Japan.  The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to the Paleolithic, around 38–39,000 years ago.[1] The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inventions were introduced from Asia. During this period, the first known written reference to Japan was recorded in the Chinese Book of Han in the first century AD. Around the 3rd century BC, the Yayoi people from the continent immigrated to the Japanese archipelago and introduced iron technology and agricultural civilization.[2] Because they had an agricultural civilization, the population of the Yayoi began to grow rapidly and ultimately overwhelmed the Jōmon people, natives of the Japanese archipelago who were hunter-gatherers.[3] Between the 4th and 9th centuries, Japans many kingdoms and tribes were gradually unified under a centralized government, nominally controlled by the Emperor of Japan. The imperial dynasty established at this time continues to this day, albeit in an almost entirely ceremonial role. In 794, a new imperial capital was established at Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), marking the beginning of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered a golden age of classical Japanese culture. Japanese religious life from this time and onwards was a mix of native Shinto practices and Buddhism. Over the following centuries, the power of the imperial house decreased, passing first to great clans of civilian aristocrats — most notably the Fujiwara — and then to the military clans and their armies of samurai. The Minamoto clan under Minamoto no Yoritomo emerged victorious from the Genpei War of 1180–85, defeating their rival military clan, the Taira. After seizing power, Yoritomo set up his capital in Kamakura and took the title of shōgun. In 1274 and 1281, the Kamakura shogunate withstood two Mongol invasions, but in 1333 it was toppled by a rival claimant to the shogunate, ushering in the Muromachi period. During this period, regional warlords called daimyō grew in power at the expense of the shōgun. Eventually, Japan descended into a period of civil war. Over the course of the late 16th century, Japan was reunified under the leadership of the prominent daimyō Oda Nobunaga and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After Toyotomis death in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu came to power and was appointed shōgun by the emperor. The Tokugawa shogunate, which governed from Edo (modern Tokyo), presided over a prosperous and peaceful era known as the Edo period (1600–1868). The Tokugawa shogunate imposed a strict class system on Japanese society and cut off almost all contact with the outside world. Portugal and Japan came into contact in 1543, when the Portuguese became the first Europeans to reach Japan by landing in the southern archipelago. They had a significant impact on Japan, even in this initial limited interaction, introducing firearms to Japanese warfare. The American Perry Expedition in 1853–54 ended Japans seclusion; this contributed to the fall of the shogunate and the return of power to the emperor during the Boshin War in 1868. The new national leadership of the following Meiji era (1868–1912) transformed the isolated feudal island country into an empire that closely followed Western models and became a great power. Although democracy developed and modern civilian culture prospered during the Taishō period (1912–1926), Japans powerful military had great autonomy and overruled Japans civilian leaders in the 1920s and 1930s. The Japanese military invaded Manchuria in 1931, and from 1937 the conflict escalated into a prolonged war with China. Japans attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to war with the United States and its allies. During this period, Japan committed various war crimes in the Asia-Pacific ranging from forced sexual slavery, human experimentation and large scale killings and massacres. Japans forces soon became overextended, but the military held out in spite of Allied air attacks that inflicted severe damage on population centers. Emperor Hirohito announced Japans surrender on 15 August 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.
O mark. O mark is the name of the circle symbol ◯.[citation needed] It is often used in East Asia to express affirmation. Its use is similar to that of the checkmark (✓) in the Western world. Its opposite is the X mark (✗ or ×). The symbols names and meanings vary across cultures. In Japanese it is called marujirushi (丸印) or maru (丸) and expresses affirmation. In Korean it is called gongpyo (공표; 空標; lit. zero mark) and expresses affirmation. Japan interprets the symbol as an affirmation. Japan employs a number of related symbols (◎ ○ △ ×) in a system that expresses degrees of affirmation. A bullseye ◎ (nijūmaru; 二重丸) is often used for excellent, the circle is a plain affirmation, the triangle △ (sankaku; 三角) means so-so or partially applicable, and the × expresses disagreement. This system is widely known in Japan, and thus often used without explanation. Ad-hoc adjustments are usually explained. The hanamaru (花丸, flower O mark) is a variant of the O mark. It is typically drawn as a spiral surrounded by rounded flower petals, suggesting a flower. It is frequently used in praising or complimenting children, and the motif often appears in childrens characters and logos. The hanamaru is frequently written on tests if a student has achieved full marks or an otherwise outstanding result. It is sometimes used in place of an O mark in grading written response problems if a students answer is especially good. Some teachers add rotations to the spiral for exceptional answers.
Vexillological symbol. Vexillological symbols are used by vexillologists to indicate certain characteristics of flags, such as where they are used, who uses them, and what they look like. The symbols were created by vexillologist Whitney Smith and then adopted by the International Federation of Vexillological Associations (FIAV) in the early 1970s.[1] Vexillologist Željko Heimer added the symbols for  normal and  historical in the early 1990s.[2] Vexillological symbols describe information on a flags recognition status and design. The usage symbols are based on a grid of two rows representing use on land and use on water, and three columns representing private use, public use, and military use. Each circle in the grid indicates the flag has one or more of the following six basic usages: Flown by private citizens on land Flown by the government on land
Body water. In physiology, body water is the water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the blood, the bones and elsewhere. The percentages of body water contained in various fluid compartments add up to total body water (TBW). This water makes up a significant fraction of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis. By weight, the average adult human is approximately 60% water, and the average child is approximately 65% water.[2][3] There can be considerable variation in body water percentage based on a number of factors like age, health, water intake, weight, and sex. In a large study of adults of all ages and both sexes, the adult human body averaged ~65% water. However, this varied substantially by age, sex, and adiposity (amount of fat in body composition). The figure for water fraction by weight in this sample was found to be 58 ±8% water for males and 48 ±6% for females.[4] The body water constitutes as much as 75% of the body weight of a newborn infant, whereas some obese people are as little as 45% water by weight.[5] This is due to how fat tissue does not retain water as well as lean tissue. These statistical averages will vary with factors such as type of population, age of people sampled, number of people sampled, and methodology. So there is not, and cannot be, a figure that is exactly the same for all people, for this or any other physiological measure. Most animal body water is contained in various body fluids. These include intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, plasma, interstitial fluid, and transcellular fluid.[6]  Water is also contained inside organs, in gastrointestinal, cerebrospinal, peritoneal, and ocular fluids.  Adipose tissue contains about 10% water while for muscle tissue its about 75%.[7][8] In Netters Atlas of Human Physiology (2002), body water is broken down into the following compartments:[6] An individual’s total body water can be determined using flowing-afterglow mass spectrometry (FA-MS) to measure the abundance of deuterium in breath samples.  A known dose of deuterated water (heavy water, D2O) is ingested and allowed to equilibrate within the body water. Then, the FA-MS instrument measures the ratio D:H of deuterium to hydrogen in the water vapour in exhaled breath.  The total body water is then accurately measured from the increase in breath deuterium content in relation to the volume of D2O ingested.
Body of water (disambiguation). Body of water is an accumulation of water on the surface of a planet. Body of water may also refer to:
Aubach (Wiehl). The Aubach is an orographically left tributary of the River Wiehl in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia.[1] The Aubach rises north of Wendershagen, at the Heckenweiher, approximately 414 metres (1,358 ft) above sea level. It initially flows in a north-westerly direction. Not far from Erdingen, the Aubach merges with the Mohrenbach, which is about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long, then turns to the north-east. In the Pfänderwiese, another tributary, flows from the left into the Aubach. Further to the north, the Aubach reaches the Aubachtal. The right source stream, also called Schönbach, is about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long. It rises in Schönbach, on Rhineland-Palatinate territory, at approximately 395 metres (1,296 ft) above sea level. It continues in a north-easterly direction until the Aubach reaches Wildbergerhütte. There, it unites with the approximately 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) long Wildberger stream. It rises in Wildberg to about 382 metres (1,253 ft) m above sea level, and is additionally fed by the roughly 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) long Langenbach. The Aubach river then turns north-west and reaches the centre of Wildbergerhütte, along the pond dam. At about 311 metres (1,020 ft) above sea level, the Aubach flows into the Wiehl, after about 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) (4.2 kilometres (2.6 mi) with Möhrenbach) to the sports field in Wildbergerhütte. The vegetation on the banks of the Aubach River changes along its course. The upper course of the Aubach valley is characterised by dense, shady forests, under which only a sparse layer of herbs flourishes. The middle course is characterised by Alder and Willow species, but also neophytes such as the Reynoutria japonica can be found. Wild herbaceous plants can also be found on the banks of the Aubach River, such as Anemone sylvestris or Ficaria verna. On 3 May 2001, torrential rainfall led to flooding, referred to as the flood of the century. Between 16 and 20 oclock, 110 litres of precipitation per square metre fell. The monthly average in NRW is only 100 litres.
State flag. In vexillology, a state flag is either the flag of the government of a sovereign state (and can also be referred as a government flag and likely interchangeable with a national flag in certain scenarios), or the flag of an individual federated state (subnational administrative division).[1] A state flag is a variant of a national flag (or occasionally a completely different design) specifically designated and restricted by law or custom (theoretically or actually) to use by a countrys government or its agencies. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as government flags. In many countries the state flag and the civil flag (as flown by the general public) are identical, but in other countries, notably those in Latin America, central Europe, and Scandinavia, the state flag is a more complex version of the national flag, often featuring the national coat of arms or some other emblem as part of the design. Scandinavian countries also use swallowtailed state flags, to further differentiate them from civil flags.[1] In addition, some countries have state ensigns, separate flags for use by non-military government ships such as guard vessels.  For example, government ships in the United Kingdom fly the Blue Ensign.[2] State flags should not be confused with the national flag as used by military organizations; these are referred to as war flags and naval ensigns.[3] In Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, and some other federalized countries, the term state flag can have a different usage, as it frequently refers to an official flag of any of the individual states or territorial subdivisions that make up the nation.[4]
RMS Empress of Japan. RMS Empress of Japan may refer to the following ships:
History of Japan.  The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to the Paleolithic, around 38–39,000 years ago.[1] The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inventions were introduced from Asia. During this period, the first known written reference to Japan was recorded in the Chinese Book of Han in the first century AD. Around the 3rd century BC, the Yayoi people from the continent immigrated to the Japanese archipelago and introduced iron technology and agricultural civilization.[2] Because they had an agricultural civilization, the population of the Yayoi began to grow rapidly and ultimately overwhelmed the Jōmon people, natives of the Japanese archipelago who were hunter-gatherers.[3] Between the 4th and 9th centuries, Japans many kingdoms and tribes were gradually unified under a centralized government, nominally controlled by the Emperor of Japan. The imperial dynasty established at this time continues to this day, albeit in an almost entirely ceremonial role. In 794, a new imperial capital was established at Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), marking the beginning of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered a golden age of classical Japanese culture. Japanese religious life from this time and onwards was a mix of native Shinto practices and Buddhism. Over the following centuries, the power of the imperial house decreased, passing first to great clans of civilian aristocrats — most notably the Fujiwara — and then to the military clans and their armies of samurai. The Minamoto clan under Minamoto no Yoritomo emerged victorious from the Genpei War of 1180–85, defeating their rival military clan, the Taira. After seizing power, Yoritomo set up his capital in Kamakura and took the title of shōgun. In 1274 and 1281, the Kamakura shogunate withstood two Mongol invasions, but in 1333 it was toppled by a rival claimant to the shogunate, ushering in the Muromachi period. During this period, regional warlords called daimyō grew in power at the expense of the shōgun. Eventually, Japan descended into a period of civil war. Over the course of the late 16th century, Japan was reunified under the leadership of the prominent daimyō Oda Nobunaga and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After Toyotomis death in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu came to power and was appointed shōgun by the emperor. The Tokugawa shogunate, which governed from Edo (modern Tokyo), presided over a prosperous and peaceful era known as the Edo period (1600–1868). The Tokugawa shogunate imposed a strict class system on Japanese society and cut off almost all contact with the outside world. Portugal and Japan came into contact in 1543, when the Portuguese became the first Europeans to reach Japan by landing in the southern archipelago. They had a significant impact on Japan, even in this initial limited interaction, introducing firearms to Japanese warfare. The American Perry Expedition in 1853–54 ended Japans seclusion; this contributed to the fall of the shogunate and the return of power to the emperor during the Boshin War in 1868. The new national leadership of the following Meiji era (1868–1912) transformed the isolated feudal island country into an empire that closely followed Western models and became a great power. Although democracy developed and modern civilian culture prospered during the Taishō period (1912–1926), Japans powerful military had great autonomy and overruled Japans civilian leaders in the 1920s and 1930s. The Japanese military invaded Manchuria in 1931, and from 1937 the conflict escalated into a prolonged war with China. Japans attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to war with the United States and its allies. During this period, Japan committed various war crimes in the Asia-Pacific ranging from forced sexual slavery, human experimentation and large scale killings and massacres. Japans forces soon became overextended, but the military held out in spite of Allied air attacks that inflicted severe damage on population centers. Emperor Hirohito announced Japans surrender on 15 August 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.
Civil flag. A civil flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on nongovernmental installations or craft. The use of civil flags was more common in the past to denote buildings or ships not crewed by the military.[1] In some countries, the civil flag is the same as the state flag but without the coat of arms,[1] such as in the case of the flags of Peru[2] or Serbia.[3] In others, it is an alteration of the war flag. In Scandinavia, state and war flags can be double and triple-tailed variants of the Nordic Cross flag. Many countries, particularly those with a British heritage, still have distinctive civil flags (technically civil ensigns) for use at sea, many based on the Red Ensign. This flag-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hiroshima Bay. Hiroshima Bay (広島湾, Hiroshima-wan) is a bay in the Inland Sea, Japan.[1]  Administratively, the bay is divided between Hiroshima and Yamaguchi Prefectures.  The bays shore is a Ria.  Its surface area is about 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi), with a mean depth of 25 metres (82 ft). Jaco Pastorius once threw his Bass of Doom (Fender Jazz Bass) into the Hiroshima Bay.  This article about a location in Yamaguchi Prefecture is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This Hiroshima Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Itsukushima (disambiguation). Itsukushima is an island in the western part of the Inland Sea of Japan, located in the northwest of Hiroshima Bay. Itsukushima may also refer to:
Japanese honorifics.  The Japanese language makes use of a system of honorific speech, called keishō (敬称), which includes honorific suffixes and prefixes when talking to, or referring to others in a conversation. Suffixes are often gender-specific at the end of names, while prefixes are attached to the beginning of many nouns. Honorific suffixes also indicate the speakers level, their relationship, and are often used alongside other components of Japanese honorific speech.[1] Honorific suffixes are generally used when referring to the person someone is talking to or third persons, and are not used when referring to oneself. The omission of suffixes indicates that the speaker has known the addressee for a while, or that the listener joined the company or school at the same time or later. The most common honorifics include: San (さん), sometimes pronounced han (はん) in Kansai dialect, is the most commonplace honorific and is a title of respect typically used between equals of any age. Although the closest analog in English are the honorifics Mr., Miss, Ms., or Mrs., -san is almost universally added to a persons name; -san can be used in formal and informal contexts, regardless of the persons gender.[2] It is also commonly used to convert common nouns into proper ones, as discussed below.
Greece.  – in Europe (light green & dark grey)– in the European Union (light green) Greece,[c] officially the Hellenic Republic,[d] is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Sea of Crete and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean basin, spanning thousands of islands and nine traditional geographic regions. It has a population of over 10 million. Athens is the nations capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki and Patras. Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilisation and the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, Western literature, historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, theatre, and the Olympic Games. The Ancient Greeks were organised into independent city-states, or poleis (singular polis), that spanned the Mediterranean and Black seas. Philip II of Macedon united most of present-day Greece in the fourth century BC, with his son Alexander the Great conquering much of the known ancient world from the Near East to northwestern India. The subsequent Hellenistic period saw the height of Greek culture and influence in antiquity. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC and became an integral part of the Roman Empire and its continuation, the Byzantine Empire, where Greek culture and language were dominant. The Greek Orthodox Church, which emerged in the first century AD, helped shape modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox world. After the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Greece was fragmented into several polities, with most Greek lands coming under Ottoman control by the mid-15th century. Following a protracted war of independence in 1821, Greece emerged as a modern nation state in 1830. The Kingdom of Greece pursued territorial expansion during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918), until its defeat in the Greco-Turkish War in 1922. A short-lived republic was established in 1924 but faced civil strife and the challenge of resettling refugees from Turkey, culminating in a royalist dictatorship in 1936. Greece endured military occupation during World War II, a subsequent civil war, and prolonged political instability, leading to a military dictatorship in 1967. The country began transitioning to democracy in 1974, leading to the current parliamentary republic.
Empress Masako.  The EmperorThe Empress The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress Emerita Masako (雅子; born Masako Owada (小和田雅子, Owada Masako); 9 December 1963) is the Empress of Japan as the wife of Emperor Naruhito. Born in Minato, Tokyo, Masako was educated at Belmont High School in Massachusetts, United States, before attending Harvard College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree with the distinction of magna cum laude in economics.[1] She also studied law at the University of Tokyo and international relations at Balliol College, Oxford. After completing her studies, she worked for Japans Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a diplomat.
Adventure Story (1961 TV play). Adventure Story is a British television play, based on the stage play by Terence Rattigan, and tells the story of Alexander the Great and his conquest of Persia.[1] It featured Sean Connery in his first starring role[2] and was praised at the time for its acting.[3] A contemporary critic in The Times wrote of Connerys performance, certain inflexions and swift deliberations of gesture at times made one feel that the part had found the young Olivier it needs, and wrote that Rudolph Cartiers production, had the freedom of spaciousness to which this producer has accustomed us, and all the acting was on a big scale, to match Mr Clifford Hatchs settings.[1] and more recently, reviewing it on DVD, Screenplaystv wrote, the first half and more of the drama plays like a slightly ludicrous historical pageant, and only towards the end does it begin to explore something more ambitious and ambivalent...Sean Connery is most definitely the reason to watch it now,...there is a lavish quality to the staging (which even stretches to three real horses at one point), and the sumptuous costumes are shown to advantage in the fine print on the DVD.[1]
Fjord.  In physical geography, a fjord (also spelled fiord in New Zealand English; /ˈfjɔːrd, fiːˈɔːrd/ ⓘ[1]) is a long, narrow sea inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier.[2] Fjords exist on the coasts of Antarctica, the Arctic, and surrounding landmasses of the northern and southern hemispheres.[3] Norways coastline is estimated to be 29,000 km (18,000 mi) long with its nearly 1,200 fjords, but only 2,500 km (1,600 mi) long excluding the fjords.[4][5] A true fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by ice segregation and abrasion of the surrounding bedrock.[6] According to the standard model, glaciers formed in pre-glacial valleys with a gently sloping valley floor. The work of the glacier then left an overdeepened U-shaped valley that ends abruptly at a valley or trough end. Such valleys are fjords when flooded by the ocean. Thresholds above sea level create freshwater lakes.[7] Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earths crust as the ice load and eroded sediment is removed (also called isostasy or glacial rebound). In some cases, this rebound is faster than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea; Sognefjord, Norway, reaches as much as 1,300 m (4,265 ft) below sea level. Fjords generally have a sill or shoal (bedrock) at their mouth caused by the previous glaciers reduced erosion rate and terminal moraine.[8] In many cases this sill causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids (see skookumchuck). Saltstraumen in Norway is often described as the worlds strongest tidal current. These characteristics distinguish fjords from rias (such as the Bay of Kotor), which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea. Drammensfjorden is cut almost in two by the Svelvik ridge, a sandy moraine that was below sea level when it was covered by ice, but after the post-glacial rebound reaches 60 m (200 ft) above the fjord.[9] In the 19th century, Jens Esmark  introduced the theory that fjords are or have been created by glaciers and that large parts of Northern Europe had been covered by thick ice in prehistory.[10] Thresholds at the mouths and overdeepening of fjords compared to the ocean are the strongest evidence of glacial origin,[11] and these thresholds are mostly rocky. Thresholds are related to sounds and low land where the ice could spread out and therefore have less erosive force. John Walter Gregory argued that fjords are of tectonic origin and that glaciers had a negligible role in their formation. Gregorys views were rejected by subsequent research and publications. In the case of Hardangerfjord the fractures of the Caledonian fold has guided the erosion by glaciers, while there is no clear relation between the direction of Sognefjord and the fold pattern.[10] This relationship between fractures and direction of fjords is also observed in Lyngen.[12] Preglacial, Tertiary rivers presumably eroded the surface and created valleys that later guided the glacial flow and erosion of the bedrock. This may in particular have been the case in Western Norway where the tertiary uplift of the landmass amplified eroding forces of rivers.[10] Confluence of tributary fjords led to excavation of the deepest fjord basins. Near the very coast, the typical West Norwegian glacier spread out (presumably through sounds and low valleys) and lost their concentration and reduced the glaciers power to erode leaving bedrock thresholds. Bolstadfjorden is 160 m (520 ft) deep with a threshold of only 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in),[10][7] while the 1,300 m (4,300 ft) deep Sognefjorden has a threshold around 100 to 200 m (330 to 660 ft) deep.[13][14] Hardangerfjord is made up of several basins separated by thresholds: The deepest basin Samlafjorden between Jonaneset (Jondal) and Ålvik with a distinct threshold at Vikingneset in Kvam Municipality.[10]
Itsukushima Shrine. Itsukushima Shrine (厳島神社, Itsukushima-jinja) is a Shinto shrine on the island of Itsukushima (popularly known as Miyajima), best known for its floating torii.[1]  It is in the city of Hatsukaichi, in Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan, accessible from the mainland by ferry at Miyajimaguchi Station. The shrine complex is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the Japanese government has designated several buildings and possessions as National Treasures.[2] The Itsukushima shrine is one of Japans most popular tourist attractions. It is most famous for its dramatic gate, or torii on the outskirts of the shrine,[2] the sacred peaks of Mount Misen, extensive forests, and its ocean view.[1][3] The shrine complex itself consists of two main buildings: the Honsha shrine and the Sessha Marodo-jinja, as well as 17 other different buildings and structures that help to distinguish it.[3] A replica of the torii is at the Japan Pavilion at Epcot. Itsukushima jinja was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Aki Province.[4] This shrine is one of the Three Great Shrines of Aki Province, along with Take Shrine and Hayatani Shrine.[5]
Civil ensign. A civil ensign is an ensign (maritime flag) used by civilian vessels to denote their nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and the naval ensign (or war ensign). It is also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag. Some countries have special civil ensigns for yachts, and even for specific yacht clubs, known as yacht ensigns. Most countries have only one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the land flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The British ensigns, for example, differ from the flag used on land (the Union Flag) and have different versions of plain and defaced Red and Blue ensigns for civilian and state use, as well as the naval ensign (White Ensign) that can also be used by yachts of the Royal Yacht Squadron. The civil ensigns that are different from the general national flag can be grouped into a number of categories. Several countries use red flags with, in most cases, either the respective national flag or the Union Flag in the canton, patterned after the Red Ensign. British overseas territories fly the plain Red Ensign or a Red Ensign with the respective colonial arms in the fly. Saudi Arabia puts its national flag in the canton of an otherwise-green flag (the Saudi Arabian flag is hoisted with the flagpole to its right so the canton is in the upper right corner of the flag). Ghana stopped using its Red Ensign in 2003 with the adoption of a new merchant shipping act, which made the Ghanaian flag the proper national colors for Ghanaian ships. Similarly, Sri Lanka stopped using its Red Ensign in 1969 and uses the Sri Lankan flag as the civil ensign. Under the relevant shipping law for the Solomon Islands, the Shipping Act 1998, (No. 5 of 1998), the national flag of the Solomon Islands and not a Red Ensign is the appropriate flag: The National Flag of Solomon Islands shall be the national colours for a vessel registered under this Act. Nevertheless, the Solomon Islands Red Ensign is still used in some cases. Australia[1]
Stream. A stream is a continuous body of surface water[1] flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long, large streams are usually called rivers, while smaller, less voluminous and more intermittent streams are known, amongst others, as brook, creek, rivulet, rill, run, tributary, feeder, freshet, narrow river, and streamlet.[2] The flow of a stream is controlled by three inputs – surface runoff (from precipitation or meltwater), daylighted subterranean water, and surfaced groundwater (spring water). The surface and subterranean water are highly variable between periods of rainfall. Groundwater, on the other hand, has a relatively constant input and is controlled more by long-term patterns of precipitation.[3] The stream encompasses surface, subsurface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls.[4] Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge, and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography.[5] A brook is a stream smaller than a creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep. It is usually small and easily forded. A brook is characterised by its shallowness. A creek (/kriːk/) or crick (/krɪk/):[6][7]
Mount Misen. Mount Misen (弥山, Misen) is the sacred mountain on Itsukushima in Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima, Japan, and is the highest mountain on the island at 535 m;[1] it is situated within the World Heritage area of Itsukushima Shrine.[2] The sea around the island (Seto Inland Sea) and all of the island are within Setonaikai National Park.[3] The north side of the mountain is covered by primeval forest which is protected by Hiroshima prefecture.[4] The foot of the mountain has Momijidani-Kōen (紅葉谷公園, Maple Valley Park).[5] According to the website of Miyajima Tourist Association, Mount Misen was visited by Kūkai in the year 806, the 1st year of the Daidō era. Since ancient times, the mountain has been an important destination for religious visitors.[6] The Seven Wonders of Misen, which come from ancient tales, are as follows:[7]
Torii.   A torii (Japanese: 鳥居; [to.ɾi.i]) is a traditional Japanese gate most commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the transition from the mundane to the sacred,[1] and a spot where kami are welcomed and thought to travel through.[2] The presence of a torii at the entrance is usually the simplest way to identify Shinto shrines, and a small torii icon represents them on Japanese road maps and on Google Maps. The first appearance of torii gates in Japan can be reliably pinpointed to at least the mid-Heian period; they are mentioned in a text written in 922.[1] The oldest existing stone torii was built in the 12th century and belongs to a Hachiman shrine in Yamagata Prefecture. The oldest existing wooden torii is a ryōbu torii (see description below) at Kubō Hachiman Shrine in Yamanashi Prefecture built in 1535.[1]
List of Japanese flags. This is a list of Japanese flags, past and present. Historically, each daimyō had his own flag. (See sashimono and uma-jirushi.) Flags attributed to Japanese Daimyo in the Kaei period (1848-54). Each modern prefecture has a unique flag, most often a bicolour geometric highly stylised design (mon), often incorporating the letters of Japanese writing system and resembling company logos. A distinct feature of these flags is that they use a palette of colours not usually found in flags, including orange, purple, aquamarine and brown. Some prefectures also have alternative official flags called symbol flags (シンボル旗). They may be used on less formal occasions. Famous symbol flags include the one used in Tokyo. Most municipalities have unique flags. Like prefectural flags, most of them are with a bicolour geometric highly stylized symbol, often incorporating Japanese characters.
Samuel French, Inc..  Samuel French, Inc. is an American company founded by Samuel French and Thomas Hailes Lacy, who formed a partnership to combine their interests in London and New York City.[1] It publishes plays, represents authors, and sells scripts from its Los Angeles, UK, and online bookstores. The companys London subsidiary, Samuel French Ltd., publishes stage plays for the UK market and serves as a licensing agent for performance rights, and runs a theatrical bookshop on its premises at Fitzrovia in central London. The firm has offices in New York City, London, and Hollywood, California. The office in Toronto, Canada, was closed in 2007. In December 2018, Concord Music acquired Samuel French to form Concord Theatricals.[2][3] Samuel French was born in Massachusetts shortly after the turn of the 19th century, and began publishing Frenchs American Drama in the mid-1800s in New York. French soon acquired a London dramatic publishing company founded by Thomas Hailes Lacy. French managed the London business while his son, Thomas Henry, took control of the New York operations.[4] In the late 1800s, Samuel French began publishing contemporary American dramas and making more plays available to Little Theatres. After the father and son died, the New York and London entities continued under their managing partners.
Terence Rattigan.  Sir Terence Mervyn Rattigan CBE (10 June 1911 – 30 November 1977) was a British dramatist and screenwriter. He was one of Englands most popular mid-20th-century dramatists. His plays are typically set in an upper-middle-class background.[1] He wrote The Winslow Boy (1946), The Browning Version (1948), The Deep Blue Sea (1952) and Separate Tables (1954), among many others. A troubled gay man who saw himself as an outsider,[2] Rattigan wrote a number of plays which centred on issues of sexual frustration, failed relationships, or a world of repression and reticence.[3][2] Terence Rattigan was born in 1911 in South Kensington,[4] London, of Irish extraction.[5] He had an elder brother, Brian. They were the grandsons of Sir William Henry Rattigan, a notable India-based jurist and later a Liberal Unionist Member of Parliament for North-East Lanarkshire. His father was Frank Rattigan CMG, a diplomat whose exploits included an affair with Princess Elisabeth of Romania (future consort of King George II of Greece) which resulted in her having an abortion.[1] The Royal House of Romania is considered to be the inspiration of Rattigans play The Sleeping Prince.[6] Rattigans birth certificate and his birth announcement in The Times indicate he was born on 9 June 1911. However, most reference books state that he was born the following day; Rattigan himself never publicly disputed this date. There is evidence suggesting that the date on the birth certificate is incorrect.[4] He was given no middle name, but he adopted the middle name Mervyn in early adulthood.[citation needed]
Zheng Zhengqiu. Zheng Zhengqiu (Chinese: 鄭正秋; January 25, 1889 – July 16, 1935) was a Chinese filmmaker often considered a founding father of Chinese cinema.[1] Born in Shanghai in 1889, Zheng Zhengqiu was a young intellectual involved in Chinas theater scene when he and his friend and colleague, Zhang Shichuan, made the first Chinese feature film, a short film titled, The Difficult Couple in 1913.[1] The two men would come together again in 1922 with the founding of the seminal Mingxing Film Company and the oldest surviving classic Laborers Love, which would dominate Shanghais film industry for the next fifteen years. While with Mingxing, Zheng served not only as screenwriter and director, but as a studio manager and producer, personally writing and directing 53 films before his early death in 1935.[1] Like many of his colleagues during the period, Zheng was devoted to leftist causes and social justice, themes that were evident in many of his works.[2] After his partner, Zhang Shichuan, rescued Xuan Jinglin from a brothel, Zheng Zhengqiu devised her stage name. He based it on the name she had adopted in the brothel and a transliteration of Lillian Gish into Chinese said in a Shanghai accent.[3]
Hu Die.  Hu Die (Chinese: 胡蝶; Wade–Giles: Hu Tieh; 1907–08 — April 23, 1989), also known by her English name Butterfly Wu, was a popular Chinese actress during the 1920s and 1930s. She was voted Chinas first Movie Queen in 1933, and won the Best Actress Award at the 1960 Asian Film Festival for her performance in Rear Door. Hu Die was born Hu Ruihua (Chinese: 胡瑞华; Wade–Giles: Hu Jui-hua) in Shanghai in 1907[1] or 1908,[2][3] and moved to Guangzhou (Canton) when she was nine. Her father then became the general inspector of the Beijing–Fengtian Railway.[2] She spent much of her adolescence in northern cities including Beijing, Tianjin and Yingkou, and learned to speak perfect Mandarin, which later proved to be a great advantage when the cinema of China transitioned from silent films to talkies.[1] In 1924, Hu Ruihua moved back to Shanghai with her family. When China (Zhonghua) Film School, the countrys first film actor training school, opened, she was the first student to enroll. She adopted the professional name Hu Die, meaning butterfly,[2] and Butterfly Wu in English (Wu is the Shanghainese pronunciation of Hu).[1] Hu Die played her first role in the film Success, as a supporting actress. She played her first major role in the film Autumn Stirs Resentments (Qiu Shan Yuan), and fell in love with her co-star Lin Xuehuai. The relationship did not work out, and the local newspapers were filled with rumours when they broke off their engagement.[4]
St Jamess Theatre. 51°30′22″N 0°08′15″W / 51.50603°N 0.13758°W / 51.50603; -0.13758 The St Jamess Theatre was in King Street, St Jamess, London. It opened in 1835 and was demolished in 1957. The theatre was conceived by and built for a popular singer, John Braham; it lost money and after three seasons he retired. A succession of managements over the next forty years also failed to make it a commercial success, and St Jamess acquired a reputation as an unlucky theatre. It was not until 1879–1888, under the management of the actors John Hare and Madge and W. H. Kendal that the theatre began to prosper. The Hare-Kendal management was succeeded, after brief and disastrous attempts by other lessees, by that of the actor-manager George Alexander, who was in charge from 1891 until his death in 1918. Under Alexander the house gained a reputation for programming that was adventurous without going too far for the tastes of London society. Among the plays he presented were Oscar Wildes Lady Windermeres Fan (1892) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), and A. W. Pineros The Second Mrs Tanqueray (1893). After Alexanders death the theatre came under the control of a succession of managements. Among the long-running productions were The Last of Mrs Cheyney (1925), Interference (1927), The Late Christopher Bean (1933) and Ladies in Retirement (1939). In January 1950 Laurence Olivier and his wife Vivien Leigh took over the management of the theatre. Their successes included Venus Observed (1950) and for the 1951 Festival of Britain season Caesar and Cleopatra and Antony and Cleopatra. In 1954 Terence Rattigans Separate Tables began a run of 726 performances, the longest in the history of the St Jamess. During the run it emerged that a property developer had acquired the freehold of the theatre and obtained the requisite legal authority to knock it down and replace it with an office block. Despite widespread protests the theatre closed in July 1957 and was demolished in December of that year.
Traditional Chinese characters.  Traditional Chinese characters are a standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages. In Taiwan, the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters. These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century,[1][2] when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of the predominant forms.[3][4] Simplified characters as codified by the Peoples Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore. Traditional as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau, as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia.[5] As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts. Korean hanja, still used to a certain extent in South Korea, remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters.[6][7] Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from the merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets.[8] Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字; 正体字; zhèngtǐzì; orthodox characters.[9] This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters.[10] Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters  繁體字; 繁体字; fántǐzì; complex characters, 老字; lǎozì; old characters, or 全體字; 全体字; quántǐzì; full characters to distinguish them from simplified characters.
Heian-kyō. Heian-kyō (平安京; lit. peaceful/tranquil capital) was one of several former names for the city now known as Kyoto. It was the official capital of Japan for over one thousand years, from 794 to 1868 with an interruption in 1180. Emperor Kanmu established it as the capital in 794, moving the Imperial Court there from nearby Nagaoka-kyō at the recommendation of his advisor Wake no Kiyomaro and marking the beginning of the Heian period of Japanese history.[1] According to modern scholarship, the city is thought to have been modelled after the urban planning for the Tang dynasty Chinese capital of Changan (modern-day Xian).[2][3] It remained the chief political center until 1185, when the samurai Minamoto clan defeated the Taira clan in the Genpei War, moving administration of national affairs to Kamakura and establishing the Kamakura shogunate. Though political power would be wielded by the samurai class over the course of three different shogunates, Heian-kyō remained the site of the Imperial Court and seat of Imperial power, and was thus the official capital. Heian-kyō was built in what is now the central part of Kyoto city covering an area spanning the Kadono (葛野郡, Kadono-gun) and Otagi Districts (愛宕郡, Otagi-gun) of Yamashiro Province. The city boundaries formed a rectangle measuring 4.5 km from east to west and 5.2 km from north to south. The city layout followed Heijō-kyō (Japans capital during the Nara period) with the Imperial palace, Daidairi, placed in the center of the northern city limits and the Suzaku Avenue (Suzaku-ōji), the main thoroughfare extending from the palace down through the center of the city, dividing it into the Right (Ukyō) and Left Capitals (Sakyō) (the eastern side being the Left and the western side being the Right from the emperors viewpoint.) The design followed Sui and Tang dynasty Changan with the exception that Heian-kyō had no city walls. It is thought that the site for the city was selected according to the principles of Shijinsōō (四神相応; Four Gods Suitability) based on Chinese Feng shui and relating to the Four Symbols of Chinese astrology. The boundaries of Heian-kyō were smaller than those of modern Kyoto, with Ichijō-ōji (一条大路) at the northern limit corresponding to present-day Ichijō-dōri (一条通), between Imadegawa-dōri (今出川通) and Marutamachi-dōri (丸太町通), Kyūjō-ōji in the south corresponding to Kujō-dōri (九条通) slightly to the south of the present-day JR Kyōto Station and Higashi-kyōgoku-ōji in the east corresponding to present-day Teramachi Street (Teramachi-dōri). The location of Nishi-kyōgoku-ōji at the western limit is estimated as a line running north to south from Hanazono Station on the JR Sanin Main Line to Nishi-Kyōgoku Station on the Hankyu Kyoto Line.
Mon (emblem).  Mon (紋, [mõ̞ꜜɴ]), also called monshō (紋章), mondokoro (紋所), and kamon (家紋), are Japanese emblems used to decorate and identify an individual, a family, or (more recently) an institution, municipality or business entity. While mon is an encompassing term that may refer to any such device, kamon and mondokoro refer specifically to emblems that are used to identify a family. An authoritative mon reference compiles Japans 241 general categories of mon based on structural resemblance (a single mon may belong to multiple categories), with 5,116 distinct individual mon. However, it is well acknowledged that there are a number of lost or obscure mon.[1][2] Among mon, the mon officially used by the family is called jōmon (定紋). Over time, new mon have been created, such as kaemon (替紋), which is unofficially created by an individual, and onnamon (女紋), which is created by a woman after marriage by modifying part of her original familys mon, so that by 2023 there will be a total of 20,000 to 25,000 mon.[3] The devices are similar to the badges and coats of arms in European heraldic tradition, which likewise are used to identify individuals and families. Mon are often referred to as crests in Western literature, the crest being a European heraldic device similar to the mon in function. Japanese mon influenced Louis Vuittons monogram designs through Japonisme in Europe in the late 1800s.[4][5][6] Mon originated in the mid-Heian period (c. 900–1000) as a way to identify individuals and families among the nobility. They had a pecking order, and when gissha (牛車, bullock cart) passed each other on the road, the one with the lower status had to give way, and the mon was painted on the gissha. The Heiji Monogatari Emaki, an emakimono (絵巻物, picture scroll) depicting the Heiji rebellion, shows mon painted on gissha. Gradually, the nobility began to use mon on their own costumes, and the samurai class that emerged in the late Heian period and came to power in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) also began to use mon.[3][7] By the 12th century, sources give a clear indication that heraldry had been implemented as a distinguishing feature, especially for use in battle. It is seen on flags, tents, and equipment. On the battlefield, mon served as army standards, even though this usage was not universal and uniquely designed army standards were just as common as mon-based standards (cf. sashimono, uma-jirushi). Gradually, mon spread to the lower classes, and in the Muromachi period (1336–1573), merchants painted emblems on their shop signs, which became mon. In the Edo period (1603–1867), kabuki actors used mon, and the general public was allowed to choose and use their favorite mon. By the Genroku period (1680–1709) in the early Edo period, the use of mon was fully established among the general public. However, the use of the chrysanthemum mon used by the imperial family and the hollyhock mon used by the Tokugawa clan (Tokugawa shogunate) was prohibited.[3][7] Mon were also adapted by various organizations, such as merchant and artisan guilds, temples and shrines, theater troupes and even criminal gangs. In an illiterate society, they served as useful symbols for recognition.
Tokugawa clan. The Tokugawa clan (徳川氏, Tokugawa-shi, Tokugawa-uji; Japanese pronunciation: [to.kɯꜜ.ɡa.wa, -ŋa.wa, -kɯ.ɡa.waꜜ.ɕi, -ŋa.waꜜ-][1][2]) is a Japanese dynasty which produced the Tokugawa shoguns who ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868 during the Edo period. It was formerly a powerful daimyō family. They nominally descended from Emperor Seiwa (850–880) and were a branch of the Minamoto clan (Seiwa Genji) through the Matsudaira clan. The early history of the clan remains a mystery.[3] Nominally, the Matsudaira clan is said to be descended from the Nitta clan, a branch of the Minamoto clan, but this is considered to be untrue or unlikely.[4][5][6][7] Minamoto no Yoshishige (1135–1202), grandson of Minamoto no Yoshiie (1041–1108), was the first to take the name of Nitta. He sided with his cousin Minamoto no Yoritomo against the Taira clan (1180) and accompanied him to Kamakura. Nitta Yoshisue, 4th son of Yoshishige, settled at Tokugawa (Kozuke province) and took the name of that place. Their provincial history book did not mention Minamoto clan or Nitta clan.[8] The nominal originator of the Matsudaira clan was reportedly Matsudaira Chikauji, who was originally a poor Buddhist monk.[3][9] He reportedly descended from Nitta Yoshisue in the 8th generation and witnessed the ruin of the Nitta in their war against the Ashikaga. He settled at Matsudaira (Mikawa province) and was adopted by his wifes family. Their provincial history book claimed that this original clan was Ariwara clan.[8] Because this place is said to have been reclaimed by Ariwara Nobumori, one theory holds that Matsudaira clan was related to Ariwara no Narihira.[10] Matsudaira Nobumitsu (15th century), son of Chikauji, was in charge of Okazaki Castle, and strengthened the authority of his family in the Mikawa province. Nobumitsus great-great-grandson Matsudaira Kiyoyasu made his clan strong, but was assassinated. In 1567, Matsudaira Motonobu—then known as Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616)—grandson of Kiyoyasu, was recognized by Emperor Ōgimachi as a descendant of Seiwa Genji; he also started the family name Tokugawa.[citation needed] According to historical documents from the same period, some of the three generations of the Matsudaira clan, including Nobumitsu, took the surname Kamo no Ason (Kamo) , and the Matsudaira clans hollyhock crest also suggests a connection to the Kamo clan, so some have pointed out that they were actually vassals of the Kamo clan.[11] Tokugawa Ieyasu himself signed the letter of assurance to the Suganuma clan in 1561, shortly after independence from the Imagawa clan, as Minamoto no Motoyasu (Suganuma Family Genealogy and Documents Possessed by Kunozan Toshogu Shrine)[12] The clan rose to power at the end of the Sengoku period. as their political influences and territories they controlled expanded during this period, they developed many new offices such as many magistrate official such as Kōriki Kiyonaga, Amano Yasukage, Honda Shigetsugu, and many others, to control their new territories and vassals.[13] In 1566, as Ieyasu declared his independence from the Imagawa clan, he reformed the order of Mikawa province starting with the Matsudaira clan, after he pacified Mikawa. This decision was made after he counseled by his senior vassal Sakai Tadatsugu to abandon their allegiance with the Imagawa clan.[14] He also strengthened his powerbase by creating a military government system of Tokugawa clan in Mikawa which based from his hereditary vassals Fudai daimyō. The system which called Sanbi no gunsei (三備の軍制) with the structure divide the governance into three sections:[15][16][17]
Simplified Chinese characters.  Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write the Chinese language, with the other being traditional characters. Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s.[1] They are the official forms used in mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore, while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Simplification of a component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical—usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes, or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓ WRAP radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏ TABLE to form the simplified character 没.[2] By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of the character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution, a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to the first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters;[3][4][5][6] the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including a few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by Chinas State Council on 5 June 2013.[7] In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字; jiǎnhuàzì, or colloquially as 简体字; jiǎntǐzìⓘ. The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure,[note 1] a practice which has always been present as a part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms.[9]
Catchment area. In human geography, a catchment area is the area from which a location, such as a city, service, or institution, attracts a population that uses its services and economic opportunities. Catchment areas may be defined based on from where people are naturally drawn to a location (for example, a labour catchment area[1]) or as established by governments or organizations such as education authorities or healthcare providers, for the provision of services. Governments and community service organizations often define catchment areas for planning purposes and public safety such as ensuring universal access to services like fire departments, police departments, ambulance bases and hospitals. In business, a catchment area is used to describe the influence from which a retail location draws its customers.[2] Airport catchment areas can inform efforts to estimate route profitability.[3] A health catchment area is of importance in public health, and healthcare planning, as it helps in resource allocation, service delivery, and accessibility assessment. A catchment area can be defined relative to a location, and based upon a number of factors, including distance, travel time, geographic boundaries or population within the catchment. Catchment areas generally fall under two categories, those that occur organically, i.e., de facto catchment area, and a place people are naturally drawn to, such as a large shopping centre. A catchment area in terms of a place people are drawn to could be a city, service or institution. Catchment area boundaries can be modeled using geographic information systems (GIS).[4]  There can be large variability in the services provided within different catchment areas in the same region depending upon how and when those catchments were established.[5] They are usually contiguous but can overlap when they describe competing services.[6] For example, the boundaries of catchment areas can also vary by travel time, whereby 1-hour is indicative of daily commuting time and a 3-hour cut-off reflecting essential, but less frequent services.[7]
Mingxing.   The Mingxing Film Company (Chinese: 明星影片公司; pinyin: Míngxīng Yǐngpiàn Gōngsī), also credited as the Star Motion Picture Production Company, was a production company active in the Republic of China between 1922 and 1937. Established by a consortium of creative professionals, including film director Zhang Shichuan, dramatist Zheng Zhengqiu, and critic Zhou Jianyun, Mingxing initially produced comedy films that drew little audience attention. Facing insolvency in 1923, the company used the last of its capital to produce Orphan Rescues Grandfather, which released to massive commercial success and provided the company with the revenue needed to expand and hire new talent. In the mid-1920s, Mingxing acquired new studios and made its initial public offering, growing rapidly even in the face of emerging competition. It adapted several novels to film, with its Lonely Orchid (1926) being one of the most successful Chinese films of the silent era. It also expanded from family dramas to wuxia with The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (1928), and began producing sound films with Sing-Song Girl Red Peony (1931). By the early 1930s, Mingxing was one of the largest film companies in Shanghai, together with the Tianyi Film Company and the United Photoplay Service. However, between the ongoing Sino-Japanese War – including damage caused by the 1932 incursion into Shanghai – and a series of financial setbacks, Mingxing faced significant financial losses through the 1930s. Despite the success of films such as Twin Sisters (1934) and efforts to attract new writers, the company was unable to recover and operations ended after the Japanese occupied Shanghai in 1937. During its lifetime, Mingxing produced 174 fiction films, as well as newsreels, cartoons, and actualities.
Seals in the Sinosphere. In the Sinosphere, seals (stamps) can be applied on objects to establish personal identification. They are commonly applied on items such as personal documents, office paperwork, contracts, and art. They are used similarly to signatures in the West. Unlike in the West, where wax seals are common, Sinosphere seals are used with ink. Of Chinese origin, the process soon spread beyond China and across East and Southeast Asia. Various countries in these regions currently use a mixture of seals and hand signatures, and, increasingly, electronic signatures.[1] Chinese seals are typically made of stone, sometimes of metals, wood, bamboo, plastic, or ivory, and are typically used with red ink or cinnabar paste (Chinese: 朱砂; pinyin: zhūshā). The word 印 (yìn in Mandarin, in in Japanese and Korean, ấn and in in Vietnamese) specifically refers to the imprint created by the seal, as well as appearing in combination with other morphemes in words related to any printing, as in the word 印刷, printing, pronounced yìnshuā in Mandarin, insatsu in Japanese. In the western world, Asian seals were traditionally known by traders as chop marks or simply chops, a term adapted from the Hindi chapa and the Malay cap,[2] meaning stamp or rubber stamps. In Japan, seals, referred to as inkan (印鑑) or hanko (判子), have historically been used to identify individuals involved in government and trading from ancient times. The Japanese emperors, shōguns, and samurai had their personal seals pressed onto edicts and other public documents to show authenticity and authority. Even today, Japanese citizens companies regularly use name seals for the signing of a contract and other important paperwork.[3] Throughout Chinese history, seals have played an important part and are known to have been used both by government authorities and private individuals for thousands of years.[4][5] The earliest known examples of seals in ancient China date to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC) and were discovered at archaeological sites at Anyang.[4][5] However, how these ancient seals were used remains to be uncovered as it is only starting from the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC) of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) that there is an increase in the quantity of Chinese seals paired together with textual references to them. Until the end of the Warring States period (476 BC–221 BC), all seals were only known as xǐ 璽 pinyin: Xǐ, regardless if they were used by government officials or in private use and regardless of any material used to make them.[4]
Exploitation fiction. Exploitation fiction is a type of literature that includes novels and magazines that exploit sex, violence, drugs, or other elements meant to attract readers primarily by arousing prurient interest without being labeled as obscene or pornographic. Exploitation fiction grew out of pulp fiction of the 1930s and 1940s.[1] It was popular trash fiction in the form of mass market paperbacks in the 1950s and 1960s, when genuine, sexually explicit material could be seized as obscene. In the United States, material that went by U.S. mail was subject to federal obscenity laws that greatly curtailed the distribution of materials that were sexually explicit or featured graphic violence. These cheap novels exploited violence, drugs, and sex—especially promiscuity and lesbianism—but rarely delivered the kind of salacious detail their cover art implied and generally tacked on moralistic endings to satisfy critics who accused them of having no redeeming social value. They were often repackaged under new titles with different cover art, to resell to the unsuspecting public looking for cheap thrills. As film production codes loosened in the early 1960s, exploitation fiction led to exploitation cinema (parallel to the development of Italian giallo cinema),[2] typified by Russ Meyer films. This article about a literary genre is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This pornography-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Penny dreadful.  Penny dreadfuls were cheap popular serial literature produced during the 19th century in the United Kingdom. The pejorative term is roughly interchangeable with penny horrible, penny awful,[1] and penny blood.[2] The term typically referred to a story published in weekly parts of 8 to 16 pages, each costing one penny.[3] The subject matter of these stories was typically sensational, focusing on the exploits of detectives, criminals, or supernatural entities. First published in the 1830s, penny dreadfuls featured characters such as Sweeney Todd, Dick Turpin, Varney the Vampire, and Spring-heeled Jack. The BBC called penny dreadfuls a 19th-century British publishing phenomenon. In America in the 1840s, a similar class of consumer content developed known as city mysteries. By the 1850s, there were up to a hundred publishers of penny-fiction, and in the 1860s and 1870s more than a million boys periodicals were sold per week.[4][5] The Guardian described penny dreadfuls as Britains first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young, and the Victorian equivalent of video games.[4] While the term penny dreadful was originally used in reference to a specific type of literature circulating in mid-Victorian Britain, it came to encompass a variety of publications that featured cheap sensational fiction, such as story papers and booklet libraries. The penny dreadfuls were printed on cheap wood pulp paper and were aimed at young working class men.[6] The popularity of penny dreadfuls was challenged in the 1890s by the rise of competing literature, especially the half-penny periodicals published by Alfred Harmsworth.[4][7] Crime broadsides were commonly sold at public executions in the United Kingdom in the 18th and 19th centuries. These were often produced by printers who specialised in them. They were typically illustrated by a crude picture of the crime, a portrait of the criminal, or a generic woodcut of a hanging taking place. There would be a written account of the crime and of the trial and often the criminals confession of guilt. A doggerel verse warning others to not follow the executed persons example, to avoid their fate, was another common feature.[8]
Short Story (disambiguation). A short story is a piece of prose fiction. Short Story may also refer to:
Short Stories. Short stories are pieces of prose fiction. Short Stories may also refer to:
Dime novel. The dime novel is a form of late 19th-century and early 20th-century American popular fiction issued in series of inexpensive paperbound editions. The term dime novel has been used as a catchall term for several different but related forms, referring to story papers, five- and ten-cent weeklies, thick book reprints, and sometimes early pulp magazines.[notes 1] The term was used as a title as late as 1940, in the short-lived pulp magazine Western Dime Novels. In the modern age, the term dime novel has been used to refer to quickly written, lurid potboilers, usually as a pejorative to describe a sensationalized but superficial literary work. In 1860, the publishers Erastus and Irwin Beadle released a new series of cheap paperbacks, Beadles Dime Novels.[1] Dime novel became a general term for similar paperbacks produced by various publishers in the early twentieth century. The first book in the Beadle series was Malaeska, the Indian Wife of the White Hunter, by Ann S. Stephens, dated June 9, 1860.[1] The novel was essentially a reprint of Stephenss earlier serial, which had appeared in the Ladies Companion magazine in February, March and April 1839. It sold more than 65,000 copies in the first few months after its publication as a dime novel.[2] Dime novels varied in size, even in the first Beadle series, but were mostly about 6.5 by 4.25 inches (16.5 by 10.8 cm), with 100 pages. The first 28 were published without a cover illustration, in a salmon-colored paper wrapper. A woodblock print was added in issue 29, and the first 28 were reprinted with illustrated covers. The books were priced, of course, at ten cents. This series ran for 321 issues and established almost all the conventions of the genre, from the lurid and outlandish story to the melodramatic double titling used throughout the series, which ended in the 1920s. Most of the stories were frontier tales reprinted from the numerous serials in the story papers and other sources,[notes 2] but many were original stories. As the popularity of dime novels increased, original stories came to be the norm. The books were reprinted many times, sometimes with different covers, and the stories were often further reprinted in different series and by different publishers.[notes 3] The literacy rate increased around the time of the American Civil War, and Beadles Dime Novels were immediately popular among young, working-class readers. By the end of the war, numerous competitors, such as George Munro and Robert DeWitt, were crowding the field, distinguishing their product only by title and the color of the paper wrappers. Beadle & Adams had their own alternate brands, such as the Frank Starr line. As a whole, the quality of the fiction was derided by highbrow critics, and the term dime novel came to refer to any form of cheap, sensational fiction, rather than the specific format.
North Pacific (disambiguation). The North Pacific is the Northern Hemisphere portion of the Pacific Ocean, Earths largest oceanic division. It may also refer to:
Pulp (paper). Pulp is a fibrous lignocellulosic material prepared by chemically, semi-chemically, or mechanically isolating the cellulosic fibers of wood, fiber crops, waste paper, or rags. Mixed with water and other chemicals or plant-based additives, pulp is the major raw material used in papermaking and the industrial production of other paper products.[1][2] Before the widely acknowledged invention of papermaking by Cai Lun in China around AD 105, paper-like writing materials such as papyrus and amate were produced by ancient civilizations using plant materials which were largely unprocessed. Strips of bark or bast material were woven together, beaten into rough sheets, dried, and polished by hand.[3][4] Pulp used in modern and traditional papermaking is distinguished by the maceration process which produces a finer, more regular slurry of cellulose fibers which are pulled out of solution by a screen and dried to form sheets or rolls.[5] The earliest paper produced in China consisted of bast fibers from the paper mulberry (kozo) plant along with hemp rag and net scraps.[5][6][7] By the 6th century, the mulberry tree was domesticated by farmers in China specifically for the purpose of producing pulp to be used in the papermaking process. In addition to mulberry, pulp was also made from bamboo, hibiscus bark, blue sandalwood, straw, and cotton.[7] Papermaking using pulp made from hemp and linen fibers from tattered clothing, fishing nets and fabric bags spread to Europe in the 13th century, with an ever-increasing use of rags being central to the manufacture and affordability of rag paper, a factor in the development of printing.[1] By the 1800s, production demands on the newly industrialized papermaking and printing industries led to a shift in raw materials, most notably the use of pulpwood and other tree products which today make up more than 95% of global pulp production.[8] The use of wood pulp and the invention of automatic paper machines in the late 18th- and early 19th-century contributed to papers status as an inexpensive commodity in modern times.[1][9][10] While some of the earliest examples of paper made from wood pulp include works published by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1765 and Matthias Koops in 1800,[1][11] large-scale wood paper production began in the 1840s with unique, simultaneous developments in mechanical pulping made by Friedrich Gottlob Keller in Germany[12] and by Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia.[9] Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of sulfurous acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U.S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca(HSO3)2, to pulp wood in 1867.[2] Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built, in Sweden. It used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, surpassing mechanical pulping methods. The competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879; the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890.[2] The invention of the recovery boiler, by G.H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s,[12] allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals. This, along with the ability of the kraft process to accept a wider variety of types of wood and to produce stronger fibres,[13] made the kraft process the dominant pulping process, starting in the 1940s.[2] Global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons (160 million tonnes).[14] In the previous year, 63 million tons (57 million tonnes) of market pulp (not made into paper in the same facility) was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, followed by the United States at 16 percent. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, and 34% recycled paper (Canada, 2014).[15] Chemical pulp made up 93% of market pulp.[16] The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood.[17] While in theory any tree can be used for pulp-making, coniferous trees are preferred because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, and therefore make stronger paper.[18] Some of the most commonly used trees for paper making include softwoods such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch.[19] There is also increasing interest in genetically modified tree species (such as GM eucalyptus and GM poplar) because of several major benefits these can provide, such as increased ease of breaking down lignin and increased growth rate.
Dead zone (ecology).  Dead zones are hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in the worlds oceans and large lakes. Hypoxia occurs when dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration falls to or below 2 ml of O2/liter.[2] When a body of water experiences hypoxic conditions, aquatic flora and fauna begin to change behavior in order to reach sections of water with higher oxygen levels. Once DO declines below 0.5 ml O2/liter in a body of water, mass mortality occurs. With such a low concentration of DO, these bodies of water fail to support the aquatic life living there.[3] Historically, many of these sites were naturally occurring.  However, in the 1970s, oceanographers began noting increased instances and expanses of dead zones. These occur near inhabited coastlines, where aquatic life is most concentrated. Coastal regions, such as the Baltic Sea, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the Chesapeake Bay, as well as large enclosed water bodies like Lake Erie, have been affected by deoxygenation due to eutrophication. Excess nutrients are put into these systems by rivers, ultimately from urban and agricultural runoff and exacerbated by deforestation. These nutrients lead to high productivity that produces organic material that sinks to the bottom and is respired. The respiration of that organic material uses up the oxygen and causes hypoxia or anoxia. The UN Environment Programme reported 146 dead zones in 2004 in the worlds oceans where marine life could not be supported due to depleted oxygen levels. Some of these were as small as a square kilometer (0.4 mi2), but the largest dead zone covered 70,000 square kilometers (27,000 mi2). A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide.[4][2] Aquatic and marine dead zones can be caused by an increase in nutrients (particularly  nitrogen and phosphorus) in the water, known as eutrophication. These nutrients are the fundamental building blocks of single-celled, plant-like organisms that live in the water column, and whose growth is limited in part by the availability of these materials. With more available nutrients, single-celled aquatic organisms (such as algae and cyanobacteria) have the resources necessary to exceed their previous growth limit and begin to multiply at an exponential rate. Exponential growth leads to rapid increases in the density of certain types of these phytoplankton, a phenomenon known as an algal bloom.[6]
Magazine.  A magazine[1] is a periodical publication, print or digital, produced on a regular schedule, that contains any of a variety of subject-oriented textual and visual content forms. Magazines are generally financed by advertising, purchase price, prepaid subscriptions, or by a combination of the three. They are categorised by their frequency of publication (i.e., as weeklies, monthlies, quarterlies, etc.), their target audiences (e.g., womens and trade magazines), their subjects of focus (e.g., popular science and religious), and their tones or approach (e.g., works of satire or humor). Appearance on the cover of print magazines has historically been understood to convey a place of honor or distinction to an individual or event. The etymology of the word magazine suggests derivation from the Arabic makhāzin (مخازن), the broken plural of makhzan (مخزن) meaning depot, storehouse (originally military storehouse); that comes to English via Middle French magasin and Italian magazzino.[2] In its original sense, the word magazine referred to a storage space or device.[2] In the case of written publication, it refers to a collection of written articles; hence, magazine publications share the moniker with storage units for military equipment such as gunpowder, artillery and firearm magazines, and in French and Russian (adopted from the French, as магазин), retailers such as department stores.[3] The difference between magazines and journals are their audience, purpose, and publication process. Journal articles are written by experts for experts, while magazine articles are usually intended for the general public or a demographic. Journals contain recent research on specific areas, while magazines aim to entertain, inform, or educate a general audience on a wide range of topics. Journals are published by academic or professional organizations, and may be peer reviewed, while magazine articles are typically shorter and more accessible than journal articles, often written in a journalistic style.[4][5]
South Pacific (disambiguation). The South Pacific Ocean or South Pacific is the Southern Hemisphere portion of the Pacific Ocean. South Pacific may also refer to:
Edo Japan (restaurant).  Edo Japan, often known simply as Edo (/ˈiːdoʊ/), is a Canadian-founded fast food restaurant chain specializing in Japanese Teppan-style cooking.[2] Founded in 1979 in Calgary, Alberta Canada by Reverend Susumu Ikuta,[3] a Japanese Buddhist minister, Edo Japan was named after the original name of Tokyo.[4] The company is based in Calgary, Alberta, and the first restaurant opened in 1979 in Calgary.[5] Born in 1926 in Kyoto, Japan, Rev. Susumu Ikuta first moved to Australia with his family in 1937.[6] After finishing high school, Rev. Ikuta moved back and forth between Australia and Japan until 1958, when he graduated with an M.A. in Buddhist Studies from Ryukoku University and moved to Canada for the last time to become a Jōdo Shinshū Buddhist minister for the Buddhist Churches of Canada. In 1979, Rev. Ikuta opened the first Edo Japan restaurant as a means of establishing and sustaining the Cao Dai Temples of Kitchener, Ontario,[6][7] and began franchising the business in 1986.[8] In 1998, Reverend Ikuta became the first Australian-raised Bishop of the Buddhist Churches of Canada and decided it was time for someone else to manage Edo Japans business.[4] Over the course of Reverend Ikutas leadership, the company grew to 102 food court locations in suburban shopping centres across Canada, the United States and Australia,[2] with about $10 million in annual sales.[3] In 1999, the former president of Moxies, Tom Donaldson, took over as President and CEO of Edo Japan[8] with a small equity earn-in position before purchasing the company outright in 2006.[2] Over the next 10 years, Donaldson focused on revitalizing the brand by scaling back the number of locations to operate solely in Canada,[2] which saw the company grow to $60 million in annual sales by 2011.[3]  Under Donaldsons leadership, the company expanded beyond mall food courts by opening its first stand-alone location in 2002, and by 2011 a further 36 street-front locations were established under.[3] By 2015, the chain had 109 locations across British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Quebec, with $92 million in annual sales.[9]
Pacific (disambiguation). The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world. Pacific may also refer to:
Western Pacific. Western Pacific may refer to: Western Pacific may also refer to:
Mississippi River.  (Period: 1980–1996)21,990 m3/s (777,000 cu ft/s)[6] The Mississippi River[b] is the primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States.[c][24] It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri.[25] From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it flows generally south for 2,340 mi (3,770 km)[25] to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains.[26] The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.[27][28] The main stem is entirely within the United States; the total drainage basin is 1,151,000 sq mi (2,980,000 km2), of which only about one percent is in Canada. The Mississippi ranks as the worlds tenth-largest river by discharge flow, and the largest in North America. Native Americans have lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries for thousands of years. Many were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural and urban civilizations, and some practiced aquaculture. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers.[29] The river served sometimes as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and throughout as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several tributaries, most notably its largest, the Ohio and Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. The river also became the subject of American literature, particularly in the writings of Mark Twain. Formed from thick layers of the rivers silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment, and American Bottom are some of the most fertile regions of the United States; steamboats were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to ship agricultural and industrial goods. During the American Civil War, the Mississippis final capture by Union forces marked a turning point to victory for the Union. Because of the substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that replaced steamboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination. A major focus of this work has been to prevent the lower Mississippi from shifting into the channel of the Atchafalaya River and bypassing New Orleans.
Novel (disambiguation). A novel is a work of long prose narrative fiction. Novel(s) or The Novel(s) may also refer to:
Agriculture.  Agriculture is the practice of cultivating the soil, planting, raising, and harvesting both food and non-food crops, as well as livestock production. Broader definitions also include forestry and aquaculture. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated plants and animals created food surpluses that enabled people to live in the cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output. As of 2021[update], small farms produce about one-third of the worlds food, but large farms are prevalent.[1] The largest 1% of farms in the world are greater than 50 hectares (120 acres) and operate more than 70% of the worlds farmland.[1] Nearly 40% of agricultural land is found on farms larger than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres).[1] However, five of every six farms in the world consist of fewer than 2 hectares (4.9 acres), and take up only around 12% of all agricultural land.[1] Farms and farming greatly influence rural economics and greatly shape rural society, affecting both the direct agricultural workforce and broader businesses that support the farms and farming populations. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, cooking oils, meat, milk, eggs, and fungi. Global agricultural production amounts to approximately 11 billion tonnes of food,[2] 32 million tonnes of natural fibers[3] and 4 billion m3 of wood.[4] However, around 14% of the worlds food is lost from production before reaching the retail level.[5] Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased crop yields, but also contributed to ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to climate change, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and other agricultural pollution. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation, and climate change, all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some countries ban them.
Pacific Northwest.  The Pacific Northwest (PNW) is a geographic region in Western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though no official boundary exists, the most common conception includes the U.S. states of Oregon, Washington,   Idaho, and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Some broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into Northern California, and east into western Montana. Other conceptions may be limited to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains. The Northwest Coast is the coastal region of the Pacific Northwest, and the Northwest Plateau (also commonly known as the Interior in British Columbia),[1] is the inland region. The term Pacific Northwest should not be confused with the Northwest Territory (also known as the Great Northwest, a historical term in the United States) or the Northwest Territories of Canada. The regions largest metropolitan areas are Greater Seattle, Washington, with 4 million people;[2] Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, with 2.6 million people;[3] Greater Portland, Oregon, with 2.5 million people;[4] the Boise, Idaho metropolitan area with 845,877 people, and the Spokane-Coeur dAlene combined statistical area with 793,285 people. The culture of the Pacific Northwest is influenced by the Canada–United States border, which the United States and the United Kingdom established at a time when the regions inhabitants were composed mostly of indigenous peoples. Two sections of the border—one along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and one between the Alaska Panhandle and northern British Columbia—have left a great impact on the region. According to Canadian historian Ken Coates, the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest—rather, the regions history and character have been determined by the boundary.[5]
Zhang (surname). Zhang ([ʈʂáŋ] ⓘ; traditional Chinese: 張; simplified Chinese: 张) is the third most common surname in China and Taiwan (commonly spelled as Chang in Taiwan), and it is one of the most common surnames in the world.[2][3] It is spoken in the first tone Zhāng. It is a surname that exists in many languages and cultures, corresponding to the surname Archer in English for example.[4] In the Wade–Giles system of romanization, it is romanized as Chang, which is commonly used in Taiwan. Cheung is commonly used in Hong Kong as a romanization. It is the 24th name on the Hundred Family Surnames poem, contained in the verse 何呂施張 (Hé Lǚ Shī Zhāng). Zhang is also the pinyin romanization of the less-common surnames 章 (Zhāng), which is the 40th name on the Hundred Family Surnames poem, and 仉 (Zhǎng). Today, it is one of the most common surnames in the world at over 100 million people worldwide.[5] Zhang was listed by the Peoples Republic of Chinas National Citizen ID Information System as the third-most-common surname in mainland China (April 2007), with 87.50 million bearers.[6][7] A commonly cited but erroneous factoid in the 1990 Guinness Book of Records listed it as the worlds most common surname,[8] but no comprehensive information from China was available at the time and more recent editions have not repeated the claim. As mentioned above, 張 is the third-most-common surname in mainland China, making up 6.83% of the population of the Peoples Republic of China.[9] In 2019 it was the most common surname in exactly one provincial-level division, Shanghai municipality.[10] In Taiwan, 張 is the fourth-most-common surname, making up 5.26% of the population of the Republic of China. In 2019 it was again the third most common surname in Mainland China.[10]
Sea (disambiguation). A sea is a large body of salty water. Sea or SEA may also refer to:
Chinese surname.  Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Greater China, Korea, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities around the world such as Singapore and Malaysia. Written Chinese names begin with surnames, unlike the Western tradition in which surnames are written last. Around 2,000 Han Chinese surnames are currently in use, but the great proportion of Han Chinese people use only a relatively small number of these surnames; 19 surnames are used by around half of the Han Chinese people, while 100 surnames are used by around 87% of the population.[1][2] A report in 2019 gives the most common Chinese surnames as Wang and Li, each shared by over 100 million people in China.[3] The remaining eight of the top ten most common Chinese surnames are Zhang, Liu, Chen, Yang, Huang, Zhao, Wu and Zhou.[4] Two distinct types of Chinese surnames existed in ancient China, namely xing (Chinese: 姓; pinyin: xìng) ancestral clan names and shi (Chinese: 氏; pinyin: shì) branch lineage names. Later, the two terms were used interchangeably, and in the present day, xing refers to the surname and shi may refer either the clan or maiden name. The two terms may also be used together as xingshi for family names or surnames. Most Chinese surnames (xing) in current use were originally shi. The earliest xing surname might be matrilinear, but Han Chinese family name has been exclusively patrilineal for a couple of millennia, passing from father to children. This system of patrilineal surnames is unusual in the world in its long period of continuity and depth of written history, and Chinese people may view their surnames as part of their shared kinship and Han Chinese identity.[5]  Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except sometimes in places with more western influences such as Hong Kong. Traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous in that people tend to marry those with different surnames.[6][7] The most common Chinese surnames were compiled in the Song dynasty work Hundred Family Surnames, which lists over 400 names. The colloquial expressions lǎobǎixìng (老百姓;  lit. old hundred surnames) and bǎixìng (wikt:百姓, lit. hundred surnames) are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, the people, or commoners. Chinese surnames have a history of over 3,000 years. Chinese mythology, however, reaches back further to the legendary figure Fuxi (with the surname Feng), who was said to have established the system of Chinese surnames to distinguish different families and prevent marriage of people with the same family names.[8]  Prior to the Warring States period (fifth century BC), only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was a difference between ancestral clan names or xing (姓) and branch lineage names or shi (氏). Xing may be the more ancient surname that referred to the ancestral tribe or clan, while shi denoted a branch of the tribe or clan.  For example, the ancestors of the Shang had Zi (子) as xing, but the descendants were subdivided into numerous shi including Yin (殷), Song (宋), Kong (空), Tong (同) and others.[1] The distinction between the two began to be blurred by the Warring States period. During the Qin dynasty, name usage was standardised, commoners started to acquire a surname or xing, and the  shi also became xing.[9] By the Han dynasty, families only had xing or xing-shi. The great majority of Han Chinese surnames (now called xing or xingshi) that survive to modern times have their roots in shi rather than the ancient xing.[1]
List of seas on Earth.  This is a list of seas of the World Ocean, including marginal seas, areas of water, various gulfs, bights, bays, and straits.[2] In many cases it is a matter of tradition for a body of water to be named a sea or a bay, etc., therefore all these types are listed here.  Entities called seas which are not divisions of the World Ocean are not included in this list, nor are ocean gyres. There are several terms used for bulges of ocean that result from indentations of land, which overlap in definition, and which are not consistently differentiated:[12] Many features could be considered to be more than one of these, and all of these terms are used in place names inconsistently; especially bays, gulfs, and bights, which can be very large or very small. This list includes large areas of water no matter the term used in the name. The largest terrestrial seas, in decreasing order of area, are:
Zhejiang.  Zhejiang[a] is a coastal province in East China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiangsu and Shanghai to the north, Anhui to the northwest, Jiangxi to the west and Fujian to the south. To the east is the East China Sea, beyond which lies the Ryukyu Islands. The population of Zhejiang stands at 64.6 million, the 8th largest in China. It has been called the backbone of China because it is a major driving force in the Chinese economy and being the birthplace of several notable people, including the Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek and entrepreneur Jack Ma. Zhejiang consists of 90 counties (incl. county-level cities and districts). The area of Zhejiang was controlled by the Kingdom of Yue during the Spring and Autumn period. The Qin dynasty later annexed it in 222 BC. Under the late Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty that followed it, Zhejiangs ports became important centers of international trade. It was occupied by the Empire of Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and placed under the control of the Japanese puppet state known as the Reorganized National Government of China. After the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China, Zhejiangs economy became stagnant under Mao Zedongs policies.[7] After Chinas economic reform, Zhejiang grew to be considered one of Chinas wealthiest provinces, ranking fourth in GDP nationally and fifth by GDP per capita, with a nominal GDP of US$1.27 trillion as of 2024. Zhejiang consists mostly of hills, which account for about 70% of its total area, with higher altitudes towards the south and the west. Zhejiang also has a longer coastline than any other mainland province of China. The Qiantang River runs through the province, from which it derives its name. Included in the province are three thousand islands, the most in China. The capital Hangzhou marks the end of the Grand Canal and lies on Hangzhou Bay on the north of Zhejiang, which separates Shanghai and Ningbo. The bay contains many small islands collectively called the Zhoushan Islands. Hangzhou is a historically important city, and is considered a world city with a Beta+ classification according to GaWC.[8] It includes the notable West Lake. Various varieties of Chinese are spoken in Zhejiang, the most prominent being Wu Chinese. Zhejiang is also one of Chinas leading provinces in research and education. As of 2024[update], two major cities in Zhejiang ranked in the worlds top 200 cities (Hangzhou 13th and Ningbo 123rd) by scientific research output, as tracked by Nature Index.[9]
Chinese name.  Chinese names are personal names used by individuals from Greater China and other parts of the Sinophone world. Sometimes the same set of Chinese characters could be chosen as a Chinese name, a Hong Kong name, a Japanese name, a Korean name, a Han Taiwanese name, a Malaysian Chinese name, or a Vietnamese name, but they would be spelled differently due to their varying historical pronunciation of Chinese characters. Modern Chinese names generally have a one-character surname (姓氏; xìngshì) that comes first, followed by a given name (名; míng) which may be either one or two characters in length. In recent decades, two-character given names are much more commonly chosen; studies during the 2000s and 2010s estimated that over three-quarters of Chinas population at the time had two-character given names,[1][2] with the remainder almost exclusively having one character. Prior to the 21st century, most educated Chinese men also used a courtesy name (or style name; 字) by which they were known among those outside their family and closest friends. Respected artists or poets will sometimes also use a professional art name (号; 號; hào) among their social peers. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a persons given name (without being disrespectful). In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority and superior position to the addressee. Peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures—particularly emperors—used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and for different speakers. Those possessing names (sometimes even mere homophones) identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. The normalization of personal names after the May Fourth Movement has generally eradicated aliases such as the school name and courtesy name but traces of the old taboos remain, particularly within families.
The Sea. The Sea may refer to:
Marine Corps Martial Arts Program.  The Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP, /ˈmɪkmæp/) is a combat system developed by the United States Marine Corps to combine existing and new hand-to-hand and close quarters combat techniques with morale and team-building functions and instruction in the warrior ethos.[1] The program, which began in 2001, trains Marines (and U.S. Navy personnel attached to Marine units) in unarmed combat, edged weapons, weapons of opportunity, and rifle and bayonet techniques. It also stresses mental and character development, including the responsible use of force, leadership, and teamwork. The MCMAP was officially created by Marine Corps Order 1500.54, published in 2002, as a revolutionary step in the development of martial arts skills for Marines and replaces all other close-combat related systems preceding its introduction.[2] MCMAP comes from an evolution dating back to the creation of the Marine Corps, beginning with the martial abilities of Marine boarding parties, who often had to rely on bayonet and cutlass techniques. During World War I these bayonet techniques were supplemented with unarmed combat techniques, which often proved useful in trench warfare. Between the world wars, Colonel Anthony J. Biddle began the creation of standardized bayonet and close combat techniques based on boxing, wrestling, savate and fencing. Also during this period, Captains Wallace M. Greene and Samuel B. Griffith learned Kung Fu techniques from Chinese American Marines and brought this knowledge to other Marines throughout the Marine Corps. In 1956, at Marine Corps Recruit Depot (MCRD) San Diego, Lieutenant Colonel Ralph Hayward (captain of the Judo team at MCRD) made Gunnery Sergeant Bill Miller the new Non-Commissioned Officer in Charge of hand-to-hand combat. Miller was ordered to develop a new curriculum that any Marine could use to quickly kill the enemy. Miller created the program from various martial arts such as Okinawan karate, judo, taekwondo, boxing, and jujutsu. Every Marine recruit that went through MCRD was instructed in Millers combat curriculum. This also included special operations forces from all branches of the military and civilian entities. Later in 2001, retired Gunnery Sergeant Bill Miller was awarded the Black Belt Emeritus for pioneering Martial Arts in the United States Marine Corps.
Ningbo. Ningbo[a] is a sub-provincial city in northeastern Zhejiang province, Peoples Republic of China. It comprises six urban districts, two satellite county-level cities, and two rural counties, including several islands in Hangzhou Bay and the East China Sea. Ningbo is the southern economic center[3] of the Yangtze Delta megalopolis.[4] The port of Ningbo–Zhoushan, spread across several locations, is the worlds busiest port by cargo tonnage and the worlds third-busiest container port since 2010.[5] Ningbo is the core city and center of the Ningbo Metropolitan Area.[4] To the north, Hangzhou Bay separates Ningbo from Shanghai; to the east lies Zhoushan in the East China Sea; on the west and south, Ningbo borders Shaoxing and Taizhou respectively. As of the 2020 Chinese national census, the entire administrated area of Ningbo City had a population of 9.4 million (9,404,283).[6] Ningbo is one of the 15 sub-provincial cities in China, and is one of the five separate state-planning cities[7] in China (the other four being Dalian, Qingdao, Xiamen, and Shenzhen), with the municipality possessing a separate state-planning status in many economic departments, rather than being governed by Zhejiang Province. Therefore, Ningbo has provincial-level autonomy in making economic and financial policies.[8] In 2022, the GDP of Ningbo was CNY 1570,43 billion[9] (US$233.479 billion), and it was ranked 12th among 293 cities in China.[10] Moreover, Ningbo is among the wealthiest cities in China; it ranked 8th in terms of average yearly disposable income in the year of 2020.[11] As of 2020, Ningbo has global headquarters and registered offices of over 100 listed companies,[12] and many regional business headquarters. In 2021, Ningbo featured the seventh most listed companies of all cities in China.[13] Furthermore, Ningbo was among the top 10 Chinese cities in the Urban Business Environment Report released by the Chinese state media China Central Television (CCTV) in 2019.[14] As a city with rich culture and a long history dating back to the Jingtou Mountain Culture in 6300 BCE and the Hemudu culture in 4800 BCE, Ningbo was awarded City of Culture in East Asia by the governments of China, Japan, and Korea in 2016.[15] From 1842, Ningbo was one of the first five treaty ports opened up to the West.  Ningbo is one of the top 200 cities in the world by scientific research as tracked by the Nature Index.[16]
Atlantic Ocean.  The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds five oceanic divisions, with an area of about 85,133,000 km2 (32,870,000 sq mi).[2] It covers approximately 17% of Earths surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the Age of Discovery, it was known for separating the New World of the Americas (North America and South America) from the Old World of Afro-Eurasia (Africa, Asia, and Europe). Through its separation of Afro-Eurasia from the Americas, the Atlantic Ocean has played a central role in the development of human society, globalization, and the histories of many nations. While the Norse were the first known humans to cross the Atlantic, it was the expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492 that proved to be the most consequential. Columbuss expedition ushered in an age of exploration and colonization of the Americas by European powers, most notably Portugal, Spain, France, and the United Kingdom. From the 16th to 19th centuries, the Atlantic Ocean was the center of both an eponymous slave trade and the Columbian exchange while occasionally hosting naval battles. Such naval battles, as well as growing trade from regional American powers like the United States and Brazil, both increased in degree during the early 20th century, and while no major military conflicts have taken place in the Atlantic recently,[when?] the ocean remains a core component of trade around the world. The Atlantic Oceans temperatures vary by location. For example, the South Atlantic maintains warm temperatures year-round, as its basin countries are tropical. The North Atlantic maintains a temperate climate, as its basin countries are temperate and have seasons of extremely low temperatures and high temperatures. [5] The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Europe and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south. Other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica. The Atlantic Ocean is divided in two parts, the northern and southern Atlantic, by the Equator.[6]
Ancient warfare. Ancient warfare is war that was conducted from the beginning of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. The difference between prehistoric and ancient warfare is more organization oriented than technology oriented. The development of first city-states, and then empires, allowed warfare to change dramatically. Beginning in Mesopotamia, states produced sufficient agricultural surplus. This allowed full-time ruling elites and military commanders to emerge. While the bulk of military forces were still farmers, the society could portion off each year. Thus, organized armies developed for the first time. These new armies were able to help states grow in size and become increasingly centralized. In Europe and the Near East, the end of antiquity is often equated with the Fall of Rome in 476 AD, the wars of the Eastern Roman Empire on its Southwestern Asian and North African borders, and the beginnings of the Muslim conquests in the 7th century. In China, it can also be seen as ending of the growing role of mounted warriors needed to counter the ever-growing threat from the north in the 5th century and the beginning of the Tang dynasty in 618 AD. In India, the ancient period ends with the decline of the Gupta Empire (6th century) and the beginning of the Muslim conquests there from the 8th century. In Japan, the ancient period is considered to end with the rise of feudalism in the Kamakura period in the 12–13th century. Early ancient armies continued to primarily use bows and spears, the same weapons that had been developed in prehistoric times for hunting. The findings at the site of Nataruk in Turkana, Kenya, have been interpreted as evidence of inter-group conflict and warfare in antiquity,[1] but this interpretation has been challenged.[2] Early armies in Egypt and China followed a similar pattern of using massed infantry armed with bows and spears. Infantry at this time was the dominant form of war, partially due to the camel saddle and the stirrup not being invented yet. The infantries at this time would be divided into ranged and shock, with shock infantry either charging to cause penetration of the enemy line or hold their own. These forces would ideally be combined, thus presenting the opponent with a dilemma: group the forces and leave them vulnerable to ranged, or spread them out and make them vulnerable to shock. This balance would eventually change as technology allowed for chariots, cavalry, and artillery to play an active role on the field. No clear line can be drawn between ancient and medieval warfare. The characteristic properties of medieval warfare, notably heavy cavalry and siege engines such as the trebuchet were first introduced in Late Antiquity. The main division within the ancient period is at the beginning Iron Age with the introduction of cavalry (resulting in the decline of chariot warfare), of naval warfare (Sea Peoples), and the development of an industry based on ferrous metallurgy which allowed for the mass production of metal weapons and thus the equipment of large standing armies. The first military power to profit from these innovations was the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which achieved a hitherto unseen extent of centralized control, the first world power to extend over the entire Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt). As states grew in size, the speed of mobilization became crucial because central power could not hold if rebellions could not be suppressed rapidly. The first solution to this was the chariot, which was initially used in the Middle East from around 1800 BC. First pulled by oxen and donkeys, they allowed rapid traversing of the relatively flat lands of the Middle East. The chariots were light enough that they could easily be floated across rivers. Improvements in the ability to train horses soon allowed them to be used to pull chariots, possibly as early as 2100 BC,[3] and their greater speed and power made chariots even more efficient. The major limitation of the use of chariots was terrain; while very mobile on flat, hard, open ground, it was very difficult to traverse more difficult terrain, such as rough ground, even sparse trees or bushes, small ravines or streams, or marsh. In such terrain, chariots were less maneuverable than common foot soldiers, and later cavalry.
Ocean.  The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth.[8] The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as oceans (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic/Southern, and Arctic Ocean),[9][10][11]  and are themselves mostly divided into seas, gulfs and subsequent bodies of water. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water[8] and is the primary component of Earths hydrosphere, acting as a huge reservoir of heat for Earths energy budget, as well as for its carbon cycle and water cycle, forming the basis for climate and weather patterns worldwide. The ocean is essential to life on Earth, harbouring most of Earths animals and protist life,[12] originating photosynthesis and therefore Earths atmospheric oxygen, still supplying half of it.[13] Ocean scientists split the ocean into vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. Horizontally the ocean covers the oceanic crust, which it shapes. Where the ocean meets dry land it covers relatively shallow continental shelfs, which are part of Earths continental crust. Human activity is mostly coastal with high negative impacts on marine life. Vertically the pelagic zone is the open oceans water column from the surface to the ocean floor. The water column is further divided into zones based on depth and the amount of light present. The photic zone starts at the surface and is defined to be the depth at which light intensity is only 1% of the surface value[14]: 36  (approximately 200 m in the open ocean). This is the zone where photosynthesis can occur. In this process plants and microscopic algae (free-floating phytoplankton) use light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients to produce organic matter. As a result, the photic zone is the most biodiverse and the source of the food supply which sustains most of the ocean ecosystem. Light can only penetrate a few hundred more meters; the rest of the deeper ocean is cold and dark (these zones are called mesopelagic and aphotic zones). Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F). Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about −2 °C (28 °F). In all parts of the ocean, deep ocean temperatures range between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F).[15] Constant circulation of water in the ocean creates ocean currents. Those currents are caused by forces operating on the water, such as temperature and salinity differences, atmospheric circulation (wind), and the Coriolis effect.[16] Tides create tidal currents, while wind and waves cause surface currents. The Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current, Agulhas Current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current are all major ocean currents. Such currents transport massive amounts of water, gases, pollutants and heat to different parts of the world, and from the surface into the deep ocean.  All this has impacts on the global climate system. Ocean water contains dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. An exchange of these gases occurs at the oceans surface. The solubility of these gases depends on the temperature and salinity of the water.[17] The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is rising due to CO2 emissions, mainly from fossil fuel combustion. As the oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, a higher concentration leads to ocean acidification (a drop in pH value).[18]
Law enforcement. Law enforcement is the activity of some members of the government or other social institutions who act in an organized manner to enforce the law by investigating, deterring, rehabilitating, or punishing people who violate the rules and norms governing that society.[1] The term encompasses police, courts and corrections. These three components of the criminal justice system may operate independently of each other or collectively through the use of record sharing and cooperation. Throughout the world, law enforcement are also associated with protecting the public, life, property, and keeping the peace in society.[2] The concept of law enforcement dates back to ancient times, and forms of law enforcement and police have existed in various forms across many human societies. Modern state legal codes use the term law enforcement officer or peace officer to include every person vested by the legislating state with police power or authority; traditionally, anyone sworn or badged who can arrest any person for a violation of criminal law is included under the umbrella term of law enforcement. Although law enforcement may be most concerned with the prevention and punishment of crimes, organizations exist to discourage a wide variety of non-criminal violations of rules and norms, effected through the imposition of less severe consequences such as probation. Law enforcement organizations existed in ancient times, such as prefects in ancient China, paqūdus in Babylonia, curaca in the Inca Empire, vigiles in the Roman Empire, and Medjay in ancient Egypt. Who law enforcers were and reported to depended on the civilization and often changed over time, but they were typically  enslaved people, soldiers, officers of a judge, or hired by settlements and households. Aside from their duties to enforce laws, many ancient law enforcers also served as slave catchers, firefighters, watchmen, city guards, and bodyguards. By the post-classical period and the Middle Ages, forces such as the Santa Hermandades, the shurta, and the Maréchaussée provided services ranging from law enforcement and personal protection to customs enforcement and waste collection. In England, a complex law enforcement system emerged, where tithings, groups of ten families, were responsible for ensuring good behavior and apprehending criminals; groups of ten tithings (hundreds) were overseen by a reeve; hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires; and shires were overseen by shire-reeves. In feudal Japan, samurai were responsible for enforcing laws.
Self-defense.  Self-defense (self-defence primarily in Commonwealth English) is a countermeasure that involves defending the health and well-being of oneself from harm.[1] The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions.[2] Physical self-defense is using physical force to counter an immediate threat of violence. Such force can be either armed or unarmed. In either case, the chances of success depend on various parameters, related to the severity of the threat on one hand, but also on the mental and physical preparedness of the defender.[3] Many martial arts styles are practiced for self-defense or include self-defense techniques. Some styles train primarily for self-defense, while other combat sports can be effectively applied for self-defense. Some martial arts teach how to escape from a knife or gun situation or how to break away from a punch, while others teach how to attack. Many modern martial arts schools now use a combination of martial arts styles and techniques to provide more practical self-defense. They will often customize self-defense training to suit individual participants.[citation needed] A wide variety of weapons can be deployed defensively. The most suitable depends on the threat presented, the victim or victims, and the defenders experience. Legal restrictions also vary greatly and influence which self-defense options are available.[citation needed]
Special cities of Japan. A special city (特例市, Tokureishi) of Japan was a category of cities in Japan in operation until 2015. Each special city had a population of at least 200,000, and was delegated functions[specify] normally carried out by prefectural governments. Those functions were a subset of the functions that were delegated to core cities. The category of special cities was established by the Local Autonomy Law, article 252 clause 26. They were designated by the Cabinet after a request by a city council and a prefectural assembly. Because the level of autonomy delegated to special cities was similar to that for core cities, after consultation with local governments the category of special cities was abolished in the revision of the Local Autonomy Act enacted on April 1, 2015. Cities with a population of at least 200,000 may now apply to be directly promoted to core city status. Special cities that have not been promoted may still retain autonomy, and are called special cities for the enforcement period (施行時特例市, Shikōji Tokurei shi), but this is regarded as a temporary arrangement. [1] The special cities were not the same as the special wards of Tokyo. They were also different from the special (designated) cities (特別市, tokubetsu-shi) that were legally established under the Local Autonomy Law between 1947 and 1956, in an arrangement that was never implemented. They would have been prefecture-independent cities (in an analogous way, special wards are city-independent wards). They were the legal successors to the 1922 six major cities (roku daitoshi; only five were left in 1947 as Tokyo City had been abolished in the war) and precursors to the 1956 designated major cities that have expanded autonomy, but not full independence from prefectures.[2] As of 2015, when the category was abolished, 23 cities had been designated special cities:
Combat. Combat (French for fight) is a purposeful violent conflict between multiple combatants with the intent to harm the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed (not using weapons). Combat is resorted to either as a method of self-defense or to impose ones will upon others. An instance of combat can be a standalone confrontation or part of a wider conflict, and its scale can range from a fight between individuals to a war between organized groups. Combat may also be benign and recreational, as in the cases of combat sports and mock combat. Combat may comply with, or be in violation of, local or international laws regarding conflict. Examples of rules include the Geneva Conventions (covering the treatment of people in war), medieval chivalry, the Marquess of Queensberry Rules (covering boxing), and the individual rulesets of various combat sports. Hand-to-hand combat (melee) is combat at very close range, attacking the opponent with the body (striking, kicking, strangling, etc.) and/or with a melee weapon (knives, swords, batons, etc.), as opposed to a ranged weapon. Hand-to-hand combat can be further divided into three sections depending on the distance and positioning of the combatants: Military combat involves two or more opposing military forces meeting in warfare. Military combat situations can involve multiple groups, such as guerilla groups, insurgents, domestic and/or foreign governments. A military combat situation is known either as a battle or a war, depending on the size of the fighting and which geographical areas in which it occurs. Combat effectiveness has always demanded that the personnel maintain strategic preparedness by being sufficiently trained, armed, equipped, and funded to carry out combat operations in the unit to which they are assigned.[1] Warfare falls under the law of war, which govern its purposes and conduct, and protect the rights of combatants and non-combatants.
Outline of war. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to war: War – organised and often prolonged armed conflict that is carried out by states or non-state actors – is characterised by extreme violence, social disruption, and economic destruction.[1][2] War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political communities, and therefore is defined as a form of political violence or intervention.[1][3] Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general.[4] See: Warfare by era Types of military operations, by scope: Philosophy of war – examines war beyond the typical questions of weaponry and strategy, inquiring into such things as the meaning and etiology of war, the relationship between war and human nature, and the ethics of war.
Prehistoric warfare. Prehistoric warfare refers to war that occurred between societies without recorded history. The existence—and the definition—of war in humanitys state of nature has been a controversial topic in the history of ideas at least since Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan (1651) argued a war of all against all, a view directly challenged by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in a Discourse on Inequality (1755) and The Social Contract (1762). The debate over human nature continues, spanning contemporary anthropology, archaeology, ethnography, history, political science, psychology, primatology, and philosophy in such divergent books as Azar Gats War in Human Civilization and Raymond C. Kellys Warless Societies and the Origin of War.[1][2] For the purposes of this article, prehistoric war will be broadly defined as a state of organized lethal aggression between autonomous preliterate communities.[3][4] Some scientists argue that humans have a predisposition for violence.[5] Chimpanzees, the great apes genetically closest to humans,[6] are known to wage wars over territories and resources.[5] According to cultural anthropologist and ethnographer Raymond C. Kelly, population density among the earliest hunter-gatherer  societies of Homo erectus was probably low enough to avoid armed conflict. The development of the throwing-spear and ambush hunting techniques required cooperation, which made potential violence between hunting parties very costly. The need to prevent competition for resources by maintenance of low population densities may have accelerated the migration out of Africa of H. erectus some 1.8 million years ago as a natural consequence of conflict avoidance. Hypotheses which suggest that genocidal violence may have caused the extinction of the Neanderthals have been offered by several authors,[7] including Jared Diamond[8] and Ronald Wright.[9] The hypothesis that early humans violently replaced Neanderthals was first proposed by French paleontologist Marcellin Boule (the first person to publish an analysis of a Neanderthal) in 1912.[10] However, several scholars have formed alternative theories as to why the Neanderthals died out, and there is no clear consensus as to what caused their extinction within the current scientific community.[11]
Military history.  Military history is the study of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships. Professional historians normally focus on military affairs that had a major impact on the societies involved as well as the aftermath of conflicts, while amateur historians and hobbyists often take a larger interest in the details of battles, equipment, and uniforms in use. The essential subjects of military history study are the causes of war, the social and cultural foundations, military doctrine on each side, the logistics, leadership, technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these changed over time. On the other hand, just war theory explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better limit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to establish a doctrine of military ethics. As an applied field, military history has been studied at academies and service schools because the military command seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past. When certifying military history instructors[1] the Combat Studies Institute deemphasizes rote detail memorization and focuses on themes and context in relation to current and future conflict, using the motto Past is Prologue.[2]
Tankōbon.  A tankōbon (単行本; lit. independent/standalone book)[a] is a standard publishing format for books in Japan, alongside other formats such as shinsho (17×11 cm paperback books) and bunkobon. Used as a loanword in English, the term specifically refers to a printed collection of a manga that was previously published in a serialized format. Manga tankōbon typically contain a handful of chapters, and may collect multiple volumes as a series continues publication. Major publishing imprints for tankōbon of manga include Jump Comics (for serials in Shueishas Weekly Shōnen Jump and other Jump magazines), Kodanshas Shōnen Magazine Comics, Shogakukans Shōnen Sunday Comics, and Akita Shoten’s Shōnen Champion Comics. Increasingly after 1959,[citation needed] manga came to be published in thick, phone-book-sized weekly or monthly anthology manga magazines (such as Weekly Shōnen Magazine or Weekly Shōnen Jump). These anthologies often have hundreds of pages and dozens of individual series by multiple authors. They are printed on cheap newsprint and are considered disposable. Since the 1930s, though, comic strips had been compiled into tankōbon collecting multiple installments from a single series and reprinting them in a roughly paperback-sized volume on higher quality paper than in the original magazine printing.[1] Strips in manga magazines and tankobon are typically printed in black and white, but sometimes certain sections may be printed in colour or using colored inks or paper. In English, while a tankōbon translation is usually marketed as a graphic novel or trade paperback, the transliterated terms tankoubon and tankōbon are sometimes used amongst online communities. Japanese speakers frequently refer to manga tankōbon by the English loanword comics (コミックス, komikkusu),[2] although it is more widespread for being used in place of the word manga, as they are the same thing. The term also refers to the format itself—a comic collection in a trade paperback sized (roughly 13 cm × 18 cm, 5 in × 7 in) book (as opposed to the larger 18 cm × 25 cm, 7 in × 10 in format used by traditional American graphic novels). Although Japanese manga tankobon may be in various sizes, the most common are Japanese B6 (12.8 cm × 18.2 cm, 5.04 in × 7.17 in) and ISO A5 (14.8 cm × 21.0 cm, 5.83 in × 8.27 in). The tankōbon format has made inroads in the American comics market, with several major publishers opting to release some of their titles in this smaller format, which is sometimes also called digest format or digest size. In the United States, many manga are released in the so-called Tokyopop trim or Tokyopop size (approximately 13 cm × 19 cm, 5 in × 7.5 in).[3]
Special wards of Tokyo. The 23 special wards (特別区, tokubetsu-ku) of Tokyo are a unique form of municipality under Japans 1947 Local Autonomy Law. They are city-level wards: primary subdivisions of a prefecture with municipal autonomy. Their combined land area of 627 km2 (242 sq mi) is, for comparison, about three-quarters the size of Singapore, and their combined population, as of 2024, is almost 10 million, giving a density of about 15,742 people/km2 (40,770 people/sq mi). The same law today allows for such entities to be established in other prefectures but none have been set up. Tokyos 23 special wards unite with 39 ordinary municipalities (cities, towns and villages)[2] to their west to form Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture. Without the ordinary municipalities the special wards account for what was the core Tokyo City, before this was abolished in 1943 under the Tōjō Cabinet. It was four years later, during the Occupation of Japan, that autonomy was restored to Tokyo City by means of the special wards, each being given a directly elected mayor and assembly like all other cities, towns and villages in Japan. In Japanese the 23 are collectively also known as Wards area of Tokyo Metropolis (東京都区部, Tōkyō-to kubu), former Tokyo City (旧東京市, kyū-Tōkyō-shi), or less formally the 23 wards (23区, nijūsan-ku) or just Tokyo (東京, Tōkyō) if the context makes obvious that this does not refer to the whole prefecture. Most of Tokyos prominent infrastructures are located within the special wards. Today, all wards refer to themselves as a city in English, but the Japanese designation of special ward (tokubetsu-ku) remains unchanged. They are a group of 23 municipalities; there is no associated single government body separate from the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, which governs all 62 municipalities of Tokyo, not just the special wards. Analogues exist in historic and contemporary Chinese and Korean administration: Special wards are city-independent wards, analogously, special cities/special cities (teukbyeol-si/tokubetsu-shi) are province-/prefecture-independent cities and were intended to be introduced under SCAP in Japan, too; but in Japan, implementation was stalled, and in 1956 special cities were replaced in the Local Autonomy Law with designated major cities which gain additional autonomy, but remain part of prefectures. In everyday English, Tokyo as a whole is also referred to as a city even though it contains 62 cities, towns, villages and special wards. The closest English equivalents for the special wards would be the London boroughs or New York City boroughs if Greater London and New York City had been abolished in the same way as Tokyo City, making the boroughs top-level divisions of England or New York state. Although special wards are autonomous from the Tokyo metropolitan government, they also function as a single urban entity in respect to certain public services, including water supply, sewage disposal, and fire services. These services are handled by the Tokyo metropolitan government, whereas cities would normally provide these services themselves. This situation is very similar between the Federal District and its 35 administrative regions in Brazil,but with local elections. To finance the joint public services it provides to the 23 wards, the metropolitan government levies some of the taxes that would normally be levied by city governments, and also makes transfer payments to wards that cannot finance their own local administration.[3]
List of towns in Japan.  A town (町; chō or machi) is a local administrative unit in Japan.  It is a local public body along with prefecture (ken or other equivalents), city (shi), and village (mura).  Geographically, a town is contained within a district. The same word (町; machi or chō) is also used in names of smaller regions, usually a part of a ward in a city. This is a legacy of when smaller towns were formed on the outskirts of a city, only to eventually merge into it.
Australasia. Australasia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising Australia, New Zealand (overlapping with Polynesia), and sometimes New Guinea and surrounding islands (overlapping with Melanesia). The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologically, where the term covers several slightly different but related regions. Charles de Brosses coined the term (as French Australasie) in Histoire des navigations aux terres australes[1] (1756). He derived it from the Latin for south of Asia and differentiated the area from Polynesia (to the east) and the southeast Pacific (Magellanica).[2] In the late 19th century, the term Australasia was used in reference to the Australasian colonies. In this sense it related specifically to the British colonies south of Asia: New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Western Australia, Victoria (i.e., the Australian colonies) and New Zealand.[3] Australasia found continued geopolitical attention in the early 20th century. Historian Hansong Li finds that against the backdrop of British colonialism, German geopoliticians considered Australasia as a counterweight to the former German South Sea Edge (Südseerand), both of which form the Indo-Pacific region.[4] The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary gives two meanings of Australasia. One, especially in Australian use, is Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and the neighbouring islands of the Pacific. The other, especially in New Zealand use, is just Australia and New Zealand.[5] Two Merriam-Webster dictionaries online (Collegiate and Unabridged) define Australasia as Australia, New Zealand, and Melanesia. The American Heritage Dictionary online recognizes two senses in use: one more precise and the other broader, loosely covering all of Oceania.
List of villages in Japan.  A village (村, mura, son)[a] is a local administrative unit in Japan.[1] It is a local public body along with prefecture (県, ken; or other equivalents), city (市, shi), and town (町, chō, machi). Geographically, a villages extent is contained within a prefecture. Villages are larger than a local settlement; each is a subdivision of rural district (郡, gun), which are subdivided into towns and villages with no overlap and no uncovered area. As a result of mergers and elevation to higher statuses, the number of villages in Japan is decreasing. As of 2006, 13 prefectures no longer have any villages: Tochigi (since March 20, 2006), Fukui (since March 3, 2006), Ishikawa (since March 1, 2005), Shizuoka (since July 1, 2005), Hyōgo (since April 1, 1999), Mie (since November 1, 2005), Shiga (since January 1, 2005), Hiroshima (since November 5, 2004), Yamaguchi (since March 20, 2006), Ehime (since January 16, 2005), Kagawa (since April 1, 1999), Nagasaki (since October 1, 2005), and Saga (since March 20, 2006). 村 can have the reading of mura or son, but with the exception of Tottori, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Tokushima, Miyazaki and Okinawa, most prefectures use the mura reading.
Madman Entertainment.  Madman Entertainment Pty. Ltd., also known as Madman Films, stylized as MADMAN, is an Australian film and television production, distribution, entertainment, and rights management company headquartered in East Melbourne, Victoria, specialising in feature films, documentaries and television series across theatrical and home entertainment formats in Australia and United States. Madman Entertainment was founded in 1996 by Tim Anderson and Paul Wiegard as a mail order business specialising in imported anime titles, after following the success of Manga Entertainment in the United States and the United Kingdom.[2] Originally selling titles on VHS, the company became the second Australian distributor to author DVDs in-house, with the 1995 film Ghost in the Shell being their first DVD release. In 1998, Madman began distributing anime to television outlets, with Neon Genesis Evangelion airing on SBS TV. Madman  manages the distribution of live-action titles through its labels Madman Films, Directors Suite, Madman Sports, Madman Laughs, Madman Television, Bollywood Masala and Eastern Eye as well as childrens entertainment through its Planet Mad and Mad4Kids labels.  Madman also has a theatrical distribution arm called Madman Cinema. In addition, the company distributes programmes acquired or produced by Australias Special Broadcasting Service (and newly, titles from WWE in Australasia, thus replacing Shock Entertainment[3]) on DVD and Blu-ray.[4] Until 2005, Madman was also the distributor for film distributor Umbrella Entertainment.[5] On 1 May 2006, Madman Group was purchased by Funtastic Limited for A$34.5 million, in order to acquire the media rights to titles for which Funtastic held the toy rights. Madman founders Tim Anderson and Paul Wiegard also signed an employment agreement upon the acquisition, remaining on Madmans board of directors.[6]
Military.  A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a distinct military uniform. They may consist of one or more military branches such as an army, navy, air force, space force, marines, or coast guard. The main task of a military is usually defined as defence of their state and its interests against external armed threats. In broad usage, the terms armed forces and military are often synonymous, although in technical usage a distinction is sometimes made in which a countrys armed forces may include other paramilitary forces such as armed police. Beyond warfare, the military may be employed in additional sanctioned and non-sanctioned functions within the state, including internal security threats, crowd control, promotion of political agendas, emergency services and reconstruction, protecting corporate economic interests, social ceremonies, and national honour guards.[1] A nations military may function as a discrete social subculture, with dedicated infrastructure such as military housing, schools, utilities, logistics, hospitals, legal services, food production, finance, and banking services. The profession of soldiering is older than recorded history.[2] Some images of classical antiquity portray the power and feats of military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC from the reign of Ramses II, features in bas-relief monuments. The first Emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang, created the Terracotta Army to represent his military might.[3] The Ancient Romans wrote many treatises and writings on warfare, as well as many decorated triumphal arches and victory columns.
War.  War is an armed conflict[a] between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organized groups.[2] It is generally characterized by widespread violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces. Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general.[3] Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties. The English word war derives from the 11th-century Old English words wyrre and werre, from Old French werre (guerre as in modern French), in turn from the Frankish *werra, ultimately deriving from the Proto-Germanic *werzō mixture, confusion. The word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the modern German verwirren, meaning to confuse, to perplex, to bring into confusion.[4]
Tang dynasty (disambiguation). Tang dynasty (618–907) was an imperial dynasty in early medieval China. Tang dynasty may also refer to:
Northern America. Northern America is the northernmost subregion of North America, as well as the northernmost region in the Americas. The boundaries may be drawn significantly differently depending on the source of the definition. In one definition, it lies directly north of Middle America.[2] Northern Americas land frontier with the rest of North America then coincides with the Mexico–United States border. Geopolitically, according to the United Nations scheme of geographical regions and subregions, Northern America consists of Bermuda, Canada, Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon and the United States (the contiguous United States and Alaska only, excluding Hawaii, Navassa Island, Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, and other minor U.S. Pacific territories).[3][4] Maps using the term Northern America date back to 1755, when the region was occupied by France, Great Britain, and Spain.[5] The Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America in 1813 applied to Mexico. Today, Northern America includes the Canada–US dyad, developed countries that exhibit very high Human Development Indexes and intense economic integration while sharing many socioeconomic characteristics.[6] The World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions has Northern America as the seventh of its nine botanical continents. Its definition differs from the usual political one: Mexico is included, Bermuda is excluded (being placed in the Caribbean region), Hawaii is excluded (being placed in the Pacific botanical continent) and all of the Aleutian Islands, Russian as well as American, are included.[7] * indicates Demographics of country or territory links. Africa
Wu Zhou.  Zhou, known in historiography as the Wu Zhou (Chinese: 武周), was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that existed between 690 and 705. The dynasty consisted of the reign of one empress regnant, Wu Zhao (Wu Zetian), who usurped the throne of her son, the Emperor Ruizong of Tang, in 690. The dynasty lasted until another one of Wu Zhaos sons, the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, was restored to the throne in the Shenlong Coup [zh] in 705, marking the restoration of the Tang dynasty. Historians generally regard the Wu Zhou as an interregnum of the Tang dynasty. Wu named her dynasty after the ancient Zhou dynasty, from whom she believed herself to be descended. Before her coronation, Wu Zhao (as she was then known), was often acting as de facto regent for her husband, Emperor Gaozong, or her sons, giving her a head-start in accomplishing her aims, which she then consolidated as huangdi of Zhou once she became ruler in name also. Beginning in 655, Wu began to preside over court meetings in the name of the emperor, and she co-ruled with Emperor Gaozong until his death. After Gaozongs death, she ruled in name of her sons, who reigned officially as puppet emperors, and power was completely and solely in her hands. In 690, she deposed her son, Emperor Ruizong, and declared herself Huangdi (emperor) of her Zhou Dynasty. The dynastys capital was Shendu[4][page needed] (神都 Divine Capital, present-day Luoyang). Despite Wus infamous rise to power, there is evidence that suggests women were granted more privileges during her reign, and China was in a state of great prosperity during her rule.[citation needed]
Whirlpool (1934 film). Whirlpool is a 1934 American pre-Code drama film directed by Roy William Neill and starring Jack Holt and Jean Arthur. The screenplay concerns a carnival owner convicted of manslaughter after a man is killed in a fight. Buck Rankin is a shady carnival promoter who falls in love with Helen and decides to go straight and sell the carnival. However, a fight over a con game causes a melee at the carnival, during which Rankin accidentally kills a man. He is convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to 20 years in prison. Eight months later, Helen reveals to him in prison that she is pregnant with his child and refuses his request that she divorce him. For the good of his wife and child, Rankin decides to fake his own death. After seeing fellow prisoner Farley leap to his death in the roiling waters and deadly whirlpool surrounding the prison, Rankin forges a letter to Helen—on the wardens stationery—informing her that Rankin died while attempting to escape and that his body had not been found. Many years later, Rankin is released from prison. He adopts the alias Duke Sheldon and, with his carnival partner Mac, becomes wealthy by using the gambling skills that Rankin learned while incarcerated. Helen has since married judge Jim Morrison. Sandy, Rankins daughter by Helen, is a newspaper reporter engaged to marry fellow reporter Bob Andrews, but she knows nothing of her fathers existence. Sandy is assigned to write a story on Duke and recognizes him as her father from an old photograph that Helen has kept. She reveals herself to him as his daughter, and tough guy Duke melts. They become inseparable, and spend as much time together as possible: at lunch and dinner dates, at sporting events and amusement centers, and in quiet interludes. Sandys continual late nights, and mysterious comings and goings with an unknown man, disturb her mother and worry her fiancé.
List of cities in Japan.  This is a list of cities in Japan sorted by prefecture and within prefecture by founding date. The list is also sortable by population, area, density and foundation date. Most large cities in Japan are cities designated by government ordinance. Some regionally important cities are designated as core cities. Tokyo is not included on this list, as the City of Tokyo ceased to exist on July 1, 1943. Tokyo now exists as a special metropolis prefecture (都, to), with 23 special wards (with the same status of city) making up the former boundaries of the former city in the eastern half of the prefecture.
Metropolitan Museum (disambiguation). Metropolitan Museum normally refers to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum may also refer to:
Luoyang. Luoyang (simplified Chinese: 洛阳; traditional Chinese: 洛陽; pinyin: Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast. As of December 31, 2018, Luoyang had a population of 6,888,500 inhabitants with 2,751,400 people living in the built-up (or metro) area made of the citys five out of six urban districts (except the Jili District not continuously urbanized) and Yanshi District, now being conurbated.[1] By the end of 2022, Luoyang Municipality had jurisdiction over 7 municipal districts, 7 counties and 1 development zone. The permanent population is 7.079 million.[4][5] Situated on the central plain of China, Luoyang is among the oldest cities in China and one of the cradles of Chinese civilization. It is the earliest of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China. The name Luoyang originates from the citys location on the north or sunny (yang) side of the Luo River. Since the river flows from west to east and the sun is to the south of the river, the sun always shines on the north side of the river. Luoyang has had several names over the centuries, including Luoyi (洛邑) and Luozhou (洛州), but Luoyang has been its primary name.  It has also been called Dongdu (東都; eastern capital) during the Tang dynasty, Xijing (西京; western capital) during the Song dynasty, or Jingluo (Chinese: 京洛; lit. capital Luo).  During the rule of Wu Zetian, the only female emperor in Chinese history, the city was known as Shendu (神都; divine capital). Luoyang was renamed Henanfu (河南府) during the Qing dynasty but regained its former name in 1912.[6] Several cities – all of which are generally referred to as Luoyang – have been built in this area. In 2070 BC, the Xia dynasty king Tai Kang moved the Xia capital to the intersection of the Luo and Yi and named the city Zhenxun (斟鄩). In 1600 BC, Tang of Shang defeated Jie, the final Xia dynasty king, and built Western Bo,  (西亳), a new capital on the Luo River. The ruins of Western Bo are located in Luoyang Prefecture.[citation needed] In 1036 BC a settlement named Chengzhou (成周) was constructed by the Duke of Zhou for the remnants of the captured Shang nobility. The Duke also moved the Nine Tripod Cauldrons to Chengzhou from the Zhou dynasty capital at Haojing. A second Western Zhou capital, Wangcheng (also: Luoyi) was built 15 km (9.3 mi) west of Chengzhou.  Wangcheng became the capital of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in 771 BC.  The Eastern Zhou dynasty capital was moved to Chengzhou in 510 BC. Later, the Eastern Han dynasty capital of Luoyang would be built over Chengzhou.  Modern Luoyang is built over the ruins of Wangcheng, which are still visible today at Wangcheng Park.[7]
Changan. 34°18′30″N 108°51′30″E / 34.30833°N 108.85833°E / 34.30833; 108.85833 Changan is a former name of the city Xian in Shaanxi Province, China, used when it served as the capital city of several Chinese dynasties from 202 BC to AD 907. For much of its time as the capital of the Western Han and Tang, it was the largest city in the world. The site of Changan south of the Wei River in central Xian has been inhabited since Neolithic times, when the Yangshao culture had a major center at Banpo to its south during the 5th millennium BC. Fenghao, the twin capitals of the Western Zhou, straddled the Feng River to its southwest from the 11th to 8th centuries BC and the state of Qin and its imperial dynasty had their capital in nearby Xianyang, north of the Wei, in the 4th & 3rd centuries BC. The First Emperors mausoleum and its Terracotta Army lay to its east. Liu Bang moved his court to the Changle Palace in 200 BC, soon after the establishment of the Western Han. It held a central position in the large but easily defended Guanzhong Region, near but outside the ruins of the Qin Xianyang and Epang Palaces. Han Changan grew up to the north of it and the adjacent Weiyang Palace. Weiyang continued to serve as the imperial palace of the Xin, late Eastern Han, Western Jin, Han-Zhao, Former Qin, Later Qin, Western Wei, Northern Zhou, and early Sui dynasties and became the largest palace ever built, covering 4.8 km2 (1,200 acres)—nearly seven times larger than the Forbidden City—before its destruction under the early Tang. The main areas of Sui and Tang-era Changan was south of the earlier settlement and southeast of Weiyang. Around AD 750, Changan was called a million-man city in Chinese records; most modern estimates put the population within the walls of the Tang city around 800,000–1,000,000.[1] The 742 census recorded in the New Book of Tang listed the population of Jingzhao, the province including the capital and its metropolitan area, as 1,960,188 people in 362,921 households[2] and modern scholars—including Charles Benn[3] and Patricia Ebrey[4]—have concurred that Changan and its immediate hinterland could have supported around 2,000,000 people.[5] Amid the Fall of Tang, the warlord Zhu Wen forcibly relocated most of the citys remaining population to Luoyang in 904. Changan was of minor importance in the following centuries but again became a regional center under the Northern Song. Its name was changed repeatedly under the Mongol Yuan dynasty before the Ming settled on Xian and erected its city walls around the former Sui and Tang palace district, an area about an eighth the size of the medieval city at its height.
Middle Chinese.  Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the Qieyun, a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren believed that the dictionary recorded a speech standard of the capital Changan of the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, based on the preface of the Qieyun, most scholars now believe that it records a compromise between northern and southern reading and poetic traditions from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period. This composite system contains important information for the reconstruction of the preceding system of Old Chinese phonology (early 1st millennium BC). The fanqie method used to indicate pronunciation in these dictionaries, though an improvement on earlier methods, proved awkward in practice. The mid-12th-century Yunjing and other rime tables incorporate a more sophisticated and convenient analysis of the Qieyun phonology. The rime tables attest to a number of sound changes that had occurred over the centuries following the publication of the Qieyun. Linguists sometimes refer to the system of the Qieyun as Early Middle Chinese and the variant revealed by the rime tables as Late Middle Chinese. The dictionaries and tables describe pronunciations in relative terms, but do not give their actual sounds. Karlgren was the first to attempt a reconstruction of the sounds of Middle Chinese, comparing its categories with modern varieties of Chinese and the Sino-Xenic pronunciations used in the reading traditions of neighbouring countries. Several other scholars have produced their own reconstructions using similar methods. The Qieyun system is often used as a framework for Chinese dialectology. With the exception of Min varieties, which show independent developments from Eastern Han Chinese, modern Chinese varieties can be largely treated as divergent developments from Middle Chinese. The study of Middle Chinese also provides for a better understanding and analysis of Classical Chinese poetry, such as the study of Tang poetry.
The Met Fifth Avenue.  The Met Fifth Avenue is the primary museum building for the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The building is located at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park in Manhattans Upper East Side. After negotiations with the City of New York in 1871, the Met was granted the land between the East Park Drive, Fifth Avenue, and the 79th and 85th Street transverse roads in Central Park. A red-brick and stone building was designed by American architect Calvert Vaux and his collaborator Jacob Wrey Mould. Vauxs ambitious building was not well received; the building was dubbed by critics as a mausoleum, its High Victorian Gothic style was already considered dated prior to completion, and the president of the Met termed the project a mistake.[6] Within 20 years, a new architectural plan engulfing the Vaux building was already being executed. Since that time, many additions have been made, including the distinctive Beaux-Arts Fifth Avenue facade, Great Hall, and Grand Stairway. These were designed by architect and Met trustee Richard Morris Hunt, but completed by his son, Richard Howland Hunt in 1902 after his fathers death.[7] The architectural sculpture on the facade is by Karl Bitter.[8] The wings that completed the Fifth Avenue facade in the 1910s were designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. The modernistic glass sides and rear of the museum are the work of Roche-Dinkeloo. Kevin Roche was the architect for the master plan and expansion of the museum for over 40 years. He was responsible for designing all of its new wings and renovations including but not limited to the American Wing, Greek and Roman Court, and recently opened Islamic Wing.[9]
Whirlpool (1959 film).  Whirlpool is a 1959 British crime film directed by Lewis Allen and starring Juliette Gréco and O. W. Fischer.[1][2] It was written by Laurence P. Bachmann and Marcel Stellman, based on Bachmanns 1957 novel The Lorelei.[3][4] A beautiful girl Lora asks Rolph if she can travel on his barge down the Rhine. Rolph agrees to this and helps her to escape the clutches of murderer Herman, who is obsessed with Lora. The local police approach Rolph and ask him to work together with them to lure Herman on board the barge using Lora as bait. Herman manages to hide on board and then takes control of Rolphs barge using a gun he has. Rolph and Lora manage to overpower Herman and throw him overboard where he is dragged under the barge into one of the side paddles where he is killed. Lora is a cynical person, believing that no one would ever do anything to help her out of just friendship due to the hard life she has had. At the end of the film, Lora leaves with the police,  while Rolph asks her to return to him one day to live with him on his barge on the European rivers.
Whirlpool (1950 film).  Whirlpool is a 1950[1][2] American film noir thriller directed by Otto Preminger and written by Ben Hecht and Andrew Solt, adapted from the 1946 novel Methinks the Lady... by Guy Endore. The film stars Gene Tierney, Richard Conte, José Ferrer and Charles Bickford, and features Constance Collier in her final film role. Its plot follows the kleptomaniac wife of a wealthy Los Angeles psychoanalyst who, after a chance meeting with a hypnotist, is charged with a violent murder. Owing to anti-British statements screenwriter Hecht had made in the recent past concerning the United Kingdoms involvement in Israel, prints of the film initially circulated in the country replaced his credit with the pseudonym Lester Barstow. Ann Sutton, the wife of Dr. William Sutton, a successful psychoanalyst, is caught shoplifting in an upscale Los Angeles department store, and loses consciousness when apprehended. She is saved from scandal by smooth-talking hypnotist David Korvo, who persuades the store officials to put the mermaid pin she stole on her credit account, and not prosecute. Korvo pressures Ann into coming to lunch with him, and she is relieved when, instead of accepting the blackmail payment she thinks he is after, he tears up her check and the store record of her shoplifting, and promises to help her. Ann, overcome with shame surrounding her secret, begins experiencing insomnia. She attends a sophisticated party with Korvo, where she meets Theresa Randolph, a former lover of Korvos and one of her husband, Williams, patients. Korvo hypnotizes Ann at the party and instructs her to sleep, which works, but she does not respond to other orders. Ann meets Korvo at the hotel where he lives for further therapy sessions, but refuses to go up to his suite and insists on talking in public in the hotel bar. Korvo distracts her and takes the martini glass with her fingerprints on it, as well as her scarf.
Whirlpool (1970 film). Whirlpool (also known as She Died with Her Boots On and Whirlpool of Sex) is a 1970 exploitation thriller film written and directed by José Ramón Larraz,[a] in his directorial debut, and starring Karl Lanchbury, Vivian Neves and Pia Andersson.[3] Made in England by a Spanish director for a Danish production company (Athena Films), it was distributed in the USA by Cinemation Industries, whose owner, Jerry Gross, gave himself a Presented by credit. Sarah, a middle-aged photographer, lives in the country outside London with Theo, an aspiring photographer whom she has taken in. The pair refer to one another as aunt and nephew, respectively. While at the studio, Sara meets Tulia, a young fashion model, whom she invites to come stay at her home so that Theo can photograph her. Tulia and Theo have a photo session in the woods, but it is aborted after Tulia witnesses a cloaked figure spying on her. The figure vanishes, and Tulia becomes frightened. That evening, Tulia recounts to her hosts how her friend, Rhonda—also a model and acquaintance who spent time at Sarahs home—commented on being frightened while staying there. In particular, she was bothered by the nearby lake, which she found inexplicably ominous. Shortly after returning to London, Rhonda apparently vanished. As the night draws on, the three have drinks and play a game of cards, which culminates in Tulia and Sarah undressing. Theo and Tulia begin to kiss, and Sarah retires to her bedroom, where she stares longingly at photographs of Rhonda. Tulia is tormented by nightmares involving Theo and Rhonda. In the morning, Sarah chastises Theo for not bringing Tulia into her room so that they could engage in a threesome. An inspector, Mr. Field, arrives and confronts Theo in search of Rhonda, who has disappeared. Theo claims Rhonda told him she planned to move to Italy after leaving Sarahs house. Theo brings Tulia to a local pub, where he offers a man a sum of money. Theo brings the man and Tulia to a secluded area in the woods and allows the man to initiate what is an apparent sexual assault on Tulia, as he photographs it. The man stops short of raping Tula, and, realizing that Theo staged this is a mere photo opportunity, Tulia is disgusted and demands to be returned to London. Theo returns Tulia to the house, where Sarah calms her. Later that night, Sarah and Tulia have sex as Theo photographs it. This eventually culminates in a threesome. Meanwhile, Mr. Field cases Sarahs house, accidentally knocking over a bucket while attempting to look inside. The noise alerts Theo, who quickly goes outside to investigate. Theo chases Mr. Field into the woods to his car, where he stabs him to death.
Action fiction. Action fiction is a genre in literature that focuses on stories involving high-stakes, high-energy, and fast-paced events. This genre includes a wide range of subgenres, such as spy novels, adventure stories, tales of terror, intrigue (cloak and dagger), and mysteries.  These kinds of stories utilize suspense, the tension that is built up when the reader wishes to know how the conflict between the protagonist and antagonist is going to be resolved or the solution to a mystery of a thriller.[1] The intricacies of human relationships or the nuances of philosophy and psychology are rarely explored in action fiction, typically being fast-paced mysteries that merely seek to provide the reader with an exhilarating experience.[2] Action fiction can also be a plot element of non-literary works such as graphic novels and film. Action genre is a form of fiction whose subject matter is characterized by emphasis on exciting action sequences. This does not always mean they exclude character development or story-telling. The action genre is also related to non-literary media including comic books, graphic novels (such as manga), anime, action film, action television series, and action games. It includes martial arts action, extreme sports action, car chases and vehicles, hand-to-hand combat, suspense action, and action comedy, with each focusing in more detail on its own type and flavor of action.[3][4][5][6]
The Cloisters.  The Cloisters (also known as the Met Cloisters) is a museum in Fort Tryon Park, straddling the neighborhoods of Washington Heights and Inwood, in Upper Manhattan, New York City. The museum specializes in European medieval art and architecture, with a focus on the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Governed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it contains a large collection of medieval artworks shown in the architectural settings of French monasteries and abbeys. Its buildings are centered around four cloisters—the Cuxa, Saint-Guilhem, Bonnefont, and Trie-sur-Baïse—that were acquired by American sculptor and art dealer George Grey Barnard in France before 1913 and moved to New York. Barnards collection was bought for the museum by financier and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. Other major sources of objects were the collections of J. P. Morgan and Joseph Brummer. The museums building was designed by the architect Charles Collens, on a site on a steep hill, with upper and lower levels. It contains medieval gardens and a series of chapels and themed galleries, including the Romanesque, Fuentidueña, Unicorn, Spanish, and Gothic rooms.[3] The design, layout, and ambiance of the building are intended to evoke a sense of medieval European monastic life.[4] It holds about 5,000 works of art and architecture, all European and mostly dating from the Byzantine to the early Renaissance periods, mainly during the 12th through 15th centuries. The objects include stone and wood sculptures, tapestries, illuminated manuscripts, and panel paintings, of which the best known include the c. 1422 Early Netherlandish Mérode Altarpiece and the c. 1495–1505 Flemish The Unicorn Tapestries. Rockefeller purchased the museum site in Fort Washington in 1930 and donated it to the Metropolitan in 1931. Upon its opening on May 10, 1938, the Cloisters was described as a collection shown informally in a picturesque setting, which stimulates imagination and creates a receptive mood for enjoyment.[5] The basis for the museums architectural structure came from the collection of George Grey Barnard, an American sculptor and collector who almost single-handedly established a medieval art museum near his home in the Fort Washington section of Upper Manhattan. Although he was a successful sculptor who had studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, his income was not enough to support his family. Barnard was a risk taker and led most of his life on the edge of poverty.[6] He moved to Paris in 1883 where he studied at the Académie des Beaux-Arts.[6] He lived in the village of Moret-sur-Loing, near Fontainebleau, between 1905 and 1913,[7] and began to deal in 13th- and 14th-century European objects to supplement his earnings. In the process he built a large personal collection of what he described as antiques, at first by buying and selling stand-alone objects with French dealers,[8] then by the acquisition of in situ architectural artifacts from local farmers.[6]
Cabinet of Japan. Naruhito  Fumihito  Shigeru Ishiba (LDP)
Boroughs of New York City.  The boroughs of New York City are the five major governmental districts that comprise New York City. They are the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens, and Staten Island. Each borough is coextensive with a respective county of the State of New York: The Bronx is Bronx County, Brooklyn is Kings County, Manhattan is New York County, Queens is Queens County, and Staten Island is Richmond County. All five boroughs of New York came into existence with the creation of modern New York City in 1898, when New York County (then including the Bronx), Kings County,  Richmond County, and part of Queens County were consolidated within one municipal government under a new city charter. All former municipalities within the newly consolidated city were dissolved. New York City was originally confined to Manhattan Island and the smaller surrounding islands that formed New York County. As the city grew northward, it began annexing areas on the mainland, absorbing territory from Westchester County into New York County in 1874 (West Bronx) and 1895 (East Bronx). During the 1898 consolidation, this territory was organized as the Borough of the Bronx, though still part of New York County. In 1914, Bronx County was split off from New York County so that each borough was then coterminous with a county. When the western part of Queens County was consolidated with New York City in 1898, that area became the Borough of Queens. In 1899, the remaining eastern section of Queens County was split off to form Nassau County on Long Island, thereafter making the borough and county of Queens coextensive with each other.
Wards of Japan. A ward (区, ku) is a subdivision of the cities of Japan that are large enough to have been designated by government ordinance.[1]  Wards are used to subdivide each city designated by government ordinance (designated city). The 23 special wards of Tokyo Metropolis have a municipal status, and are not the same as other entities referred to as ku, although their predecessors were. Wards are local entities directly controlled by the municipal government.  They handle administrative functions such as koseki registration, health insurance, and property taxation. Many wards have affiliated residents organizations for a number of tasks, although these do not have any legal authority. The special wards of Tokyo are not normal wards in the usual sense of the term, but instead are administrative units governed similarly to cities.
Local Autonomy Act. The Local Autonomy Act (地方自治法, Chihō-jichi-hō), passed by the House of Representatives and the House of Peers on March 28, 1947[1] and promulgated as Law No. 67 of 1947 on April 17,[2][3] is an Act of devolution that established most of Japans contemporary local government structures and administrative divisions, including prefectures, municipalities[3] and other entities. On July 16, 1999, the law was amended to eliminate administrative functions imposed upon local governments by the central governments and to establish Committee for Settling National-Local Disputes.[4] The law and other relevant laws have been amended after the revision to promote decentralization.[5] The classification of local public entities (地方公共団体, chihō kōkyō dantai) (LPEs) are: Ordinary LPEs are the basic local governments. The distinction between ordinary and special LPEs is primarily relevant under the Constitution of Japan, which grants ordinary LPEs particular rights, including: Special LPEs do not have these authorities except as otherwise provided by statute. While special wards are regarded as basic local governments within Tokyo, other special LPEs are consortia of LPEs for specific fields such as schools, waterworks and waste management. LPEs are self-governing in many respects, but report indirectly to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in Tokyo, which monitors relations between LPEs, as well as relations between LPEs and the government. The Ministry generally approves all inter-prefectural special LPEs, while inter-municipal special LPEs are approved by prefectural governors.
John Rambo.  John James Rambo is a fictional character in the Rambo franchise.[1] He first appeared in the 1972 novel First Blood by David Morrell, but later became more famous as the protagonist of the film series, in which he was played by Sylvester Stallone. The portrayal of the character earned Stallone widespread acclaim and recognition. The character was nominated for American Film Institutes list 100 Years…100 Heroes and Villains.[2] Following the success of the first movie, the term Rambo was occasionally used in media circles to describe a lone wolf who is reckless, uses violence to solve all problems, enters dangerous situations alone, and is exceptionally tough, callous, raw and aggressive.[3] David Morrell says that in choosing the name Rambo, he was inspired by the sound of force in the name of Rambo apples, which he encountered in Pennsylvania. These apples, in turn, were named for Peter Gunnarsson Rambo, who sailed from Sweden to America in the 1640s, and soon the name would flourish in New Sweden. The name Rambo was likely derived from a shortened form of Ramberget (a hill on the Hisingen island in Gothenburg, where Peter Gunnarsson was born) plus bo (meaning resident of). Today, many of his descendants can still be found in this region of the US. Morrell also felt that its pronunciation was similar to the surname of Arthur Rimbaud, the title of whose most famous work, A Season in Hell, seemed to him an apt metaphor for the prisoner-of-war experiences that I imagined Rambo suffering.[4] Furthermore, an Arthur J. Rambo was an actual U.S. soldier in Vietnam, but he never returned.[5] His name can be seen on the Vietnam War Memorial wall in Washington, D.C.. He was granted the first name John as a reference to the Civil War era song When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again.[6][7] In the novel and first film, Rambo appears as a soldier who suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder and has difficulty adjusting to normal life. He is shown to be prone to violence because of the torture he suffered at the hands of North Vietnamese soldiers in the Vietnam War. In the next films and novelizations, he is displayed as a man who wants to stay away from conflict but is willing to do anything to save his friends and the people he cares about from any danger. Due to his violent nature, many civil people tend to fear him. However, Colonel Samuel Trautman (who was his commanding officer in Vietnam and is probably his only friend) understands him and the pain and torture he has endured in the war and is the only one able to reason with him when he becomes an outlaw after incapacitating police officers in the town of Hope.[8] Rambo has a muscular physique due to his time as a soldier in the army and his intense training regimen. He has a high amount of strength and stamina. Rambo is an expert in surviving in dense forests against a large number of enemies due to his experiences in the Vietnam War. He is also an expert in guerrilla tactics, weapons, and hand-to-hand combat. Rambo has black hair and brown eyes. His height is 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m). In the DVD commentary for First Blood, Morell remarks that the inspiration for Rambo was World War II hero Audie Murphy.
Animate (disambiguation). Animation is the interpolation of dissimilar frames over a finite period. Animate may also refer to:
London boroughs.  The London boroughs are the current 32 local authority districts that together with the City of London make up the administrative area of Greater London, England; each is governed by a London borough council. The present London boroughs were all created at the same time as Greater London on 1 April 1965 by the London Government Act 1963 (c. 33) and are a type of local government district. Twelve were designated as Inner London boroughs and twenty as Outer London boroughs. The City of London, the historic centre, is a separate ceremonial county and sui generis local government district that functions quite differently from a London borough. However, the two counties together comprise the administrative area of Greater London as well as the London Region, all of which is also governed by the Greater London Authority, under the Mayor of London. The London boroughs have populations of between 150,000 and 400,000. Inner London boroughs tend to be smaller, in both population and area, and more densely populated than Outer London boroughs. The London boroughs were created by combining groups of former local government units. A review undertaken between 1987 and 1992 led to a number of relatively small alterations in borough boundaries. London borough councils provide the majority of local government services (schools, waste management, social services, libraries), in contrast to the strategic Greater London Authority, which has limited authority over all of Greater London. The councils were first elected in 1964, and acted as shadow authorities until 1 April 1965. Each borough is divided into electoral wards, subject to periodic review, for the purpose of electing councillors. Council elections take place every four years, with the most recent elections in 2022, and the next elections due in 2026. The political make-up of London borough councils is dominated by the Conservative, Labour and Liberal Democrat parties. Twenty-eight councils follow the leader and cabinet model of executive governance, while five have directly elected mayors (Croydon, Hackney, Lewisham, Newham, and Tower Hamlets). The City of London is instead governed by the City of London Corporation (and the Inner and Middle Temples, which are not governed by the City of London Corporation). There are four boroughs that do not have London Borough in their official names: the City of Westminster, and the Royal Boroughs of Kingston upon Thames, Kensington and Chelsea, and Greenwich.
Museum of Modern Art.  The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMAs collection spans the late 19th century to the present, and includes over 200,000 works of architecture and design, drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, prints, illustrated and artists books, film, as well as electronic media.[2] The institution was conceived in 1929 by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan. Initially located in the Heckscher Building on Fifth Avenue, it opened just days after the Wall Street Crash. The museum was led by A. Conger Goodyear as president and Abby Rockefeller as treasurer, with Alfred H. Barr Jr. as its first director. Under Barrs leadership, the museums collection rapidly expanded, beginning with an inaugural exhibition of works by European modernists. Despite financial challenges, including opposition from John D. Rockefeller Jr., the museum moved to several temporary locations in its early years, and John D. Rockefeller Jr. eventually donated the land for its permanent site. In 1939, the museum moved to its current location on West 53rd Street designed by architects Philip L. Goodwin and Edward Durell Stone. A new sculpture garden, designed by Barr and curator John McAndrew, also opened that year. From the 1930s through the 1950s, MoMA became a host to several landmark exhibitions, including Barrs influential Cubism and Abstract Art in 1936. Nelson Rockefeller became the museums president in 1939, playing a key role in its expansion and publicity. David Rockefeller joined the board in 1948 and continued the familys close association with the museum until his death in 2017. In 1953, Philip Johnson redesigned the garden, which subsequently became the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Sculpture Garden. In 1958, a fire at MoMA destroyed a painting by Claude Monet and led to the evacuation of other artworks. In later decades, the museum was among several institutions to aid the CIA in its efforts to engage in cultural propaganda during the Cold War.[3] Major expansions in the 1980s and the early 21st century, including the selection of Japanese architect Yoshio Taniguchi for a significant renovation, nearly doubled MoMAs space for exhibitions and programs. The 2000s saw the formal merger with the P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, and in 2019, another major renovation added significant gallery space. The museum has been instrumental in shaping the history of modern art, particularly modern art from Europe.[4][5][6] In recent decades, MoMA has expanded its collection and programming to include works by traditionally underrepresented groups.[7] The museum has been involved in controversies regarding its labor practices, and the institutions labor union, founded in 1971, has been described as the first of its kind in the U.S.[8] The MoMA Library includes about 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, more than 1,000 periodical titles and more than 40,000 files of ephemera about individual artists and groups.[9] The archives hold primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art.[10] In 2023, MoMA was visited by over 2.8 million people, making it the 15th most-visited art museum in the world and the 6th most-visited museum in the United States.
Fifth Avenue.  Fifth Avenue is a major thoroughfare in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. The avenue runs south from West 143rd Street in Harlem to Washington Square Park in Greenwich Village. The section in Midtown Manhattan is one of the most expensive shopping streets in the world. Fifth Avenue carries two-way traffic between 143rd and 135th Streets, and one-way traffic southbound for the rest of its route. The entire avenue carried two-way traffic until 1966. From 124th to 120th Streets, Fifth Avenue is interrupted by Marcus Garvey Park, with southbound traffic diverted around the park via Mount Morris Park West and northbound to Madison Avenue. Most of the avenue has a bus lane, but no bike lane. Fifth Avenue is the traditional route for many celebratory parades in New York City and is closed to automobile traffic on several Sundays each year. Fifth Avenue was originally a narrower thoroughfare, but the section south of Central Park was widened in 1908. The Midtown blocks between 34th and 59th Streets were mostly residential until the early 20th century, when they were developed for commercial use. The section of Fifth Avenue in the 50s is consistently ranked among the most expensive shopping streets in the world. The stretch between 59th and 96th Streets along Central Park was once known as Millionaires Row because of its high concentration of mansions. The portion between 82nd and 110th Streets, also along Central Park, is nicknamed Museum Mile for its many museums. Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South (59th Street) was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century.[3]: 2  The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York, which was allocated all the waste, vacant, unpatented, and unappropriated lands as a result of the 1686 Dongan Charter.[4] The citys Common Council came to own a large amount of land, primarily in the middle of the island away from the Hudson and East Rivers, as a result of grants by the Dutch provincial government to the colony of New Amsterdam. Although originally more extensive, by 1785 the council held approximately 1,300 acres (530 ha), or about 9 percent of the island.[5]
Rambo III.  Rambo III is a 1988 American action film starring Sylvester Stallone as Vietnam War veteran John Rambo. Directed by Peter MacDonald, the script was co-written by Stallone and Sheldon Lettich. It is a sequel to Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985) and is the third installment in the Rambo series. Richard Crenna reprises his role as Colonel Sam Trautman. The film depicts fictional events during the Soviet–Afghan War. In the film, Rambo sets out on a dangerous journey to the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in order to rescue his former commander and his longtime best friend, Col. Trautman, from the hands of an extremely powerful and ruthless Soviet Army colonel who is bent on killing both Trautman and Rambo, while helping a local band of Afghan rebels fight against Soviet forces threatening to destroy their village. Rambo III was released worldwide on May 25, 1988. At the time of its release, Rambo III was the most expensive film ever made with a production budget between $58 and $63 million. The film was not well received by critics and grossed less than its predecessor, Rambo: First Blood Part II, earning $189 million worldwide. It was nominated for five categories at the 9th Golden Raspberry Awards, winning Worst Actor. A sequel, Rambo, was released in 2008 with Stallone reprising his role and also directing the film. After leaving the military behind, former U.S. Army Green Beret John Rambo has settled in a Thai Buddhist monastery, helping with construction work and competing in krabi–krabong matches in Bangkok, donating his winnings. His old friend and ally Colonel Sam Trautman visits and explains that he is putting together a mercenary team for a CIA-sponsored mission to supply the Mujahideen and other tribes as they fight the Soviet Army in Afghanistan. Despite being shown photos of civilians suffering at the hands of the Soviets, Rambo refuses to join, as he is tired of fighting. Trautman proceeds anyway but is ambushed at the border by Soviet forces, who kill his team and capture him. Trautman is sent to a large mountain base to be interrogated by Soviet Colonel Zaysen and his henchman Sergeant Kourov.
The Whirlpool (1918 film).  The Whirlpool is a 1918 American silent crime film directed by Alan Crosland and starring Alice Brady, Holmes Herbert and William B. Davidson.[1] The film revolves around a young man named Richard Brettner, who commits a robbery to attract the attention of Miss Bella Cavello, who is forced to work at her stepfathers casino. Things escalate, and Richard is later arrested for murder, as part of a complex plot involving blackmail, hypnosis, and concealing identities.  This article related to an American film of the 1910s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Film genre. A film genre is a stylistic or thematic category for motion pictures based on similarities either in the narrative elements, aesthetic approach, or the emotional response to the film.[2] Drawing heavily from the theories of literary-genre criticism, film genres are usually delineated by conventions, iconography, settings, narratives, characters and actors.[3] One can also classify films by the tone, theme/topic, mood, format, target audience, or budget.[4] These characteristics are most evident in genre films, which are commercial feature films [that], through repetition and variation, tell familiar stories with familiar characters and familiar situations in a given genre.[5] A films genre will influence the use of filmmaking styles and techniques, such as the use of flashbacks and low-key lighting in film noir; tight framing in horror films; or fonts that look like rough-hewn logs for the titles of Western films.[6] In addition, genres have associated film scoring conventions, such as lush string orchestras for romantic melodramas or electronic music for science fiction films.[6] Genre also affects how films are broadcast on television, advertised, and organized in video rental stores.[5] Alan Williams distinguishes three main genre categories: narrative, avant-garde, and documentary.[7] With the proliferation of particular genres, film subgenres can also emerge: the legal drama, for example, is a sub-genre of drama that includes courtroom- and trial-focused films. Subgenres are often a mixture of two separate genres; genres can also merge with seemingly unrelated ones to form hybrid genres, where popular combinations include the romantic comedy and the action comedy film. Broader examples include the docufiction and docudrama, which merge the basic categories of fiction and non-fiction (documentary).[8]
Frame rate. Frame rate, most commonly expressed in frame/s, frames per second or FPS, is typically the frequency (rate) at which consecutive images (frames) are captured or displayed. This definition applies to film and video cameras, computer animation, and motion capture systems. In these contexts, frame rate may be used interchangeably with frame frequency and refresh rate, which are expressed in hertz (Hz). Additionally, in the context of computer graphics performance, FPS is the rate at which a system, particularly a GPU, is able to generate frames, and refresh rate is the frequency at which a display shows completed frames.[1] In electronic camera specifications frame rate refers to the maximum possible rate frames could be captured, but in practice, other settings (such as exposure time) may reduce the actual frequency to a lower number than the frame rate.[2] The temporal sensitivity and resolution of human vision varies depending on the type and characteristics of visual stimulus, and it differs between individuals. The human visual system can process 10 to 12 images per second and perceive them individually, while higher rates are perceived as motion.[3] Modulated light (such as a computer display) is perceived as stable by the majority of participants in studies when the rate is higher than 50 Hz. This perception of modulated light as steady is known as the flicker fusion threshold. However, when the modulated light is non-uniform and contains an image, the flicker fusion threshold can be much higher, in the hundreds of hertz.[4] With regard to image recognition, people have been found to recognize a specific image in an unbroken series of different images, each of which lasts as little as 13 milliseconds.[5] Persistence of vision sometimes accounts for very short single-millisecond visual stimulus having a perceived duration of between 100 ms and 400 ms. Multiple stimuli that are very short are sometimes perceived as a single stimulus, such as a 10 ms green flash of light immediately followed by a 10 ms red flash of light perceived as a single yellow flash of light.[6] Early silent films had stated frame rates anywhere from 16 to 24 frames per second (FPS),[7] but since the cameras were hand-cranked, the rate often changed during the scene to fit the mood. Projectionists could also change the frame rate in the theater by adjusting a rheostat controlling the voltage powering the film-carrying mechanism in the projector.[8] Film companies often intended for theaters to show their silent films at a higher frame rate than that at which they were filmed.[9] These frame rates were enough for the sense of motion, but it was perceived as jerky motion. To minimize the perceived flicker, projectors employed dual- and triple-blade shutters, so each frame was displayed two or three times, increasing the flicker rate to 48 or 72 Hz and reducing eye strain. Thomas Edison said that 46 frames per second was the minimum needed for the eye to perceive motion: Anything less will strain the eye.[10][11] In the mid to late 1920s, the frame rate for silent film increased to 20–26 FPS.[10] When sound film was introduced in 1926, variations in film speed were no longer tolerated, as the human ear is more sensitive than the eye to changes in frequency. Many theaters had shown silent films at 22 to 26 FPS, which is why the industry chose 24 FPS for sound film as a compromise.[12] From 1927 to 1930, as various studios updated equipment, the rate of 24 FPS became standard for 35 mm sound film.[3] At 24 FPS, the film travels through the projector at a rate of 456 millimetres (18.0 in) per second. This allowed simple two-blade shutters to give a projected series of images at 48 per second, satisfying Edisons recommendation. Many modern 35 mm film projectors use three-blade shutters to give 72 images per second—each frame is flashed on screen three times.[10] In drawn animation, moving characters are often shot on twos, that is to say, one drawing is shown for every two frames of film (which usually runs at 24 frame per second), meaning there are only 12 drawings per second.[13] Even though the image update rate is low, the fluidity is satisfactory for most subjects. However, when a character is required to perform a quick movement, it is usually necessary to revert to animating on ones, as twos are too slow to convey the motion adequately. A blend of the two techniques keeps the eye fooled without unnecessary production cost.[14]
Filmmaking. Filmmaking or film production is the process by which a motion picture is produced. Filmmaking involves a number of complex and discrete stages, beginning with an initial story, idea, or commission. Production then continues through screenwriting, casting, pre-production, shooting, sound recording, post-production, and screening the finished product before an audience, which may result in a film release and exhibition. The process is nonlinear, in that the filmmaker typically shoots the script out of sequence, repeats shots as needed, and puts them together through editing later. Filmmaking occurs in a variety of economic, social, and political contexts around the world, and uses a variety of technologies and cinematic techniques to make theatrical films, episodic films for television and streaming platforms, music videos, and promotional and educational films. Although filmmaking originally involved the use of film, most film productions are now digital.[1] Today, filmmaking refers to the process of crafting an audio-visual story commercially for distribution or broadcast. Film production consists of five major stages:[2] The development stage contains both general and specific components. Each film studio has a yearly retreat where their top creative executives meet and interact on a variety of areas and topics they wish to explore through collaborations with producers and screenwriters, and then ultimately, directors, actors, and actresses. They choose trending topics from the media and real life, as well as many other sources, to determine their yearly agenda. For example, in a year when action is popular, they may wish to explore that topic in one or more movies. Sometimes, they purchase the rights to articles, bestselling novels, plays, the remaking of older films, stories with some basis in real life through a person or event, a video game, fairy tale, comic book, graphic novel. Likewise, research through surveys may inform their decisions. They may have had blockbusters from their previous year and wish to explore a sequel. They will additionally acquire a completed and independently financed and produced film. Such notable examples are Little Miss Sunshine, The English Patient, and Roma. Studios hold general meetings with producers and screenwriters about original story ideas. In my decade working as a writer, I knew of only a few that were sold and fewer that made it to the screen, relays writer Wayne Powers. Alan Watt, writer-director and Founder of The LA Writers Lab confirmed that completed original screenplays, referred to as specs, make big news when they sell, but these make up a very small portion of movies that are ultimately given the green light to be produced by the president of a studio.
Animation (disambiguation). Animation is the interpolation of frames over a finite period of time. As a discipline, it is practiced with the intent of creating an illusion of movement. Animation may also refer to:
Sylvester Stallone.  Sylvester Gardenzio Sly Stallone (/stəˈloʊn/; born July 6, 1946) is an American actor and filmmaker. In a film career spanning more than fifty years, Stallone has received numerous accolades, including a Golden Globe Award and a Critics Choice Award, as well as nominations for three Academy Awards and two BAFTA Awards. Stallone is one of only two actors in history (alongside Harrison Ford) to have starred in a box-office No. 1 film across six consecutive decades.[1][2] Films in which he has appeared have grossed over $7.5 billion worldwide.[3] Struggling as an actor for a number of years upon moving to New York City in 1969, Stallone found gradual work in films such as The Lords of Flatbush (1974). He achieved his greatest critical and commercial success starting in 1976 with his iconic role as boxer Rocky Balboa in the first film of the successful Rocky franchise, which he also wrote.[4] In 1977, he became the third actor in history to be nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor. He portrayed the PTSD-plagued soldier John Rambo in First Blood (1982), a role he would play across five Rambo films (1982–2019). He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1984. From the mid-1980s to the late 1990s, Stallone would go on to become one of Hollywoods highest-paid actors acting in action films such as Cobra (1986), Tango and Cash (1989), Cliffhanger (1993), Demolition Man (1993), and The Specialist (1994). At the height of his career, Stallone was known for his rivalry with Arnold Schwarzenegger.[5] Stallone continued his established roles in Rocky Balboa (2006) and Rambo (2008) before launching The Expendables film franchise (2010–present), in which he starred as the mercenary Barney Ross. In 2013, he starred in the successful film Escape Plan and appeared in its sequels. In 2015, he returned to Rocky again with Creed, in which a retired Rocky mentors former rival Apollo Creeds son Donnie Creed. The film brought Stallone widespread praise and his first Golden Globe Award, as well as a third Academy Award nomination, having been first nominated for the same role 40 years prior. He also starred in the sequel Creed II (2018) and portrayed Stakar Ogord in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017) and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 (2023). Regarded as an icon of action cinema, Stallone is credited with helping redefine the Hollywood action hero.[6][7][8] He has occasionally ventured from the action genre, with mixed results. He starred in the comedies Oscar (1991) and Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot (1992), both of which had modest success. He also starred in the 1997 drama Cop Land, for which he temporarily shed his sculpted physique and gained weight for his role as a powerless sheriff. In television, he has starred in the Paramount+ crime series Tulsa King (2022–present). In addition to his film work, Stallone is a noted art collector and painter, and has written books on fitness.
Genjo Sanzo. Genjo Sanzo (Japanese: 玄奘三蔵, Hepburn: Genjō Sanzō) or Genjyo Sanzo is a fictional character in the manga and anime series Saiyuki. He is one of the four protagonists, loosely based on (or inspired by) the character Tang Sanzang. Konzen Douji was the first incarnation of Genjo Sanzo. Additionally he wore a god-forged golden coronet, a power limiter, to curb more than just his brute strength.[1] He shows the personality traits of someone who is quick to explode into fits of temper when bothered and also a surprising father-like gentleness and kindness with Goku that no one would have expected.[2] When Dr. Ni Jianyi tell him his father was a government official named Rin Tokou, a political activist who was exiled to Oujyouin in Rishyu, the northern-most town of Togenkyo. He was 51 years old when he met Sanzos mother, a woman named Kouran. She was 17 years of age and the daughter of a shop peddler. After he was conceived, his father went missing and his mother went off into the wilderness to bear the child alone. She died shortly after.[3] A very brutal, worldly priest. He drinks, smokes, gambles, and carries a gun, which is pushing it even for normal people (let alone Buddhist monks). Hes searching for the stolen Sutra of his mentor and father figure Priest Koumyou Sanzo, who was killed in Sanzos youth by a mob of murderous Yokai. Sanzo is egotistical, haughty, and can be very cruel, yet our 23-year-old hero also has calm judgment, unwavering intensity, and surprising charisma. His favorite phrases, incidentally, are Die, and Ill kill you. His weapons of choice are the magical Maten Sutra, a handgun, and a paper fan for idiots. Hes 177 cm tall (approx. 510) and is often noted for his good looks and drooping purple eyes.[4] He is the 31st of China. He is one of the five highest priests in Tougenkyo, but he has no intention of devoting himself to Buddhism, and is a corrupt monk who enjoys drinking, smoking, and gambling. Although he has a sharp eye and charisma to see things through, he also has a competitive and selfish side. His favorite phrases are die and Ill kill you.[5] He is the current holder of the Sanzo title and the wielder of very powerful sutras, though he is usually content to keep those stored away and shoot people immediately. He met his trio of party members through various traumatic adventures and brought them together, offering them a chance to start over. Despite his grouchy exterior, he is revealed to be a good person at heart.[6]
Kazuya Minekura.  Kazuya Minekura (Japanese: 峰倉かずや, Hepburn: Minekura Kazuya; born March 23, 1975) is a Japanese manga artist widely known for the Saiyuki series. Kazuya Minekura was born in Kanagawa Prefecture and still resides there. Her other manga series include Wild Adapter, Shiritsu Araiso Koto Gakko Seitokai Shikkobu (Araiso Private School Student Council Executive Committee), and Stigma. Stigma is notable for being a full-color work, unusual as manga is generally drawn in black and white. Minekura portrays herself as a naked chibi character with brown hair, in the Artists Talk section of her manga. She had an illness that affected her writing from 2004–2007, which caused her to have a hysterectomy. On September 28, 2010, she went on hiatus to undergo surgery for ameloblastoma on the right half of her upper jawbone.[1] On December 31, 2010, she reported the surgery successfully removed the tumor and is currently resting and being fitted with artificial prosthetics to reconstruct the area where her bones were removed.[2] She resumed her manga Wild Adapter in 2015.[3] On April 16, 2021, Minekura revealed that she had been diagnosed with spinal canal stenosis. Minekura also said that she had also been suffering from multiple medical problems.[4] Before becoming a professional she created doujinshi (self-published print works). Everything that she created from her time as a doujinshi artist was converted into the major works that she is known for today. She wrote the scripts for the drama CDs produced of her works, and wrote the lyrics for the opening theme in Saiyuki Reload Burial. Her works fall into the fantasy, school life, and hard-boiled genres. Most of her works involve action. She has a fixation with the depiction of the male body and friendships. As a lover of smoking, many of the characters that appear in her works are smokers (she herself smokes Cabin Super Mild). Her works involve a lot of violence and grotesque scenes. Her characters also use dirty jokes often. She uses a lot of shadow screen tones; one example is the hard-boiled series Bus Gamer. She uses Copic markers when coloring, but in recent years has been using CG as well.
Stop motion. Stop motion (also known as stop frame animation) is an animated filmmaking and special effects technique in which objects are physically manipulated in small increments between individually photographed frames so that they will appear to exhibit independent motion or change when the series of frames is played back. Any kind of object can thus be animated, but puppets with movable joints (puppet animation) or clay figures (claymation) are most commonly used. Puppets, models or clay figures built around an armature are used in model animation. Stop motion with live actors is often referred to as pixilation. Stop motion of flat materials such as paper, fabrics or photographs is usually called cutout animation. The term stop motion, relating to the animation technique, is often spelled with a hyphen as stop-motion—either standalone or as a compound modifier. Both orthographic variants, with and without the hyphen, are correct, but the hyphenated one has a second meaning that is unrelated to animation or cinema: a device for automatically stopping a machine or engine when something has gone wrong.[2] Before the advent of chronophotography in 1878, a small number of picture sequences were photographed with subjects in separate poses. These can now be regarded as a form of stop motion or pixilation, but very few results were meant to be animated. Until celluloid film base was established in 1888 and set the standard for the moving image, animation could only be presented via mechanisms such as the zoetrope. In 1849, Joseph Plateau published a note about improvements for his Fantascope (a.k.a. phénakisticope). A new translucent variation had improved picture quality and could be viewed with both eyes, by several people at the same time. Plateau stated that the illusion could be advanced even further with an idea communicated to him by Charles Wheatstone: a combination of the fantascope and Wheatstones stereoscope. Plateau thought the construction of a sequential set of stereoscopic image pairs would be the more difficult part of the plan than adapting two copies of his improved fantascope to be fitted with a stereoscope. Wheatstone had suggested using photographs on paper of a solid object, for instance a statuette. Plateau concluded that for this purpose 16 plaster models could be made with 16 regular modifications. He believed such a project would take much time and careful effort, but would be quite worth it because of the expected marvelous results.[3] The plan was never executed, possibly because Plateau was almost completely blind by this time. In 1852, Jules Duboscq patented a Stéréoscope-fantascope ou Bïoscope (or abbreviated as stéréofantascope) stroboscopic disc. The only known extant disc contains stereoscopic photograph pairs of different phases of the motion of a machine. Due to the long exposure times necessary to capture an image with the photographic emulsions of the period, the sequence could not be recorded live and must have been assembled from separate photographs of the various positions of the machinery.
Jura, Scotland.  Jura (/ˈdʒʊərə/ JOOR-ə; Scottish Gaelic: Diùra) is an island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland, adjacent to and northeast of Islay. With an area of 36,692 hectares (142 sq mi), and 258 inhabitants recorded in the 2022 census,[3] Jura is more sparsely populated than Islay, and is one of the least densely populated islands of Scotland: in a list of the islands of Scotland ranked by size, Jura comes eighth,[6] whereas by population it comes 29th. The island is mountainous, bare and largely infertile, covered by extensive areas of blanket bog.[7] The main settlement is the east coast village of Craighouse, on the Sound of Jura.[8] The Jura distillery, producing Isle of Jura single malt whisky, is in the village,[9] as is the islands rum distillery which opened in 2021. Craighouse also houses the islands shop, church, primary school, the Jura hotel and bar, a gallery, craft shop, tearoom and the community run petrol pumps. George Orwell lived on Jura intermittently from 1946 to 1949, and completed his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four while living at a remote farmhouse.[10] Between Juras northern tip and the island of Scarba lies the Gulf of Corryvreckan, where a whirlpool makes passage dangerous at certain states of the tide.  The southern part of the island, from Loch Tarbert southwards, is designated a national scenic area (NSA),[11] one of 40 such areas in Scotland.[12] The Jura NSA covers 30,317 hectares (117 sq mi): 21,072 of land and 9,245 of adjacent sea.[13]
Scarba.  Scarba (Scottish Gaelic: Sgarba) is an island, in Argyll and Bute, Scotland, just north of the much larger island of Jura.  The island has not been permanently inhabited since the 1960s.[3] Until his death in 2013 it was owned by Richard Hill, 7th Baron Sandys; its owner now is Shane Cadzow who farms Luing cattle on the nearby island of Luing[5] and grazes some of the cattle on Scarba.[6]  Kilmory Lodge is used seasonally as a shooting lodge, the island having a flourishing herd of red deer. The islands name is from the Norse and may mean sharp, stony, hilly terrain[3] or cormorant island.[7] Scarba is not served by any public ferries, but access from Craobh Haven or Crinan Harbour is possible by arrangement with local boatmen. The rough summit ridge can be accessed from the harbour at the north end, from where a vehicle track leads up past Kilmory Lodge to a height of about 200 metres. After that, there are no paths or well defined routes, and the terrain becomes rough and boggy. The island rises steeply to a peak (Cruach Scarba) of 449 metres (1,473 ft). A cylindrical triangulation point marks the highest of several summits, which are surrounded by several small lochs.
A Night in Tunisia. A Night in Tunisia is a musical composition written by American trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie in 1942.[2] He wrote it while he was playing with the Benny Carter band. It has become a jazz standard. It is also known as Interlude,[3] and with lyrics by Raymond Leveen was recorded by Sarah Vaughan in 1944.[4][5] Gillespie called the tune Interlude and said some genius decided to call it A Night in Tunisia. He said the tune was composed at the piano at Kellys Stables in New York. He gave Frank Paparelli co-writer credit in compensation for some unrelated transcription work, but Paparelli had nothing to do with the song.[6] A Night in Tunisia was one of the signature pieces of Gillespies bebop big band, and he also played it with his small groups. In January 2004, The Recording Academy added the 1946 Victor recording by Gillespie to the Grammy Hall of Fame.[7] On the album A Night at Birdland Vol. 1, Art Blakey introduced his 1954 cover version with this statement: At this time wed like to play a tune [that] was written by the famous Dizzy Gillespie. I feel rather close to this tune because I was right there when he composed it in Texas on the bottom of a garbage can. The audience laughs, but Blakey responds, Seriously. The liner notes say, The sanitation department can take a low bow. Jon Hendricks wrote the now-standard lyrics for the tune, which he performed with Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, and which were also sung by Ella Fitzgerald. However, Hendricks wrote a new lyric in 1982, Another Night in Tunisia, which was sung by The Manhattan Transfer on their 1985 Vocalese album, and by Bobby McFerrin on his 1986 album Spontaneous Inventions.[8][9] The complex ostinato bass line in the A section is notable for avoiding the standard walking bass pattern of straight quarter notes, and the use of oscillating half-step-up/half-step-down chord changes (using the Sub V, a tritone substitute chord for the dominant chord) gives the song a unique, mysterious feeling. The B section is notable for having an unresolved minor II-V, since the chord progression of the B section is taken from the B section of the standard Alone Together, causing the V chord to lead back into the Sub V of the A section.
Scottish Gaelic.  Scottish Gaelic (/ˈɡælɪk/, GAL-ik; endonym: Gàidhlig [ˈkaːlɪkʲ] ⓘ), also known as Scots Gaelic or simply Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to the Gaels of Scotland. As a member of the Goidelic branch of Celtic, Scottish Gaelic, alongside both Irish and Manx, developed out of Old Irish.[3] It became a distinct spoken language sometime in the 13th century in the Middle Irish period, although a common literary language was shared by the Gaels of both Ireland and Scotland until well into the 17th century.[4] Most of modern Scotland was once Gaelic-speaking, as evidenced especially by Gaelic-language place names.[5][6] In the 2011 census of Scotland, 57,375 people (1.1% of the Scottish population, three years and older) reported being able to speak Gaelic, 1,275 fewer than in 2001. The highest percentages of Gaelic speakers were in the Outer Hebrides. Nevertheless, there is a language revival, and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 did not decrease between the 2001 and 2011 censuses.[7]  In the 2022 census of Scotland, it was found that 2.5% of the Scottish population had some skills in Gaelic,[8] or 130,161 persons.  Of these, 69,701 people reported speaking the language, with a further 46,404 people reporting that they understood the language, but did not speak, read, or write in it.[9] Outside of Scotland, a dialect known as Canadian Gaelic has been spoken in Canada since the 18th century. In the 2021 census, 2,170 Canadian residents claimed knowledge of Scottish Gaelic, a decline from 3,980 speakers in the 2016 census.[10][11] There exists a particular concentration of speakers in Nova Scotia, with historic communities in other parts of North America, including North Carolina and Glengarry County, Ontario having largely disappeared.[12] Scottish Gaelic is classed as an indigenous language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which the UK Government has ratified, and the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 established a language-development body, Bòrd na Gàidhlig.[13] With the passing of the Scottish Languages Act 2025, Gaelic, alongside Scots, has become an official language of Scotland.[14]
S&P 400. The S&P MidCap 400 Index, more commonly known as the S&P 400, is a stock market index from S&P Dow Jones Indices. The index serves as a gauge for the U.S. mid-cap equities sector and is the most widely followed mid-cap index. It is part of the S&P 1500, which also includes the S&P 500 for larger U.S. based companies, and the S&P 600 for smaller companies, though all three indices include a handful of foreign stocks that trade on the U.S. stock exchanges. To be included in the index, a stock must have a total market capitalization that ranges from $8 billion to $22.7 billion.[4] These market cap eligibility criteria are for addition to an index, not for continued membership. As a result, an index constituent that appears to violate criteria for addition to that index is not removed unless ongoing conditions warrant an index change.[4] Additionally, same as S&P 500 and S&P 600, there is a financial viability requirement. Companies must have positive as-reported earnings over the most recent quarter, as well as over the most recent four quarters (summed together). As of 31 December 2024[update], the median market cap was $7.0 billion with the market cap of the largest company in the index at nearly $23.4 billion and the smallest company at $1.56 billion. The indexs market cap covers about 5 percent of the total US stock market.
Ichijinsha.  Ichijinsha Inc. (Japanese: 株式会社一迅社, Hepburn: Kabushiki-gaisha Ichijinsha) is a Japanese publishing company focused on manga-related publication, including magazines and books. The company was first established in August 1992 as a limited company under the name Studio DNA whose main purpose was to edit shōnen manga. In January 1998, Studio DNA became a public company and moved from merely editing to now being a publishing company. In December 2001, a publishing company was formed named Issaisha which started the shōjo manga magazine Monthly Comic Zero Sum. In March 2005, Studio DNA and Issaisha merged into the current Ichijinsha company.[1] In October 2016, Ichijinsha was acquired by Kodansha and became its wholly owned subsidiary.[2]
Scottish Gaelic.  Scottish Gaelic (/ˈɡælɪk/, GAL-ik; endonym: Gàidhlig [ˈkaːlɪkʲ] ⓘ), also known as Scots Gaelic or simply Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to the Gaels of Scotland. As a member of the Goidelic branch of Celtic, Scottish Gaelic, alongside both Irish and Manx, developed out of Old Irish.[3] It became a distinct spoken language sometime in the 13th century in the Middle Irish period, although a common literary language was shared by the Gaels of both Ireland and Scotland until well into the 17th century.[4] Most of modern Scotland was once Gaelic-speaking, as evidenced especially by Gaelic-language place names.[5][6] In the 2011 census of Scotland, 57,375 people (1.1% of the Scottish population, three years and older) reported being able to speak Gaelic, 1,275 fewer than in 2001. The highest percentages of Gaelic speakers were in the Outer Hebrides. Nevertheless, there is a language revival, and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 did not decrease between the 2001 and 2011 censuses.[7]  In the 2022 census of Scotland, it was found that 2.5% of the Scottish population had some skills in Gaelic,[8] or 130,161 persons.  Of these, 69,701 people reported speaking the language, with a further 46,404 people reporting that they understood the language, but did not speak, read, or write in it.[9] Outside of Scotland, a dialect known as Canadian Gaelic has been spoken in Canada since the 18th century. In the 2021 census, 2,170 Canadian residents claimed knowledge of Scottish Gaelic, a decline from 3,980 speakers in the 2016 census.[10][11] There exists a particular concentration of speakers in Nova Scotia, with historic communities in other parts of North America, including North Carolina and Glengarry County, Ontario having largely disappeared.[12] Scottish Gaelic is classed as an indigenous language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which the UK Government has ratified, and the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 established a language-development body, Bòrd na Gàidhlig.[13] With the passing of the Scottish Languages Act 2025, Gaelic, alongside Scots, has become an official language of Scotland.[14]
Enix.  Enix Corporation[a] was a Japanese multimedia publisher which handled and oversaw video games, manga, guidebooks, and merchandise. It was founded in 1975 by Yasuhiro Fukushima as Eidansha Boshu Service Center, initially as a tabloid publisher and later attempting to branch into real estate management. Beginning in 1982, Enix began publishing video games. Three notable early collaborators were designers Yuji Horii and Koichi Nakamura, and composer Koichi Sugiyama; all worked on the 1986 role playing video game (RPG) Dragon Quest for the Family Computer. Dragon Quest was one of the earliest successful RPGs for consoles, spawning a franchise of the same name which remains Enixs best-known product. They would gain notoriety as a publisher for several studios and their properties including tri-Ace, Tose, Chunsoft and Quintet. It also founded the Gangan Comics imprint family, and created international subsidiaries or partnerships related to technology development, publishing, and education. In the early 2000s, due to rising game development costs, Enix entered discussions about merging with Square, a rival company known for the Final Fantasy franchise. The merger eventually went ahead in 2003 forming Square Enix, with Enix as the surviving corporate entity. Enix was founded under the name Eidansha Boshu Service Center on September 22, 1975 by Yasuhiro Fukushima.[1] An architect-turned-business entrepreneur, Fukushima initially founded Eidansha as a publishing company focused on advertising tabloids for real estate.[3]: 77–81  On February 5, 1980, Eidansha Boshu created a wholly owned subsidiary Eidansya Fudousan for the purpose of specializing in real estate trading and brokerage, being renamed Eidansha Systems the following year.[4] It was based in Shinjuku, Tokyo.[1] During 1982 Eidansha Boshu made an unsuccessful attempt to become a nationwide chain. Fukushima decided to invest his capital into the emerging video game market; during this period on August 30, Eidansya Fudousan was renamed Enix Corporation.[5][3]: 77–81  The name Enix was a play on both the mythological Phoenix, and the early computer ENIAC.[3]: 77–81 [6] Seeking game proposals, Fukushima organized a competition dubbed the Enix Game Hobby Program Contest in both computer and manga magazines, offering a prize of ¥1 million (US$10,000) for a game prototype which could be published by Enix.[3]: 77–81 [7] Among the winners were Yuji Horii, then a writer for Weekly Shōnen Jump, with the sports game Love Match Tennis;[8] designer Koichi Nakamura with the puzzle game Door Door;[7] and self-trained programmer Kazuro Morita with the simulation video game Moritas Battlefield.[9] During the next few years, Enix would publish titles for both the PC market and the fledgling Japanese console market.[10][3]: 77–81  Using his royalties, Morita established the developer Random House and developed several PC and console titles including the Moritas Shogi series.[9][11] In collaboration with Nakamuras new company Chunsoft, Horii notably created the adventure game The Portopia Serial Murder Case (1983), then during discussions around a port of the game to the Famicom (Nintendo Entertainment System) Horii and Nakamura decided to develop a role-playing video game (RPG) for the platform.[3]: 84–89
Home appliance.  A home appliance, also referred to as a domestic appliance, an electric appliance or a household appliance,[1] is a machine which assists in household functions[2] such as cooking, cleaning and food preservation. The domestic application attached to home appliance is tied to the definition of appliance as an instrument or device designed for a particular use or function.[3] Collins English Dictionary defines home appliance as: devices or machines, usually electrical, that are in your home and which you use to do jobs such as cleaning or cooking.[4] The broad usage allows for nearly any device intended for domestic use to be a home appliance, including consumer electronics as well as stoves,[5] refrigerators, toasters[5] and air conditioners. The development of self-contained electric and gas-powered appliances, an American innovation, emerged in the early 20th century. This evolution is linked to the decline of full-time domestic servants and desire to reduce household chores, allowing for more leisure time[citation needed]. Early appliances included washing machines, water heaters, refrigerators, and sewing machines. The industry saw significant growth post-World War II, with the introduction of dishwashers and clothes dryers. By the 1980s, the appliance industry was booming, leading to mergers and antitrust legislation. The US National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987 mandated a 25% reduction in energy consumption every five years. By the 1990s, five companies dominated over 90% of the market. Major appliances, often called white goods, include items like refrigerators and washing machines, while small appliances encompass items such as toasters and coffee makers.[6] Product design shifted in the 1960s, embracing new materials and colors. Consumer electronics, often referred to as brown goods, include items like TVs and computers.[7] There is a growing trend towards home automation and internet-connected appliances. Recycling of home appliances involves dismantling and recovering materials.
George Braziller. George Braziller (February 12, 1916[1] – March 16, 2017)[2] was an American book publisher and the founder of George Braziller, Inc., a firm known for its literary and artistic books and its publication of foreign authors.[3] Braziller was first employed as a shipping clerk,[4] during the Great Depression. In 1941, George and Marsha Braziller founded the Book Find Club,[5] which was smaller than the Book of the Month Club but exceedingly successful, with a reputation for seriousness of purpose.[3] They then began the Seven Arts Book Society in 1951 and in 1955 they began to publish their own books.[5] The Braziller publishing firm is located at 277 Broadway, Suite 708,[6] in Manhattan, New York City. When Braziller travelled to Europe in the late 1950s, he was in Paris during the May 1958 crisis in France brought about by the Algerian War of Independence.[a] Henri Allegs book La Question, an autobiographical account of imprisonment and torture in Algiers, which Braziller brought back from that trip and published in English-language translation,[7] was his firms first big success in the United States, with an introduction written by Jean-Paul Sartre.[8] While I was there, a book came out [La Question]. I got the book, took it back to America, got a hold of Richard Howard to translate it, brought the book out overnight, and we sold 10,000 copies.[verification needed] Just like that we became famous. Those were really exciting times in Paris. I remember youd go to the corner café, and there were artists like Max Ernst, Giacometti, Calder, and then the writers, poets, playwrights, dramatists like Camus, Michaux, Ionesco, Dürrenmatt ... Those were the early years, when you would say only in America could you start a book club with only 25 bucks and move it up to 100,000 members and then start a publishing house. — George Braziller, Brooklyn Rail interview.[4] In 2011, George Braziller retired at the age of 95. His son Michael Braziller of Persea Books,[9] became publisher and editorial director while Georges elder son Joel Braziller became secretary-treasurer and director of permissions. With a small team they maintain the Braziller tradition with new series and a rich backlist.[5]
New York Stock Exchange.  The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE, nicknamed The Big Board)[4] is an American stock exchange in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is the largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization,[5][6][7] exceeding $25 trillion in July 2024.[8] The NYSE is owned by Intercontinental Exchange, an American holding company that it also lists (ticker symbol ICE). Previously, it was part of NYSE Euronext (NYX), which was formed by the NYSEs 2007 merger with Euronext.[9] According to a Gallup poll conducted in 2022, approximately 58% of American adults reported having money invested in the stock market, either through individual stocks, mutual funds, or retirement accounts.[10] The earliest recorded organization of securities trading in New York among brokers directly dealing with each other can be traced to the Buttonwood Agreement. Previously, securities exchange had been intermediated by the auctioneers, who also conducted more mundane auctions of commodities such as wheat and tobacco.[11] On May 17, 1792, twenty-four brokers signed the Buttonwood Agreement, which set a floor commission rate charged to clients and bound the signers to give preference to the other signers in securities sales. The earliest securities traded were mostly governmental securities such as War Bonds from the Revolutionary War and First Bank of the United States stock,[11] although Bank of New York stock was a non-governmental security traded in the early days.[12] The Bank of North America, along with the First Bank of the United States and the Bank of New York, were the first shares traded on the New York Stock Exchange.[13] In 1817, the stockbrokers of New York, operating under the Buttonwood Agreement, instituted new reforms and reorganized. After sending a delegation to Philadelphia to observe the organization of their board of brokers, restrictions on manipulative trading were adopted, as well as formal organs of governance.[11] After re-forming as the New York Stock and Exchange Board, the broker organization began renting out space exclusively for securities trading, which previously had been taking place at the Tontine Coffee House. Several locations were used between 1817 and 1865, when the present location was adopted.[11] The invention of the electrical telegraph consolidated markets and New Yorks market rose to dominance over Philadelphia after weathering some market panics better than other alternatives.[11] The Open Board of Stock Brokers was established in 1864 as a competitor to the NYSE. With 354 members, the Open Board of Stock Brokers rivaled the NYSE in membership (which had 533) because it used a more modern, continuous trading system superior to the NYSEs twice-daily call sessions. The Open Board of Stock Brokers merged with the NYSE in 1869. Robert Wright of Bloomberg writes that the merger increased the NYSEs members as well as trading volume, as several dozen regional exchanges were also competing with the NYSE for customers. Buyers, sellers and dealers all wanted to complete transactions as quickly and cheaply as technologically possible and that meant finding the markets with the most trading, or the greatest liquidity in todays parlance. Minimizing competition was essential to keep a large number of orders flowing, and the merger helped the NYSE maintain its reputation for providing superior liquidity.[14] The Civil War greatly stimulated speculative securities trading in New York. By 1869, membership had to be capped, and has been sporadically increased since. The latter half of the nineteenth century saw rapid growth in securities trading.[15]
For Beginners. For Beginners LLC is a publishing company based in Danbury, Connecticut, that publishes the For Beginners graphic nonfiction series of documentary comic books on complex topics, covering an array of subjects on the college level. Meant to appeal to students and non-readers, as well as people who wish to broaden their knowledge without attending a university, the series has sold more than a million copies.[citation needed] The For Beginners series was launched in the mid-1970s, but became out of print and often unavailable after the 2001 death of co-founder and publisher Glenn Thompson.[2] In 2007, a consortium of investors revived the series, reprinted back issues, and promised to publish between six and nine new issues each year.[citation needed] The current publisher is Dawn Reshen-Doty. The company began as Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative, a London, England-based publisher founded in 1974[2] by Glenn Thompson, his then-wife Sian Williams, Richard Appignanesi, Lisa Appignanesi, John Berger, Arnold Wesker, and Chris Searle. A publishing cooperative, the founders of Writers and Readers shared the work and the profits. (The Cooperative also operated a London bookshop at 144 Camden High Street until the mid-1980s.[citation needed]) The For Beginners series has its origins in two Spanish-language books, Cuba para principiantes (1960) and Marx para principiantes (1972) by the Mexican political cartoonist and writer Rius, pocket books that put their content over in a humorous comic book way but with a serious underlying purpose.[citation needed] An English-language version of the first book was published in 1970 by Leviathan Press of San Francisco and Pathfinder Press of New York, with no particularly great impact.[citation needed] However, when Richard Appignanesi published (and translated) the first English edition of Marx for Beginners (1976), it was soon clear that the collective had a hit on their hands.[3][4] With a successful format identified, further For Beginners titles soon began to appear. The lines most enduring titles, all published during this period, were Marx for Beginners (1976), Lenin for Beginners (1977), Freud for Beginners (1979), Einstein for Beginners (1979), and Darwin for Beginners (1982).[5] In the early 1980s, questions of control arose after some members of the cooperative sold U.S. rights to part of the For Beginners series to Pantheon Books. The cooperative officially disbanded in 1984.[citation needed]
Dizzy Gillespie.  John Birks Dizzy Gillespie (/ɡɪˈlɛspi/ ghil-ESP-ee; October 21, 1917 – January 6, 1993) was an American jazz trumpeter, bandleader, composer, educator and singer.[2] He was a trumpet virtuoso and improviser, building on the virtuosic style of Roy Eldridge[3] but adding layers of harmonic and rhythmic complexity previously unheard in jazz. His combination of musicianship, showmanship, and wit made him a leading popularizer of the new music called bebop. His beret and horn-rimmed spectacles, scat singing, bent horn, pouched cheeks, and light-hearted personality have made him an enduring icon.[2] In the 1940s, Gillespie, with Charlie Parker, became a major figure in the development of bebop and modern jazz.[4] He taught and influenced many other musicians, including trumpeters Miles Davis, Jon Faddis, Fats Navarro, Clifford Brown, Arturo Sandoval, Lee Morgan,[5] Chuck Mangione,[6] and balladeer Johnny Hartman.[7] He pioneered Afro-Cuban jazz and won several Grammy Awards.[8] Scott Yanow wrote: Dizzy Gillespies contributions to jazz were huge. One of the greatest jazz trumpeters of all time, Gillespie was such a complex player that his contemporaries ended up being similar to those of Miles Davis and Fats Navarro instead, and it was not until Jon Faddiss emergence in the 1970s that Dizzys style was successfully recreated [....] Gillespie is remembered, by both critics and fans alike, as one of the greatest jazz trumpeters of all time.[9] The youngest of nine children of Lottie and James Gillespie, Dizzy Gillespie was born in Cheraw, South Carolina.[10] His father was a local bandleader,[11] so instruments were made available to the children. Gillespie started to play the piano at the age of four.[12] Gillespies father died when he was only ten years old. He taught himself how to play the trombone as well as the trumpet by the age of twelve. From the night he heard his idol, Roy Eldridge, on the radio, he dreamed of becoming a jazz musician.[13]
Guardian First Book Award. The Guardian First Book Award was a literary award presented by The Guardian newspaper. It annually recognised one book by a new writer. It was established in 1999, replacing the Guardian Fiction Award or Guardian Fiction Prize that the newspaper had sponsored from 1965.[1] The Guardian First Book Award was discontinued in 2016, with the 2015 awards being the last.[2] The newspaper determined to change its book award after 1998, and during that year also hired Claire Armitstead as literary editor. At the inaugural First Book Award ceremony in 1999, she said that she was informed of the change, details to be arranged, by the head of the marketing department during her second week on the job. By the time we left the room we had decided on two key things. We would make it a first book award, and we would involve reading groups in the judging process. This was going to be the peoples prize.[1] About the opening of the prize to nonfiction she had said in August, readers do not segregate their reading into fiction or non-fiction, so neither should we.[3] There was no restriction on genre; for example, both poetry and travel would be included in principle,[1] and so would self-published autobiographies.[3] For the first rendition, 140 books were submitted, including a lot of nonfiction strongest by far in a hybrid of travel-writing and reportage; weak in science and biography. Experts led by Armitstead selected a longlist of 11 and Borders in Glasgow, London, Brighton and Leeds hosted reading groups that considered one book a week, September to November, and selected a shortlist of six. A panel of eight judges including two Guardian editors chose the winner.[3] The newspaper called it the first time the ordinary reading public have been involved in the selection of a major literary prize. In the event, the 1999 reading groups selected a shortlist including six novels, and all four groups favoured the novel Ghostwritten by David Mitchell. Their second favourite was one of the travelogue and reporting hybrids, by Philip Gourevitch of The New Yorker.[4] The judges chose the latter, We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families —a horrifying but humane account of the Rwandan genocide, its causes and consequences, the newspaper called it in August.[3] The prize was worth £10,000 to the winner. Eligible titles were published in English, and in the UK within the calendar year.[5]
Vertex. Vertex, vertices or vertexes may refer to:
Vortex (disambiguation). A vortex is a dynamic phenomenon of fluids. Vortex may also refer to:
Hymenaea courbaril.  Hymenaea courbaril, the courbaril or West Indian locust,[3] is a hardwood tree common in the Caribbean and Central and South America. As lumber it is frequently used to make furniture, flooring, and decoration. Its hard fruit pods have an edible dry pulp surrounding the seeds. Its sap, called animé, is used for incense, perfume, and varnish. Hymenaea courbaril is commonly known as the jatobá,[4]  courbaril,[5] West Indian locust,[6][5] Brazilian copal, and amami-gum.[6] When used as flooring the tree is commonly referred to as Brazilian cherry or South American cherry because of the reddish color of the wood it yields—its wood is in fact much redder than that of the cherry tree. However, it is not a member of Prunus but instead a legume of the family Fabaceae.[4] In the regions to which the tree is indigenous it is known as stinking toe, old mans toe, and stinktoe[7] due to the strong cheese-like odor of the edible pulp in its seed pods.[8][9] Its fruit, also known as locust, was a major food for indigenous peoples. Those who eat it do not consider the odor unpleasant. The pulp, in spite of its somewhat disagreeable odor, has a sweet taste; is consumed raw; may be dried and transformed into powder to be incorporated into cookies, crackers, and soups; and may be mixed with water to prepare a drink called atole.  The pulp inside the hard shells appears like miniature soluble fibers that dissolve easily in water or milk, which it thickens. Some add sugar to it for more sweetness. If consumed raw it tends to stick inside the mouth like dry dust. It is one of the richest vegetable foods known because of its high concentrations of starches and proteins.[10] It is further an excellent concentrated feed for animals.
Wing. A wing is a type of fin that produces both lift and drag while moving through air. Wings are defined by two shape characteristics, an airfoil section and a planform. Wing efficiency is expressed as lift-to-drag ratio, which compares the benefit of lift with the air resistance of a given wing shape, as it flies. Aerodynamics is the study of wing performance in air. Equivalent foils that move through water are found on hydrofoil power vessels and foiling sailboats that lift out of the water at speed and on submarines that use diving planes to point the boat upwards or downwards, while running submerged. Hydrodynamics is the study of foil performance in water. The word wing from the Old Norse vængr[1] for many centuries referred mainly to the foremost limbs of birds (in addition to the architectural aisle). But in recent centuries the words meaning has extended to include lift producing appendages of insects, bats, pterosaurs, boomerangs, some sail boats and aircraft, or the airfoil on a race car.[2] The design and analysis of the wings of aircraft is one of the principal applications of the science of aerodynamics, which is a branch of fluid mechanics. The properties of the airflow around any moving object can be found by solving the Navier–Stokes equations of fluid dynamics. Except for simple geometries, these equations are difficult to solve.[3] Simpler explanations can be given. For a wing to produce lift, it must be oriented at a suitable angle of attack relative to the flow of air past the wing. When this occurs, the wing deflects the airflow downwards, turning the air as it passes the wing. Since the wing exerts a force on the air to change its direction, the air must exert a force on the wing, equal in size but opposite in direction. This force arises from different air pressures that exist on the upper and lower surfaces of the wing.[4][5][6]
Heroines Run the Show.  Heroines Run the Show: The Unpopular Girl and the Secret Task (Japanese: ヒロインたるもの！～嫌われヒロインと内緒のお仕事～, Hepburn: Hiroin Tarumono! Kiraware Hiroin to Naisho no Oshigoto) is a Japanese anime television series produced by Lay-duce. It is based on the song Heroine Tarumono!, part of the Kokuhaku Jikkō Iinkai: Renai Series Vocaloid song project by HoneyWorks.[1] The series aired from April to June 2022. A manga adaptation was illustrated by Ruia Shimakage published by Futabasha on June 16, 2022. After leaving her rural hometown to pursue a career in track & field by enrolling in Tokyos Sakuragaoka High School, Hiyori Suzumi becomes manager-in-training for the high school idol duo LIP×LIP, who happen to be her classmates. Hijinks ensue as she tries to balance track, schoolwork, making new friends, and working in secret to manage LIP×LIP. The anime project was announced on August 28, 2021. It is produced by Lay-duce and directed by Noriko Hashimoto, with Yoshimi Narita overseeing the series scripts, Kaori Ishii designing the characters and serving as chief animation director, and Moe Hyūga composing the music. The series aired from April 7 to June 23, 2022, on Tokyo MX, BS Fuji, MBS, and AT-X.[2][7] The opening theme song is Julietta by the in-story group LIP×LIP, while the ending theme song is Tokyo Sunny Party by Inori Minase, Ayane Sakura, and Saori Hayami.[4][8] Crunchyroll streamed the series.[9]
Dublin.  Dublin[A] is the capital and largest city of Ireland.[12][13] Situated on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, and is bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, part of the Wicklow Mountains range. Dublin is the largest city by population on the island of Ireland; at the 2022 census, the city council area had a population of 592,713, while the city including suburbs had a population of 1,263,219, County Dublin had a population of 1,501,500.[6][14][15] Various definitions of a metropolitan Greater Dublin Area exist. A settlement was established in the area by the Gaels during or before the 7th century,[16] followed by the Vikings. As the Kingdom of Dublin grew, it became Irelands principal settlement by the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland.[16] Dublin expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest in the British Empire and sixth largest in Western Europe after the Acts of Union in 1800.[17] Following independence in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, renamed Ireland in 1937. As of 2018[update], Dublin was listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha minus, which placed it among the top thirty cities in the world.[18][19] The name Dublin comes from the Middle Irish Du(i)blind (literally Blackpool),[20] from dubh [d̪ˠuβˠ] black, dark and linn [l̠ʲin̠ʲ(dʲ)] pool. This evolved into the Early Modern Irish form Du(i)bhlinn,[20] which was pronounced Duílinn [ˈd̪ˠiːlʲin̠ʲ] in the local dialect. The name refers to a dark tidal pool on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle, where the River Poddle entered the Liffey. The Middle Irish pronunciation is preserved in the names for the city in other languages such as Old English Difelin, Old Norse Dyflin, modern Icelandic Dyflinn and modern Manx Divlyn as well as Welsh Dulyn and Breton Dulenn. Other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicised as Devlin,[21] Divlin[22] and Difflin.[23] Variations on the name are also found in traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh (the black pool), which is part of Loch Linnhe.
Lists of anime.  Anime (Japanese: アニメ, IPA: [aꜜɲime] ⓘ) is hand-drawn and computer-generated animation originating from Japan. However, outside of Japan and in English, anime refers specifically to the animation produced exclusively in Japan. However, in Japan and in Japanese, anime is generally described as all animated works in Japan, regardless of style, type or origin. These  lists of anime serve to provide an organized and methodological approach for finding related content about anime topics. These lists are not all inclusive, each list contains works that are representative of the genre. 
Tribeca Enterprises.  Tribeca Enterprises (former Tribeca Productions) is an American film and television production company co-founded in 1989 by actor Robert De Niro and producer Jane Rosenthal in the lower Manhattan neighborhood of Tribeca, which is where the company got its name.[1] The company was founded in 1989 at the beginning of a revival of interest in the film production community in filming in New York City.[2] Before the 1990s, it made more economic sense for production companies to film urban scenes in cities, including Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver in Canada. Since the founding of Tribeca Productions, other production facilities have moved into various neighborhoods in New York City, and filming there and in the streets has again become commonplace. In 2003, De Niro, Rosenthal, and Craig Hatkoff moved the company, and changed the name into Tribeca Enterprises, which organizes the Tribeca Film Festival, Tribeca Film Festival International, Tribeca Cinemas, and Tribeca Films.[3]
Commonwealth of Nations.  The Commonwealth of Nations, often referred to as the British Commonwealth or simply the Commonwealth,[4][5] is an international association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire from which it developed.[2] They are connected through their use of the English language and cultural and historical ties. The chief institutions of the association are the Commonwealth Secretariat, which focuses on intergovernmental relations, and the Commonwealth Foundation, which focuses on non-governmental relations between member nations.[6] Numerous organisations are associated with and operate within the Commonwealth.[7] The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference,[8] and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. In 1949, the London Declaration allowed India to remain in the Commonwealth as a republic, marking a significant evolution of the association.[9][10] The Head of the Commonwealth is Charles III. He is king of 15 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms, while 36 other members are republics, and five others have different monarchs. Although he became head upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II, the position is not technically hereditary.[11] Commonwealth citizens enjoy benefits in some member countries, particularly in the United Kingdom, and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another by high commissions rather than embassies. Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though various economic, judicial and military arrangements exist between countries. The Commonwealth Charter defines their shared values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law,[12] as promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games.
The Guardian.  The Guardian is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in Manchester in 1821 as The Manchester Guardian and changed its name in 1959,[5] followed by a move to London. Along with its sister paper, The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, owned by the Scott Trust Limited.[6] The trust was created in 1936 to secure the financial and editorial independence of The Guardian in perpetuity and to safeguard the journalistic freedom and liberal values of The Guardian free from commercial or political interference.[7] The trust was converted into a limited company in 2008, with a constitution written so as to maintain for The Guardian the same protections as were built into the structure of the Scott Trust by its creators. Profits are reinvested in its journalism rather than distributed to owners or shareholders.[7] It is considered a newspaper of record in the UK.[8][9] The editor-in-chief Katharine Viner succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015.[10][11] Since 2018, the papers main newsprint sections have been published in tabloid format. As of July 2021[update], its print edition had a daily circulation of 105,134.[4] The newspaper is available online; it lists UK, US (founded in 2011), Australian (founded in 2013), European, and International editions,[12] and its website has sections for World, Europe, US, Americas, Asia, Australia, Middle East, Africa, New Zealand,[13] Inequality, and Global development. It is published Monday-Saturday, though from 1993 to 2025, The Observer served as its Sunday sister paper. The papers readership is generally on the mainstream left of British political opinion.[14][15] In an Ipsos MORI research poll in September 2018 designed to interrogate the publics trust of specific titles online, The Guardian scored highest for digital-content news, with 84% of readers agreeing that they trust what [they] see in it.[16] A December 2018 report of a poll by the Publishers Audience Measurement Company stated that the papers print edition was found to be the most trusted in the UK in the period from October 2017 to September 2018. It was also reported to be the most-read of the UKs quality newsbrands, including digital editions; other quality brands included The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Independent, and the i. While The Guardians print circulation is in decline, the report indicated that news from The Guardian, including that reported online, reaches more than 23 million UK adults each month.[17] Chief among the notable scoops obtained by the paper was the 2011 News International phone-hacking scandal—and in particular the hacking of the murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone.[18] The investigation led to the closure of the News of the World, the UKs best-selling Sunday newspaper and one of the highest-circulation newspapers in history.[19] In June 2013, The Guardian broke news of the secret collection by the Obama administration of Verizon telephone records,[20] and subsequently revealed the existence of the surveillance program PRISM after knowledge of it was leaked to the paper by the whistleblower and former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden.[21] In 2016, The Guardian led an investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing then–Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. It has been named newspaper of the year four times at the annual British Press Awards, most recently in 2023.[22]
Kármán vortex street. In fluid dynamics, a Kármán vortex street (or a von Kármán vortex street) is a repeating pattern of swirling vortices, caused by a process known as vortex shedding, which is responsible for the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around blunt bodies.[1] It is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán,[2] and is responsible for such phenomena as the singing of suspended telephone or power lines and the vibration of a car antenna at certain speeds. Mathematical modeling of von Kármán vortex street can be performed using different techniques including but not limited to solving the full Navier-Stokes equations with k-epsilon, SST, k-omega and Reynolds stress, and large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence models,[3][4] by numerically solving some dynamic equations such as the Ginzburg–Landau equation,[5][6][7] or by use of a bicomplex variable.[8] A vortex street forms only at a certain range of flow velocities, specified by a range of Reynolds numbers (Re), typically above a limiting Re value of about 90. The (global) Reynolds number for a flow is a measure of the ratio of inertial to viscous forces in the flow of a fluid around a body or in a channel, and may be defined as a nondimensional parameter of the global speed of the whole fluid flow:       R e   L   =    U L   ν  0       {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} _{L}={\frac {UL}{\nu _{0}}}}   where: For common flows (which can usually be considered as incompressible or isothermal), the kinematic viscosity is everywhere uniform over all the flow field and constant in time, so there is no choice on the viscosity parameter, which becomes naturally the kinematic viscosity of the fluid being considered at the temperature being considered. On the other hand, the reference length is always an arbitrary parameter, so particular attention should be put when comparing flows around different obstacles or in channels of different shapes: the global Reynolds numbers should be referred to the same reference length. This is actually the reason for which the most precise sources for airfoil and channel flow data specify the reference length at the Reynolds number. The reference length can vary depending on the analysis to be performed: for a body with circle sections such as circular cylinders or spheres, one usually chooses the diameter; for an airfoil, a generic non-circular cylinder or a bluff body or a revolution body like a fuselage or a submarine, it is usually the profile chord or the profile thickness, or some other given widths that are in fact stable design inputs; for flow channels usually the hydraulic diameter about which the fluid is flowing.
List of fantasy authors.  This is a list of fantasy authors, authors known for writing works of fantasy, fantasy literature, or related genres of magic realism, horror fiction, science fantasy. Many of the authors are known for work outside the fantasy genres.  
Fantasy podcast.  A fantasy podcast is a podcast related to or discussing the fantasy genre, which usually focuses on the magical, supernatural, mythical, or folkloric. Fantasy stories are set in fictional universes or fantasy worlds that are often reminiscent of the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Despite having a fictional setting, fantasy stories can contain or reference locations, events, or people from the real world. Characters in these stories often encounter fictional creatures such as dwarves, elves, dragons, and fairies. Common types of fantasy podcasts are audio dramas, narrated short stories, role-playing games, or discussions and reviews of fantasy topics such as fantasy films, books, games, and other media. The intended audience of a fantasy podcast can vary from young children to adults. Fantasy podcasts emerged from storytelling and the creation of the radio. Fantasy podcasts have often been adapted into television programs, graphic novels, and comics. Fantasy podcasts are a subgenre of fiction podcasts and are distinguished from science fiction podcasts and horror podcasts by the absence of scientific or macabre themes, respectively, though these subgenres regularly overlap. As of 2021, The longest running fantasy podcast is PodCastle, which has been actively releasing content since 2007.[1] The most common subgenre of fantasy podcasts is high fantasy, however, other subgenres include urban fantasy, modern fantasy, and dark fantasy.[2][3] The content of fantasy podcasts often overlaps with science fiction podcasts. These two genres are often grouped together under the label science fiction and fantasy podcasts, which is sometimes shortened to sci-fi/fantasy podcasts or simply SFF.[4][5] Some examples of podcasts that cover both science fiction and fantasy topics include SFF Yeah!, The SFF Audio Podcast, and Sword & Laser.[6] Two of the longest running science fiction and fantasy podcasts, as of 2021, are Sword and Laser and the Clarkesworld Magazine podcast, which have both been regularly releasing episodes since 2008.[7][8] The Two Princes is a popular audio drama style LGBT fantasy podcast.[9][10] Other fantasy podcasts include Carcerem and Roommate From Hell.[11][12] Aja Romano, for Vox, compiled a list of seven fantasy audio drama podcast that included Kalila Stormfires Economical Magick Services, The Magical History of Knox County, Victoriocity, The Alexandria Archives, Love and Luck, Alba Salix, and Supernatural Sexuality with Dr Seabrooke.[13] Other fantasy audio dramas or audio fiction podcasts include Inn Between, The Once and Future Nerd, The Penumbra Podcast, and The Prickwillow Papers.[2]
Film festival. A film festival is an organized, extended presentation of films in one or more cinemas or screening venues, usually annually and in a single city or region. Some film festivals show films outdoors or online.[1] Films may be of recent date and depending upon the festivals focus, can include international and/or domestic releases. Some film festivals focus on a specific format of film, such as documentary, or runtime, such as short film festivals, or genre, such as horror films, category of filmmakers, such as women, production country/region or subject matter. Film festivals can be competitive or non-competitive, and are often regarded within the film industry as launchpads for new filmmakers and indie films, as well as boosters for established filmmakers and studio productions. The films are either invited by festival curators, or selected by festival programmers from submissions made by the filmmakers, film producers, production companies, sales agents or distributors. Audiences have the opportunity to watch in festivals films premiering months before their commercial release, or films that may not benefit from a wide release and would otherwise be hard to find.[2] The oldest film festival in the world is the Venice Film Festival.[3] The most prestigious film festivals in the world, known as the Big Five, are (listed chronologically according to the date of foundation): Venice, Cannes, Berlin (the original Big Three), Toronto, and Sundance. Other major festivals include Karlovy Vary, Locarno, San Sebastián, SXSW, Telluride, Tribeca, and the three largest and most prestigious genre festivals, Sitges, Fantasia and Fantastic Fest.[4][5][6][7] The Venice Film Festival in Italy began in 1932 and is the oldest film festival still running.[3]
Amine.  In chemistry, amines (/əˈmiːn, ˈæmiːn/,[1][2] UK also /ˈeɪmiːn/[3]) are organic compounds that contain carbon-nitrogen bonds.[4] Amines are formed when one or more hydrogen atoms in ammonia are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.[5] The nitrogen atom in an amine possesses a lone pair of electrons. Amines can also exist as hetero cyclic compounds. Aniline (      C  6       H  7      N    {\displaystyle {\ce {C6H7N}}}  ) is the simplest aromatic amine, consisting of a benzene ring bonded to an amino (–      NH  2         {\displaystyle {\ce {NH2}}}  ) group.[6][7] Amines are classified into three types: primary (1°), secondary (2°), and tertiary (3°) amines. Primary amines (1°) contain one alkyl or aryl substituent and have the general formula       RNH  2         {\displaystyle {\ce {RNH2}}}  . Secondary amines (2°) have two alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen atom, with the general formula       R  2      NH    {\displaystyle {\ce {R2NH}}}  . Tertiary amines (3°) contain three substituent groups bonded to the nitrogen atom, and are represented by the formula       R  3      N    {\displaystyle {\ce {R3N}}}  .[8] The functional group −NH2 present in primary amines is called the amino group.[9] Amines can be classified according to the nature and number of substituents on nitrogen.  Aliphatic amines contain only H and alkyl substituents. Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring.
Fantasy film.  Fantasy films are films that belong to the fantasy genre with fantastic themes, usually magic, supernatural events, mythology, folklore, or exotic fantasy worlds. The genre is considered a form of speculative fiction alongside science fiction films and horror films, although the genres do overlap.[1] Fantasy films often have an element of magic, myth, wonder, escapism, and the extraordinary.[2] Several sub-categories of fantasy films can be identified, although the delineations between these subgenres, much as in fantasy literature, are somewhat fluid. The most common fantasy subgenres depicted in movies are high fantasy and sword and sorcery.[according to whom?] Both categories typically employ quasi-medieval settings, wizards, magical creatures and other elements commonly associated with fantasy stories. High fantasy films tend to feature a more richly developed fantasy world, and may also be more character-oriented or thematically complex. Often, they feature a hero of humble origins and a clear distinction between good and evil set against each other in an epic struggle. Many scholars cite J. R. R. Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings novel as the prototypical modern example of high fantasy in literature, and the recent Peter Jackson film adaptation of the books is a good example of the high fantasy subgenre on the silver screen.
Fantasy magazine. A fantasy fiction magazine, or fantasy magazine, is a magazine which publishes primarily fantasy fiction. Not generally included in the category are magazines for children with stories about such characters as Santa Claus. Also not included are adult magazines about sexual fantasy. Many fantasy magazines, in addition to fiction, have other features such as art, cartoons, reviews, or letters from readers. Some fantasy magazines also publish science fiction and horror fiction, so there is not always a clear distinction between a fantasy magazine and a science fiction magazine. For example, Fantastic magazine published almost exclusively science fiction for much of its run.
British people.  Modern ethnicities British people or Britons, also known colloquially as Brits,[22] are the citizens and diaspora of the United Kingdom, the British Overseas Territories, and the Crown dependencies.[23][24][25] British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which can be acquired, for instance, by descent from British nationals. When used in a historical context, British or Britons can refer to the Ancient Britons, the Celtic-speaking inhabitants of Great Britain during the Iron Age, whose descendants formed the major part of the modern Welsh people, Cornish people, Bretons[24] and considerable proportions of English people.[26][27] It also refers to those British subjects born in parts of the former British Empire that are now independent countries who settled in the United Kingdom prior to 1973.[28] Though early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages, the Union of the Crowns in 1603 and the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity.[29] The notion of Britishness and a shared British identity was forged during the 18th century and early 19th century when Britain engaged in several global conflicts with France, and developed further during the Victorian era.[29][30] The complex history of the formation of the United Kingdom created a particular sense of nationhood and belonging in Great Britain;[29] Britishness became superimposed on much older identities, of English, Scots and Welsh cultures, whose distinctiveness still resists notions of a homogenised British identity.[31] Because of longstanding ethno-sectarian divisions, British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial, but it is held with strong conviction by Unionists.[32] Modern Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic groups that settled in Great Britain in and before the 11th century: Prehistoric, Brittonic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Normans.[33] The progressive political unification of the British Isles facilitated migration, cultural and linguistic exchange, and intermarriage between the peoples of England, Scotland and Wales during the late Middle Ages, early modern period and beyond.[34][35] Since 1922 and earlier, there has been immigration to the United Kingdom by people from what is now the Republic of Ireland, the Commonwealth, mainland Europe and elsewhere; they and their descendants are mostly British citizens, with some assuming a British, dual or hyphenated identity.[36] This includes the groups Black British and Asian British people, which together constitute around 10% of the British population.[37]
Fantasy literature.  Fantasy literature is literature set in an imaginary universe, often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world. Magic, the supernatural and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds. Fantasy literature may be directed at both children and adults. Fantasy is considered a genre of speculative fiction and is distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by the absence of scientific or macabre themes, respectively, though these may overlap. Historically, most works of fantasy were in written form, but since the 1960s, a growing segment of the genre has taken the form of fantasy films, fantasy television programs, graphic novels, video games, music and art. Many fantasy novels originally written for children and adolescents also attract an adult audience. Examples include Alices Adventures in Wonderland, the Harry Potter series, The Chronicles of Narnia, and The Hobbit. Stories involving magic and terrible monsters have existed in spoken forms before the advent of printed literature. Classical mythology is replete with fantastical stories and characters, the best known (and perhaps the most relevant to modern fantasy) being the works of Homer (Greek) and Virgil (Roman).[1]
Speculative fiction.  Speculative fiction is an umbrella genre of fiction that encompasses all the subgenres that depart from realism, or strictly imitating everyday reality, instead presenting fantastical, supernatural, futuristic, or other highly imaginative realms or beings.[1][2] This catch-all genre includes, but is not limited to: fantasy, science fiction, science fantasy, superhero, paranormal and supernatural horror, alternate history, magical realism, slipstream, weird fiction, utopia and dystopia, apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction. In other words, the genre presents individuals, events, or places beyond the ordinary real world.[3] The term speculative fiction has been used for works of literature, film, television, drama, video games, radio, and hybrid media.[1] The umbrella genre of speculative fiction is characterized by a lesser degree of adherence to plausible depictions of individuals, events, or places, while the umbrella genre of realistic fiction (partly crossing over with literary realism) is characterized by a greater degree of adherence to such depictions. For instance, speculative fiction may depict an entirely imaginary universe or one in which the laws of nature do not strictly apply (often the subgenre of fantasy). Alternatively, the genre depicts actual historical moments, except that they have concluded in an entirely imaginary way or been followed by major imaginary events (i.e., the subgenre of alternative history). As another alternative, the genre depicts impossible technology or technology that defies current scientific understanding or capabilities (i.e., the subgenre of science fiction).
List of alternate history fiction. This is a list of alternate history fiction, sorted primarily by type and then chronologically. Sequels not written by Piper and mainly written by John F. Carr:
Norman Taurog.  Norman Rae Taurog (February 23, 1899 – April 7, 1981) was an American film director and screenwriter.[1] From 1920 to 1968, Taurog directed 180 films. At the age of 32, he received the Academy Award for Best Director for Skippy (1931), becoming the youngest person to win the award for eight and a half decades until Damien Chazelle won for La La Land in 2017. He was later nominated for Best Director for the film Boys Town (1938). He directed some of the best-known actors of the twentieth century, including his nephew Jackie Cooper, Spencer Tracy, Mickey Rooney, Judy Garland, Deanna Durbin, Fred Astaire,  Gene Kelly, Deborah Kerr, Peter Lawford, Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis, Elvis Presley and Vincent Price. Taurog directed six Martin and Lewis films, and nine Elvis Presley films, more than any other director. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Taurog has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1600 Vine Street. Norman Taurog was born February 23, 1899, in Chicago, Illinois, to Jewish parents Arthur Jack Taurog and Anita (originally Annie) Taurog (née Goldsmith).  His fathers naturalization records claim that Arthur was born in the Russian Empire in 1872 or 1873 and naturalized as a minor, while his mother was from New York. Later census records claimed that Arthurs parents were from Germany, and Anitas were from England. The couple were married in Chicago in 1896. Norman became a child performer on the stage at an early age, making his movie debut at the age of 13 in the short film Tangled Relations, produced by Thomas Inces studios. In the eight years until his next screen credit, he worked in theater, mostly off-Broadway.
Original video animation. Original video animation (Japanese: オリジナル・ビデオ・アニメーション, Hepburn: orijinaru bideo animēshon), abbreviated as OVA and sometimes as OAV (original animation video), are Japanese animated films and special episodes of a series made specially for release in home video formats without prior showings on television or in theaters, though the first part of an OVA series may be broadcast for promotional purposes. OVA titles were originally made available on VHS, later becoming more popular on LaserDisc and eventually DVD.[1]  Starting in 2008, the term OAD (original animation DVD)[2][3] began to refer to DVD releases published bundled with their source-material manga. Like anime made for television broadcast, OVAs are divided into episodes. OVA media (tapes, laserdiscs or DVDs) usually contain just one episode each. Episode length varies from title to title: each episode may run from a few minutes to two hours or more. An OVA series can run anywhere from a single episode to dozens of episodes in length. Many anime series first appeared as OVAs, and later grew to become television series or movies.[examples needed] Producers sometimes make other OVA releases as sequels, side stories, music-video collections, or bonus episodes that continue existing as television series or films.[examples needed] The consumer base of OVSs constitutes of mainly males. Bandai Visual said in a 2004 news release (for their new OVAs aimed at women) that about 50% of the customers who had bought their anime DVDs in the past fell into the category of 25 to 40-year-old men, with only 13% of purchasers women, even with all ages included.[4] (However, these statistics cover Bandai Visual anime DVDs in general.) Nikkei Business Publications also said in a news-release that mainly 25 to 40-year-old adults bought anime DVDs.[5] Some OVAs based on television series (and especially those based on manga) may provide closure to the plot – closure not present in the original series.[examples needed]
Retrofuturism. Retrofuturism (adjective retrofuturistic or retrofuture) is a movement in the creative arts emphasizing and harking back to depictions of the future as produced in earlier eras. If futurism is an artistic movement anticipating upcoming technological advancements, retrofuturism is the remembering of that anticipation.[1] Characterized by a blend of old-fashioned retro styles with futuristic technology, retrofuturism explores the themes of tension between past and future, and between the alienating and empowering effects of technology. Primarily reflected in artistic creations and modified technologies that realize the imagined artifacts of its parallel reality, retrofuturism can be seen as an animating perspective on the world.[2] Retro-futurism became very popular and trendy in early 2020s in terms of culture, transport, architecture, entertainment etc.[3][4] The word retrofuturism is formed by the addition of the prefix retro from the Latin language, which gives the meaning of backwards to the word future, a word also originating from Latin. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the term appears in a Bloomingdales advertisement in a 1983 issue of The New York Times. The ad talks of jewellery that is silverized steel and sleek grey linked for a retro-futuristic look. In an example more related to retrofuturism as an exploration of past visions of the future, the term appears in the form of “retro-futurist” in a 1984 review of the film Brazil in The New Yorker.[5] Critic Pauline Kael writes, [Terry Gilliam] presents a retro-futurist fantasy.[6] Retrofuturism builds on ideas of futurism, but the latter term functions differently in several different contexts.  In avant-garde artistic, literary and design circles, futurism is a long-standing and well-established term.[citation needed] But in its more popular form, futurism (sometimes referred to as futurology) is an early optimism that focused on the past and was rooted in the nineteenth century, an early-twentieth-century golden age that continued long into the 1960s Space Age.[7]
Tommy Kelly (actor). Thomas Francis Kelly[1] (April 6, 1925 – January 26, 2016), professionally known as Tommy Kelly, was an American child actor. He played the title role in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in 1938 based on Mark Twains novel of the same name. Kelly was born in the Bronx, the son of Nora and Michael Kelly, a fireman, in humble circumstances.[2] He had twelve siblings.[3] Kellys grandparents, all four, were from Ireland.[3] He began his acting career at the age of twelve when he was selected to play Tom Sawyer in the 1938 movie The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, the first Technicolor adaption of Mark Twains classic 1876 novel.[2] Approximately 25,000 boys had auditioned for that role and it is said that famous producer David O. Selznick handpicked Kelly for the role.[4] Despite Kellys earning good critical reviews for his performance, the film was only a poor financial success. He also played the lead role in Pecks Bad Boy with the Circus later that year as Bill Peck.[5] In 1939, Tommy Kelly had a small but memorable part in Gone with the Wind as the boy crying in a band playing Dixie in Atlanta while the death lists are given out. He played the notable supporting role of Willie in Archie Mayos musical film They Shall Have Music (1939) followed by a leading role as a young cadet in the B movie Military Academy (1940). As he reached adulthood, Kellys roles in movies were minor and he was often uncredited.[6] He appeared in The Magnificent Yankee[7] in 1950, which turned out to be his last of 19 films before ending his acting career.[6] As with many other stars, the war years found Tommy in the U.S. Army; he served in the infantry rather than the USO, as did some other child stars. After his Hollywood days, Tommy Kelly earned a Ph.D. from Michigan State. He worked as a high school teacher and counselor in Culver City and later as an administrator in the Orange County, Florida school system. He worked in Liberia as an administrator for the Peace Corps towards the end of the 1960s.[4] He afterwards served as superintendent of international schools in Liberia and Venezuela.[8] He eventually returned to the United States and worked in an important position at the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Washington.[9] Ever conscious of the value of education, in his thesis he focused, among other things, on the relative advantages of children who were educated in U.S. military dependent schools abroad. Dr. Kelly served as an International Relations Advisor in the International Organization Affairs (IOA) unit of the Office of International Cooperation and Development (OICD) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, where he prepared positions for the Office of the Secretary of Agriculture, with personal responsibility for OECD, and United States delegations to the governing boards of United Nations Organizations concerned with Food and Agriculture, a position he held until his retirement from federal service.[citation needed]
Alternate history. Alternate history (also referred to as alternative history, allohistory,[1] althist, or simply A.H.) is a subgenre of speculative fiction in which one or more historical events have occurred but are resolved differently than in actual history.[2][3][4][5] As conjecture based upon historical fact, alternate history stories propose what if? scenarios about pivotal events in human history, and present outcomes very different from the historical record. Some alternate histories are considered a subgenre of science fiction, or historical fiction. Since the 1950s, as a subgenre of science fiction, some alternative history stories have featured the tropes of time travel between histories, the psychic awareness of the existence of an alternative universe by the inhabitants of a given universe, and time travel that divides history into various timestreams.[6] Often described as a subgenre of science fiction, alternative history is a genre of fiction wherein the author speculates upon how the course of history might have been altered if a particular historical event had an outcome different from the real life outcome.[2] An alternate history requires three conditions: (i) A point of divergence from the historical record, before the time in which the author is writing; (ii) A change that would alter known history; and (iii) An examination of the ramifications of that alteration to history.[7] Occasionally, some types of genre fiction are misidentified as alternative history, specifically science fiction stories set in a time that was the future for the writer, but now is the past for the reader, such as the novels 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) by Arthur C. Clarke, 1984 (1949) by George Orwell and the movie 2012 (2009) because the authors did not alter the real history of the past when they wrote the stories.[7] Similar to the genre of alternative history, there is also the genre of secret history - which can be either fictional or non-fictional - which documents events that might have occurred in history, but which had no effect upon the recorded historical outcome.[7][8] Alternative history also is thematically related to, but distinct from, counterfactual history, which is a form of historiography that explores historical events in an extrapolated timeline in which key historical events either did not occur or had an outcome different from the historical record, in order to understand what did happen.[9][10] The earliest example of alternate (or counterfactual) history is found in Livys Ab Urbe Condita Libri (book IX, sections 17–19). Livy contemplated an alternative 4th century BC in which Alexander the Great had survived to attack Europe as he had planned; asking, What would have been the results for Rome if she had been engaged in a war with Alexander?[11][12][13] Livy concluded that the Romans would likely have defeated Alexander.[11][14][15] An even earlier possibility is Herodotuss Histories, which contains speculative material.[16]
Jackie Moran.  John E. Moran (January 26, 1923 – September 20, 1990) was an American movie actor who, from 1936 to 1946, appeared in over 30 films, primarily in teenage roles.[1] A native of Mattoon, Illinois, Moran first sang in a church choir. He was discovered by Mary Pickford[1] who convinced his mother, a concert singer and father, an attorney, to take him to Hollywood for a screen test in 1935. Billed as Jackie Moran, he was subsequently cast in a number of substantial supporting roles. He became known with the 1938 release of David O. Selznicks production The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.[1] The 93-minute big-budget Technicolor film presented Moran as Huckleberry Finn to Tommy Kellys Tom Sawyer. Jackie Moran received critical praise for his natural acting style. Jackie Moran went on to star in several youth-oriented films for low-budget and poverty-row studios, such as Republic and Monogram. His most frequent co-star was the one-year-younger Marcia Mae Jones, who appeared with him in 11 films, also including Tom Sawyer, where Jones had the relatively minor part of Tom Sawyers cousin Mary. They also played supporting roles in the Deanna Durbin vehicle Mad About Music. They played in four Monogram tributes to life in idealized pre-World War II rural America, 1938s Barefoot Boy, and in 1940, Tomboy, Haunted House and The Old Swimmin Hole. The trio of 1940 films were directed by Robert F. McGowan, the former director of Our Gang. Most of Jackie and Marcia Maes remaining five films cast them in major supporting roles. Their final entry, after a two-year break, was the 1943 Republic musical Nobodys Darling, one of the early films helmed by Anthony Mann. Moran appeared in a cameo in Gone with the Wind (1939), where he played the son of Dr. Meade, furious about his brothers death as a soldier, and wanting to join the Confederate Army so he can kill all those Yankees. Jackie had a co-starring role with Buster Crabbe in Universals 12-chapter serial Buck Rogers in which he was third-billed as Bucks young friend, Buddy Wade. Jackies next 1939 release was the Hardy Family-like Everybodys Hobby, while the last, Spirit of Culver, a remake of 1932s military-school film Tom Brown of Culver, teamed him with two former top child stars Jackie Cooper and Freddie Bartholomew. Jackie Moran did not serve in the military during the war[why?] and continued to act in movies, including one final appearance in Selznicks Since You Went Away (1944), where he played a grocers son who exchanges bashful glances with Shirley Temple.
May Robson.  Mary Jeanette Robison (19 April 1858 – 20 October 1942), known professionally as May Robson, was an Australian-born America-based actress whose career spanned 58 years, starting in 1883 when she was 25. A major stage actress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, she is remembered for the dozens of films she appeared in during the 1930s, when she was in her 70s. Robson was the earliest-born person, and the first Australian to be nominated for an Academy Award (for her leading role in Lady for a Day in 1933).[1][2] Mary Jeanette Robison was born 19 April 1858 at Moama,[a] in the Colony of New South Wales,[8][b] in what she described as the Australian bush.[9] She was the fourth child of Julia, née Schlesinger (or Schelesinger) and Henry Robison;[3][10] her siblings were Williams, James and Adelaide.[8] Henry Robison was born in Penrith, Cumberland, England[11] and lived in Liverpool.[12] He served 24 years in the foreign trade of the British Merchant Navy as a mate and a sea captain.[9][11] He retired at half-pay due to his poor health[9] and travelled with Julia Robison to Melbourne, Victoria, Australia in 1853 on the SS Great Britain.[13] By April 1855, he was a watchmaker, jeweller, silversmith and ornamental hairworker in Melbourne.[12] According to Robson, her parents both suffered from phthisis pulmonalis, and moved to the bush for their health.[9]  Henry bought a large brick mansion in Moama, New South Wales in August 1857 and opened the Prince of Wales Hotel. From there, he co-operated Robison & Stivens, coach proprietors for the Bendigo-Moama-Deniliquin service.[6] The hotel was Robsons first home.[8] Henry died in Moama Maidens Punt on 27 January 1860.[7][c]
Wally Wood.  Wallace Allan Wood (June 17, 1927 – November 2, 1981)[1] was an American comic book writer, artist and independent publisher, widely known for his work on EC Comicss titles such as Weird Science, Weird Fantasy,  and MAD Magazine from its inception in 1952 until 1964, as well as for T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents, and work for Warren Publishings Creepy. He drew a few early issues of Marvels Daredevil and established the title characters distinctive red costume. Wood created and owned the long-running characters Sally Forth and Cannon. He wrote, drew, and self-published two of the three graphic novels of his magnum opus, The Wizard King trilogy, about Odkin son of Odkin before his (Wood’s) death by suicide. Much of his early professional artwork is signed Wallace Wood; some people call him Wally Wood, a name he disliked.[2] Within the comics community, he was also known as Woody, a name he sometimes used as a signature. In addition to Woods hundreds of comic book pages, he illustrated for books and magazines while also working in a variety of other areas – advertising; packaging and product illustrations; gag cartoons; record album covers; posters; syndicated comic strips; and trading cards, including work on Toppss landmark Mars Attacks set.
David O. Selznick. David O. Selznick (born David Selznick; May 10, 1902 – June 22, 1965) was an American film producer, screenwriter and film studio executive[2] who produced Gone with the Wind (1939) and Rebecca (1940), both of which earned him an Academy Award for Best Picture. He also won the Irving Thalberg Award at the 12th Academy Awards, Hollywoods top honor for a producer, in recognition of his shepherding Gone with the Wind through a long and troubled production and into a record-breaking blockbuster. The son and son-in-law of movie moguls Lewis J. Selznick and Louis B. Mayer, Selznick served as head of production at R.K.O. Radio Pictures and went on to become one of the first independent movie producers. His first wife was Mayers daughter Irene Selznick, who became a highly successful Broadway producer after their divorce, and his second wife was Oscar-winning actress Jennifer Jones. Selznick was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence Anna (née Sachs) and Lewis J. Selznick, a silent film producer and distributor of Jewish origin.[3] His father was born in the Russian Empire in 1870.[4] David had three siblings, including his brother Myron, also a film producer and later a talent agent. David Selznick added the O to distinguish himself from an uncle with the same name, and because he thought it had flair.[5] The O stands for nothing, and he never had his name legally changed to incorporate it.[6] He studied at Columbia University in New York City and started training as an apprentice for his father[7] until the elders bankruptcy in 1923. In 1926, Selznick moved to Hollywood,[7] and with the help of his fathers connections, he gained a job as an assistant story editor at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He left MGM for Paramount Pictures in 1928, where he worked until 1931. While at Paramount he married Irene Gladys Mayer, daughter of MGM mogul Louis B. Mayer.
Hieronymus Bosch. Hieronymus Bosch (/haɪˈrɒnɪməs bɒʃ, bɔːʃ, bɔːs/;[1][2][3][4] Dutch: [ɦijeːˈroːnimʏz ˈbɔs] ⓘ;[a] born Jheronimus van Aken[5] [jeːˈroːnimʏs fɑn ˈaːkə(n)];[b] c. 1450 – 9 August 1516) was a Dutch painter from Brabant. He is one of the most notable representatives of the Early Netherlandish painting school. His work, generally oil on oak wood, mainly contains fantastic illustrations of religious concepts and narratives.[6] Within his lifetime, his work was collected in the Netherlands, Austria, and Spain, and widely copied, especially his macabre and nightmarish depictions of hell. Little is known of Boschs life, though there are some records. He spent most of it in the town of s-Hertogenbosch, where he was born in his grandfathers house. The roots of his forefathers are in Nijmegen and Aachen (which is visible in his surname: Van Aken). His pessimistic fantastical style cast a wide influence on northern art of the 16th century, with Pieter Bruegel the Elder being his best-known follower. Today, Bosch is seen as a highly individualistic painter with deep insight into humanitys desires and deepest fears. Attribution has been especially difficult; today only about 25 paintings are confidently given to his hand[7] along with eight drawings. About another half-dozen paintings are confidently attributed to his workshop. His most acclaimed works consist of three triptych altarpieces, particularly The Garden of Earthly Delights. Hieronymus Boschs first name was originally Jheronimus (or Joen,[8] respectively the Latin and Middle Dutch form of the name Jerome), and he signed a number of his paintings as Jheronimus Bosch.[9] The surname Bosch derives from his birthplace, s-Hertogenbosch (Dukes forest), which, in Holland, is commonly called Den Bosch (the forest).[10] Little is known of Boschs life or training. He left behind no letters or diaries, and known references to him have been taken from brief mentions in the municipal records of s-Hertogenbosch, and in the account books of the local religious confraternity, the order of the Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady. Nothing is known of his personality, nor of his thoughts on the meaning of his art. Boschs date of birth has not been determined with certainty. It is estimated at c. 1450, on the basis of a hand-drawn portrait (which may be a self-portrait) made shortly before his death in 1516. The drawing shows the artist at an advanced age, probably in his late sixties.[11]
Robert De Niro.  Robert Anthony De Niro (/də ˈnɪəroʊ/ də NEER-roh, Italian: [de ˈniːro]; born August 17, 1943) is an American actor, director, and film producer. He is considered to be one of the greatest and most influential actors of his generation.[a] De Niro is the recipient of various accolades, including two Academy Awards and a  Golden Globe Award as well as nominations for eight BAFTA Awards and four Emmy Awards. He was honored with the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2003, the Kennedy Center Honors in 2009, the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2011, the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2016, the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award in 2019, and the Honorary Palme dOr in 2025. De Niro studied acting at HB Studio, Stella Adler Conservatory, and Lee Strasbergs Actors Studio. He went on to earn two Academy Awards, his first for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Vito Corleone in the crime drama The Godfather Part II (1974) followed by Best Actor for his portrayal of Jake LaMotta in the biopic drama Raging Bull (1980). He was further Oscar-nominated for his roles in Taxi Driver (1976), The Deer Hunter (1978), Awakenings (1990), Cape Fear (1991), Silver Linings Playbook (2012), and Killers of the Flower Moon (2023). De Niro is known for his dramatic roles in Mean Streets (1973), 1900 (1976), The King of Comedy (1982), Once Upon a Time in America (1984), Brazil (1985), The Mission (1986), Angel Heart (1987), The Untouchables (1987), Goodfellas (1990), This Boys Life (1993), Heat (1995), Casino (1995), Jackie Brown (1997), Ronin (1998), Joker (2019), and The Irishman (2019) as well as his comedic roles in Midnight Run (1988), Wag the Dog (1997), Analyze This (1999), the Meet the Parents films (2000–2010), and The Intern (2015). He directed and acted in both the crime drama A Bronx Tale (1993) and the spy film The Good Shepherd (2006). On television, he portrayed Bernie Madoff in the HBO film The Wizard of Lies (2017). De Niro and producer Jane Rosenthal founded the film and television production company TriBeCa Productions in 1989, which has produced several films alongside his own. Also with Rosenthal, he founded the Tribeca Film Festival in 2002. Many of De Niros films are considered classics of American cinema. Six of De Niros films have been inducted into the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant as of 2023.[6] Five films were listed on the AFIs 100 greatest American films of all time.
The Garden of Earthly Delights.  The Garden of Earthly Delights (Dutch: De tuin der lusten, lit. The garden of lusts) is the modern title[a] given to a triptych oil painting on oak panel painted by the Early Netherlandish master Hieronymus Bosch, between 1490 and 1510, when Bosch was between 40 and 60 years old.[1] Boschs religious beliefs are unknown, but interpretations of the work typically assume it is a warning against the perils of temptation. The outer panels place the work on the Third Day of Creation. The intricacy of its symbolism, particularly that of the central panel, has led to a wide range of scholarly interpretations over the centuries. Twentieth-century art historians are divided as to whether the triptychs central panel is a moral warning or a panorama of the paradise lost. He painted three large triptychs (the others are The Last Judgment of c. 1482 and The Haywain Triptych of c. 1516) that can be read from left to right and in which each panel was essential to the meaning of the whole. Each of these three works presents distinct yet linked themes addressing history and faith. Triptychs from this period were generally intended to be read sequentially, the left and right panels often portraying Eden and the Last Judgment respectively, while the main subject was contained in the centerpiece.[2] It is not known whether The Garden was intended as an altarpiece, but the general view is that the extreme subject matter of the inner center and right panels make it unlikely that it was planned for a church or monastery.[3] It has been housed in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain since 1939. When the triptychs wings are closed, the design of the outer panels becomes visible. Rendered in a green–gray grisaille,[5] these panels lack colour, probably because most Netherlandish triptychs were thus painted, but possibly indicating that the painting reflects a time before the creation of the sun and moon, which were formed, according to Christian theology, to give light to the earth.[6] The typical grisaille blandness of Netherlandish altarpieces served to highlight the splendid color inside.[7]
Gaylord DuBois. Gaylord McIlvaine Du Bois[1] (/duːˈbwɑː/; sometimes written DuBois;[2] August 24, 1899 – October 20, 1993)[3] was an American writer of comic book stories and comic strips, as well as Big Little Books and juvenile adventure novels. Du Bois wrote Tarzan for Dell Comics and Gold Key Comics from 1946 until 1971, and wrote over 3,000 comics stories over his career. An avid outdoorsman, Du Bois had a true affinity for writing stories with natural settings. His forte was in Westerns, as well as jungle comics and animal reality comics. He created many original second features for Western Publishing (e.g., Captain Venture: Beneath the Sea, Leopard Girl, Two Against the Jungle, etc.), but most of his work for the company was in writing stories with licensed characters. Among the various genres for which he wrote comic book scripts, most were of the outdoor adventure variety, particularly Westerns, including Red Ryder Comics (for which he wrote Little Beaver text pages, The Fighting Yanks WWII feature, and, particularly, the Kyotee Kids Western series, 31 scripts, the first being sent to his editor 12/23/1946, the last being sent 3/19/1949, that ran from about issue #43 ending with #72; Du Bois had previously been one of the ghostwriters for the Red Ryder newspaper comic strip drawn by Fred Harman. Before its format change to all-new Red Ryder material, Red Ryder Comics featured Red Ryder newspaper strip reprints. He also wrote stories for Gene Autry Comics, Roy Rogers Comics (1944-1956, 1959-1960, all of the first run in the Four Color Comics series, and, under its own numbering, Roy Rogers Comics #1 through about #108, and approximately #134 through #143), Zane Greys King of the Royal Mounted (Du Bois had previously been one of the ghost-writers for the King of the Royal Mounted newspaper comic strip drawn by illustrator Jim Gary), Sergeant Preston of the Yukon, Bat Masterson (adapting Bat Masterson (TV series)), Tales of Wells Fargo / Man from Wells Fargo, Wanted: Dead or Alive, The Rebel, Bonanza and Hotel de Paree Sundance. Gaylord Du Bois also wrote comic book script adaptations of Zane Greys western novels for the Dell Four Color Series Zane Greys issues, which achieved its own numbering with #27 as Zane Greys Stories of the West. Du Bois wrote the first issue. In total, he wrote 31 of the series 39 issues. Du Bois excelled writing animals: he wrote the entire run of The Lone Rangers Famous Horse Hi-Yo Silver, the entire run of National Velvet under both the Dell and Gold Key imprints, the first 9 issues of Roy Rogers Trigger, sixty issues of Lassie, plus nine Lassie issues of March of Comics, the last issue of Gene Autrys Champion, as well as the animal adventure back-up features Bullet the dog, Lotor the raccoon, Yukon King the dog, Grey Wolf, Blaze the horse, et al.. He also adapted Owd Bob for Four Color Comics #729.
Frank Frazetta.  Frank Frazetta (born Frank Frazzetta /frəˈzɛtə/; February 9, 1928 – May 10, 2010)[1][2] was an American artist known for themes of fantasy and science fiction, noted for comic books, paperback book covers, paintings, posters, LP record album covers, and other media. He is often referred to as the Godfather of fantasy art, and one of the most renowned illustrators of the 20th century. He was also the subject of a 2003 documentary Painting with Fire. Frazetta was inducted into the comic book industrys Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame, the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame, the Society of Illustrators Hall of Fame, the Science Fiction Hall of Fame, and was awarded a Life Achievement Award from the World Fantasy Convention. Born Frank Frazzetta in Sheepshead Bay, New York, located in Brooklyn.[3] Frazetta removed one z from his last name early in his career to make his name seem less clumsy.[1] The only boy in a family with three sisters, he spent much time with his grandmother, who began encouraging him in art when he was two years old. In 2010, a month before his death, he recalled that: When I drew something, she would be the one to say it was wonderful and would give me a penny to keep going. Sometimes I had nothing left to draw on but toilet paper. As I got older, I started drawing some pretty wild things for my age. I remember the teachers were always mesmerized by what I was doing, so it was hard to learn anything from them. So I went to art school when I was a little kid, and even there the teachers were flipping out.[4]
Steve Ditko.  Stephen John Ditko[1][2] (/ˈdɪtkoʊ/; November 2, 1927 – c. June 29, 2018) was an American comic book artist best known for being the co-creator of Marvel superheroes Spider-Man and Doctor Strange. He also made notable contributions to the character of Iron Man, introducing the characters signature red and yellow design. Ditko studied under Batman artist Jerry Robinson at the Cartoonist and Illustrators School in New York City. He began his professional career in 1953, working in the studio of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, beginning as an inker and coming under the influence of artist Mort Meskin. During this time, he began his long association with Charlton Comics, where he did work in the genres of science fiction, horror, and mystery. He also co-created the superhero Captain Atom in 1960. During the 1950s, Ditko also drew for Atlas Comics, a forerunner of Marvel Comics. He went on to contribute much significant work to Marvel. Ditko was the artist for the first 38 issues of The Amazing Spider-Man, co-creating much of the Spider-Man supporting characters and villains with Stan Lee. Beginning with issue #25, Ditko was also credited as the plotter. In 1966, after being the exclusive artist on The Amazing Spider-Man and the Doctor Strange feature in Strange Tales, Ditko left Marvel. He continued to work for Charlton and also DC Comics, including a revamp of the long-running character the Blue Beetle and creating or co-creating The Question, The Creeper, Shade, the Changing Man, Nightshade, and Hawk and Dove. Ditko also began contributing to small independent publishers, where he created Mr. A, a hero reflecting the influence of Ayn Rands philosophy of Objectivism. Ditko largely declined to give interviews, saying he preferred to communicate through his work.
Elfquest. Elfquest (or ElfQuest) is a comic book property created by Wendy and Richard Pini in 1978,[1] and still owned by them. It is a fantasy story about a community of elves and other fictional species who struggle to survive and coexist on a primitive Earth-like planet with two moons. Several published volumes of prose fiction also share the same setting. Elfquest was one of the first comic book series to have a planned conclusion. Over the years Elfquest has been self-published by the Pinis through their own company Warp Graphics, then Marvel Comics,[1] then the Pinis again, more recently DC Comics, and, since 2013, Dark Horse Comics.[2] All issues of Elfquest published prior to 2014 are available online for free.[3] The first Elfquest story, Fire and Flight, appeared in February 1978[1] in the underground comic book Fantasy Quarterly, published by Lansing, Michigan-based IPS (Independent Publishers Syndicate). That company closed after publishing the first issue of Elfquest.[1] Sandwiched between the two parts of the Elfquest story was a brief story written by T. Casey Brennan and illustrated by Cerebus the Aardvark creator Dave Sim titled Doorway to the Gods. The quality of the publication was disappointing to Wendy and Richard Pini. The interior was printed on newsprint, and the cover was printed, in a limited color palette, on only slightly heavier, uncoated paper stock. The poor quality of this publication convinced the Pinis that they could produce a higher quality publication on their own.[4] After borrowing money in order to start WaRP Graphics, the Pinis started publishing with Elfquest #2. It was printed magazine-size with glossy full-color covers and a character portrait print on the back cover by Wendy, a format that continued throughout the series entire run. This story continued the Elfquest tale started in Fantasy Quarterly. Later, the Pinis company WaRP Graphics reprinted the story from Fantasy Quarterly as Elfquest #1 with a new front cover and full-color portrait print for the rear cover. This series was one of the early successes that marked the establishment of a phase in underground comics in which a new genre of alternative independent comic books emerged that were closer in content to mainstream comics. Elfquest was also one of the first comic book series that had a prearranged conclusion. It was highly praised for its innovative themes. The fact that a female artist/writer (Wendy Pini) was the creative principal of the series was also notable. The original series – generally referred to as The Original Quest or OQ – ran for 20 magazine-size issues (spanning about seven to eight years in terms of the main storyline), released three times a year.[5] Color compilations followed, published by the Donning Company under its Starblaze imprint as Books 1-4. Two more series were published in a reduced comic book-size format, but still in black and white: Siege at Blue Mountain (8 issues) and Kings of the Broken Wheel (9 issues), later collected and published in color by Warp Graphics under its Father Tree Press imprint as part of a second edition of the graphic novels as Books 5-8. The stories take place three years after the original quest.
Sligo (disambiguation). Sligo is a town in Ireland. Sligo may also refer to:
Art.  Art is a diverse range of cultural activity centered around works utilizing creative or imaginative talents, which are expected to evoke a worthwhile experience,[1] generally through an expression of emotional power, conceptual ideas, technical proficiency, or beauty.[2][3][4] There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art,[5][6][7] and its interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. In the Western tradition, the three classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture.[8] Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the arts.[2][9] Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts. The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.[10] The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art. In the perspective of the history of art,[11] artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early prehistoric art to contemporary art; however, some theorists think that the typical concept of artistic works does not fit well outside modern Western societies.[12] One early sense of the definition of art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to skill or craft, as associated with words such as artisan. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.
Museo del Prado.  The Museo del Prado (/ˈprɑːdoʊ/ PRAH-doh; Spanish pronunciation: [muˈseo ðel ˈpɾaðo]), officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It houses collections of European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th century, based on the former Spanish royal collection, and the single best collection of Spanish art. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it also contains important collections of other types of works. The numerous works by Francisco Goya, the single most extensively represented artist, as well as by Hieronymus Bosch, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Titian, and Diego Velázquez, are some of the highlights of the collection. Velázquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museums fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now one of the largest outside of Italy. The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings, 7,600 paintings, 4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to many other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the main buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums and official institutions. The remainder were in storage.[4] The Prado was ranked as the 16th most-visited museum in the list of most-visited art museums in the world in 2020.[5] The Prado and the nearby Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and the Museo Reina Sofía form Madrids Golden Triangle of Art along the Paseo del Prado, which was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2021.
Sligo Town Hall.  Sligo Town Hall (Irish: Halla Baile Shligigh) is a municipal building in Quay Street, Sligo, County Sligo, Ireland. The building accommodated the offices of Sligo Borough Council until 2014. Sligo Corporation resolved to commission a town hall in 1825: however, that scheme collapsed and for many years the corporation continued to rent an office for its meetings. In 1860, the corporation asked the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, George Howard, 7th Earl of Carlisle, to support an application an HM Treasury for a contribution to the cost,[1] with the balance being financed by public subscription.[2] The site the corporation selected was occupied by an old fort which dated back to 1646,[3][4] although archaeologists have suggested that it may have originally been the site of Sligo Castle which dated back to 1245.[5] The foundation stone for the new building was laid by the mayor, William Abbott Woods, on 12 October 1865.[6] It was designed by William Hague in the Lombard Romanesque style, built by Crowe Brothers in rubble masonry with ashlar stone dressings at a cost of £6,863, and was opened for business in time for the a meeting of the council in July 1872.[7] Because of the very high standard of workmanship and associated cost over-runs, the building was not entirely complete until 1874.[8] The design involved a symmetrical main frontage of seven bays facing onto Quay Street. The central bay featured an entrance, which was slightly projected forward, involving a round headed doorway flanked by colonnettes supporting an architrave and a keystone. The other bays on the ground floor and all bays on the first floor were fenestrated by round headed windows with architraves and alternating sandstone and limestone voussoirs.[9] At roof level, there was a modillioned cornice and a central three-stage tower with a round headed window in the first stage, clock faces in the second stage, and a belfry in the third stage, all surmounted by a pyramid-shaped roof with louvre dormers and octagonal-shaped iron cresting. The clock tower was built by a local contractor, Patrick Morris, and paid for by the Harbour Commissioners, on the basis that it gave them a good view of shipping entering and leaving the port.[10] The clock was designed and manufactured by James and Francis Nelson and installed in 1877.[11] Internally, the principal room was the assembly hall on the first floor which was 75.5 feet (23.0 m) long and 33 feet (10 m) wide.[8]
New York City.  New York, often called New York City (NYC),[b] is the most populous city in the United States. It is located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the worlds largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive with its respective county. The city is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the United States by both population and urban area. New York is a global center of finance[13] and commerce, culture, technology,[14] entertainment and media, academics and scientific output,[15] the arts and fashion, and, as home to the headquarters of the United Nations, international diplomacy.[16][17][18][19][20] With an estimated population in July 2024 of 8,478,072, distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km2),[5] the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States.[6][7] New York City has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the countrys second-most populous city.[21] Over 20.1 million people live in New York Citys metropolitan statistical area[22] and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, both the largest in the U.S. New York City is one of the worlds most populous megacities.[23] The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. An estimated 800 languages are spoken in New York City,[24][25][26] making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world.[27][28] The New York City metropolitan region is home to the largest foreign-born population of any metropolitan region in the world, approximately 5.9 million as of 2023. New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists around 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was temporarily renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York,[29] before being permanently renamed New York in 1674. Following independence from Great Britain, the city was the national capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790.[30] The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island. Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District, Manhattan, New York City has been called both the worlds premier financial and fintech center[31][32] and the most economically powerful city in the world.[33] As of 2022[update], the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world, with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16 trillion.[11] The New York metropolitan areas economy is larger than all but nine countries. Despite having a 24/7 rapid transit system, New York also leads the world in urban automobile traffic congestion.[34] The city is home to the worlds two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established haven for global investors.[35] As of 2025[update], New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates[36] and has by a wide margin the highest residential rents of any American city.[37] Fifth Avenue is the most expensive shopping street in the world.[38] New York City is home to the highest number of billionaires,[39]  individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$30 million),[40] and millionaires of any city in the world by a significant margin.[41]
Connacht.  Connacht, also spelled Connaught (/ˈkɒnɔːt, ˈkɒnə(x)t/,[5][6][7] Irish: Connachta [ˈkʊn̪ˠəxt̪ˠə] or Cúige Chonnacht [ˌkuːɟə ˈxʊn̪ˠəxt̪ˠ]), is the smallest of the four provinces of Ireland, situated in the west of Ireland. Until the ninth century it consisted of several independent major Gaelic kingdoms (Uí Fiachrach, Uí Briúin, Uí Maine, Conmhaícne, and Delbhna). Between the reigns of Conchobar mac Taidg Mór (died 882) and his descendant, Aedh mac Ruaidri Ó Conchobair (reigned 1228–33), it became a kingdom under the rule of the Uí Briúin Aí dynasty, whose ruling sept adopted the surname Ua Conchobair. At its greatest extent, it incorporated the often independent Kingdom of Breifne, as well as vassalage from the lordships of western Mide and west Leinster. Two of its greatest kings, Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair (1088–1156) and his son Ruaidri Ua Conchobair (c. 1115–1198) greatly expanded the kingdoms dominance, so much so that both became High King of Ireland. The Kingdom of Connacht collapsed in the 1230s because of civil war within the royal dynasty, which enabled widespread Hiberno-Norman settlement under Richard Mór de Burgh, 1st Baron of Connaught, and his successors. The Norman colony in Connacht shrank from c. 1300 to c. 1360, with events such as the 1307 battle of Ahascragh (see Donnchad Muimnech Ó Cellaigh), the 1316 Second Battle of Athenry and the murder in June 1333 of William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster, all leading to Gaelic resurgence and colonial withdrawal to towns such as Ballinrobe, Loughrea, Athenry, and Galway. Well into the 16th century, kingdoms such as Uí Maine and Tír Fhíacrach Múaidhe remained beyond English control, while many Norman families such as de Burgh, de Bermingham, de Exeter, de Staunton, became entirely Gaelicised. Only in the late 1500s, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, was Connacht shired into its present counties. Connachts population was 1,418,859 in 1841.[8] Then came the Great Famine of the 1840s, which began a 120-year decline to under 400,000. The province has a population of just under 590,000 according to the preliminary results of the 2022 census.[9]
Provinces of Ireland.  There are four provinces of Ireland: Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. The Irish word for this territorial division, cúige, meaning fifth part, suggests that there were once five, and at times Meath has been considered to be the fifth province. In the medieval period, however, there were often more than five. The number of provinces and their delimitation fluctuated until 1610, when they were permanently set by the English administration of James I. The provinces of Ireland no longer serve administrative or political purposes but function as historical and cultural entities. In modern Irish, the word for province is cúige (pl. cúigí). The modern Irish term derives from the Old Irish cóiced (pl. cóiceda) which literally meant a fifth.[1] This term appears in 8th-century law texts such as Miadslechta and in the legendary tales of the Ulster Cycle where it refers to the five kingdoms of the Pentarchy.[1] MacNeill enumerates the five earliest fifths mentioned, these comprising the kingdoms of Ulster, Connacht, Munster, Tara (North Leinster) and Dinn Riogh (South Leinster), located on the Barrow. The earliest hero tales name the Boyne as the dividing boundary between Ulster and Leinster, indicating that no province representative of Meath or Brega was yet in existence. The kings of Tara and Dinn Riogh were said to derive from the same lineage, which ruled all the Laigin.[2] In the 12th century Lebor na Cert (Book of Rights), the term means province, seemingly having lost its fractional meaning with seven cúigeadh listed.[1] Similarly this seems to be the case in regards to titles with the Annals of Ulster using the term rex in Chóicid (king of the fifth/province) for certain overkings.[1] The earliest recorded mention of the major division of Ireland is in the Ulster Cycle of legends, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge.[3][4] The Táin is set during the reign of Conchobar Mac Nessa, king of Ulster, and is believed to have happened in the 1st century.[5] In this period Ireland is said to have been divided into five independent over-kingdoms, or cuigeadh whose rí (kings) were of equal rank, not subject to a central monarchy.[3][1][5][6] Pseudo-historians called this era Aimser na Coicedach, which has been translated as: Time of the Pentarchs;[3] Time of the Five Fifths;[5] and Time of the provincial kings.[6] It was also described as the Pentarchy.[3][4] The five provinces that made up the Pentarchy where:[3][4][5]
Oliver Twist (1982 Australian film).   Oliver Twist is a 1982 Australian 72-minute made-for-television animated film from Burbank Films Australia, a part of the studios series of adaptations of Charles Dickens works made from 1982 through 1985.[2] It was originally broadcast in 1982[3][4][better source needed] through Nine Network Australia. The film is based on Charles Dickens classic 1838 English novel, Oliver Twist, and was adapted by John Palmer. It was produced by George Stephenson and directed by Richard Slapczynski.[5] A second live-action, made-for-television title under the same name was produced in the same year.[6] All copyright in this film is currently owned by HS Holding Corporation[7] who controls the licensing of this film. Different companies, including the American GoodTimes Entertainment and Digiview Entertainment, distributed the film for home video around the globe.
Computing platform. A computing platform, digital platform,[1] or software platform is the infrastructure on which software is executed. While the individual components of a computing platform  may be obfuscated under layers of abstraction, the summation of the required components comprise the computing platform. Sometimes, the most relevant layer for a specific software is called a computing platform in itself to facilitate the communication, referring to the whole using only one of its attributes – i.e. using a metonymy. For example, in a single computer system, this would be the computers architecture, operating system (OS), and runtime libraries.[2] In the case of an application program or a computer video game, the most relevant layer is the operating system, so it can be called a platform itself (hence the term cross-platform for software that can be executed on multiple OSes, in this context).  In a multi-computer system, such as in the case of offloading processing, it would encompass both the host computers hardware, operating system (OS), and runtime libraries along with other computers utilized for  processing that are accessed via application programming interfaces or a web browser. As long as it is a required component for the program code to execute, it is part of the computing platform. Platforms may also include: Some architectures have multiple layers, with each layer acting as a platform for the one above it. In general, a component only has to be adapted to the layer immediately beneath it. For instance, a Java program has to be written to use the Java virtual machine (JVM) and associated libraries as a platform but does not have to be adapted to run on the Windows, Linux or Macintosh OS platforms. However, the JVM, the layer beneath the application, does have to be built separately for each OS.[8]
Don Schlitz.  Donald Allen Schlitz Jr. (born August 29, 1952) is an American songwriter who has written more than twenty number one hits on the country  music charts. He is best known for his song The Gambler (Kenny Rogers), and as the co-writer of Forever and Ever, Amen (Randy Travis), and When You Say Nothing at All (Keith Whitley and Alison Krauss & Union Station). For his songwriting efforts, Schlitz has earned two Grammy Awards, and four ASCAP Country Songwriter of the Year awards. Schlitz has been inducted in to four different halls of fame: the national Songwriters Hall of Fame, the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, the Country Music Hall of Fame,[2] and the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame. On August 30, 2022, he was inducted as a member of the Grand Ole Opry.[3][4] Schlitz first hit as a songwriter was Kenny Rogerss The Gambler, which became a crossover country hit upon its release in 1978, later becoming one of Rogerss signature songs.[5] In 2018, the song was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.[6] Since then, Schlitz has written numerous country songs and penned several hits for other country artists. Among his biggest hits are two Number One songs which he co-wrote with Paul Overstreet, Forever and Ever, Amen by Randy Travis and When You Say Nothing at All by Keith Whitley. He has 24 number 1 hits on the Country Charts.[7] United States President George H. W. Bush also commissioned Schlitz to write a theme song for his Points of Light program.[5] This song, Point of Light, was a No. 3 country hit for Randy Travis in 1991.
Madrid.  Madrid (/məˈdrid/ ⓘ mə-DREED; Spanish: [maˈðɾið] ⓘ)[n. 1] is the capital and most populous municipality of Spain. Madrid has almost 3.3 million[10] inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.8 million.[11] It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), second only to Berlin, Germany,[12] and its metropolitan area is the second-largest in the EU.[2][13][14] The municipality covers 604.3 km2 (233.3 sq mi) geographical area.[15] Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the central part of the Iberian Peninsula at about 650 m (2,130 ft) above mean sea level. The capital city of both Spain and the surrounding autonomous community of Madrid,[16] it is the political, economic, and cultural centre of the country.[17] The primitive core of Madrid, a walled military outpost, dates back to the late 9th century, under the Emirate of Córdoba. Conquered by Christians in 1083 or 1085, it consolidated in the Late Middle Ages as a sizeable town of the Crown of Castile. The development of Madrid as an administrative centre was fostered after 1561, as it became the permanent seat of the court of the Hispanic Monarchy. The following centuries were characterized by the reinforcement of Madrids status within the framework of a centralized form of state-building.[18] The Madrid urban agglomeration has the second-largest GDP in the European Union.[19] Madrid is ranked as an alpha world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[20] The metropolitan area hosts major Spanish companies such as Telefónica, Iberia, BBVA and FCC.[21] It concentrates the bulk of banking operations in Spain and it is the Spanish-speaking city generating the largest number of webpages.[21] Madrid houses the headquarters of  UN Tourism, the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), and the Public Interest Oversight Board (PIOB). Pursuant to the standardizing role of the Royal Spanish Academy, Madrid is a centre for Spanish linguistic prescriptivism.[22] Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR,[23] ARCO,[24] SIMO TCI[25] and the Madrid Fashion Week.[26] Madrid is home to football clubs Real Madrid and Atlético Madrid. Its landmarks include the Plaza Mayor; the Royal Palace of Madrid; the Royal Theatre with its restored 1850 Opera House; the Buen Retiro Park, founded in 1631; the 19th-century National Library building containing some of Spains historical archives; many national museums;[27] and the Golden Triangle of Art, located along the Paseo del Prado and comprising three art museums: Prado Museum, the Reina Sofía Museum, a museum of modern art, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, which complements the holdings of the other two museums.[28] The mayor is José Luis Martínez-Almeida from the Peoples Party.[29]
Ken Ludwig. Ken Ludwig is an American playwright, author, screenwriter, and director whose work has been performed in more than 30 countries in over 20 languages. He has had eight productions in Londons West End and six productions on Broadway, and his 34 plays and musicals have been staged throughout the United Kingdom and the United States. He has been nominated for and won several awards including the Tony, the Olivier and the Drama Desk Awards. Ken Ludwig was born in York, Pennsylvania. His father, Jacob S. Ludwig, was a doctor, and his mother, Louise Rabiner Ludwig, was a former Broadway chorus girl.[1] Ludwig was educated at York Suburban Senior High School, York PA. He received a BA in Music Theory and Composition from Haverford College, where he also studied Shakespeare with Ralph Sargent. At Harvard University, he studied music with Leonard Bernstein. He received his JD from Harvard Law School and an LLM from Cambridge University (Trinity College). Ken Ludwigs first hit play, Lend Me a Tenor, was produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber for the West End in London in 1986 and on Broadway in 1989. The comedy was nominated for seven Tony Awards, including Best Play, and won two. A revival of Lend Me a Tenor opened on Broadway in 2010, starring Tony Shalhoub, Anthony LaPaglia and Jan Maxwell. It was nominated for three Tony Awards. His second Broadway and West End production, Crazy for You, is an original musical drawing from the catalogue of George and Ira Gershwin. It opened at the Shubert Theatre (Broadway) in 1992 and ran for over five years in New York. A simultaneous production ran for three years at the Prince Edward Theatre in London from 1993. Crazy for You won the Tony Award, Drama Desk, Outer Critics Circle, LA Drama Critics Circle, and Helen Hayes and Laurence Olivier Awards as Best Musical. The show has been revived twice on the West End, in 2011 and 2023. It was staged in 2017 for a one-night-only concert performance at Lincoln Center.
SETA Corporation. SETA Corporation[a] was a Japanese video game developer and publisher based in Kōtō, Tokyo.[1] It was founded on October 1, 1985 and dissolved on February 9, 2009.[2] A branch was located in Las Vegas, Nevada.[3] SETA developed and published games for various gaming platforms since the original NES and the Super NES. It produced games primarily in Japan, but also in North America, focusing on golf and puzzles. SETA is commonly recognized for developing a variety of custom hardware to enhance games for Nintendo consoles, including enhancement chips, a modem, and a bio sensor. It created development tools for Nintendos consoles.[4] SETA also developed the Aleck 64 arcade system, based on the Nintendo 64 console.[5] Additionally, SETA assisted in the production of the SSV arcade system, collaborating with Sammy and Visco. In 1999, Aruze became the parent company.[6] SETA withdrew from the game business in 2004 after releasing Legend of Golfer on the GameCube. The company announced its closure in December 2008 due to Japans declining economic conditions.[2] SETA officially closed on January 23, 2009, with Aruze absorbing the companys assets. It was subsequently liquidated at the Tokyo District Court on May 25, 2009. The Aleck 64 is an arcade system board based on the Nintendo 64, designed by SETA in cooperation with Nintendo, and sold exclusively in Japan from 1998 to 2003.[19] It essentially consists of a Nintendo 64 board retrofitted with sound capabilities that were standard for arcade games of the time.[20] Nintendo and SETA began working on their agreement for the board in 1996, aiming to replicate the business model that Namco and Sony Computer Entertainment had established with the Namco System 11, facilitating conversions of arcade games.[21]
New South Wales.  New South Wales (commonly abbreviated as NSW) is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south, and South Australia to the west. Its coast borders the Coral and Tasman Seas to the east. The Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay Territory are enclaves within the state. New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city.[7] In December 2024[update], the population of New South Wales was over 8.5 million,[2] making it Australias most populous state. Almost two-thirds of the states population, 5.3 million, live in the Greater Sydney area.[7] The Colony of New South Wales was founded as a British penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825. The colony then also included the island territories of Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the colonys area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became the various states and territories of Australia. The Swan River Colony (later called the Colony of Western Australia) was never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island became a federal territory, as have the areas now known as the Australian Capital Territory and the Jervis Bay Territory. The original inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago. Before European settlement, there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region.[8]
Irish language.  Irish (Standard Irish: Gaeilge), also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaelic (/ˈɡeɪlɪk/ ⓘ GAY-lik),[b] is a Celtic language of the Indo-European language family that belongs to the Goidelic languages and further to Insular Celtic, and is indigenous to the island of Ireland.[10] It was the majority of the populations first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became dominant, particularly in the last decades of the century, in what is sometimes characterised as a result of linguistic imperialism. Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in Irelands Gaeltacht regions, in which 2% of Irelands population lived in 2022.[11] The total number of people (aged 3 and over) in Ireland who declared they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1,873,997, representing 40% of respondents, but of these, 472,887 said they never spoke it and a further 551,993 said they only spoke it within the education system.[11] Linguistic analyses of Irish speakers are therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in Ireland outside the education system, which in 2022 was 20,261 in the Gaeltacht and 51,707 outside it, totalling 71,968.[11] In response to the 2021 census of Northern Ireland, 43,557 individuals stated they spoke Irish on a daily basis, 26,286 spoke it on a weekly basis, 47,153 spoke it less often than weekly, and 9,758 said they could speak Irish, but never spoke it.[12] From 2006 to 2008, over 22,000 Irish Americans reported speaking Irish as their first language at home, with several times that number claiming some knowledge of the language.[13] For most of recorded Irish history, Irish was the dominant language of the Irish people, who took it with them to other regions, such as Scotland and the Isle of Man, where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx. It was also, for a period, spoken widely across Canada, with an estimated 200,000–250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890.[14] On the island of Newfoundland, a unique dialect of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century.
Arthur P. Jacobs.  Arthur P. Jacobs (March 7, 1922 – June 27, 1973) was an American film producer. Prior to being a producer, he worked in various studios and was a press agent. Beginning in 1963 until his death, he was responsible for film productions such as the Planet of the Apes series, Doctor Dolittle, Goodbye, Mr. Chips, Play It Again, Sam and Tom Sawyer through his company APJAC Productions. Arthur P. Jacobs was born to a Jewish family[1] in Los Angeles. He lost his father in a car accident in 1940 and his mother to cancer in 1959. Jacobs majored in cinema at the University of Southern California in 1942. Starting as a courier at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1943, he was promoted to their publicity department before being lured to Warner Bros. as a publicist in 1946. In 1947, he left Warners to open his own public relations office, and in 1956 he formed The Arthur P. Jacobs Co., Inc. Among his clients were Gregory Peck, James Stewart, Judy Garland and Marilyn Monroe.[2] In 1963, Jacobs formed the feature film production company APJAC Productions,[2] which released its first film, What a Way to Go! through 20th Century-Fox the following year. Jacobs had been able to secure financing for the project on the strength of Fox contract star Monroes agreement to star in it, but her death in 1962 forced Jacobs to replace her with Shirley MacLaine. What a Way to Go! became one of Foxs highest-grossing releases of 1964, earning Jacobs enough credibility for the studio to finance Doctor Dolittle, ultimately a much-maligned movie that failed both critically and commercially upon its release in 1967. Planet of the Apes, however, became a box office hit in 1968 and spawned four sequels. That same year he married actress Natalie Trundy, who would play various characters in all four sequels.[2] At the same time, Jacobss APJAC merged with Jerome Hellman Productions and produced the musical Goodbye, Mr Chips for Jacobss former employer, MGM.[3] Despite being cheaper and less troublesome to produce than Dr. Dolittle, it, too, went mostly unnoticed at the box office.[4]
Broadway theatre.  Broadway theatre,[nb 1] or Broadway, is a theatre genre that consists of the theatrical performances presented in 41 professional theaters, each with 500 or more seats, in the Theater District and Lincoln Center along Broadway, in Midtown Manhattan, New York City.[1][2] Broadway and Londons West End together represent the highest commercial level of live theater in the English-speaking world.[3] While the Broadway thoroughfare is eponymous with the district, it is closely identified with Times Square. Only three theaters are located on Broadway itself: the Broadway Theatre, Palace Theatre, and Winter Garden Theatre. The rest are located on the numbered cross streets, extending from the Nederlander Theatre one block south of Times Square on West 41st Street, north along either side of Broadway to 53rd Street, and Vivian Beaumont Theater, at Lincoln Center on West 65th Street. While exceptions exist, the term Broadway theatre is used predominantly to describe venues with seating capacities of at least 500 people. Smaller theaters in New York City are referred to as off-Broadway, regardless of location, while very small venues with fewer than 100 seats are called off-off-Broadway, a term that can also apply to non-commercial, avant-garde, or productions held outside of traditional theater venues.[4] The Theater District is an internationally prominent tourist attraction in New York City. According to The Broadway League, shows on Broadway sold approximately US$1.54 billion worth of tickets in both the 2022–2023 and the 2023–2024 seasons. Both seasons featured theater attendance of approximately 12.3 million each.[5] Most Broadway shows are musicals. Historian Martin Shefter argues that Broadway musicals, culminating in the productions of Rodgers and Hammerstein, became enormously influential forms of American popular culture and contributed to making New York City the cultural capital of the world.[6]
Don Taylor (American filmmaker). Donald Ritchie Taylor (December 13, 1920 – December 29, 1998) was an American actor and film director.[1] He co-starred in 1940s and 1950s classics, including the 1948 film noir The Naked City, Battleground, Father of the Bride, Fathers Little Dividend and Stalag 17. He later turned to directing films such as Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1971), Tom Sawyer (1973), Echoes of a Summer (1976), and Damien - Omen II (1978). The son of Mr. and Mrs. D. E. Taylor, Donald Ritchie Taylor[2][3] was born in Freeport, Pennsylvania on December 13, 1920.[4] (Another source says that he was born in Pittsburgh and raised in Freeport, Pa.)[2] He studied speech and drama at Penn State University and hitchhiked to Hollywood in 1942. He was signed as a contract player at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and appeared in small roles. Drafted into the United States Army Air Forces (AAF) during World War II, he appeared in the Air Forces Winged Victory Broadway play[5] and movie (1944), credited as Cpl. Don Taylor. After discharge from the AAF, Taylor was cast in a lead role as the young detective, Jimmy Halloran, working alongside veteran homicide detective Dan Muldoon (Barry Fitzgerald) in Universals 1948 screen version of The Naked City, which was notable for being filmed entirely on location in New York. Taylor was later part of the ensemble cast in MGMs classic World War II drama Battleground (1949).  He then appeared as the husband of Elizabeth Taylor in the comedies Father of the Bride (1950) and its sequel Fathers Little Dividend (1951), starring Spencer Tracy. Another memorable role was Vern Cowboy Blithe in Flying Leathernecks (1951). In 1952, Taylor played a soldier bringing his Japanese war-bride back to small-town America in Japanese War Bride. In 1953, Taylor had a key role as the escaping prisoner Lt. Dunbar in Billy Wilders Stalag 17. His last major film role came in Ill Cry Tomorrow (1955). From the late 1950s through the 1980s, Taylor turned to directing movies and TV shows, such as Alfred Hitchcock Presents, the short-lived Steve Canyon, starring Dean Fredericks, and Rod Serlings Night Gallery.  One of his memorable efforts, in 1973, was the musical film Tom Sawyer,[6] which boasted a Sherman Brothers song score. Other films that Taylor directed are Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1971), Echoes of a Summer (1976), The Great Scout & Cathouse Thursday (also 1976), The Island of Dr. Moreau (1977) starring Burt Lancaster, Damien - Omen II (1978) with William Holden, and The Final Countdown (1980) with Kirk Douglas. Taylor occasionally performed both acting and directing roles simultaneously, as he did for episodes of the TV detective series Burkes Law.
Musical theatre. Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals. Although music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the light opera works of Jacques Offenbach in France, Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and the works of Harrigan and Hart in America. These were followed by Edwardian musical comedies, which emerged in Britain, and the musical theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan at the turn of the 20th century. The Princess Theatre musicals (1915–1918) were artistic steps forward beyond the revues and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as Show Boat (1927), Of Thee I Sing (1931) and Oklahoma! (1943). Some of the best-known musicals through the decades that followed include My Fair Lady (1956), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1985), The Phantom of the Opera (1986), Rent (1996), Wicked (2003) and Hamilton (2015). Musicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller venues, such as off-Broadway, off-off-Broadway, regional theatre, fringe theatre, or community theatre productions, or on tour. Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.  Since the 20th century, the book musical has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals and which is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter.[2][3] The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the libretto (Italian for small book). The music and lyrics together form the score of a musical and include songs, incidental music and musical scenes, which are theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue.[4] The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an orchestrator. A musicals production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties (props), lighting and sound. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the original production, for example, Bob Fosses choreography in Chicago.
Richard M. Sherman.  Richard Morton Sherman (June 12, 1928 – May 25, 2024) was an American songwriter who specialized in musical films with his brother Robert B. Sherman. According to the official Walt Disney Company website and independent fact checkers, The Sherman Brothers were responsible for more motion picture musical song scores than any other songwriting team in film history.[1] Some of the Sherman Brothers best known songs were incorporated into live action and animation musical films including Mary Poppins, The Happiest Millionaire, The Sword in the Stone, The Jungle Book, The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, Snoopy Come Home, Bedknobs and Broomsticks, The Slipper and the Rose, and Charlottes Web. Their best known work is Its a Small World, written for the theme park attraction of the same name. According to Time, it may be the most publicly performed song in history.[2][3] Richard Morton Sherman was born on June 12, 1928, in New York City to Russian Jewish immigrants, Rosa (Dancis) and Al Sherman.[4][5][6][7] Sherman and his older brother Robert eventually followed in their songwriting fathers footsteps to form a long-lasting songwriting partnership.[8]
University of Dublin.   The University of Dublin (Irish: Ollscoil Átha Cliath), corporately named as The Chancellor, Doctors and Masters of the University of Dublin, is a public research university located in Dublin, Ireland. It was founded in 1592 by Queen Elizabeth I who issued a royal charter for Trinity College Dublin in her role as the mother of a university, making it Irelands oldest operating university. It is also one of the extant seven ancient universities of Great Britain and Ireland[a] and is the degree-awarding body for Trinity College, which is its sole constituent college. Originally established to consolidate the rule of the Tudor dynasty in Ireland, the University of Dublin has historic ties with the universities of both Oxford and Cambridge, and has maintained an academic partnership with them since 1636.[11][12][13][14] As only one constituent college was ever established, the designations Trinity College Dublin and University of Dublin are usually synonymous in practice. It is a member of the Irish Universities Association (IUA), Universities Ireland, the League of European Research Universities (LERU), and the Coimbra Group. The university is headed by the Provost, under the supervision of a Chancellor and six Pro-Chancellors. The University of Dublin was modelled on the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge as a collegiate university, Trinity College being named by Queen Elizabeth I as the mater universitatis (mother of the university).  The founding charter also conferred a general power on the college to make provision for university functions to be carried out. So, for example, the charter while naming the first provost of the college, the first fellows (in place of many) and the first scholars, in addition named The 1st Baron Burghley to be the first chancellor of the university. No other college has ever been established, and Trinity remains the sole constituent college of the university. The project of establishing another college within the university was seriously considered on at least two occasions, but the required finance or endowment was never available.
Frank Capra Jr.. Frank Warner Capra (March 20, 1934 – December 19, 2007), known as Frank Capra Jr., was an American film and television producer. He was one of the three children of film director Frank Capra and his second wife, Lucille Warner. His own sons, Frank Capra III and Jonathan Capra, are assistant directors. At the time of his death, Capra Jr. was president of EUE/Screen Gems studio, which he had helped to found in Wilmington, North Carolina, in the mid-1980s, and a member of the North Carolina Film Council. Capra Jr. died on December 19, 2007, aged 73, at a hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, after a long battle with prostate cancer.
Robert B. Sherman.  Robert Bernard Sherman (December 19, 1925 – March 6, 2012) was an American songwriter. Best known for his work in musical films with his brother, Richard M. Sherman, they, known as Sherman brothers, produced more motion picture song scores than any other songwriting team in film history.[1] Some of their songs were incorporated into live action and animation musical films including Mary Poppins, The Happiest Millionaire, The Sword in the Stone, The Jungle Book, The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, The Slipper and the Rose, and Charlottes Web. Their best-known work is Its a Small World (After All) possibly the most-performed song (in public) in history.[2][3] Robert Bernard Sherman was born on December 19, 1925, in New York City to Russian Jewish immigrants Rosa (Dancis) and Al Sherman.[citation needed] Al Sherman, a songwriter, paid for his sons hospital delivery costs with a royalty check that arrived that day for the song Save Your Sorrow. His brother and songwriting partner, Richard, was born in 1928.  Shermans father was a well-known Tin Pan Alley songwriter.[4] In his youth, Sherman excelled in violin, piano, painting and poetry. Following seven years of cross-country moves, the Shermans settled down in Beverly Hills, California. Some of the primary schools Sherman attended in Manhattan included PS 241 and the Ethical Culture Fieldston School, and in California, the El Rodeo School.[5] At Beverly Hills High School, Sherman wrote and produced radio and stage programs for which he won much acclaim. At age 16, Sherman wrote Armistice and Dedication Day, a stage play showing how American life was changed following the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. The play yielded thousands of dollars for war bonds and earned a special citation from the War Department.[6][7] In 1943, Sherman obtained permission from his parents to join the army at age 17.[8]  Sherman was awarded the Purple Heart medal after being shot in the knee on April 12, 1945, an injury which forced him to walk with a cane for the rest of his life.[9] On April 29, 1945, Sherman was among the first soldiers who entered the Dachau concentration camp.[10][11][12] Other medals received by Sherman for service in the war were the Bronze Star Medal, the Combat Infantryman Badge, two Battle Stars for his European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, an American Campaign Medal, a World War II Victory Medal, and a Good Conduct Medal, and several Army Weapons Qualifications badges.[6]
Charles Dickens.  Charles John Huffam Dickens (/ˈdɪkɪnz/ ⓘ; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist, journalist, short story writer and social critic. He created some of literatures best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era.[1] His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime and, by the 20th century, critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are widely read today.[2][3] Born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school at age 12 to work in a boot-blacking factory when his father John was incarcerated in a debtors prison. After three years, he returned to school before beginning his literary career as a journalist. Dickens edited a weekly journal for 20 years; wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and nonfiction articles; lectured and performed readings extensively; was a tireless letter writer; and campaigned vigorously for childrens rights, education and other social reforms. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, a publishing phenomenon—thanks largely to the introduction of the character Sam Weller in the fourth episode—that sparked Pickwick merchandise and spin-offs. Within a few years, Dickens had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most of them published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction, which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication.[4][5] Cliffhanger endings in his serial publications kept readers in suspense.[6] The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback.[5] For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her own disabilities, Dickens improved the character with positive features.[7] His plots were carefully constructed and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives.[8] Masses of the illiterate poor would individually pay a halfpenny to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up and inspiring a new class of readers.[9] His 1843 novella A Christmas Carol remains especially popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every creative medium. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1853 novel Bleak House, a satire on the judicial system, helped support a reformist movement that culminated in the 1870s legal reform in England. A Tale of Two Cities (1859; set in London and Paris) is regarded as his best-known work of historical fiction. The most famous celebrity of his era, he undertook, in response to public demand, a series of public reading tours in the later part of his career.[10] The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings, such as poor social or working conditions, or comically repulsive characters.[11][12]
Comedy (drama). Comedy is a genre of dramatic performance having a light or humorous tone that depicts amusing incidents and in which the characters ultimately triumph over adversity.[1] For ancient Greeks and Romans, a comedy was a stage-play with a happy ending. In the Middle Ages, the term expanded to include narrative poems with happy endings and a lighter tone. In this sense Dante used the term in the title of his poem, the Divine Comedy (Italian: Divina Commedia). The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it have been carefully investigated by psychologists. The predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a sudden glory. Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the play instinct and its emotional expression. Much comedy contains variations on the elements of surprise, incongruity, conflict, repetitiveness, and the effect of opposite expectations, but there are many recognized genres of comedy. Satire and political satire use ironic comedy used to portray persons or social institutions as ridiculous or corrupt, thus alienating their audience from the object of humor.[citation needed] Parody borrows the form of some popular genre, artwork, or text but uses certain ironic changes to critique that form from within (though not necessarily in a condemning way). Screwball comedy derives its humor largely from bizarre, surprising (and improbable) situations or characters. Black comedy is defined by dark humor that makes light of so-called dark or evil elements in human nature. Similarly scatological humor, sexual humor, and race humor create comedy by violating social conventions or taboos in comedic ways. A comedy of manners typically takes as its subject a particular part of society (usually upper class society) and uses humor to parody or satirize the behavior and mannerisms of its members. Romantic comedy is a popular genre that depicts burgeoning romance in humorous terms, and focuses on the foibles of those who are falling in love.
Nintendo Entertainment System.   The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is an 8-bit home video game console developed and marketed by Nintendo. It was released in Japan on July 15, 1983, as the Family Computer (Famicom),[note 1] and released as the redesigned NES in test markets in the United States on October 18, 1985, followed by a nationwide launch on September 27, 1986. The NES was distributed in Europe, Australia, and parts of Asia throughout the 1980s under various names. As a third-generation console, it mainly competed with Segas Master System. The Nintendo president, Hiroshi Yamauchi, called for a simple, cheap console that could run arcade games on cartridges. The Famicom was designed by Masayuki Uemura, with its controller design reused from Nintendos portable Game & Watch hardware. The Western model was redesigned by Lance Barr and Don James to resemble a video cassette recorder. Nintendo released add-ons such as the NES Zapper, a light gun for shooting games, and R.O.B, a toy robot. The NES is regarded as one of the most influential gaming consoles. It helped revitalize the American gaming industry following the video game crash of 1983, and pioneered a now-standard business model of licensing third-party developers to produce and distribute games.[12] Several games released for the NES, including Super Mario Bros. (1985), The Legend of Zelda (1986), Metroid (1986), and Mega Man (1987), became major franchises.
Australia.  Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands.[N 6] It has a total area of 7,688,287 km2 (2,968,464 sq mi), making it the sixth-largest country in the world and the largest in Oceania. Australia is the worlds flattest and driest inhabited continent.[17] It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates including deserts in the interior and tropical rainforests along the coast. The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from Southeast Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the last glacial period.[18][19][20] By the time of British settlement, Aboriginal Australians spoke 250 distinct languages and had one of the oldest living cultures in the world.[21] Australias written history commenced with Dutch exploration of most of the coastline in the 17th century. British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales. By the mid-19th century, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and five additional self-governing British colonies were established, each gaining responsible government by 1890. The colonies federated in 1901, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. This continued a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Acts of 1986.[22] Australia is a federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy comprising six states and ten territories. Its population of almost 28 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard.[23] Canberra is the nations capital, while its most populous cities are Sydney and Melbourne, both with a population of more than five million.[23] Australias culture is diverse, and the country has one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. It has a highly developed economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the countrys economy. It ranks highly for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.[24] Australia is a middle power, and has the worlds thirteenth-highest military expenditure. It is a member of international groups including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community; the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence and security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes. It is also a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[25]
Comedy (disambiguation). Comedy is a genre of literary works that have happy endings, in contrast to tragedies that have unhappy endings. Comedy may also refer to:
Dublin City University.  Dublin City University (abbreviated as DCU; Irish: Ollscoil Chathair Bhaile Átha Cliath[1]) is a university based on the Northside of Dublin, Ireland. Created as the National Institute for Higher Education, Dublin in 1975, it enrolled its first students in 1980, and was elevated to university status (along with the NIHE Limerick, now the University of Limerick) in September 1989 by statute. In September 2016, DCU completed the process of incorporating four other Dublin-based educational institutions: the Church of Ireland College of Education, All Hallows College, Mater Dei Institute of Education and St Patricks College.[2] As of 2025, the university has 20,377 students and over 110,000 alumni. There were 1,690 staff in 2019. Notable members of the academic staff included the late former Taoiseach, John Bruton and thinking Guru Edward De Bono. Bruton accepted a position as Adjunct Faculty Member in the School of Law and Government in early 2004 and De Bono accepted an adjunct Professorship in the university in mid-2005. The founding president of the institution was Danny OHare, who retired in 1999 after 22 years service. After a period of administration by an acting president, Albert Pratt, Ferdinand von Prondzynski was appointed and continued as president for a full ten-year term, which ended in July 2010. Brian MacCraith was appointed next and was succeeded in 2020 by the current president, Daire Keogh.[3]
Technological University Dublin.  Technological University Dublin (Irish: Ollscoil Teicneolaíochta Bhaile Átha Cliath) or TU Dublin[6] is Irelands first technological university. It was established on 1 January 2019,[7][8][9] with a history going back to 1887 through the amalgamated Dublin Institute of Technology which progressed from the first technical education institution in Ireland, the City of Dublin Technical Schools.[10] It is the second-largest third-level institution in Ireland, with a student population of 28,500.[7] The university was formed by the amalgamation of three existing institutes of technology in the Dublin area – Dublin Institute of Technology, Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown, and Institute of Technology, Tallaght, taking over all functions and operations of these institutions.[11][4] It is the eighth university in Ireland, and the fourth in County Dublin.[12] The university asserts an entrepreneurial ethos and industry-focused approach, with extensive collaboration with industry for research and teaching.[4][13][14] The flagship campus is in Grangegorman, Dublin, with two other long-term campuses, in Tallaght and Blanchardstown, and remaining legacy sites at Bolton Street and Aungier Street.[15] TU Dublin has approximately 2,700 full-time staff. Dr Deirdre Lillis became President of the university in January 2025.[2] TU Dublin has its origins in the City of Dublin Technical Schools, with a Technical College founded at Kevin Street in 1887 by poet, songwriter and novelist Arnold Felix Graves.[16][17] In 1978, with the formal amalgamation of the College of Technology, Kevin Street, and five other specialised colleges in Dublin under a federalised arrangement, the Dublin Institute of Technology was formed.[18]
Hadrians Villa. Hadrians Villa (Italian: Villa Adriana; Latin: Villa Hadriana) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site comprising the ruins and archaeological remains of a large villa complex built around AD 120 by Roman emperor Hadrian near Tivoli outside Rome. It is the most imposing and complex Roman villa known. The complex contains over 30 monumental and scenic buildings arranged on a series of artificial esplanades at different heights and surrounded by gardens decorated with water basins and nymphaea (fountains). The whole complex covers an area of at least a square kilometre, an area larger than the city of Pompeii. In addition to the villas impressive layout, many of the buildings are considered masterpieces of Roman architecture, making use of striking curved shapes enabled by extensive use of concrete. They were ingenious for the complex symmetry of their ground plans and are considered unrivalled until the arrival of Baroque architecture in the 17th century, initiated by Borromini, who used Hadrians Villa for inspiration.[1] The site, much of which is still unexcavated, is owned by the Republic of Italy and has been managed since 2014 by the Polo Museale del Lazio. The villa was constructed near Tibur (modern-day Tivoli) as a retreat from Rome for Emperor Hadrian during the second and third decades of the 2nd century AD. Hadrian is said to have disliked the palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome, leading to the construction of the retreat.[citation needed] It was traditional for the Roman emperor to have constructed a villa as a place to relax from everyday life. Previous emperors and Romans with wealth had also constructed villas (e.g. Villa of Trajan). Though emperors villas were supposed to be a place of rest and leisure, there is some evidence of Hadrian conducting official duty from the villa in the form of an inscription of an official letter sent from the villa in the summer of 125 AD.[2] The picturesque landscape around Tibur had made the area a popular choice for villas and rural retreats. It was reputed to have been popular with people from the Spanish peninsula who were residents in the city of Rome.[citation needed] This may have contributed to Hadrians choice of the property: although born in Rome, his parents came from Spain and he may have become familiar with the area during his early life. There may have also been a connection through his wife Vibia Sabina (83–136/137), who was the niece of the Emperor Trajan. Sabinas family held large land holdings and it is speculated the Tibur property may have been one of them. A villa from the Republican era formed the basis for Hadrians establishment.[citation needed]. Hadrian began construction on the villa early in his career as emperor, though brick stamp evidence shows us that construction of the villa was ongoing.[3]
H2O (disambiguation). H2O is the chemical formula for water, which means that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. H2O or H2O may also refer to:
Theatre of ancient Greece.   A theatrical culture flourished in ancient Greece from 700 BC. At its centre was the city-state of Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and religious place during this period, and the theatre was institutionalised there as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 500 BC), comedy (490 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres emerged there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies. Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. The word τραγῳδία, tragodia, from which the word tragedy is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος, tragos or goat and ᾠδή, ode meaning song, from ἀείδειν, aeidein, to sing.[1] This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy.[2]
Sydney.  Sydney (/ˈsɪdni/ ⓘ SID-nee) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about 80 km (50 mi) from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the Blue Mountains in the west, and about 80 km (50 mi) from Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park and the Hawkesbury River in the north and north-west, to the Royal National Park and Macarthur in the south and south-west.[5] Greater Sydney consists of 658 suburbs, spread across 33 local government areas. Residents of the city are colloquially known as Sydneysiders.[6] The estimated population in June 2024 was 5,557,233,[1] which is about 66% of the states population.[7] The citys nicknames include the Emerald City and the Harbour City.[8] There is evidence that Aboriginal Australians inhabited the Greater Sydney region at least 30,000 years ago, and their engravings and cultural sites are common. The traditional custodians of the land on which modern Sydney stands are the clans of the Darug, Dharawal and Eora.[9] During his first Pacific voyage in 1770, James Cook charted the eastern coast of Australia, making landfall at Botany Bay. In 1788, the First Fleet of convicts, led by Arthur Phillip, founded Sydney as a British penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia.[10] After World War II, Sydney experienced mass migration and by 2021 over 40 per cent of the population was born overseas. Foreign countries of birth with the greatest representation are mainland China, India, the United Kingdom, Vietnam and the Philippines.[11] Despite being one of the most expensive cities in the world,[12][13] Sydney frequently ranks in the top ten most liveable cities.[14][15][16] It is classified as an Alpha+ city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world.[17][18] Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity,[19] Sydney has an advanced market economy with strengths in education, finance, manufacturing and tourism.[20][21] The University of Sydney and the University of New South Wales are ranked 18th and 19th in the world respectively.[22] Sydney has hosted major international sporting events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics, the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final, and the 2023 FIFA Womens World Cup Final. The city is among the top fifteen most-visited,[23] with millions of tourists coming each year to see the citys landmarks.[24] The city has over 1,000,000 ha (2,500,000 acres) of nature reserves and parks,[25] and its notable natural features include Sydney Harbour and Royal National Park. The Sydney Harbour Bridge and the World Heritage-listed Sydney Opera House are major tourist attractions. Central Station is the hub of Sydneys suburban train, metro and light rail networks and longer-distance services. The main passenger airport serving the city is Kingsford Smith Airport, one of the worlds oldest continually operating airports.[26]
Preferred IUPAC name. In chemical nomenclature, a preferred IUPAC name (PIN) is a unique name, assigned to a chemical substance and preferred among all possible names generated by IUPAC nomenclature. The preferred IUPAC nomenclature provides a set of rules for choosing between multiple possibilities in situations where it is important to decide on a unique name. It is intended for use in legal and regulatory situations.[1] Preferred IUPAC names are applicable only for organic compounds, to which the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has the definition as compounds which contain at least a single carbon atom but no alkali, alkaline earth or transition metals and can be named by the nomenclature of organic compounds[2] (see below). Rules for the remaining organic and inorganic compounds are still under development.[3] The concept of PINs is defined in the introductory chapter and chapter 5 of the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (freely accessible),[4] which replace two former publications: the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, 1979 (the Blue Book) and A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, Recommendations 1993. The full draft version of the PIN recommendations (Preferred names in the nomenclature of organic compounds, Draft of 7 October 2004) is also available.[5][6] A preferred IUPAC name or PIN is a name that is preferred among two or more IUPAC names. An IUPAC name is a  systematic name that meets the recommended IUPAC rules. IUPAC names include retained names. A general IUPAC name is any IUPAC name that is not a preferred IUPAC name. A retained name is a traditional or otherwise often used name, usually a trivial name, that may be used in IUPAC nomenclature.[7] Since systematic names often are not human-readable a PIN may be a retained name. Both PINs and retained names have to be chosen (and established by IUPAC) explicitly, unlike other IUPAC names, which automatically arise from IUPAC nomenclatural rules.  Thus, the PIN is sometimes the retained name (e.g., phenol and acetic acid, instead of benzenol and ethanoic acid), while in other cases, the systematic name was chosen over a very common retained name (e.g., propan-2-one, instead of acetone). A preselected name is a preferred name chosen among two or more names for parent hydrides or other parent structures that do not contain carbon (inorganic parents). Preselected names are used in the nomenclature of organic compounds as the basis for PINs for organic derivatives. They are needed for derivatives of organic compounds that do not contain carbon themselves.[7] A preselected name is not necessarily a PIN in inorganic chemical nomenclature.
BAFTA Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema Award. The Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema Award is an annual award, first introduced in 1978 and presented in honor of Michael Balcon, given by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts charity. The award was originally named the Michael Balcon Award but was renamed to its current title in 2006. The inaugural recipient of the award was the special visual effects team from the 1978 film Superman and has been presented every year except 2021 and 2022. In 2020, the award was originally awarded to Noel Clarke but was later rescinded due to numerous allegations of sexual misconduct.[1]  
Water (disambiguation). Water is a chemical substance with the formula H2O. A detailed description of the physical and chemical properties of water is at properties of water. Water may also refer to:
Max Schreck.  Friedrich Gustav Maximilian Schreck[1] (6 September 1879 – 20 February 1936),[2][3][4] known professionally as Max Schreck, was a German actor, best known for his lead role as the vampire Count Orlok in the film Nosferatu (1922). Max Schreck was born in Berlin-Friedenau, on 6 September 1879. Six years later, his father bought a house in the independent rural community of Friedenau, then part of the district of Teltow. He was baptized at St. Matthews Church in Berlin.[5] Schrecks father did not approve of his sons ever-growing enthusiasm for theatre. His mother provided the boy with money, which he secretly used for acting lessons, although only after the death of his father did he attend drama school. After graduating, he travelled briefly across the country with poet and dramatist Demetrius Schrutz. Schreck had engagements in Mulhouse, Meseritz, Speyer, Rudolstadt, Erfurt and Weissenfels, and his first extended stay at The Gera Theatre. Greater engagements followed, especially in Frankfurt am Main. From there, he went to Berlin for Max Reinhardt and the Munich Kammerspiele for Otto Falckenberg.
Latin.  Latin (lingua Latina or Latinum[I]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area around Rome, Italy.[1] Through the expansion of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire. It has greatly influenced many languages,  including English, having contributed many words to the English lexicon, particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest. Latin roots appear frequently in the technical vocabulary used by fields such as theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers, attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence[2] and the author Petronius. While often called a dead language,[3] Latin did not undergo language death. Between the 6th and 9th centuries, natural language change in the vernacular Latin of different regions evolved into distinct Romance languages. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Latin remained the common language of international communication, science, scholarship and academia in Europe into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary form of the language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance, which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin. This was the basis for Neo-Latin, which evolved during the early modern period. Latin was taught to be written and spoken at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode; Contemporary Latin is generally studied to be read rather than spoken. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin grammar is highly fusional, with classes of inflections for case, number, person, gender, tense, mood, voice, and aspect. The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets.
British Academy of Film and Television Arts.  The British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA, /ˈbæftə/[2]) is an independent trade association and charity that supports, develops, and promotes the arts of film, television and video games in the United Kingdom. In addition to its annual award ceremonies, BAFTA has an international programme of learning events and initiatives offering access to talent through workshops, masterclasses, scholarships, lectures, and mentoring schemes in the United Kingdom and the United States. BAFTAs annual film awards ceremony, the British Academy Film Awards, has been held since 1949, while its annual television awards ceremony, the British Academy Television Awards, has been held since 1955. Their third ceremony, the British Academy Games Awards, was first presented in 2004. BAFTA started out as the British Film Academy, founded in 1947 by a group of directors: David Lean, Alexander Korda, Roger Manvell, Laurence Olivier, Emeric Pressburger, Michael Powell, Michael Balcon, Carol Reed, and other major figures of the British film industry.[3][4] David Lean was the founding chairman.[5] The first Film Awards ceremony took place in May 1949, honouring the films The Best Years of Our Lives, Odd Man Out and The World Is Rich.
Dihydrogen monoxide parody.   The dihydrogen monoxide parody is a parody that involves referring to water by its unfamiliar chemical systematic name dihydrogen monoxide (DHMO, or the chemical formula H2O) and describing some properties of water in a particularly concerning manner — such as the ability to accelerate corrosion (rust) and cause suffocation (drowning) — for the purpose of encouraging alarmism among the audience to often incite a moral panic calling for water to be banned, regulated strictly or labeled as a hazardous chemical. Occasionally, reports also reference its widespread contamination of rivers or municipal water supplies. The parody has also involved other uncommon chemical nomenclatures for water such as hydrogen hydroxide, dihydrogen oxide and hydric acid, used in many prank shows to scare people into thinking that it is a lethal or corrosive substance. The motivation behind the parody is to play into chemophobia, and to demonstrate how exaggerated analysis, information overload and a lack of scientific literacy can lead to misplaced fears. In 1983 on April Fools Day, an edition of the Durand Express, a weekly newspaper in Durand, Michigan, reported that dihydrogen oxide had been found in the citys water pipes, and warned that it was fatal if inhaled, and could produce blistering vapors.[1]
Sony Pictures Animation.  Sony Pictures Animation Inc. (also referred to as Sony Animation Studios and abbreviated to SPA) is an American animation studio owned by Sony Entertainments Sony Pictures Entertainment through their Motion Picture Group division and founded on May 9, 2002. The studio is based in Los Angeles, California. Most of the studios films either theatrical or streaming-service exclusive are distributed worldwide by Sony Pictures Releasing under their Columbia Pictures, while direct-to-video releases are released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The studio has produced 30 feature films, the first being Open Season, which was released on September 29, 2006, and the most recent being Fixed, which was released on August 13, 2025; their upcoming slate of films includes Goat on February 13, 2026, Buds on March 12, 2027, and Spider-Man: Beyond the Spider-Verse on June 25, 2027. In 2001, Sony Pictures considered selling off its visual effects facility Sony Pictures Imageworks but after failing to find a suitable buyer, having been impressed with the CGI sequences of Stuart Little 2 and seeing the box office successes of DreamWorks Animations Shrek and Disney/Pixars Monsters, Inc., SPI was reconfigured to become an animation studio. Astro Boy, which had been in development at Sony since 1997 as a live-action film, was set to be SPIs first all-CGI film, but never made it to fruition.[4] On May 9, 2002, Sony Pictures Animation was established to develop characters, stories and movies with SPI taking over the digital production while maintaining its visual effects production.[5] Meanwhile, SPI produced two short films, the Academy Award-winning The ChubbChubbs! and Early Bloomer, as a result of testing its strengths and weaknesses in producing all-CGI animation.[6] Before the establishment of SPA, Columbia Pictures distributed a few animated films from 1959 to 2002 that were produced by outside studios, including 1001 Arabian Nights, The Little Prince and the Eight-Headed Dragon, Hey There, Its Yogi Bear!, The Man Called Flintstone, Jack and the Beanstalk, American Pop, Heavy Metal, Care Bears Movie II: A New Generation, Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, and Eight Crazy Nights.
Kim Newman.  Kim James Newman (born 31 July 1959) is an English journalist, film critic, and fiction writer.[1] He is interested in film history and horror fiction – both of which he attributes to seeing Tod Brownings Dracula at the age of eleven – and alternative history. He has won the Bram Stoker Award, the International Horror Guild Award, and the BSFA award. Kim Newman was born 31 July 1959 in Brixton, London, the son of Bryan Michael Newman and Julia Christen Newman, both potters.[1][2] His sister, Sasha, was born in 1961, and their mother died in 2003.[1] Newman attended a progressive kindergarten and a primary school in Brixton, and then Huish Episcopal County Primary School in Langport, Somerset.[1] In 1966 the family moved to Aller, Somerset.[1] He was educated at Dr. Morgans Grammar School for Boys in Bridgwater.[1][3] While he attended, the school merged with two others to become Haygrove Comprehensive.[1] He graduated from the University of Sussex with an English degree in 1980 and set a short story, Angel Down, Sussex (1999) in the area.[1] Newman acted in school plays and with the Bridgwater Youth Theatre.[1] Early in his career, Newman was a journalist for the magazines City Limits and Knave. Newmans first two books were the non-fiction Ghastly Beyond Belief: The Science Fiction and Fantasy Book of Quotations (1985), co-written with his friend Neil Gaiman, a light-hearted tribute to entertainingly bad prose in fantastic fiction and Nightmare Movies: A Critical History of the Horror Film, 1968–88 (1988) is a serious history of horror films.  An expanded edition, an update of his overview of post-1968 genre cinema, was published in 2011. Nightmare Movies was followed by Wild West Movies: Or How the West Was Found, Won, Lost, Lied About, Filmed and Forgotten (1990) and Millennium Movies: End of the World Cinema (1999). Newmans non-fiction also includes the BFI Companion to Horror (1996). Newman and Stephen Jones jointly edited Horror: 100 Best Books, the 1988 horror volume in Xanadus 100 Best series and Horror: Another 100 Best Books, a 2005 sequel from Carroll & Graf, U.S. publisher of the series. The books comprise 100 essays by 100 horror writers about 100 horror books and both won the annual Bram Stoker Award for Best Non-Fiction.[4]
Chemical nomenclature. Chemical nomenclature is a set of rules to generate systematic names for chemical compounds. The nomenclature used most frequently worldwide is the one created and developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). IUPAC Nomenclature ensures that each compound (and its various isomers) have only one formally accepted name known as the systematic IUPAC name. However, some compounds may have alternative names that are also accepted, known as the preferred IUPAC name which is generally taken from the common name of that compound. Preferably, the name should also represent the structure or chemistry of a compound. For example, the main constituent of white vinegar is CH3COOH, which is commonly called acetic acid and is also its recommended IUPAC name, but its formal, systematic IUPAC name is ethanoic acid. The IUPACs rules for naming organic and inorganic compounds are contained in two publications, known as the Blue Book[1][2] and the Red Book,[3] respectively. A third publication, known as the Green Book,[4] recommends the use of symbols for physical quantities (in association with the IUPAP), while a fourth, the Gold Book,[5] defines many technical terms used in chemistry. Similar compendia exist for biochemistry[6] (the White Book, in association with the IUBMB), analytical chemistry[7] (the Orange Book), macromolecular chemistry[8] (the Purple Book), and clinical chemistry[9] (the Silver Book). These color books are supplemented by specific recommendations published periodically in the journal Pure and Applied Chemistry. The main purpose of chemical nomenclature is to disambiguate the spoken or written names of chemical compounds: each name should refer to one compound. Secondarily, each compound should have only one name, although in some cases some alternative names are accepted.
Bijin-ga.  Bijin-ga (美人画, beautiful person picture) is a generic term for pictures of beautiful women (bijin) in Japanese art, especially in woodblock printing of the ukiyo-e genre. Kōjien defines bijin-ga as a picture that simply emphasizes the beauty of women,[1] and the Shincho Encyclopedia of World Art defines it as depiction of the beauty of a womans appearance.[2] On the other hand, Gendai Nihon Bijin-ga Zenshū Meisaku-sen I defines bijin-ga as pictures that explore the inner beauty of women.[3] For this reason, the essence of bijin-ga cannot always be expressed only through the depiction of a bijin, a woman aligning with the beauty image. In fact, in ukiyo-e bijin-ga, it was not considered important that the picture resemble the facial features of the model, and the depiction of women in ukiyo-e bijin-ga is stylized rather than an attempt to create a realistic image;[4] For example, throughout the Edo period (1603–1867), married women had a custom of shaving their eyebrows (hikimayu), but in bijin-ga, there was a rule to draw the eyebrows for married women. Ukiyo-e itself is a genre of woodblock prints and paintings that was produced in Japan from the 17th century to the 19th century. The prints were very popular amongst the Japanese merchants and the middle class of the time. From the Edo period to the Meiji period (1868–1912), the technical evolution of ukiyo-e processes increased, with the accuracy of carving and printing and the vividness of colors used developing through the introduction of new printing processes and synthetic dyes.  This technical development can also be seen in ukiyo-e bijin-ga, and many painters of bijin-ga contributed to the evolution of ukiyo-e techniques and styles, with the aim of maximizing the realistic expression of a real beauty living in the artists time period.[5]
Shukuba.  Shukuba (宿場) were staging post stations during the Edo period in Japan, generally located on one of the Edo Five Routes or one of its sub-routes. They were also called shuku-eki (宿駅). These stage stations, or stage station towns (宿場町, shukuba-machi) developed around them, were places where travelers could rest on their journey around the nation.[1] They were created based on policies for the transportation of goods by horseback that were developed during the Nara and Heian periods. These stations were first established by Tokugawa Ieyasu shortly after the end of the Battle of Sekigahara. The first stations were developed along the Tōkaidō (followed by stations on the Nakasendō and other routes). In 1601, the first of the Tōkaidōs fifty-three stations were developed, stretching from Shinagawa-juku in Edo to Ōtsu-juku in Ōmi Province. Not all the post stations were built at the same time, however, as the last one was built in 1624. The lodgings in the post stations were established for use by public officials and, when there were not enough lodgings, nearby towns were also put into use. The post stations toiyaba, honjin and sub-honjin were all saved for the public officials. It was hard to receive a profit as the proprietor of these places, but the shōgun provided help in the form of various permits, rice collection and simple money lending, making it possible for the establishments to stay open. The hatago, retail stores, tea houses, etc., which were designed for general travelers, were able to build a profit. Ai no shuku were intermediate post stations; though they were unofficial resting spots, they had many of the same facilities. Generally speaking, as the Meiji period arrived and brought along the spread of rail transport, the number of travelers visiting these post stations greatly declined, as did the prosperity of the post stations.
Nosferatu.  Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror (German: Nosferatu – Eine Symphonie des Grauens) is a 1922 silent German Expressionist vampire film directed by F. W. Murnau from a screenplay by Henrik Galeen. It stars Max Schreck as Count Orlok, a vampire who preys on the wife (Greta Schröder) of his estate agent (Gustav von Wangenheim) and brings the plague to their town. Nosferatu was produced by Prana Film and is an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stokers 1897 novel Dracula. Various names and other details were changed from the novel, including Count Dracula being renamed Count Orlok. Although those changes are often represented as a defense against copyright infringement accusations,[3] the original German intertitles acknowledged Dracula as the source. Film historian David Kalat states in his commentary track that since the film was a low-budget film made by Germans for German audiences... setting it in Germany with German-named characters makes the story more tangible and immediate for German-speaking viewers.[4] Even with several details altered, Stokers widow sued over the adaptations copyright violation, and a court ruling ordered all copies of the film to be destroyed.[5] However, several prints of Nosferatu survived,[1] and the film came to be regarded as an influential masterpiece of cinema and the horror genre.[6][7] Critic and historian Kim Newman declared it as a film that set the template for the genre of horror film.[8] In 1838, in the fictional German town of Wisburg,[1][9] Thomas Hutter is sent to Transylvania by his employer, the eccentric estate agent Herr Knock, to visit a new client, Count Orlok, who is planning on buying a house across from Hutters own residence. As Hutter studies the route on a map, Knock secretly studies a mysterious correspondence in cabalistic symbols. While embarking on his journey, Hutter stops at an inn in which the locals are terrified by the mere mention of Orloks name. In his room, he finds a book about vampires, which he initially scoffs at but puts in his baggage.
Kyonan. Kyonan (鋸南町, Kyonan-machi) is a town located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.  As of 1 November 2020[update], the town had an estimated population of 7,409 in 3543 households and a population density of 160 persons per km².[1] The total area of the city is 45.16 square kilometres (17.44 sq mi). Kyonan is located in southwestern Bōsō Peninsula, about 60 kilometers from the prefectural capital at Chiba and 60 to 70 kilometers from central Tokyo. Facing the Tokyo Bay coast, the inland mountainous area is part of the Bōsō Hill Range. At the southern end is Nishigasaki, which juts out into the Uraga Channel. The coastline is rugged and has fishing ports such as Yasuda and Katsuyama. There are also many islands and reefs. The town extends approximately 10.75 kilometers east to west by 7.3 kilometers north and south. The coastal portion of the town is within the boundaries of the Minami Bōsō Quasi-National Park. Chiba Prefecture Kyonan has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Kyonan is 15.2 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1804 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.1 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.4 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Kyonan has declined by more than half over the past 70 years.
Count Orlok. Count Orlok (German: Graf Orlok; Romanian: Contele Orlok; Hungarian: Orlok gróf) is a fictional character who first appeared in the silent film Nosferatu (1922) directed by F. W. Murnau. Based on Bram Stokers Count Dracula, he is played by German actor Max Schreck, and is depicted as a repulsive vampire descended from Belial, who leaves his homeland of Transylvania to spread the plague in the idyllic city of Wisborg in Biedermeier-period Germany, only to find death at the hands of a self-sacrificing woman. Count Orlok would reappear in remakes, played by Klaus Kinski, Doug Jones and Bill Skarsgård, as well as in comic book adaptations and sequels. He is also a character in SpongeBob SquarePants, debuting in the season 2 episode Graveyard Shift. Orloks distinct appearance, which is closer to that of vampires of Eastern European folklore than to traditional depictions of Dracula, influenced numerous later vampire designs, including those of Salems Lot, Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the Blade film franchise, typically in order to distance the creatures from their more conventionally humanized or charming counterparts. As Nosferatu is an unauthorized and unofficial adaptation of Bram Stokers 1897 novel Dracula, character names were changed in an attempt to avoid accusations of copyright infringement, including changing Count Draculas name to Count Orlok which, according to historian Matei Cazacu, derives from the Romanian vârcolac,[1] while David Annwn Jones links it phonetically to the Hungarian ordog. Jones also notes how orlok is an archaic form of the Dutch oorlog, meaning war.[2] Alternative spellings have included Orlock, Orlac and Orloc.[3] The character is nevertheless referred to as Nosferatu in the films publicity material and in director F. W. Murnaus annotated copy of the script.[4] The character is referred to as Dracula in some rereleases of the film.[5] In Werner Herzogs 1979 remake, Nosferatu the Vampyre, the character names revert to those used in the original novel,[6] while the 2023 and 2024 remakes maintain the names used in the original 1922 film. In the 1988 sequel to the 1979 film, Vampire in Venice, the character is referred to as Nosferatu.
Tōkaidō (road). The Tōkaidō road (東海道, Tōkaidō; [to̞ːka̠ido̞ː]), which roughly means eastern sea route, was the most important of the Five Routes of the Edo period in Japan, connecting Kyoto to the de facto capital of Japan at Edo (modern-day Tokyo). Unlike the inland and less heavily travelled Nakasendō, the Tōkaidō travelled along the sea coast of eastern Honshū, hence the routes name.[2] The Tōkaidō was first used in ancient times as a route from Kyoto to central Honshu before the Edo period.[3] Most of the travel was on foot, as wheeled carts were almost nonexistent, and heavy cargo was usually sent by boat. Members of the higher class, however, traveled by kago. Women were forbidden from travelling alone and had to be accompanied by men. Other restrictions were also put in place for travelers, but, while severe penalties existed for various travel regulations, most seem not to have been enforced. [citation needed] Captain Sherard Osborn, who traveled part of the road in around 1858, noted that: The social status of a person is indicated by the manner in which he travels. The daimyo and people of the upper-class travel in norimono, which are roomy enough to allow for a fair amount of ease, and are comfortably furnished. The sides can be opened or closed at will, as a protection against the weather. The length of the pole proclaims the rank of the passenger; if a nobleman, a long pole borne by five or six men at each end; a person of lower rank, a shorter pole and only four carriers. If the occupant is a prince of the royal family, the pole rests on the palms of the hands, otherwise it is borne on the shoulders. Humble individuals have to be satisfied with a kago carried by two porters, which entails a very cramped position. In steep mountain regions everyone, whatever their rank, is obliged to use a kago. The lords of the various manors are compelled by the authorities to maintain these places of refreshment for travelers; they are vastly superior to the caravanserais of the East, and relays of horses or porters are always ready at these post-houses, and must do all work at a regular fixed charge, ridiculously small according to English notions. Another and still more onerous duty falls on these establishments, and that is the responsibility of forwarding all Imperial dispatches between the two capitals, or from Yedo to any part of the Empire. Runners are consequently ever ready to execute this task.[4]
Awa Province (Chiba). Awa Province (安房国, Awa no Kuni; Japanese pronunciation: [aꜜ.wa (no kɯ.ɲi)][1]) was a province of Japan in the area of modern Chiba Prefecture.[2]  It lies on the tip of the Bōsō Peninsula (房総半島), whose name takes its first kanji from the name of Awa Province and its second from Kazusa and Shimōsa Provinces. Its abbreviated form name was Bōshū (房州) or Anshū (安州). Awa Province in Shikoku phonetically has the same name, but is written with different kanji (阿波国). Awa is classified as one of the provinces of the Tōkaidō.[2]  Under the Engishiki classification system, Awa was ranked as a middle country (中国) and a far country (遠国). Awa was originally one of four districts of Kazusa Province. It was well-known to the Imperial Court in Nara period Japan for its bountiful seafoods, and is mentioned in Nara period records as having supplied fish to the Court as early as the reign of the semi-legendary Emperor Keikō. On May 2, 718 the district of Awa was elevated into status to a full province. On December 10, 741 it was merged back into Kazusa, but regained its independent status in 757. The exact location of the capital of the new province is not known, but is believed to have been somewhere within the borders of the modern city of Minamibōsō, Chiba; however, the Kokubun-ji was located in what is now the city of Tateyama, Chiba as is the Ichinomiya (Awa Shrine) of the province. During the Heian period, the province was divided into numerous shōen controlled by local samurai clans. These clans sided with Minamoto no Yoritomo in the Genpei War. The history of the province in the Kamakura period is uncertain, but it came under the control of the Yūki clan and the Uesugi clan in the early Muromachi period. However, by the Sengoku period, the Satomi clan had gained control over much of Awa, Kazusa and Shimōsa provinces. The Satomi sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu in the Battle of Sekigahara, but after being implicated in the political intrigues of Ōkubo Tadachika in 1614, were forced to surrender their domains for Kurayoshi Domain in Hōki Province, Awa became tenryō territory administered by various hatamoto aside from five small domains created at various times in the Edo period (three of which survived to the Meiji Restoration), with an additional two domains created at the start of the Meiji period. The entire province had an assessed revenue of 95,736 koku. The various domains and tenryo territories were transformed into short-lived prefectures in July 1871 by the abolition of the han system, and the entire territory of Awa Province became part of the new Chiba Prefecture on June 15, 1873.
Drama school.  Drama school, acting school and theatre school is an undergraduate and/or graduate school or department at a college or university, or a free-standing institution (such as the drama section at the Juilliard School) that specializes in the pre-professional training in drama and theatre arts, such as acting, design and technical theatre, arts administration, and related subjects. If the drama school is part of a degree-granting institution, undergraduates typically take an associate degree, Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Fine Arts, or, occasionally, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Design. Graduate students may take a Master of Arts, Master of Acting, Master of Science, Master of Fine Arts, Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Fine Arts, or Doctor of Philosophy degree. Entry to drama school is usually through a competitive audition process. Some schools make this a two-stage process. Places on an acting course are limited (usually well below 100) so those who fare best at the audition are selected. Most academies state that applicants must be over 18 years of age. Auditions usually involve the performance of monologues, singing, and group workshops. The courses offered by drama schools focus on practical courses, rather than theoretical classes. Their aim is to train students as professional actors for stage, film, and television. At the beginning of the final year (usually the third), most drama schools stage a series of performances throughout the academic year to which agents and casting directors are invited. This helps to build the future of the graduates and serves as a showcase of what the students can do. In 1833, actress Frances Maria Kelly managed the Royal Strand Theatre where she funded and operated a dramatic school, the earliest record of a drama school in England.[1] In 1840 she financed the building of the Royalty Theatre in Soho which opened as Miss Kellys Theatre and Dramatic School.[2] The London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA) remains both the UKs oldest drama school still in existence and was established in 1861.[3]
Abbey Theatre.  The Abbey Theatre (Irish: Amharclann na Mainistreach), also known as the National Theatre of Ireland (Irish: Amharclann Náisiúnta na hÉireann) is a theatre in Dublin, Ireland. First opening to the public on 27 December 1904, and moved from its original building after a fire in 1951, it has remained active to the present day. The Abbey was the first state-subsidized theatre in the English-speaking world; from 1925 onwards it received an annual subsidy from the Irish Free State.  Since July 1966, the Abbey has been located at 26 Lower Abbey Street, Dublin 1. In its early years, the theatre was closely associated with the writers of the Irish Literary Revival, many of whom were involved in its founding and most of whom had plays staged there. The Abbey served as a nursery for many of leading Irish playwrights, including William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory, Seán OCasey and John Millington Synge, as well as leading actors. In addition, through its extensive programme of touring abroad and its high visibility to foreign, particularly American, audiences, it has become an important part of the Irish theatre history and Irish cultural brand. The Abbey arose from three distinct bases. The first was the seminal Irish Literary Theatre. Founded by Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn and W. B. Yeats[1] in 1899—with assistance from George Moore—it presented plays in the Antient Concert Rooms and the Gaiety Theatre, which brought critical approval but limited public interest.[2] Lady Gregory envisioned a society promoting ancient idealism  dedicated to crafting works of Irish theatre pairing Irish culture with European theatrical methods.[3] The second base involved the work of two Dublin directors, William and Frank Fay.[4] William worked in the 1890s with a touring company in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, while his brother Frank was involved in amateur dramatics in Dublin. After William returned to Dublin, the Fay brothers staged productions in halls around the city and eventually formed W. G. Fays Irish National Dramatic Company, focused on the development of Irish acting talent. In April 1902, the Fays gave three performances of Æs play Deirdre and Yeats Cathleen Ní Houlihan in St Theresas Hall on Clarendon Street. The performances played to a mainly working-class audience rather than the usual middle-class Dublin theatregoers. The run was a great success, thanks in part to the beauty and force of Maud Gonne, who played the lead in Yeats play. The company continued at the Antient Concert Rooms, producing works by Seumas OCuisin, Fred Ryan and Yeats.
53 Stations of the Tōkaidō.  The 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō (東海道五十三次, Tōkaidō Gojūsan-tsugi) are the rest areas along the Tōkaidō, which was a coastal route that ran from Nihonbashi in Edo (modern-day Tokyo) to Sanjō Ōhashi in Kyoto.[1]  There were originally 53 government post stations along the Tōkaidō, where travelers had to present traveling permits at each station if wanting to cross. In 1619, the Ōsaka Kaidō (大阪街道) was developed to extend the Tōkaidō so that it would reach Kōraibashi in modern-day Osaka. Instead of going to Sanjō Ōhashi, travelers would leave from Ōtsu-juku and travel towards Fushimi-juku. Because of the addition of these four post towns, the Tōkaidō is occasionally referred to as having 57 stations. Another name for this extension was Kyōkaidō (京街道). The inland Nakasendō also started at Nihonbashi, and converged with the Tōkaidō at Kusatsu-juku. Shio no Michi intersected with the Tōkaidō at Okazaki-shuku.
Eishi.  Chōbunsai Eishi (鳥文斎 栄之; 1756–1829) was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist. His last name was Hosoda (細田). His first name was Tokitomi (時富). His common name was Taminosuke (民之丞) and later Yasaburo (弥三郎).[1][2] Pupil of Kano Eisenin Michinobu (狩野 栄川院 典信). Born as the first son of direct vassal of the Shogunate, a well-off samurai family that was part of the Fujiwara clan. Eishi was a vassal of the Shogunate with a generous stipend of 500 koku (90,000 litres) of rice. Eishi left his employ with the Shōgun Ieharu to pursue art.  His early works were prints, mostly Bijin-ga portraits of tall, thin, graceful beauties in the original style established by himself akin to Kiyonaga and Utamaro. He established his own school and was a rival to Utamaro.  He was a prolific painter, and from 1801 gave up print designing to devote himself to painting. Eishi was born Hosoda Tokitomi (細田 時富) in 1756 to a well-provided samurai family[a] that was part of the prestigious Fujiwara clan.[3]  His grandfather Hosoda Tokitoshi (細田 時敏) had held an influential position in the shogunate as Treasury Minister.[4]  In 1772 he came to head his family when his father Hosoda Tokiyuki (細田 時行) died.  From 1781 he held a position in the palace of the shōgun, Tokugawa Ieharu.[3] How Eishi took to art is unknown.  He appears to have studied under Kanō Michinobu of the Kanō school of painting, from whom he likely was given the art name Eishi—though tradition holds he received the name from Shōgun Ieharu.  About 1784 he left the official service of the Shōgun and began to train under Torii Bunryūsai, an ukiyo-e artist about whom almost nothing is known.  Eishis earliest known work dates to the following year.  He remained unofficially in the Shōguns service until 1789, and thereafter left his family in the hands of his adopted son Tokitoyo (時豊),[3] thereby giving up his samurai rank; he reasoned that his ill health did not permit him to continue with such duties.[4] Eishis earliest works were colour nishiki-e prints.  The subjects are such literary fare as The Tale of Genji and are in subdued tones, as required by contemporary laws against ostentation.[4]  He went on to specialize in bijin-ga portraits of beautiful women, of which he produced a number of series.  His most prominent rival at first was Kiyonaga; later his work competed against that of Utamaro.[3]  His manner of depicting women went through stages: the earliest were of courtesans much in the manner of Kiyonaga; then seated women performing daily activities such as reading or writing, set against bright backgrounds; later, slender women standing against minimal, subdued backgrounds.  Eishi depicted gradually taller and more slender women until, in the latest prints, their heads were one-twelfth the height of the figures; more so even than Kiyonaga, whose reputation is for tall, slender beauties.[4]  Eishi made occasional illustrations for books of shunga erotica.  He was a prolific painter of such standing that in 1800 a painting of his entered the collection of the cloistered Empress Go-Sakuramachi and he was granted the honorary title Jibukyō (治部卿).[3]  Eishi abandoned print designing for painting after 1801.
Walter Nugent Monck.  Walter Nugent Monck CBE (1878–1958) was an English theatre director and founder of Maddermarket Theatre, Norwich.[1] He was born in Welshampton, Shropshire, the son of George Gustavus Monck (1849–1920), vicar of Welshampton who later worked as a priest in Liverpool. The son was educated there and at the Royal Academy of Music. In 1895, he abandoned his study of the violin in favour of acting.[1] After some years with a regional touring company, he premiered in London in Bjørnstjerne Bjørnsons Beyond Human Power at the Royalty Theatre in 1901. That same year, Monck met William Poel, who would profoundly influence Moncks career. By 1902 Monck was stage manager for the Elizabethan Stage Society, learning to direct in Poels revolutionary manner. In 1909, he directed a series of historical tableaus at St. Andrews Hall, Norwich. Thenceforth, his career centered on Norwich, although he occasionally returned to London, as he did in 1910 to manage Poels production of The Two Gentlemen of Verona at His Majestys Theatre. From 1910, he produced a series of masques at Blickling Hall. In 1911, he directed an amateur production of The Countess Cathleen which was seen by Yeats; Yeats subsequently invited Monck to become temporary director of the Abbey Theatre while Yeats and the main company toured the United States.
Woodcut.  Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print. The block is cut along the wood grain (unlike wood engraving, where the block is cut in the end-grain). The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with an ink-covered roller (brayer), leaving ink upon the flat surface but not in the non-printing areas. Multiple colours can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks (using a different block for each colour). The art of carving the woodcut can be called xylography, but this is rarely used in English for images alone, although that term and xylographic are used in connection with block books, which are small books containing text and images in the same block. They became popular in Europe during the latter half of the 15th century. A single-sheet woodcut is a woodcut presented as a single stand alone image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. The older East Asian technique is usually called woodblock printing, covering both carved text and images, typically on the same block. Short books in a similar technique in Europe, mostly made in the 15th century, are called blockbooks.  Woodcut usually refers to images only and has spread around the world from Europe to other parts of Asia, and to Latin America.[1] In both Europe and East Asia, traditionally the artist only designed the woodcut, and the block-carving was left to specialist craftsmen, called formschneider or block-cutters, some of whom became well known in their own right. Among these, the best-known are the 16th-century Hieronymus Andreae (who also used Formschneider as his surname), Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops and also operated as printers and publishers. The formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks.
Ōkubi-e. An ōkubi-e (Japanese: 大首絵) is a Japanese portrait print or painting in the ukiyo-e genre showing only the head or the head and upper torso.[1] Katsukawa Shunkō I (1743–1812) is generally credited with producing the first ōkubi-e. He, along with Katsukawa Shunshō, designed ōkubi-e of male kabuki actors. In the early-1790s, Utamaro designed the first ōkubi-e of beautiful women (bijin-ga ōkubi-e). The shogunate authorities banned ōkubi-e in 1800, but the ban was lifted after eight years.
Lady Gregory.  Isabella Augusta, Lady Gregory (née Persse; 15 March 1852 – 22 May 1932)[1] was an Anglo-Irish dramatist, folklorist and theatre manager. With William Butler Yeats and Edward Martyn, she co-founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre, and wrote numerous short works for both companies. Lady Gregory produced a number of books of retellings of stories taken from Irish mythology. Born into a class that identified closely with British rule, she turned against it. Her conversion to cultural nationalism, as evidenced by her writings, was emblematic of many of the political struggles that occurred in Ireland during her lifetime. Lady Gregory is mainly remembered for her work behind the Irish Literary Revival. Her home at Coole Park in County Galway served as an important meeting place for leading Revival figures, and her early work as a member of the board of the Abbey was at least as important as her creative writings for that theatres development. Lady Gregorys motto was taken from Aristotle: To think like a wise man, but to express oneself like the common people.[2] Gregory was born at Roxborough, County Galway, the youngest daughter of the Anglo-Irish gentry family Persse. Her mother, Frances Barry, was related to Viscount Guillamore, and her family home, Roxborough, was a 6,000-acre (24 km2) estate located between Gort and Loughrea, the main house of which was later burnt down during the Irish Civil War.[3] She was educated at home, and her future career was strongly influenced by the family nurse (i.e. nanny), Mary Sheridan, a Catholic and a native Irish speaker, who introduced the young Augusta to the history and legends of the local area.[4] She married Sir William Henry Gregory, a widower with an estate at Coole Park, near Gort, on 4 March 1880 in St. Matthias Church, Dublin.[5] Sir William, who was 36 years her elder, had just retired from his position as Governor of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), having previously served several terms as Member of Parliament for County Galway. He was a well-educated man with many literary and artistic interests, and the house at Coole Park housed a large library and extensive art collection, both of which Lady Gregory was eager to explore. He also had a house in London, where the couple spent a considerable amount of time, holding weekly salons frequented by many leading literary and artistic figures of the day, including Robert Browning, Lord Tennyson, John Everett Millais and Henry James. Their only child, Robert Gregory, was born in 1881. He was killed during the First World War while serving as a pilot, an event which inspired W. B. Yeatss poems An Irish Airman Foresees His Death, In Memory of Major Robert Gregory and Shepherd and Goatherd.[6][7]
W. B. Yeats.  William Butler Yeats (/jeɪts/ YAYTS; 13 June 1865 – 28 January 1939) was an Irish poet, dramatist, writer and literary critic who was one of the foremost figures of 20th-century literature. He was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and, along with John Millington Synge and Lady Gregory, founded the Abbey Theatre, serving as its chief during its early years. He was awarded the 1923 Nobel Prize in Literature and later served two terms as a Senator of the Irish Free State. A Protestant of Anglo-Irish descent, Yeats was born in Sandymount, Ireland. His father practised law and was a successful portrait painter. He was educated in Dublin and London and spent his childhood holidays in County Sligo. He studied poetry from an early age, when he became fascinated by Irish legends and the occult. While in London he became part of the Irish literary revival. His early poetry was influenced by John Keats, William Wordsworth, William Blake and many more. These topics feature in the first phase of his work, lasting roughly from his student days at the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin until the turn of the century. His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889, and its slow-paced, modernist and lyrical poems display debts to Edmund Spenser, Percy Bysshe Shelley and the poets of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. From 1900 his poetry grew more physical, realistic and politicised. He moved away from the transcendental beliefs of his youth, though he remained preoccupied with some elements including cyclical theories of life. He had become the chief playwright for the Irish Literary Theatre in 1897, and early on promoted younger poets such as Ezra Pound. His major works include The Land of Hearts Desire (1894), Cathleen ni Houlihan (1902), Deirdre (1907), The Wild Swans at Coole (1919), The Tower (1928) and Last Poems and Plays (1940). William Butler Yeats was born in Sandymount in County Dublin, Ireland.[1] His father John was a descendant of Jervis Yeats, a Williamite soldier, linen merchant, and well-known painter, who died in 1712.[2] Benjamin Yeats, Jerviss grandson and Williams great-great-grandfather, had in 1773[3] married Mary Butler[4] of a landed family in County Kildare.[5] Following their marriage, they kept the name Butler. Mary was of the Butler of Neigham Gowran family, descended from an illegitimate brother of The 8th Earl of Ormond.[6] At the time of his marriage, his father, John, was studying law but later pursued art studies at Heatherley School of Fine Art, in London.[7]
The Philadelphia Inquirer.  The Philadelphia Inquirer, often referred to simply as The Inquirer, is a daily newspaper headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Founded on June 1, 1829, The Philadelphia Inquirer is the third-longest continuously operating daily newspaper in the United States.[2] The newspaper has the largest circulation of any newspaper in both Pennsylvania and the Delaware Valley metropolitan region, which includes Philadelphia and its surrounding communities in southeastern Pennsylvania, South Jersey, northern Delaware, and the northern Eastern Shore of Maryland. As of 2020, the newspaper has the 17th-largest circulation of any newspaper in the United States[3] As of 2020, The Inquirer has won 20 Pulitzer Prizes.[4] Several decades after its 1829 founding, The Inquirer began emerging as one of the nations major newspapers during the American Civil War. Its circulation dropped after the Civil Wars conclusion, but it rose again by the end of the 19th century. Originally supportive of the Democratic Party, The Inquirers political orientation eventually shifted toward the Whig Party and then the Republican Party before stating, in the mid-20th century, that it was politically independent. By the end of the 1960s, The Inquirer trailed its chief competitor, The Philadelphia Evening Bulletin in circulation, and was lacking modern facilities and experienced staff. In the 1970s, however, following its acquisition by Knight Ridder and the hiring of new editors, it once again emerged as one of the nations most prominent and influential newspapers.
Nishiki-e.  Nishiki-e (錦絵; brocade picture) is a type of Japanese multi-coloured woodblock printing; the technique is used primarily in ukiyo-e. It was invented in the 1760s, and perfected and popularized by the printmaker Suzuki Harunobu, who produced many nishiki-e prints between 1765 and his death five years later. Previously, most prints had been in black-and-white, coloured by hand, or coloured with the addition of one or two colour ink blocks. A nishiki-e print is created by carving a separate woodblock for every colour, and using them in a stepwise fashion. An engraver by the name of Kinroku is credited with the technical innovations that allowed so many blocks of separate colours to fit together perfectly on the page, in order to create a single complete image. This style and technique is also known as Edo-e (江戸絵, edo-e), referring to Edo, the name for Tokyo before it became the capital. Nishiki-e is also known as Edo-e, or azuma-nishiki-e. The technology to produce nishiki-e made printing complex colors and figures easy. It became a popular commodity during Edo period. Due to the increasing number of nishiki-e shops during the era, the price of a nishiki-e dropped to an affordable 16 to 32 mon.
Rhexia virginica.  Rhexia virginica, the handsome Harry[2] or Virginia meadow-beauty, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melastomataceae. It is native to much of eastern North America, and is often found in moist, often acidic soils in open areas.[3] This species is a perennial herb that is easily identified by its distinctly angled stems. It produces purple-pink flowers in the summer that use buzz pollination for reproduction.[4] The leaves of R. virginica are oppositely arranged, and may be elliptic or ovate in shape. They may reach a length of 7 centimeters (approximately 2.75 inches) and a width of 2.6 centimeters (approximately 1 inch). Stems may reach up to 9 decimeters (approximately 35 inches) in height. [5] R. virginica has been found in eastern US from Florida to Maine, and north to Ontario and Nova Scotia.[6][7]
University of Iowa.  The University of Iowa (U of I, UIowa, or Iowa[7]) is a public research university in Iowa City, Iowa, United States. Founded in 1847, it is the oldest and largest university in the state. The University of Iowa is organized into 12 colleges offering more than 200 areas of study and 7 professional degrees.[7] On an urban 1,880-acre campus on the banks of the Iowa River, the University of Iowa is classified among R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity.[8] In fiscal year 2021, research expenditures at Iowa totaled $818 million.[9] The university was the original developer of the Master of Fine Arts degree, and it operates the Iowa Writers Workshop, whose alumni include 17 of the universitys 46 Pulitzer Prize winners.[10][11] Iowa is a member of the Association of American Universities and the Universities Research Association. Among public universities in the United States, UI was the first to become coeducational and host a department of religious studies; it also opened the first coeducational medical school.[12] The University of Iowas 32,000 students take part in nearly 500 student organizations.[13] Iowas 22 varsity athletic teams, the Iowa Hawkeyes, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are members of the Big Ten Conference. The University of Iowa alumni network exceeds 250,000 graduates. The University of Iowa was founded on February 25, 1847, just 59 days after Iowa was admitted to the Union. The Constitution of the State of Iowa refers to a State University to be established in Iowa City without branches at any other place.[14] The legal name of the university is the State University of Iowa (frequently abbreviated as SUI), but the Board of Regents approved using The University of Iowa for everyday usage in October 1964.[15]
Bette Gordon. Bette Gordon (born June 22, 1950) is an American filmmaker and professor at Columbia University School of the Arts.[1] She is best known for her films Variety (1983) and Handsome Harry (2009), both of which received critical acclaim in North America and abroad.[1] Gordon began making films in the mid-1970s in the Midwestern United States, including in Chicago, Illinois and Madison, Wisconsin. These short films were experimental, dealing with movement through place, sexuality, culture, and structure.[2] She cites French New Wave filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard as a major inspiration to her as an artist and a filmmaker saying, Having grown up through the 70s, I could not have found a more appropriate mentor. His radical approach to the use of sound and image helped shape me as much as the questions he asked the viewer to consider, most importantly, the relationship between truth and fiction.[3] She also lists Wong Kar Wais In the Mood for Love, R.W. Fassbinder, John Cassavetes and films like The Last Picture Show and Midnight Cowboy as inspirational for their portrayal of relationships and love.[3] She considers the time she spent in New York in the early 1980s instrumental to her career because she was able to collaborate with new artists for the sake of creating art rather than making money.[4] At that period, she also shifted to making more feature-length films.[5] She is a friend of actor Steve Buscemi and cast him in her film Handsome Harry because she felt as though it was a role unlike any he had ever played before.[4] Gordon married Australian filmmaker Tim Burns and they have one daughter, Lili Burns. In December 2023, alongside 50 other filmmakers, Gordon signed an open letter published in Libération demanding a ceasefire and an end to the killing of civilians amid the 2023 Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip, and for a humanitarian corridor into Gaza to be established for humanitarian aid, and the release of hostages.[6][7][8] Gordon is said to be known for her bold explorations of themes related to sexuality, violence and power.[9] Her film Variety explores the relationship between women, pornography and voyeurism. The title character of the film turns the tables on men[10] by renegotiating the historically exploitative relationship between men and women with respect to pornographic films. She says, My films have always focused on the visual aspects of storytelling. Ive been drawn to stories in which color, texture and mood are as central to the narrative as character and plot.[11] Though much of her work is focused on women and the female experience, some of her recent work - most notably Handsome Harry - examines the social constraints placed on men and tensions between hetero-normative masculinity and homosexuality.[12] In the film, described as relentless[12] by a review in The New York Times, the main character is struggling to confront the emotional and physical trauma he and his friends inflicted on a homosexual friend while in the Navy many years prior. Gordon holds a BA, MA, and MFA from The University of Wisconsin–Madison and is now a part of the film department of Columbia University School of the Arts.[13] Some of her films are now a part of permanent collections in several different museums including the Museum of Modern Art and the Whitney Museum of American Art.[1]
Jamey Sheridan.  James Patrick Sheridan (born July 12, 1951) is an American actor known for playing a wide range of roles in theater, film, and television. He is known for Randall Flagg in The Stand (1994), Captain James Deakins on Law & Order: Criminal Intent (2001–2006), and Robert Queen on Arrow (2012–2019). Sheridans acting career has encompassed theater, television, and feature film productions. Born in Pasadena, California, to a family of actors, he earned a Tony nomination in 1987 for his performance in the revival of Arthur Millers All My Sons. After several TV movie appearances, Sheridan landed a starring role as lawyer Jack Shannon on Shannons Deal, which ran for one season in 1990. His later television roles include Dr. John Sutton on Chicago Hope (from 1995 to 1996). An avid football player in his youth, Sheridan studied acting at UC Santa Barbara as sports injuries prevented him from taking dance classes. After a brief stint at the Old Globe in San Diego, Sheridan left California to travel the world. With stops in Hawaii and the Mediterranean, Sheridan settled for a period in Edinburgh. His experience there prompted him to head home to the U.S. and return to acting. He landed in New York and kept busy working in a number of productions by recognized playwrights as diverse as Bernard Shaw and Neil Simon.[1] Sheridan started his film career in the late 1980s with small roles. His first on screen appearance was in the Whoopi Goldberg vehicle Jumpin Jack Flash.[2] By the 1990s, he was playing family man roles in both film and television, such as in the 1991 motion picture All I Want for Christmas. He also has played villains. In 1994 he played the character of Randall Flagg in the miniseries adaptation of Stephen Kings The Stand. Other roles include Marty Stouffer in Wild America and the psychotic neighbor in Video Voyeur: The Susan Wilson Story. After a long history of performing Shakespeare on the stage, Sheridan appeared in Campbell Scotts production of Hamlet in 2000 as well as the Hamlet-inspired modern noir film Let the Devil Wear Black (1999). He co-starred in the improvisational film The Simian Line in 2001. He has also given supporting performances in The Ice Storm, Cradle Will Rock, Life as a House, and numerous TV movies.
San Francisco State University.  San Francisco State University (San Francisco State, SF State and SFSU) is a public research university in San Francisco, California, United States. It was established in 1899 as the San Francisco State Normal School and is part of the California State University system. It offers 126 bachelors degree programs, 104 masters degree programs, and 3 doctoral degree programs, along with 24 teaching credential programs among seven colleges.[7][8][9] The 144.1-acre main campus is located in the southwest part of the city, less than two miles from the Pacific coast.[10] The university has 12 varsity athletic teams which compete at the NCAA Division II level. SF State is classified among R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity.[11] It is also a designated Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI) and Asian American Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institution (AANAPISI).[12] In 1857, the San Francisco Board of Education created the San Francisco Weekly Normal School, also known as the Minns Evening Normal School.[13][14][15] In 1862, it became the California State Normal School, the first postsecondary institution established by the state.[14] Only six students were enrolled on its first day. By 1866, enrollment had increased to 384.[16]
Shogun.  Shogun (将軍, shōgun; English: /ˈʃoʊ.ɡʌn/ SHOH-gun,[1] Japanese: [ɕoː.ɡɯɴ, -ŋɯɴ] ⓘ[2]), officially seii taishōgun (征夷大将軍; Japanese: [seꜜi.i | tai.ɕo(ꜜ)ː.ɡɯɴ, seꜜː-, -ŋɯɴ][2] lit. Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians),[3] was the title of the military rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868.[4] Nominally appointed by the  Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country,[5] except during parts of the Kamakura period and Sengoku period when the shoguns themselves  were  figureheads, with real power in the hands of the shikken (執権) of the Hōjō clan and kanrei (管領) of the Hosokawa clan. In addition, Taira no Kiyomori and Toyotomi Hideyoshi were leaders of the warrior class who did not hold the position of shogun, the highest office of the warrior class, yet gained the positions of daijō-daijin (太政大臣, Chancellor of the Realm) and kampaku (関白, Imperial Regent), the highest offices of the aristocratic class. As such, they ran their governments as its de facto rulers.[6][7][8] The office of shogun was in practice hereditary, although over the course of the history of Japan several different clans held the position. The title was originally held by military commanders during the Heian period in the eighth and ninth centuries. When Minamoto no Yoritomo gained political ascendency over Japan in 1185, the title was revived to regularize his position, making him the first shogun in the usually understood sense. It is often said that one must be of the Minamoto lineage to become a shogun, but this is not true. While it is true that the Minamoto lineage was respected as a lineage suitable for the position of shogun, the fourth and fifth shoguns of the Kamakura shogunate were from the Fujiwara lineage (although their mothers were from the Minamoto lineage), and the sixth through ninth shoguns were from the imperial lineage. Oda Nobunaga, who claimed to be a descendant of the Taira clan, was approached for the position of shogun a month before his death.[9][10][11] The shoguns officials were collectively referred to as the bakufu (幕府; Japanese: [baꜜ.kɯ̥.ɸɯ, ba.kɯ̥.ɸɯ][2]); they were the ones who carried out the actual duties of administration, while the imperial court retained only nominal authority.[12] The tent symbolized the shoguns role as the militarys field commander but also denoted that such an office was meant to be temporary. Nevertheless, the institution, known in English as the shogunate (/ˈʃoʊ.ɡən.eɪt, -ət, -ɪt/ SHOH-gən-ayt, -⁠ət, -⁠it[1]), persisted for nearly 700 years, ending when Tokugawa Yoshinobu relinquished the office to Emperor Meiji in 1867 as part of the Meiji Restoration.[13] On the other hand, the term bakufu is merely a term that began to be actively used in the 1800s to emphasize that the emperor was the legitimate ruler of the country, while during the Tokugawa shogunate the shogunate was officially called kōgi (公儀).[14][15]
Mariann Mayberry. Mariann Mayberry (May 25, 1965 – August 1, 2017) was an American television and stage actress.[citation needed] In 1993, Mayberry became an ensemble member of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago, Illinois. While at Steppenwolf, she was nominated for a Joseph Jefferson Award for Actress in a Supporting Role in a Play for Time of My Life, and again for Actress in a Principal Role in a Play for Hysteria, directed by John Malkovich.[citation needed] In 2006, Mayberry married fellow actor Scott Jaeck, with whom she shared the stage in the Broadway run of Tracy Letts Tony Award- and Pulitzer Prize-winning play August: Osage County.[1] In early 2013, Mayberry was diagnosed with ovarian cancer.[2] In August 2015, after a run of Grand Concourse, Mayberry retired from the stage.[2] On August 1, 2017, aged 52, Mayberry died of ovarian cancer at her sister (Melissa Hollander)s home in Simsbury, Connecticut. At the time, Mayberry lived in New York with her husband of 11 years, actor Scott Jaeck.[3]
Kabuki.  Kabuki (歌舞伎; Japanese pronunciation: [ka.bɯ.kʲi][1]) is a classical form of Japanese theatre, mixing dramatic performance with traditional dance. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily stylised performances, its glamorous, highly decorated costumes, and for the elaborate kumadori make-up worn by some of its performers. Kabuki is thought to have originated in the early Edo period, when the arts founder, Izumo no Okuni, formed a female dance troupe that performed dances and light sketches in Kyoto. The art form later developed into its present all-male theatrical form after women were banned from performing in kabuki theatre in 1629. Kabuki developed throughout the late 17th century and reached its zenith in the mid-18th century. In 2005, kabuki theatre was proclaimed by UNESCO as an intangible heritage possessing outstanding universal value. In 2008, it was inscribed in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[2] The individual kanji that make up the word kabuki can be read as sing (歌), dance (舞), and skill (伎). Kabuki is therefore sometimes translated as the art of singing and dancing. These are, however, ateji characters which do not reflect actual etymology. The kanji of skill generally refers to a performer in kabuki theatre.
Marian Price.  Marian Price (born 1954), also known by her married name as Marian McGlinchey,[1] is a former Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisional IRA) volunteer. Born into a Republican family in Belfast, Price joined the Provisional IRA in 1971, along with her sister Dolours Price.[2] They both participated in the 1973 Old Bailey bombing, for which Marian Price was sentenced to two life terms.[3][4] The sisters carried out a prolonged hunger strike at the start of their sentence. Marian Price was freed in 1980 on a Royal prerogative of mercy when anorexia nervosa, resulting from being force-fed on her hunger strike, was deemed to put her life at risk.[5][6][7] After her release she withdrew from public life, but in the 1990s she became a vocal opponent of Sinn Féins peace strategy. In 2009 she was arrested in connection with the Massereene Barracks shooting. She was charged with providing property for the purposes of terrorism in 2011 and released in 2013.
Noh.  Noh (能, Nō; Japanese pronunciation: [no(ꜜ)ː],[1][2][a] Sino-Japanese for ability[b]) is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. It is Japans oldest major theater art that is still regularly performed today.[3] Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature featuring a supernatural being transformed into a human hero who narrates the story. Noh integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized conventional gestures while the iconic masks represent specific roles such as ghosts, women, deities, and demons. Having a strong emphasis on tradition rather than innovation, Noh is highly codified and regulated by the iemoto system. Although the terms Noh and nōgaku are sometimes used interchangeably, nōgaku encompasses both Noh and kyōgen. Traditionally, a full nōgaku program included several Noh plays with comedic kyōgen plays in between; an abbreviated program of two Noh plays with one kyōgen piece has become common today. The kanji for Noh (能) means skill, craft, or talent, particularly in the field of performing arts in this context. The word Noh may be used alone or with gaku (楽; entertainment, music) to form the word nōgaku. Noh is a classical tradition that is highly valued by many today. When used alone, Noh refers to the historical genre of theatre that originated from sarugaku in the mid 14th century and continues to be performed today.[4] One of the oldest forerunners of Noh and kyōgen is sangaku [ja], which was introduced to Japan from China in the 8th century. At the time, the term sangaku referred to various types of performance featuring acrobats, song and dance as well as comic sketches. Its subsequent adaptation to Japanese society led to its assimilation of other traditional art forms.[5] Various performing art elements in sangaku as well as elements of dengaku (rural celebrations performed in connection with rice planting), sarugaku (popular entertainment including acrobatics, juggling, and pantomime), shirabyōshi (traditional dances performed by female dancers in the Imperial Court in the 12th century), gagaku (music and dance performed in the Imperial Court beginning in the 7th century), and kagura (ancient Shinto dances in folk tales) evolved into Noh and kyōgen.[3]
Steve Buscemi.  Steven Vincent Buscemi (/buːˈsɛmi/;[2][3][Note 1] Italian: [buʃˈʃɛːmi]; born December 13, 1957) is an American actor and retired firefighter. Known for his work in both comedy and drama, Buscemis accolades include two Emmy Awards, a Golden Globe Award and two Independent Spirit Awards. Buscemi started his acting career with the independent productions Parting Glances (1986), Mystery Train (1989), and In the Soup (1992), following such roles with his breakthrough in Quentin Tarantinos Reservoir Dogs (1992). The 1990 film Millers Crossing marked his first of many projects with the Coen brothers, and the 1994 film Airheads was his first collaboration with comedic actor-filmmaker Adam Sandler. Throughout the 1990s, he continued to appear in a number of both independent and mainstream films, including Billy Madison (1995), Living in Oblivion, Desperado (all 1995), Fargo (1996), Con Air (1997), Armageddon, The Big Lebowski (both 1998). In following decades, he starred in the independent films Ghost World (2001), Big Fish (2003), Norman (2016), Lean on Pete, and The Death of Stalin (both 2017), alongside voice roles in the animated Monsters, Inc. (2001–2013) and Hotel Transylvania film series (2012–2022). Buscemis career expanded into television, beginning with his first major role in the 1989 miniseries Lonesome Dove. He received his first two Emmy nominations for starring in and directing episodes of The Sopranos (2004–2006), before winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor for portraying Enoch Nucky Thompson in the HBO series Boardwalk Empire (2010–2014). His other television credits include Lonesome Dove (1989), 30 Rock (2007–2013), Horace and Pete (2016), and Miracle Workers (2019–2023). He won a News & Documentary Emmy Award in 2015 for his work with Independent Lens and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Variety Series the following year for his web talk show Park Bench with Steve Buscemi. Aside from acting, Buscemi has also directed the films Trees Lounge (1996), Animal Factory (2000), and Interview (2007), as well as a number of television episodes.
Malahide.  Malahide (/ˈmæləhaɪd/ MAL-ə-hyde; Irish: Mullach Íde, meaning possibly the [sand]hill of Íde) is an affluent[2] coastal settlement in Fingal, County Dublin, Ireland, situated 14 kilometres (9 miles) north of Dublin city. It has a village centre surrounded by suburban housing estates, with a population of 18,608 as per the 2022 census.[1] Malahide Castle dates from the 12th century and is surrounded by a large park, part of which incorporates an international cricket ground. The area also features a sandy beach, a marina, a parkrun and a variety of sporting clubs. The modern name Malahide comes from Mullach Íde, possibly meaning the hill of Íde or Ídes sand-hill; it could also mean Sand-hills of the Hydes (from Mullac h-Íde), in turn probably referring to a Norman family from the Donabate area.[3] According to the Placenames Database of Ireland the name Malahide is possibly derived from the Irish Baile Átha Thíd meaning the town of the ford of Thíd, which may have been a ford at the mouth of the Gaybrook Stream, on the road to Swords.[4] Malahide Bay was anciently called Inber Domnann, the river-mouth of the Fir Domnann. Malahide is situated 14 kilometres (9 miles) north of the city of Dublin,[5] lying between Swords, Kinsealy and Portmarnock. It is situated on the southern shore of an estuary where the Broadmeadow River comes to the sea; on the opposite side of the estuary is Kilcrea, and, some way inland, Donabate. To the west of the village, the Gay Brook or Gaybrook Stream passes through Yellow Walls, once a small separate village, to reach the estuary in a marshy area.[6]
Zhong Kui. Zhong Kui (Chinese: 鍾馗; pinyin: Zhōng Kuí) is a Taoist deity in Chinese mythology, traditionally regarded as a vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings. He is depicted as a large man with a big black beard, bulging eyes, and a wrathful expression. Zhong Kui is able to command 80,000 demons to do his bidding and is often associated with the five bats of fortune.  Worship and iconography of Zhong Kui later spread to other East Asian countries. In art, Zhong Kui is a frequent subject in paintings and crafts, and his image is often painted on household gates as a guardian spirit as well as in places of business where high-value goods are involved. He is also commonly portrayed in popular media. According to folklore, Zhong Kui travelled with Du Ping (杜平), a friend from his hometown, to take part in the state-wide imperial examinations held in the capital city Changan. Though Zhong Kui attained great academic success through his achievement of top honors in the major exams, his rightful title of Zhuangyuan (top-scorer) was stripped from him by the then emperor because of his disfigured and ugly appearance.[1] Extremely enraged, Zhong Kui died by suicide by continually hurling himself against the palace gates until his head was broken, whereupon Du Ping had him buried and laid to rest. During the divine judgment after his death from suicide, Yanluo Wang (the Chinese Underworld Judge) saw much potential in Zhong Kui, intelligent and smart enough to score top honors in the imperial examinations but condemned to Youdu because of the strong grievance. Yanluo Wang then gave him a title as the king of ghosts and tasked him to hunt, capture, take charge of and maintain discipline and order among all ghosts. After Zhong Kui became the king of ghosts in Hell, Zhong Kui returned to his hometown on Chinese New Years eve. To repay Du Pings kindness, Zhong Kui gave his younger sister in marriage to Du Ping.[2]
Woodblock printing in Japan. Woodblock printing in Japan (木版画, mokuhanga) is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e[1] artistic genre of single sheets, but it was also used for printing books in the same period. Invented in China during the Tang dynasty, woodblock printing was widely adopted in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1868). It is similar to woodcut in Western printmaking in some regards, but was widely used for text as well as images.  The Japanese mokuhanga technique differs in that it uses water-based inks—as opposed to Western woodcut, which typically uses oil-based inks. The Japanese water-based inks provide a wide range of vivid colors, glazes, and transparency. Woodblock printing was invented in China under the Tang dynasty, and eventually migrated to Japan in the late 700s, where it was first used to reproduce foreign literature.[2] In 764 the Empress Kōken commissioned one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a small woodblock scroll printed with a Buddhist text (Hyakumantō Darani).  These were distributed to temples around the country as thanks for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764. These are the earliest examples of woodblock printing known, or documented, from Japan.[3] By the eleventh century, Buddhist temples in Japan produced printed books of sutras, mandalas, and other Buddhist texts and images. For centuries, printing was mainly restricted to the Buddhist sphere, as it was too expensive for mass production, and did not have a receptive, literate public as a market.  However, an important set of fans of the late Heian period (12th century), containing painted images and Buddhist sutras, reveal from loss of paint that the underdrawing for the paintings was printed from blocks.[4] In the Kamakura period from the 12th century to the 13th century, many books were printed and published by woodblock printing at Buddhist temples in Kyoto and Kamakura.[3] A Western-style movable type printing-press was brought to Japan by the Tenshō embassy in 1590, and was first used for printing in Kazusa, Nagasaki in 1591. However, the use of the western printing press was discontinued after the ban on Christianity in 1614.[3][5] The printing press seized from Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshis forces in 1593 was also in use at the same time as the printing press from Europe. An edition of the Confucian Analects was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press, at the order of Emperor Go-Yōzei.[3][6] Tokugawa Ieyasu established a printing school at Enko-ji in Kyoto and started publishing books using a domestic wooden movable type printing press instead of metal from 1599. Ieyasu supervised the production of 100,000 types, which were used to print many political and historical books. In 1605, books using a domestic copper movable type printing press began to be published, but copper type did not become mainstream after Ieyasu died in 1616.[3]
Torii school. The Torii school (鳥居派, -ha) was a school of ukiyo-e painting and printing founded in Edo. The primary producers of kabuki theater signboards and other promotional materials, the Torii were among those whose work led to the development of ukiyo-e. Their style was one of the primary influences in the ukiyo-e depiction of actors and kabuki scenes for much of the 18th century. Still today, kabuki signboards are sometimes painted by members of the Torii family. The Torii style truly emerged with Torii Kiyonobu I, who came to Edo in 1687. The Torii family had already been active in the kabuki world, in Osaka, for several generations at this point. He studied under Yoshida Hanbei and Hishikawa Moronobu, and brought a kabuki sensibility to their artistic styles. Moronobus work was already dramatic and energetic, but Kiyonobu added to this with a further emphasis on action, and on the types of poses (see mie) and aesthetics one would see on the kabuki stage. For many years, Kiyonobu and his actor father Torii Kiyomoto produced primarily theater signboards, book illustrations, and promotional materials for the theaters. It was not until 1700 that the Torii began to create full-size paintings and prints that could be interpreted as independent works of art. Many still depicted actors and the kabuki world, and could therefore be construed as serving as promotional materials. But by this time Kiyonobu, and his successor Torii Kiyonobu II, were also producing paintings and prints of courtesans, erotic scenes, and sumo. Even as the Torii school expanded, and began to produce works in the increasingly popular form of paintings and prints, the core purpose of the clan remained the production of billboards, posters, and other theatrical works. As such, Kiyonobu, and the heads of the clan after him, worked primarily on these types of works, leaving relatively few paintings and prints. Torii Kiyomasu, and his successors, would represent something of a departure from the theatrical and energetic core style of the Torii school. Taking Sugimura Jihei as a role model, rather than Moronobu, Kiyomasu produced works far softer, more delicate and graceful than those of many other Torii artists. Nevertheless, many works by these other artists, who produced more dramatic works in Kiyonobus style, are signed Kiyomasu.
Sharaku (film).  Sharaku (Japanese: 写楽) is a 1995 Japanese drama film directed by Masahiro Shinoda.[1][2] It was entered into the 1995 Cannes Film Festival.[3]  This article related to a Japanese film of the 1990s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This 1990s drama film–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Volunteer (Irish republican).  A volunteer is a member of various Irish republican paramilitary organisations. Among these have been the various forms of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA),[1] and the Irish Peoples Liberation Organization (IPLO).[citation needed] Óglach is the equivalent title in the Irish language.[2] The Irish Volunteers were formed in 1913, in reaction to the formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force earlier that year, to protect the interests of Irish nationalists during the Home Rule Crisis.[3] The Volunteers took part in the 1916 Easter Rising and—as the Irish Republican Army (IRA)—in the Irish War of Independence.[4] The title Volunteer or Vol. was used for members of the Volunteers who were involved in the 1916 Rising,[5][6] and in the War of Independence. A number of witness statements given to the Bureau of Military History make frequent use of Volunteer as a title for members of the Volunteers and IRA during that period.[7][8][9][10] The County Antrim Memorial in Milltown Cemetery in Belfast lists IRA members who died at various times between 1916 and the period of the Troubles in the late 20th century. Volunteer is used for those members who were not officers.[6][11] The term volunteer can refer to any member of an Irish republican paramilitary organisation,[12] to a rank and file member, similar to a private, or to a member that is not a senior officer such as Chief of Staff or Quartermaster General.[13] Joe McCann, an Official IRA member killed in 1972, was referred to in commemorations as a Staff Captain but also as a Volunteer.[14] On the other hand, Joe Cahill, the commander of the Provisional IRA Belfast Brigade in 1971, said in a press conference after the introduction of internment that year, that British forces had only succeeded in arresting two officers of the Provisional IRA. The rest are volunteers, or as they say in the British Army, privates.[15] The v in volunteer may or may not be capitalized. Most modern IRA memorials refer to the dead only as Volunteer, Vol. or Óglach rather than giving a specific rank.[16][17]
Provisional Irish Republican Army.  Ulster loyalist paramilitaries[16] The Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisional IRA), officially known as the Irish Republican Army (IRA; Irish: Óglaigh na hÉireann) and informally known as the Provos was an Irish republican paramilitary force that sought to end British rule in Northern Ireland, facilitate Irish reunification and bring about an independent republic encompassing all of Ireland. It was the most active republican paramilitary group during the Troubles. It argued that the all-island Irish Republic continued to exist, and it saw itself as that states army, the sole legitimate successor to the original IRA from the Irish War of Independence. It was designated a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom and an unlawful organisation in the Republic of Ireland, both of whose authority it rejected. The Provisional IRA emerged in December 1969,[18] due to a split within the previous incarnation of the IRA and the broader Irish republican movement. It was initially the minority faction in the split compared to the Official IRA but became the dominant faction by 1972. The Troubles had begun shortly before when a largely Catholic, nonviolent civil rights campaign was met with violence from both Ulster loyalists and the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), culminating in the August 1969 riots and deployment of British soldiers. The IRA initially focused on defence of Catholic areas, but it began an offensive campaign in 1970 that was aided by external sources, including Irish diaspora communities within the Anglosphere, and the Palestine Liberation Organization and Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. It used guerrilla tactics against the British Army and RUC in both rural and urban areas, and carried out a bombing campaign in Northern Ireland and England against military, political and economic targets, and British military targets in mainland Europe. They also targeted civilian contractors to the British security forces. The IRAs armed campaign, primarily in Northern Ireland but also in England and mainland Europe, killed over 1,700 people, including roughly 1,000 members of the British security forces and 500–644 civilians. The Provisional IRA declared a final ceasefire in July 1997, after which its political wing Sinn Féin was admitted into multi-party peace talks on the future of Northern Ireland. These resulted in the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, and in 2005 the IRA formally ended its armed campaign and decommissioned its weapons under the supervision of the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning. Several splinter groups have been formed as a result of splits within the IRA, including the Continuity IRA, which is still active in the dissident Irish republican campaign, and the Real IRA.
FC Cincinnati.  Football Club Cincinnati is an American professional soccer club based in Cincinnati. The club competes in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the Eastern Conference. The team was first announced on August 12, 2015 as a United Soccer League (USL) franchise which played from 2016 to 2018. On May 29, 2018, the clubs ownership was awarded an MLS franchise, and the team began MLS play on March 2, 2019.[5][6] The clubs ownership group is led by Carl Lindner III with Jeff Berding serving as co-CEO. Currently, the role of general manager is held by Chris Albright. In May 2015, rumors of a new USL club in Cincinnati were reported by the media. There was speculation[7] regarding the relationship the team would have with the Cincinnati Bengals, as well as a former Cincinnati soccer club, the Cincinnati Kings, as Jeff Berding was named as part of the ownership group.[8] Berding was employed by the Bengals and on the board of the youth soccer club Kings Hammer FC.[9] The Lindner family, of American Financial Group which is headquartered in Cincinnati, was reported as the owner of the new team with Carl Lindner III representing the owners at the press conference.[10] Then on August 12, 2015, FC Cincinnati announced that John Harkes would coach the new club and that the club would play in Nippert Stadium on the campus of the University of Cincinnati.[11] On April 16, 2016, FC Cincinnati broke the USL attendance record for a game, with 20,497 in attendance for the rivalry game against Louisville City FC, and, on May 14, against another rival Pittsburgh Riverhounds, broke its own record with 23,375 in attendance.[12] On September 17, 2016, the team broke the USL record again, when they drew 24,376 for their game against Orlando City B. The team broke its own USL record once again on August 5, 2017, when they drew 25,308 for their game against Orlando City B.[13]
Midfielder.   In association football, a midfielder takes an outfield position primarily in the middle of the pitch.[1] Midfielders may play an exclusively defensive role, breaking up attacks, and are in that case known as defensive midfielders. As central midfielders often go across boundaries, with mobility and passing ability, they are often referred to as deep-lying midfielders, play-makers, box-to-box midfielders, or holding midfielders. There are also attacking midfielders with limited defensive assignments. The size of midfield units on a team and their assigned roles depend on which formation is used; the unit of these players on the pitch is commonly referred to as the midfield.[2] Its name derives from the fact that midfield units typically make up the in-between units to the defensive units and forward units of a formation. Managers frequently assign one or more midfielders to disrupt the opposing teams attacks, while others may be tasked with creating goals, or have equal responsibilities between attack and defence. Midfielders are the players who typically travel the greatest distance during a match. Midfielders arguably have the most possession during a game, and thus they are some of the fittest players on the pitch.[3] Midfielders are often assigned the task of assisting forwards to create scoring opportunities.
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.  The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS, often pronounced /ˈæmpæs/ AM-pass; also known as simply the Academy or the Motion Picture Academy) is a professional honorary organization in Beverly Hills, California, U.S., with the stated goal of advancing the arts and sciences of motion pictures. The Academys corporate management and general policies are overseen by a board of governors, which includes representatives from each of the craft branches. As of April 2020, the organization was estimated to consist of around 9,921 motion picture professionals. The Academy is an international organization and membership is open to qualified filmmakers around the world. The Academy is known around the world for its annual Academy Awards, both officially and popularly known as The Oscars.[4] In addition, the Academy holds the Governors Awards annually for lifetime achievement in film; presents Scientific and Technical Awards annually; gives Student Academy Awards annually to filmmakers at the undergraduate and graduate level; awards up to five Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting annually; and operates the Margaret Herrick Library (at the Fairbanks Center for Motion Picture Study) in Beverly Hills, and the Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study in Hollywood, Los Angeles. The Academy opened the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles in 2021.[5][6]
1999 in film.  The year 1999 in film included Stanley Kubricks posthumous final film Eyes Wide Shut, Pedro Almodóvars first Oscar-winning film All About My Mother, the science-fiction film The Matrix, the animated works The Iron Giant,  Toy Story 2, Tarzan, and South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, the Best Picture-winner American Beauty, and the well-received The Green Mile. Other noteworthy releases include M. Night Shyamalans The Sixth Sense, David Finchers Fight Club, Sofia Coppolas The Virgin Suicides, Paul Thomas Andersons Magnolia and Spike Jonze and Charlie Kaufmans Being John Malkovich. The year also featured George Lucas top-grossing Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. Columbia Pictures and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer celebrated their 75th anniversaries in 1999. The top 10 films released in 1999 by worldwide gross are as follows:[1][2]
List of years in film.  This page indexes the individual year in film pages. Each year is annotated with its significant events. Before Muybridges 1878 work, photo sequences were not recorded in real-time because light-sensitive emulsions needed a long exposure time. The sequences were basically made as time-lapse recordings. It is possible that people at the time actually viewed such photographs come to life with a phénakisticope or zoetrope (this certainly happened with Muybridges work).
2000 in film.  The year 2000 in film involved some significant events. The top grosser worldwide was Mission: Impossible 2.[1] Domestically in North America, Gladiator won the Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Actor (Russell Crowe).[2] Dinosaur was the most expensive film of 2000 and a box-office success.[1] The top 10 films released in 2000 by worldwide gross are as follows:[3][4]
Coat of arms.  A coat of arms is a heraldic visual design[1] on an escutcheon (i.e., shield), surcoat, or tabard (the last two being outer garments), originating in Europe. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the full heraldic achievement, which in its whole consists of a shield, supporters, a crest, and a motto. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to the armiger (e.g. an individual person, family, state, organization, school or corporation). The term coat of arms itself, describing in modern times just the heraldic design, originates from the description of the entire medieval chainmail surcoat garment used in combat or preparation for the latter. Rolls of arms are collections of many coats of arms, and since the early Modern Age centuries, they have been a source of information for public showing and tracing the membership of a noble family, and therefore its genealogy across time. Heraldic designs came into general use among European nobility in the 12th century.  Systematic, heritable heraldry had developed by the beginning of the 13th century. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, varied to some degree between countries.  Early heraldic designs were personal, used by individual noblemen (who might also alter their chosen design over time). Arms became hereditary by the end of the 12th century, in England by the time of King Richard I during the Third Crusade (1189–1192).[2][3] Burgher arms were used in Northern Italy in the second half of the 14th century, and in the Holy Roman Empire by the mid 14th century. In the late medieval period, use of arms spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers, and to royally chartered organizations such as universities and trading companies.  The arts of vexillology and heraldry are closely related.
Research university.  A research university or a research-intensive university is a university that is committed to research as a central part of its mission.[3][4][5][6] They are the key sites of knowledge production, along with intergenerational knowledge transfer and the certification of new knowledge through the awarding of doctoral degrees, and continue to be the very center of scientific productivity.[7] They can be public or private, and often have well-known brand names.[8] Undergraduate courses at many research universities are often academic rather than vocational and may not prepare students for particular careers, but many employers value degrees from research universities because they teach fundamental life skills such as critical thinking.[9] Globally, research universities are overwhelmingly public institutions, while some countries like the United States and Japan also have well-known private research institutions.[3] Institutions of higher education that are not research universities or do not aspire to that designation, such as liberal arts colleges, instead place more emphasis on student instruction or other aspects of tertiary education, whereas research university faculty members, in contrast, are under more pressure to publish or perish.[10] The concept of the research university first arose in early 19th-century Prussia in Germany, where Wilhelm von Humboldt championed his vision of Einheit von Lehre und Forschung (the unity of teaching and research), as a means of producing an education that focused on the main areas of knowledge, including the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities, rather than on the previous goals of the university education, which was to develop an understanding of truth, beauty, and goodness.[11][12]
Public university.   A public university, state university, or public college is a university or college that is owned by the state or receives significant funding from a government. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country (or region) to another, largely depending on the specific education landscape.  In contrast a private university is usually owned and operated by a private corporation (not-for-profit or for profit). Both types are often regulated, but to varying degrees, by the government. In Algeria, public universities are a key part of the education system, and education is considered a right for all citizens. Access to these universities requires passing the Baccalaureate (Bac) exam, with each institution setting its own grade requirements (out of 20) for different majors and programs. Notable public universities include the University of Algiers, University of Oran, and University of Mentouri Constantine. In Egypt, Al-Azhar University was founded in 970 AD as a madrasa; it formally became a public university in 1961 and is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the world. In the 20th century, Egypt opened many other public universities with government-subsidized tuition fees, including Cairo University in 1908, Alexandria University in 1912, Assiut University in 1928, Ain Shams University in 1957, Helwan University in 1959, Beni-Suef University in 1963, Zagazig University in 1974, Benha University in 1976, and Suez Canal University in 1989.
Sovereign state. A sovereign state is a state that has the highest authority over a territory.[1] It is commonly understood that a sovereign state is independent.[2] When referring to a specific polity, the term country may also refer to a constituent country, or a dependent territory.[3][4][5] A sovereign state is required to have a permanent population, defined territory, a government not under another, and the capacity to interact with other sovereign states.[6] In actual practice, recognition or non-recognition by other states plays an important role in determining the status of a country. Unrecognized states often have difficulty engaging in diplomatic relations with other sovereign states.[7][8] Since the end of the 19th century, almost the entire globe has been divided into sections (countries) with more or less defined borders assigned to different states.[citation needed] Previously, quite large plots of land were either unclaimed or deserted, or inhabited by nomadic peoples that were not organized into states.[citation needed] However, even in modern states, there are large remote areas, such as the Amazons tropical forests, that are either uninhabited or inhabited exclusively or mainly by indigenous people (and some of them are still not in constant contact). Additionally, there are states where de facto control is contested or where it is not exercised over their whole area.[citation needed] Currently, the international community includes more than 200 sovereign states, most of which are represented in the United Nations. These states exist in a system of international relations, where each state takes into account the policies of other states by making its own calculations. From this point of view, States are integrated into the international system of special internal and external security and legitimization of the dilemma. Recently, the concept of the international community has been formed to refer to a group of States that have established rules, procedures and institutions for the implementation of relations. Thus, the foundation for international law, diplomacy between officially recognized sovereign states, their organizations and formal regimes has been laid.[citation needed] Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of nation-state sovereignty based on territoriality and the absence of a role for external agents in domestic structures. It is an international system of states, multinational corporations, and organizations that began with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.[9]
Nation. A nation is a type of social organization where a collective identity, a national identity, has emerged from a combination of shared features across a given population, such as language, history, ethnicity, culture, territory, or society. Some nations are constructed around ethnicity (see ethnic nationalism) while others are bound by political constitutions (see civic nationalism).[1] A nation is generally more overtly political than an ethnic group.[2][3] Benedict Anderson defines a nation as an imagined political community […]  imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion,[4] while Anthony D. Smith defines nations as cultural-political communities that have become conscious of their autonomy, unity and particular interests.[5][6] Blacks Law Dictionary also defines nation as a community of people inhabiting a defined territory and organized under an independent government.[2] Thus, nation can be synonymous with state or country. Indeed, according to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, what distinguishes nations from other forms of collective identity, like ethnicity, is this very relationship with the state.[7] The consensus among scholars is that nations are socially constructed, historically contingent, organizationally flexible, and a distinctly modern phenomenon.[8][9] Throughout history, people have had an attachment to their kin group and traditions, territorial authorities and their homeland, but nationalism – the belief that state and nation should align as a nation state – did not become a prominent ideology until the end of the 18th century.[10] The English word nation from Middle English c. 1300, nacioun a race of people, large group of people with common ancestry and language, from Old French nacion birth (naissance), rank; descendants, relatives; country, homeland (12c.) and directly from Latin nationem (nominative natio (nātĭō), supine of verb nascar « to birth » (supine : natum)) birth, origin; breed, stock, kind, species; race of people, tribe, literally that which has been born, from natus, past participle of nasci be born (Old Latin gnasci), from PIE root *gene- give birth, beget, with derivatives referring to procreation and familial and tribal groups.[11] In Latin, natio represents the children of the same birth and also a human group of same origin.[12] By Cicero, natio is used for people.[13]
2017 FC Cincinnati season.  The 2017 FC Cincinnati season was the clubs second season of existence, and their second in the United Soccer League (USL). It was FC Cincinnatis first season as a second-tier team in the U.S. soccer pyramid, as the United States Soccer Federation provisionally promoted the USL from Division III to Division II for the 2017 season. FC Cincinnati plays in the Eastern Division of USL. The season is best remembered for FC Cincinnatis championship run in the U.S. Open Cup. They won matches against five teams, including Columbus Crew and Chicago Fire of MLS (the highest division of U.S. soccer), to advance to the semifinals, a feat not achieved by a lower-division team since 2009. Their run was also noted for setting many attendance records; their matches against the New York Red Bulls and Chicago Fire were respectively the 2nd and 3rd highest-attended U.S. Open Cup matches ever, beaten only by the 2011 Final.[1] Their match against Chicago Fire aired on ESPN, marking the first time a match from the Round of 16 received a national television broadcast.[2] The club announced on October 21, 2016 that assistant coach Ryan Martin would not be returning for the 2017 season.[3] On December 14, 2016, the club announced that Alan Koch, former head coach of the Whitecaps FC 2, would be taking Martins place as an assistant coach, in addition to acting as the director of scouting and analytics.[4] On February 17, 2017, the club announced that head coach John Harkes was relieved of his coaching duties and replaced with Alan Koch. On March 28, 2017, Yoann Damet was added to the staff as assistant coach.[5] As of December 15, 2016, FC Cincinnati has confirmed the return of seventeen players from the 2016 roster, as well as the signing of one new player. Fifteen of these players were announced on November 14, and goalkeeper Mitch Hildebrandt was announced three days later.[6][7] On December 15, the return of Eric Stevenson and the new signing of Kadeem Dacres were announced.[8] The club held a public tryout with over eighty participants on December 18, 2016.[9] On January 6, 2017, the club announced the signings of Andy Craven, Marco Dominguez, and Aaron Walker (who was selected from the public tryout).[10] On February 6, 2017, the club announced they acquired striker, Victor Mansaray, on loan from Seattle Sounders FC.[11] On March 29, 2017, the club signed Justin Hoyte, a former defender for Premier League club Arsenal.[12] On May 10, 2017, the club traded forward Andy Craven to the OKC Energy FC for forward Danni König.[13] On May 15, 2017, the club announced the signing of defender Josu.[14]
Country.  A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, a nation, a nation state, or other political entity. When referring to a specific polity, the term country may refer to a sovereign state, a state with limited recognition, a constituent country, or a dependent territory.[1][2][3] Most sovereign states, but not all countries, are members of the United Nations. There is no universal agreement on the number of countries in the world, since several states have disputed sovereignty status or limited recognition, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly considered countries.[4] The definition and usage of the word country are flexible and have changed over time. The Economist wrote in 2010 that any attempt to find a clear definition of a country soon runs into a thicket of exceptions and anomalies.[5] Areas much smaller than a political entity may be referred to as a country, such as the West Country in England, big sky country (used in various contexts of the American West), coal country (used to describe coal-mining regions), or simply the country (used to describe a rural area).[6][7] The term country is also used as a qualifier descriptively, such as country music or country living.[8] The word country comes from Old French contrée, which derives from Vulgar Latin (terra) contrata ((land) lying opposite; (land) spread before), derived from contra (against, opposite). It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century.[9][better source needed]
Autonomous administrative division. An autonomous administrative division (also referred to as an autonomous area, zone, entity, unit, region, subdivision, province, or territory) is a subnational administrative division or internal territory of a sovereign state that has a degree of autonomy — self-governance — under the national government. Autonomous areas are distinct from other constituent units of a federation (e.g. a state, or province) in that they possess unique powers for their given circumstances. Typically, it is either geographically2 distinct from the rest of the state or populated by a national minority, which may exercise home rule. Decentralization of self-governing powers and functions to such divisions is a way for a national government to try to increase democratic participation or administrative efficiency or to defuse internal conflicts. States that include autonomous areas may be federacies, 2federations, or confederations. Autonomous areas can be divided into territorial autonomies, subregional territorial autonomies, and local autonomies. Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten are autonomous countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, each with their own parliament. In addition they enjoy autonomy in taxation matters as well as having their own currencies. The French Constitution recognises three autonomous jurisdictions. Corsica, a region of France, enjoys a greater degree of autonomy on matters such as tax and education compared to mainland regions.[citation needed] New Caledonia, a sui generis collectivity, and French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity, are highly autonomous territories with their own government, legislature, currency, and constitution. They do not, however, have legislative powers for policy areas relating to law and order, defense, border control or university education. Other smaller overseas collectivities have a lesser degree of autonomy through local legislatures. The five overseas regions, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion, are generally governed the same as mainland regions; however, they enjoy some additional powers, including certain legislative powers for devolved areas. New Zealand maintains nominal sovereignty over three Pacific Island nations, the Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau. The Chatham Islands—despite having the designation of Territory—is an integral part of the country, situated within the New Zealand archipelago; its council is not autonomous and has broadly the same powers as other local councils, although notably it can also charge levies on goods entering or leaving the islands.[9] Other areas that are autonomous in nature but not in name are areas designated for indigenous peoples, such as those of the Americas:
Lists by country. This is a series of lists by country. The lists generally cover topics related to sovereign countries; however, states with limited recognition are also included. *Top country subdivisions by GDP *Top country subdivisions by GDP per capita *Top country metropolitan by GDP
List of international rankings. This is a list of international rankings by country. *Top country subdivisions by GDP *Top country subdivisions by GDP per capita *Top country metropolitan by GDP
Palace of the Nation, Dushanbe. The Palace of the Nation (Tajik: Қасри Миллат, romanized: Qasri Millat; Russian: Дворец Нации, romanized: Dvorets Natsii) is the official residence of the President of Tajikistan. It is located on Shirinshoh Shohtemur Street in central Dushanbe. The Presidential Palace is surrounded by the Dushanbe Flagpole to the north, Rudaki Park to the east, Dousti Square to the south and Varzob River to the west. The palace was built by Rizzani de Eccher, an Italian construction company.[1] The construction of the Palace began in 2000. In early 2006, the Dushanbe Synagogue, the local mikveh (ritual bath), a kosher butcher shop, and several Jewish schools were demolished by the government without compensation to make room for the new palace. After an international outcry, the government announced a reversal and said that would allow the synagogue to be rebuilt at its current site. However, in the final stages of the palaces construction, the government destroyed the entire synagogue, leaving Tajikistan without a synagogue as it was the only one in the country. This resulted in the majority of Tajik Bukharan Jews having negative views of the Tajik government.[2][3][4] On the eve of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Dushanbe in August 2008, the palace was completed, with the summit events being partially held under the golden dome with 20-meter columns. An image of the palace is imprinted on the back of a 500 Somoni banknote, which is the national currency of Tajikistan.[5] In September 2018, Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko became the first foreign leader to visit the new wooden halls and rooms in the palace.[6] The Old Presidential Palace, the former seat of the Council of Ministers of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic), which was located on Rudaki Avenue, was demolished in 2023. In its stead, China helped build a new building for the republics government and parliament.[7]
San Diego.  San Diego (/ˌsæn diˈeɪɡoʊ/ ⓘ SAN dee-AY-goh; Spanish: [san ˈdjeɣo]) is a city on the Pacific coast of Southern California, adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. It is the eighth-most populous city in the U.S. and second-most populous city in California with a population of over 1.4 million, while the San Diego metropolitan area with over 3.3 million residents is the 18th-largest metropolitan area in the nation. San Diego is the county seat of San Diego County.[17] It is known for its mild Mediterranean climate, extensive beaches and parks, long association with the United States Navy, and recent emergence as a wireless, electronics, healthcare, and biotechnology development center. Historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego has been referred to as the Birthplace of California, as it was the first site visited and settled by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States.[18] In 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area for Spain, forming the basis for the settlement of Alta California, 200 years later. The Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá, founded in 1769, formed the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of the newly declared Mexican Empire. California was ceded to the U.S. in 1848 following the Mexican–American War and was admitted as the 31st state in 1850. The largest sectors of the economy of San Diego include military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, research, and manufacturing. The city is home to several universities, including UC San Diego, San Diego State University, and the University of San Diego. San Diego is the economic center of the San Diego–Tijuana region, the second-most populous transborder metropolitan area in the Western Hemisphere, home to an estimated five million people as of 2022.[19] The primary border crossing between San Diego and Tijuana, the San Ysidro Port of Entry, is the busiest international land border crossing in the world outside of Asia (fourth-busiest overall). San Diego International Airport (SAN) is the busiest single-runway airport in the United States.[20] San Diegos name can be traced back to the 17th century when Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno bestowed it upon the area in 1602. He named the bay and the surrounding area San Diego de Alcalá in honor of Saint Didacus of Alcalá.[21]
Novellist (horse).  Novellist is an Irish-bred, German-trained Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He won major races in four countries including the Gran Premio del Jockey Club in Italy, the Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud in France, the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes in the United Kingdom and the Grosser Preis von Baden in Germany. He was rated the fifth-best racehorse in the world and was voted German Horse of the Year for his performances in 2013. Novellist is a dark bay or brown horse with a white snip and three white socks bred in Ireland by his owner Christoph Berglar. He was sired by Monsun (1990–2012), a dual winner of the Preis von Europa who went on to become a highly successful breeding stallion. His other progeny include Manduro, Stacelita and Shirocco.[2] Novellists dam Night Lagoon won the Preis der Winterkönigin in 2003. The colt was sent into training with Andreas Wohler at Ravensberg, between Dortmund and Hanover.[3] In his early races Novellist was ridden by the Panamanian jockey Eduardo Pedroza. On his only appearance as a two-year-old, Novellist contested a minor race over 1500 metres at Düsseldorf and won by eight lengths from five opponents.[4]
Queens University of Belfast (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency).  Queens University of Belfast was a university constituency of the Parliament of Northern Ireland from 1921 until 1969. It returned four MPs, using proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. In 1969 the constituency was abolished under the reforms carried out by the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland Terence ONeill. The constituency was created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and its four MPs were elected by the graduates of Queens University of Belfast. In May 1921, Dáil Éireann, the parliament of the self-declared Irish Republic run by Sinn Féin, passed a resolution declaring that elections to the House of Commons of Northern Ireland and the House of Commons of Southern Ireland would be used as the election for the Second Dáil.[1] All those elected were on the roll of the Second Dáil, but as no Sinn Féin MP was elected for Queens University, it was not represented there.[2]
List of highest-grossing films.  Films generate income from several revenue streams, including theatrical exhibition, home video, television broadcast rights, and merchandising. However, theatrical box-office earnings are the primary metric for trade publications in assessing the success of a film, mostly because of the availability of the data compared to sales figures for home video and broadcast rights, but also because of historical practice. Included on the list are charts of the top box-office earners (ranked by both the nominal and real value of their revenue), a chart of high-grossing films by calendar year, a timeline showing the transition of the highest-grossing film record, and a chart of the highest-grossing film franchises and series. All charts are ranked by international theatrical box-office performance where possible, excluding income derived from home video, broadcasting rights, and merchandise. Traditionally, war films, musicals, and historical dramas have been the most popular genres, but franchise films have been among the best performers of the 21st century. There is strong interest in the superhero genre, with eleven films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe featuring among the nominal top-earners. The most successful superhero film, Avengers: Endgame, is also the second-highest-grossing film on the nominal earnings chart, and there are four films in total based on the Avengers comic books charting in the top twenty. Other Marvel Comics adaptations have also had success with the Spider-Man and X-Men properties, while films based on Batman and Superman from DC Comics have generally performed well. Star Wars is also represented in the nominal earnings chart with five films, while the Jurassic Park franchise features prominently. Although the nominal earnings chart is dominated by films adapted from pre-existing properties and sequels, it is headed by Avatar, which is an original work. Animated family films have performed consistently well, with Disney films enjoying lucrative re-releases prior to the home-video era. Disney also enjoyed later success with films such as Frozen and its sequel, Zootopia, and The Lion King (along with its computer-animated remake), as well as its Pixar division, of which Inside Out 2, Incredibles 2, and Toy Story 3 and 4 have been the best performers. Beyond Disney and Pixar animation, Chinas Ne Zha 2 (the highest-grossing animated film), and the Despicable Me and Shrek series have met with the most success. While inflation has eroded the achievements of most films from the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, there are franchises originating from that period that are still active. Besides the Star Wars and Superman franchises, James Bond and Godzilla films are still being released periodically; all four are among the highest-grossing franchises. Some of the older films that held the record of highest-grossing film still have respectable grosses by todays standards, but no longer compete numerically against todays top-earners in an era of much higher individual ticket prices. When those prices are adjusted for inflation, however, then Gone with the Wind—which was the highest-grossing film outright for twenty-five years—is still the highest-grossing film of all time. All grosses on the list are expressed in U.S. dollars at their nominal value, except where stated otherwise. With a worldwide box-office gross of over $2.9 billion, Avatar is proclaimed to be the highest-grossing film, but such claims usually refer to theatrical revenues only and do not take into account home video and television income, which can form a significant portion of a films earnings. Once revenue from home entertainment is factored in, it is not immediately clear which film is the most successful. Titanic earned $1.2 billion from video and DVD sales and rentals,[1] in addition to the $2.2 billion it grossed in theaters. While complete sales data are not available for Avatar, it earned $345 million from the sale of sixteen million DVD and Blu-ray units in North America,[2] and ultimately sold a total of thirty million DVD and Blu-ray units worldwide.[3] After home video income is accounted for, both films have earned over $3 billion each. Television broadcast rights also substantially add to a films earnings and, as of 2010, a film often earned the equivalent of as much as 20–25% of its theatrical box office for two television runs, on top of pay-per-view revenues;[4] Titanic earned a further $55 million from the NBC and HBO broadcast rights,[1] equating to about 9% of its North American gross.
Novelist (musician).  Kwadwo Quentin Kankam (born 20 January 1997), better known by his stage name Novelist, is a British grime MC and record producer. He was a founding member of the Square crew and was nominated for Best Grime Act at the 2014 MOBO Awards.[3] He has been called the new face of grime[4] and was described as the poster child for the first generation of real grime kids by DJ Logan Sama.[5][6] Kankam is from Lewisham in southeast London and is of Antiguan and Ghanaian descent.[7] In 2013 Novelist clashed with Wileys younger brother Cadell for the grime DVD Whos Da Boss and began to garner attention from the UK underground music scene for his regular appearances on London pirate radio stations.[8] Novelist was featured in a BBC Radio 1Xtra documentary broadcast on mothers day called Grime Mums focusing on the role parents played in the careers of prominent grime MCs.[9] After an instrumental track called Sniper began to receive airplay on London underground radio stations Novelist was signed to produce an instrumental EP for influential grime imprint Oil Gang.[10][11][12] He recorded a song entitled Take Time in a studio session with experimental producer Mumdance in October 2013,[13] which was later signed to Rinse and released as a single in the summer of 2014.[4] In early 2014, Novelists music began receiving regular rotation on radio stations including BBC Radio 1Xtra and Rinse FM. He recorded a guest set for DJ Cables Sixty Minutes mix, which was broadcast on MistaJams BBC 1Xtra show on 28 May 2014,[14] he featured on Cables Sixty Minutes mix again later that year recording a second guest set with his crew The Square.[15] In late 2013 Novelist began working with No Hats No Hoods.[16] In mid-2014, the label signed The Square, their first release on the label The Formula came out in August 2014.[17] In 2014, Novelist signed to XL Recordings and recorded a track with Jamie xx for his forthcoming release on the label, however the track was not released.[18] In September 2014, Novelist received a MOBO nomination in the Best Grime Act category.[19] In November 2014, Novelist was named on the longlist for the BBCs Sound of 2015 list and XL Recordings announced that his debut release on the label would be a collaborative EP with Mumdance.[20] The EP, entitled 1 Sec was released on 20 January 2015, the same day he turned 18.[21]
Author.   In legal discourse, an author is the creator of an original work that has been published, whether that work exists in written, graphic, visual, or recorded form.[1] The act of creating such a work is called authorship, which means a sculptor, painter, or composer is considered the author of their respective sculptures, paintings, or musical compositions. Although in common usage, the term author is often associated specifically with the writer of a book, article, play, or other written work.[2] In cases involving a work for hire, the employer or commissioning party is legally considered the author of the work, even if it was created by someone else.[1] Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the creator of the copyrighted work, i.e., the author. If more than one person created the work, then joint authorship has taken place. Copyright law differs around the world. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to authors of original works of authorship.[3][4] Some works are considered to be author-less, or are anonymously or secretly authored. The monkey selfie copyright dispute in the 2010s was a notable dispute of authorship involving photographs taken by Celebes crested macaques using equipment belonging to a nature photographer. The photographer asserted authorship of the photographs, which the United States Copyright Office denied, stating: To qualify as a work of authorship a work must be created by a human being.[5] The development of generative artificial intelligence has led to discourse regarding authorship of the media it generates.
California.  California (/ˌkælɪˈfɔːrniə/) is a state in the Western United States that lies on the Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With almost 40 million residents across an area of 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the largest state by population and third-largest by area. Prior to European colonization, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America. European exploration in the 16th and 17th centuries led to the colonization by the Spanish Empire. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its successful war for independence, but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican–American War. The California gold rush started in 1848 and led to social and demographic changes, including depopulation of Indigenous tribes. It organized itself and was admitted as the 31st state in 1850  as a free state, following the Compromise of 1850. It never had the status of territory. The Greater Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay areas are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, with 19 million and 10 million residents respectively.[11] Los Angeles is the states most populous city and the nations second-most. Californias capital is Sacramento. Part of the Californias region of North America, the states diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast and metropolitan areas in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, and from the redwood and Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast. Two-thirds of the nations earthquake risk lies in California.[12] The Central Valley, a fertile agricultural area, dominates the states center. The large size of the state results in climates that vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north to arid desert in the interior, as well as snowy alpine in the mountains. Droughts and wildfires are an ongoing issue,[13] while simultaneously, atmospheric rivers are turning increasingly prevalent and leading to intense flooding events—especially in the winter. The economy of California is the largest of any U.S. state, with an estimated 2024 gross state product of $4.172 trillion as of Q4 2024.[14] It is the worlds largest sub-national economy and, if it were an independent country, would be the fourth-largest economy in the world (putting it, as of 2025, behind Germany and ahead of Japan) when ranked by nominal GDP.[15][16] The states agricultural industry leads the nation in agricultural output,[17][18][19] fueled by its production of dairy, almonds, and grapes.[20] With the busiest port in the country (Los Angeles), California plays a pivotal role in the global supply chain, hauling in about 40% of goods imported to the US.[21] Notable contributions to popular culture, ranging from entertainment, sports, music, and fashion, have their origins in California. Hollywood in Los Angeles is the center of the U.S. film industry and one of the oldest and one of the largest film industries in the world; profoundly influencing global entertainment since the 1920s. The San Francisco Bays Silicon Valley is the center of the global technology industry.[22]
Stripped Classicism.  Stripped Classicism (also referred to as Starved Classicism or Grecian Moderne)[1] is primarily a 20th-century classicist architectural style stripped of most or all ornamentation, frequently employed by governments while designing official buildings. It was adopted by both totalitarian and democratic regimes.[A] The style embraces a simplified but recognizable classicism in its overall massing and scale while eliminating traditional decorative detailing.[3][4][5][6] The orders of architecture are only hinted at or are indirectly implicated in the form and structure.[B] Despite its etymological similarity, Stripped Classicism is sometimes distinguished from Starved Classicism, the latter displaying little feeling for rules, proportions, details, and finesse, and lacking all verve and élan.[5][7]  At other times the terms stripped and starved are used interchangeably.[8][9] Stripped Classicism was a materialistic manifestation of political modernism. Recent historiography has explicitly linked this architectural style – and its relationship with modernist thinking – to political projects arising in the 1920–1930s, which utilised artistic dexterity to articulate – in built form – a powerful political ethos orientated towards the future.[10] Other writers have noted the need to read the impact of avant-garde movements such as the Italian Futurists, who extolled the innumerable possibilities of the modern world, on this unique style (and the futurism it espoused).[11] It was popularised by the French-born Paul Philippe Cret, among others, and employed in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, the Soviet Union and New Deal America.
The Novelist. The Novelist is a 2013 independent video game by Kent Hudson through his company Orthogonal Games. The game was first released on 10 December 2013 through Steam. The Novelist can be played in two formats: in stealth or storytelling mode. The games story line is told through the viewpoint of a spectral figure that oversees the Kaplan familys daily life while on vacation. Novelist Dan Kaplan has decided to take his family on vacation in the hopes of not only reconnecting with them, but also defeating his crippling writers block. His agent wants him to complete his promised novel while Dans wife Linda wants to work on their failing marriage and develop a career as an artist. During all of this Dan and Lindas sensitive and incredibly lonely son Tommy is desperate to gain his fathers attention by way of several crayon drawings. In storytelling mode the player chooses the direction they want the games plot to proceed by making several choices that would impact one or more of the Kaplans. Information about the characters desires and secrets are revealed through a series of diaries, letters, and pictures hidden throughout the Kaplans vacation home. Players can also learn additional data by accessing the characters memories at various points in the game. During this mode the player can be seen, but this aspect does not have any impact on the gameplay. In stealth mode the Kaplans can detect the player, who must avoid being seen by either going behind the characters backs or by possessing light fixtures.[1] If the player is seen more than twice in one chapter, they lose the ability to influence the Kaplans choices. Critical reception for The Novelist has been mixed and the game holds a rating of 66 on Metacritic, based upon 18 reviews.[3] In their review IGN expressed disappointment over the game only having limited endings, as they felt that this oversimplifies what is otherwise a nuanced portrayal of the balancing act that goes on within families.[4] Wired criticized what they saw as an overuse of personal notes, diaries, and pictures to show what the characters are thinking or feeling, as they found that this felt ungenuine. Wired also panned The Novelists stealth mode, and commented that it was a mostly meaningless obstacle to the story.[5]
Toronto International Film Festival.  The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF, often stylized as tiff) is one of the most prestigious and largest publicly attended film festivals in the world. Founded in 1976, the festival takes place every year in early September. The organization behind the film festival is also a permanent destination for film culture operating out of the TIFF Lightbox cultural centre, located in downtown Toronto. The TIFF Peoples Choice Award – which is based on audience balloting – has emerged as an indicator of success during awards season, especially at the Academy Awards. Past recipients of this award include Oscar-winning films, such as Chariots of Fire (1981), Life Is Beautiful (1998), American Beauty (1999), Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), Slumdog Millionaire (2008), The Kings Speech (2010), Silver Linings Playbook (2012), 12 Years a Slave (2013), The Imitation Game (2014), La La Land (2016), Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017), Green Book (2018), Jojo Rabbit (2019), Nomadland (2020), Belfast (2021) and American Fiction (2023). TIFF starts the Thursday night after Labour Day (the first Monday in September in Canada) and lasts for eleven days. The 2024 Toronto International Film Festival took place from September 5 through 15, 2024.[1] The 2025 Toronto International Film Festival is taking place from September 4 through 14, 2025. As of 2022[update], the festivals  CEO is Cameron Bailey.[2]
The Pilgrims Progress.  The Pilgrims Progress from This World, to That Which Is to Come is a 1678 Christian allegory written by John Bunyan. It is commonly regarded as one of the most significant works of Protestant devotional literature and of wider early modern English literature.[1][2][3][4][5] It has been translated into more than 200 languages and has never been out of print.[6][7] It appeared in Dutch in 1681, in German in 1703 and in Swedish in 1727. The first North American edition was issued in 1681.[8] It has also been cited as the first novel written in English.[9] According to literary editor Robert McCrum, theres no book in English, apart from the Bible, to equal Bunyans masterpiece for the range of its readership, or its influence on writers as diverse as William Hogarth, C. S. Lewis, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Charles Dickens, Louisa May Alcott, George Bernard Shaw, William Thackeray, Charlotte Bronte, Mark Twain, John Steinbeck and Enid Blyton.[10][11] The lyrics of the hymn To be a Pilgrim are based on the novel. Bunyan began his work while in the Bedfordshire county prison for violations of the Conventicle Act 1664, which prohibited the holding of religious services outside the auspices of the established Church of England. Early Bunyan scholars such as John Brown believed The Pilgrims Progress was begun in Bunyans second, shorter imprisonment for six months in 1675,[12] but more recent scholars such as Roger Sharrock believe that it was begun during Bunyans initial, more lengthy imprisonment from 1660 to 1672 right after he had written his spiritual autobiography Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners.[13] The English text comprises 108,260 words and is divided into two parts, each reading as a continuous narrative with no chapter divisions. The first part was completed in 1677 and entered into the Stationers Register on 22 December 1677. It was licensed and entered in the Term Catalogue on 18 February 1678, which is looked upon as the date of first publication.[14] After the first edition of the first part in 1678, an expanded edition, with additions written after Bunyan was freed, appeared in 1679. The Second Part appeared in 1684. There were eleven editions of the first part in John Bunyans lifetime, published in successive years from 1678 to 1685 and in 1688, and there were two editions of the second part, published in 1684 and 1686. The entire book is presented as a dream sequence narrated by an omniscient narrator. The allegorys protagonist, Christian, is an everyman character, and the plot centres on his journey from his hometown, the City of Destruction (this world), to the Celestial City (that which is to come: Heaven) atop Mount Zion. Christian is weighed down by a great burden—the knowledge of his sin—which he believed came from his reading the book in his hand (the Bible). This burden, which would cause him to sink into Hell, is so unbearable that Christian must seek deliverance. He meets Evangelist as he is walking out in the fields, who directs him to the Wicket Gate for deliverance. Since Christian cannot see the Wicket Gate in the distance, Evangelist directs him to go to a shining light, which Christian thinks he sees.[15] Christian leaves his home, his wife, and children to save himself: he cannot persuade them to accompany him. Obstinate and Pliable go after Christian to bring him back, but Christian refuses. Obstinate returns disgusted, but Pliable is persuaded to go with Christian, hoping to take advantage of the Paradise that Christian claims lies at the end of his journey. Pliables journey with Christian is cut short when the two of them fall into the Slough of Despond, a boggy mire-like swamp where pilgrims doubts, fears, temptations, lusts, shames, guilts, and sins of their present condition of being a sinner are used to sink them into the mud of the swamp. It is there in that bog where Pliable abandons Christian after getting himself out. After struggling to the other side of the slough, Christian is pulled out by Help, who has heard his cries and tells him the swamp is made out of the decadence, scum, and filth of sin, but the ground is good at the narrow Wicket Gate.
Step outline. A step outline (also informally called a beat sheet or scene-by-scene[1]) is a detailed telling of a story with the intention of turning the story into a screenplay for a motion picture. The step outline briefly details every scene of the screenplays story, and often has indications for dialogue and character interactions. The scenes are often numbered in the order in which they occur for convenience.[2] It can also be an extremely useful tool for a writer working on a spec script. This article related to film or motion picture terminology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Film treatment. A film treatment (or simply treatment) is a piece of prose, typically the step between scene cards (index cards) and the first draft of a screenplay for a motion picture, television program, or radio play. It is generally longer and more detailed than an outline (or one-page synopsis),[citation needed] and it may include details of directorial style that an outline omits. Treatments read like a short story, but are told in the present tense and describe events as they happen.[1]  A treatment may also be created in the process of adapting a novel, play, or other pre-existing work into a screenplay. The original draft treatment is created during the writing process and is generally long and detailed. It consists of full-scene outlines put together. Usually there are between 30 and 80 standard letter size or A4 pages (Courier New 12 point), with an average of about 40 pages.[citation needed] For example, the draft treatment of The Terminator is 48 pages long. More elaborate forms of the draft treatment are the step outline and the scriptment. The presentation treatment is created as presentation material. Scene descriptions are written out on index cards (or a digital equivalent) and only have the essential and important story events that make up the scenes. The scene cards are arranged and rearranged until the optimum structure is worked out.[2] It is the full story in its simplest form, moving from the concept, to the theme, to the character, to the detailed synopsis of about four to eight pages of master scenes. Presentation treatments are used to show how the production notes have been incorporated into the screenplay for the director and production executives to look over, or to leave behind as a presentation note after a sales pitch.[3]
Filmmaking. Filmmaking or film production is the process by which a motion picture is produced. Filmmaking involves a number of complex and discrete stages, beginning with an initial story, idea, or commission. Production then continues through screenwriting, casting, pre-production, shooting, sound recording, post-production, and screening the finished product before an audience, which may result in a film release and exhibition. The process is nonlinear, in that the filmmaker typically shoots the script out of sequence, repeats shots as needed, and puts them together through editing later. Filmmaking occurs in a variety of economic, social, and political contexts around the world, and uses a variety of technologies and cinematic techniques to make theatrical films, episodic films for television and streaming platforms, music videos, and promotional and educational films. Although filmmaking originally involved the use of film, most film productions are now digital.[1] Today, filmmaking refers to the process of crafting an audio-visual story commercially for distribution or broadcast. Film production consists of five major stages:[2] The development stage contains both general and specific components. Each film studio has a yearly retreat where their top creative executives meet and interact on a variety of areas and topics they wish to explore through collaborations with producers and screenwriters, and then ultimately, directors, actors, and actresses. They choose trending topics from the media and real life, as well as many other sources, to determine their yearly agenda. For example, in a year when action is popular, they may wish to explore that topic in one or more movies. Sometimes, they purchase the rights to articles, bestselling novels, plays, the remaking of older films, stories with some basis in real life through a person or event, a video game, fairy tale, comic book, graphic novel. Likewise, research through surveys may inform their decisions. They may have had blockbusters from their previous year and wish to explore a sequel. They will additionally acquire a completed and independently financed and produced film. Such notable examples are Little Miss Sunshine, The English Patient, and Roma. Studios hold general meetings with producers and screenwriters about original story ideas. In my decade working as a writer, I knew of only a few that were sold and fewer that made it to the screen, relays writer Wayne Powers. Alan Watt, writer-director and Founder of The LA Writers Lab confirmed that completed original screenplays, referred to as specs, make big news when they sell, but these make up a very small portion of movies that are ultimately given the green light to be produced by the president of a studio.
Play for Today.  Play for Today is a British television anthology drama series, produced by the BBC and transmitted on BBC1 from 1970 to 1984. During the run, more than three hundred programmes, featuring original television plays, and adaptations of stage plays and novels, were transmitted. The individual episodes were (with a few exceptions noted below) between fifty and a hundred minutes in duration. A handful of these plays, including Rumpole of the Bailey, subsequently became television series in their own right. In 2025, Channel 5 announced they would revive the series in early 2026 for a new audience. The strand was a successor to The Wednesday Play, the 1960s anthology series, the title being changed when the day of transmission moved to Thursday to make way for a sport programme. Some works, screened in anthology series on BBC2, like Willy Russells Our Day Out (1977), were repeated on BBC1 in the series. The producers of The Wednesday Play, Graeme MacDonald and Irene Shubik, transferred to the new series. Shubik continued with the series until 1973[1] while MacDonald remained with the series until 1977 when he was promoted. Later producers included Kenith Trodd (1973–1982), David Rose (1972–1980), Innes Lloyd (1975–1982), Margaret Matheson (1977–1979), Sir Richard Eyre (1978–1980), and Pharic MacLaren (1974–1982). Plays covered all genres. In its time, Play for Today featured contemporary social realist dramas, historical pieces, fantasies, biopics and occasionally science-fiction[2] (The Flipside of Dominick Hide, 1980). Most pieces were written directly for television, but there were also occasional adaptations from other narrative forms, such as novels and stage plays. Writers who contributed plays to the series included Ian McEwan, John Osborne, Dennis Potter, Stephen Poliakoff, Sir David Hare, Willy Russell, Alan Bleasdale, Arthur Hopcraft, Alan Plater, Graham Reid, David Storey, Andrew Davies, Rhys Adrian and John Hopkins.
Kagoshima. Kagoshima (鹿児島市, Kagoshima-shi; IPA: [ka.ɡo.ɕi.ma, -maꜜ.ɕi, ka.ŋo-]), is the capital city of Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. As of 31 July 2024[update], the city had an estimated population of 583,966 in 285,992 households, and a  population density of 1100 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 547.61 km2 (211.43 sq mi). While the kanji used to spell Kagoshima (鹿児島) literally mean deer child island, or island of the fawn, the source etymology is not clear, and may refer to cliff or sailor in the local dialect. Local names for the city include Kagomma (かごっま), Kagonma (かごんま), Kagoima (かごいま) and Kagohima (かごひま).[2][3] Kagoshima is located in ancient Satsuma Province and was the center of the territory of the Shimazu clan from the late Kamakura period. Kagoshima City developed political and commercial port city in the Edo period (1603–1868) when it became the seat of the Shimazus Satsuma Domain, which was one of the most powerful and wealthiest domains in the country throughout the period, and though international trade was banned for much of this period, the city remained quite active and prosperous. Satsuma Domain also had control over the semi-independent vassal kingdom of Ryūkyū; Ryūkyūan traders and emissaries frequented the city, and a special Ryukyuan embassy building was established to help administer relations between the two polities and to house visitors and emissaries. Kagoshima was also a significant center of Christian activity in Japan prior to the imposition of bans against that religion in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The domain was also a center of anti-Tokugawa shogunate sentiment. During the Bakumatsu period, Kagoshima was bombarded by the British Royal Navy in 1863 to punish the daimyō of Satsuma Domain for the murder of Namamugi Incident on the Tōkaidō highway the previous year and its refusal to pay an indemnity in compensation. Many of the leaders of the Meiji restoration and the Boshin War were from Satsuma. Japans Industrial Revolution is said to have started here, stimulated by the young students train station. Nineteen young men of Satsuma broke the shogunates ban on foreign travel, traveling to various industrial locations in the United Kingdom before returning to share the benefits of the best of Western science and technology.[4] A statue was erected outside the train station as a tribute to them.
Writer.  A writer is a person who uses written words in different writing styles, genres, and techniques to communicate ideas, to inspire feelings and emotions, or to entertain. Writers may develop different forms of writing such as novels, short stories, monographs, travelogues, plays, screenplays, teleplays, songs, and essays as well as reports, educational material, and news articles that may be of interest to the general public. Writers works are nowadays published across a wide range of media. Skilled writers who are able to use language to express ideas well, often contribute significantly to the cultural content of a society.[1] The term writer is also used elsewhere in the arts and music, such as songwriter or a screenwriter, but also a stand-alone writer typically refers to the creation of written language. Some writers work from an oral tradition. Writers can produce material across a number of genres, fictional or non-fictional. Other writers use multiple media such as graphics or illustration to enhance the communication of their ideas. Another recent demand has been created by civil and government readers for the work of non-fictional technical writers, whose skills create understandable, interpretive documents of a practical or scientific kind. Some writers may use images (drawing, painting, graphics) or multimedia to augment their writing. In rare instances, creative writers are able to communicate their ideas via music as well as words.[2] As well as producing their own written works, writers often write about how they write (their writing process);[3] why they write (that is, their motivation);[4] and also comment on the work of other writers (criticism).[5] Writers work professionally or non-professionally, that is, for payment or without payment and may be paid either in advance, or on acceptance, or only after their work is published. Payment is only one of the motivations of writers and many are not paid for their work.[citation needed]
Ballymena Town Hall.  Ballymena Town Hall is a municipal structure in Bridge Street in Ballymena, County Antrim, Northern Ireland. The town hall, which is the headquarters of Mid and East Antrim Borough Council, is a Grade B1 listed building.[1] The first municipal building in the town was a market hall in Bridge Street which was completed in 1684.[2] It featured a steeple which was 60 feet (18 m) high,[3] and was later referred to by the local member of parliament, Sir Robert Adair, as one of the Seven Towers of Ballymena.[4] On 7 June 1798, during the 1798 rebellion, a force of about 10,000 United Irishmen led by James Dickie, stormed and burned the market hall, killing three of its defenders and forcing the surrender of the local yeomanry forces commanded by Robert Davison.[5][3] The market hall, which by then also contained the local post office as well as the council chamber, burnt down in 1919.[4] In the early 1920s, civic leaders decided to create a new municipal building on the same site. The foundation stone for the new building was laid by the Duke of York on 24 July 1924.[6] It was designed by Jones and Kelly in the neoclassical style, built in ashlar stone by John Carson at a cost of £26,400 and was officially opened by the Duke of Abercorn on 20 November 1928.[7] The design involved a symmetrical frontage at the junction of Bridge Street and Mill Street; the corner section featured a doorway on the ground floor and a sash window on the first floor flanked by full-height Doric order columns supporting an entablature inscribed with the dates 1684–1928; on the second floor there were three lancet windows and at roof level there was a two-stage clock tower with a canopy. Internally, the principal room was the council chamber.[8] The town was advanced to the status of municipal borough, with the town hall as its headquarters, in 1937.[4] The town hall continued to serve as the meeting place of the enlarged Ballymena District Council after it was formed in 1973.[9] As part a major programme of works costing £16.8 million, which were carried out to an architectural design by Consarc Design with museum design by Ralph Appelbaum Associates, the town hall was refurbished and extended to create an arts venue.[10] It was officially opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall as the Braid Arts & Museum Centre, after the local river, on 21 May 2008.[11] The town hall remained the local seat of government following the formation of the enlarged Mid and East Antrim Borough Council in April 2015.[12]
Sakurajima. Sakurajima (Japanese: 桜島, lit. Cherry Blossom Island) is an active stratovolcano, formerly an island and now a peninsula, in Kagoshima Prefecture in Kyushu, Japan.[2] The lava flows of the 1914 eruption connected it with the Ōsumi Peninsula.[3] It is the most active volcano in Japan.[4] As of April 2021[update], the volcanic activity still continues,[5] dropping volcanic ash on the surroundings. Earlier eruptions built the white sand highlands in the region. On September 13, 2016, a team of experts from Bristol University and the Sakurajima Volcano Research Centre in Japan suggested that the volcano could have a major eruption within 30 years; since then two eruptions have occurred.[6] Sakurajima is a stratovolcano. Its summit has three peaks, Kita-dake (northern peak), Naka-dake (central peak) and Minami-dake (southern peak) which is active now. Kita-dake is Sakurajimas highest peak, rising to 1,117 m (3,665 ft) above sea level. The mountain is in a part of Kagoshima Bay known as Kinkō-wan. The former island is part of the city of Kagoshima which is only 4 km across the bay.[7] The surface of this volcanic peninsula is about 77 km2 (30 sq mi). Sakurajima has a population of a few thousand residents, formerly incorporated as Sakurajima town, with a number of schools, shrines, and shops on the island. It is serviced by the Sakurajima Ferry which runs 24/7. It is a tourist destination known for its onsen, local pottery made from volcanic ash, and produce such as the Sakurajima daikon radish and Sakurajima komikan orange which grow in the immensely fertile volcanic soil.
Flag of Kagoshima Prefecture.  The flag of Kagoshima Prefecture (Japanese: 鹿児島県旗, Hepburn: Kagoshima-ken ki) is a white field charged in the center with a stylized black and red silhouette of the prefectures topography. The black portion, which resembles an inverted horseshoe, represents the Satsuma and Ōsumi Peninsulas, with a small dent on the right corresponding to Shibushi Bay [ja]. Within the black shape is a red circle representing Sakurajima, Japans most active volcano. Some locals have criticised the flag for not depicting Kagoshima Prefectures islands to the west and southwest of Kyushu. The flags charge is the emblem of Kagoshima Prefecture (鹿児島県章, Kagoshima-ken shō), which was adopted on 10 March 1967 following a public competition.[1] Like other prefectural emblems, it was created to foster a sense of prefectural identity.[2] Symbolically, it represents the prefectures growth and the passion, harmony, and unity of its people.[3] The emblem consists of a black inverted horseshoe shape enclosing a smaller red circle. The black shape represents the Satsuma and Ōsumi Peninsulas, while the red circle represents Sakurajima – a stratovolcano (Japans most active volcano), peninsula, and former island.[2][4][5] The dent on the right side of the black shape represents Shibushi Bay [ja].[6] Although the emblem is meant to represent the topography of Kagoshima Prefecture, it does not depict any of the prefectures islands to the west and southwest of Kyushu. The omission has been criticized by some locals, including folklorist Toshimi Shimono [ja], who regarded it as an example of historical discrimination and neglect toward the islands.[4][6] The Kagoshima prefectural government adopted a prefectural symbol (シンボルマーク; lit. symbol mark) on 16 March 1994. It is a stylized blue letter K, with the top and bottom curves symbolizing winds and waves, respectively. The imagery is meant to express the dynamicity and progress of the prefecture.[2][3]
Flag of Kagoshima Prefecture.  The flag of Kagoshima Prefecture (Japanese: 鹿児島県旗, Hepburn: Kagoshima-ken ki) is a white field charged in the center with a stylized black and red silhouette of the prefectures topography. The black portion, which resembles an inverted horseshoe, represents the Satsuma and Ōsumi Peninsulas, with a small dent on the right corresponding to Shibushi Bay [ja]. Within the black shape is a red circle representing Sakurajima, Japans most active volcano. Some locals have criticised the flag for not depicting Kagoshima Prefectures islands to the west and southwest of Kyushu. The flags charge is the emblem of Kagoshima Prefecture (鹿児島県章, Kagoshima-ken shō), which was adopted on 10 March 1967 following a public competition.[1] Like other prefectural emblems, it was created to foster a sense of prefectural identity.[2] Symbolically, it represents the prefectures growth and the passion, harmony, and unity of its people.[3] The emblem consists of a black inverted horseshoe shape enclosing a smaller red circle. The black shape represents the Satsuma and Ōsumi Peninsulas, while the red circle represents Sakurajima – a stratovolcano (Japans most active volcano), peninsula, and former island.[2][4][5] The dent on the right side of the black shape represents Shibushi Bay [ja].[6] Although the emblem is meant to represent the topography of Kagoshima Prefecture, it does not depict any of the prefectures islands to the west and southwest of Kyushu. The omission has been criticized by some locals, including folklorist Toshimi Shimono [ja], who regarded it as an example of historical discrimination and neglect toward the islands.[4][6] The Kagoshima prefectural government adopted a prefectural symbol (シンボルマーク; lit. symbol mark) on 16 March 1994. It is a stylized blue letter K, with the top and bottom curves symbolizing winds and waves, respectively. The imagery is meant to express the dynamicity and progress of the prefecture.[2][3]
Scriptment. A scriptment is a written work by a movie or television screenwriter that combines elements of a script and treatment, especially the dialogue elements, which are formatted the same as in a screenplay. It is a more elaborate document than a standard draft treatment. Some films have been shot using only a scriptment.[citation needed] The term scriptment was originally coined by filmmaker James Cameron, possibly during his early involvement in the development of the Spider-Man film series. In that effort, after the success of his 1984 film The Terminator, Cameron wrote a 57-page scriptment for the first proposed Spider-Man film, which was used by screenwriter David Koepp to write the first draft, incorporating it nearly word for word.[1] Camerons scriptment for Titanic (1997) was 131 pages.[2] The term became more widely known when Camerons 1994 scriptment for the 2009 film Avatar was leaked on the internet during pre-production, although other directors, such as John Hughes and Zak Penn, had written scriptments before. The scriptment for Avatar and its notoriety caused the spread of the term.[3] A scriptment borrows characteristics from both a regular screenplay and a film treatment and is comparable to a step outline: the main text body is similar to an elaborate draft treatment, while usually only major sequences receive scene location headings (slug lines), which is different from the extensive slug line formatting in standard screenplays, where every new scene or shot begins with an INT./EXT. DAY/NIGHT slug line set above the description or dialogue. However, just as a treatment can be short or long, a scriptment can exist in various degrees of completion depending on how much time the writer has devoted to it and a more fully developed one could have all slug lines in place, a great deal of dialogue, and only require the producers (or a writing partners) okay on the direction the finished script should take before proceeding further. In a scriptment, scenes and shots may be separated as paragraphs or sentences and, if it is the writers style, can also include an occasional explanatory note, such as might be important in an adaptation or a sequel. As with standard treatments, much of the dialogue is summarized in action. The longer the scriptment, however, the more likely it contains dialog scenes that are fully developed. Single words or brief phrases of dialogue can be included within the description and lengthier exchanges are formatted exactly as a regular screenplay, which is the main reason for the script part of the term.
Switzerland.  in Europe (green and dark grey) Switzerland,[d] officially the Swiss Confederation,[e] is a landlocked country located at the intersection of Central, Western, and Southern Europe.[f][15][note 1] It is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Austria and Liechtenstein to the east, and Italy to the south. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Alps, the Swiss Plateau, and the Jura mountains; the Alps cover the majority of Switzerlands territory, whereas most of the countrys 9 million people are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts many of its largest cities and economic centres, including Zurich, Geneva, Lausanne, Winterthur, and Lucerne.[18] Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons, with Bern serving as the federal city and the seat of the national government.[a][3][2] The country encompasses four principal linguistic and cultural regions—German, French, Italian, and Romansh—reflecting a long-standing tradition of multilingualism and cultural pluralism. Although culturally diverse, the national identity remains fairly cohesive, rooted in a shared historical background, common values such as federalism and direct democracy,[19] and Alpine symbolism.[20][21] Swiss identity transcends language, ethnicity, and religion, leading to Switzerland being described as a Willensnation (nation of volition) rather than a nation state.[22] Switzerland originates from the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the Late Middle Ages as a defensive and commercial alliance; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the countrys founding document. The confederation steadily expanded and consolidated despite external threats and internal political and religious strife. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The confederation was among the first and few republics of the early modern period, and the only one besides San Marino to survive the Napoleonic Wars.[23] Switzerland remained a network of self-governing states until 1798, when revolutionary France invaded and imposed the centralist Helvetic Republic. Napoleon abolished the republic in 1803 and reinstated a confederation. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Switzerland restored its pre-revolutionary system, but by 1830 faced growing division and conflict between liberal and conservative movements; this culminated in a new constitution in 1848 that established the current federal system and enshrined principles such as individual rights, separation of powers, and parliamentary bicameralism.
United Nations.  The United Nations (UN) is a global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the articulated mission of maintaining international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among states, to promote international cooperation, and to serve as a centre for harmonizing the actions of states in achieving those goals. The United Nations headquarters is located in New York City, with several other offices located in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna, and The Hague. The UN comprises six principal organizations: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, the Secretariat, and the Trusteeship Council which, together with several specialized agencies and related agencies, make up the United Nations System. There are in total 193 member states and 2 observer states. The UN has primarily focused on economic and social development, particularly during the wave of decolonization in the mid-20th century. The UN has been recognized as a leader of peace and human development, with many officers and agencies having been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, but has also been criticized for perceived ineffectiveness, bias, and corruption. In the century prior to the UNs creation, several international organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross were formed to ensure protection and assistance for victims of armed conflict and strife.[2]
Irish grid reference system.  The Irish grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used for paper mapping in Ireland (both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland).[1] Any location in Ireland can be described in terms of its distance from the origin (0, 0), which lies off the southwest coast.[2] The Irish grid partially overlaps the British grid, and uses a similar co-ordinate system but with a meridian more suited to its westerly location. In general, neither Ireland nor Great Britain uses latitude or longitude in describing internal geographic locations. Instead grid reference systems are used for mapping. The national grid referencing system was devised by the Ordnance Survey, and is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps (whether published by the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, the Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland or commercial map producers) based on those surveys.  Additionally grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources, such as guide books or government planning documents. In 2001, the Ordnance Survey of Ireland and the Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland jointly implemented a new coordinate system for Ireland called Irish Transverse Mercator, or ITM, a location-specific optimisation  of UTM, which runs in parallel with the existing Irish grid system.  In both systems, the true origin is at 53° 30 N, 8° W[3] — a point in Lough Ree, close to the western (Co. Roscommon) shore, whose grid reference is N000500. The ITM system was specified so as to provide precise alignment with modern high-precision global positioning receivers.
Member states of the League of Nations.  Between 1920 and 1946, a total of 63 countries became member states of the League of Nations. When the Assembly of the League of Nations first met, it consisted of 42 founding members.[1] A further 21 countries joined between then and the dissolution of the League. As several countries withdrew from the League during the course of its existence, the 63 countries were never all members at the same time. The Leagues greatest extent was from 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) to February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew) with 58 countries. At this time, only Costa Rica (December 1924), Brazil (June 1926), Japan (March 1933), and Germany (October 1933) had withdrawn, and only Egypt joined later (on 26 May 1937). The Covenant of the League of Nations was part of the Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919 between the Allies of World War I and Germany. In order for the treaty to enter into force, it had to be deposited at Paris; in order to be deposited, it had to be ratified by Germany and any three of the five Principal Powers (the United States of America, the British Empire, France, Italy, and the Empire of Japan). Any Allied signatory that ratified the treaty would automatically join the League.
BBC.  The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public-service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current state with its current name on New Years Day 1927. The oldest and largest local and global broadcaster by stature and by number of employees, the BBC employs over 21,000 staff in total, of whom approximately 17,200 are in public-sector broadcasting.[1][2][3][4][5] The BBC was established under a royal charter,[6] and operates under an agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport.[7] Its work is funded principally by an annual television licence fee[8] which is charged to all British households, companies, and organisations using any type of equipment to receive or record live television broadcasts or to use the BBCs streaming service, iPlayer.[9] The fee is set by the British government, agreed by Parliament,[10] and is used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, and online services covering the nations and regions of the UK. Since 1 April 2014, it has also funded the BBC World Service (launched in 1932 as the BBC Empire Service), which broadcasts in 28 languages and provides comprehensive TV, radio, and online services in Arabic and Persian. Some of the BBCs revenue comes from its commercial subsidiary BBC Studios (formerly BBC Worldwide), which sells BBC programmes and services internationally and also distributes the BBCs international 24-hour English-language news services BBC News, and from BBC.com, provided by BBC Global News Ltd.[11][12] In 2009, the company was awarded the Queens Award for Enterprise in recognition of its international achievements in business.[13] Since its formation in 1922, the BBC has played a prominent role in British life and culture.[14] It is sometimes informally referred to as the Beeb or Auntie.[15][16] In 1923 it launched Radio Times (subtitled The official organ of the BBC), the first broadcast listings magazine; the 1988 Christmas edition sold 11 million copies, the biggest-selling edition of any British magazine in history.[17]
2021–2022 United Kingdom censuses.   The 2021–2022 United Kingdom censuses collectively comprised the 23rd census of the United Kingdom. The censuses of England and Wales, and Northern Ireland took place on 21 March 2021, and the census of Scotland took place 364 days later on 20 March 2022.[1] The censuses were administered by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) in England and Wales, by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) in Northern Ireland,[2] and by the National Records of Scotland in Scotland. These were the first UK censuses for which most of the data was gathered online.[3][4] Two of the censuses went ahead despite the COVID-19 pandemic, in part because the information obtained would assist government and public understanding of the pandemics impact.[5] The census in Scotland was postponed, and took place in 2022.[6][7]
United Nations General Assembly observers. The United Nations General Assembly has granted observer status to international organizations, entities, and non-member states, to enable them to participate in the work of the United Nations General Assembly, though with limitations. The General Assembly determines the privileges it will grant to each observer, beyond those laid down in a 1986 Conference on treaties between states and international organizations.[1] Exceptionally, the European Union (EU) was in 2011 granted the right to speak in debates, to submit proposals and amendments, the right of reply, to raise points of order and to circulate documents, etc. As of May 2011[update], the EU is the only international organization to hold these enhanced rights, which has been likened to the rights of full membership,[2] short of the right to vote. Observer status may be granted by a United Nations General Assembly resolution. The status of a permanent observer is based purely on practice of the General Assembly, and there are no provisions for it in the United Nations Charter.[3] The practice is to distinguish between state and non-state observers. Non-member states are members of one or more specialized agencies, and can apply for permanent observer state status.[3] Non-state observers are the international organizations and other entities. The General Assembly may invite non-member entities to participate in the work of the United Nations without formal membership, and has done so on numerous occasions. Such participants are described as observers, some of which may be further classified as non-member state observers. Most former non-member observer states accepted observer status at a time when they had applied for membership but were unable to attain it, due to the actual or threatened veto by one or more of the permanent members of the Security Council. The grant of observer status is made by the General Assembly only; it is not subject to a Security Council veto. In some circumstances a state may elect to become an observer rather than full member. For example, to preserve its neutrality while participating in its work, Switzerland chose to remain a permanent non-member state observer from 1948 until it became a member in 2002. As of September 2025[update], there are two permanent non-member observer states in the General Assembly of the United Nations: the Holy See and the State of Palestine. Both were described as Non-Member States having received a standing invitation to participate as Observers in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly and maintaining Permanent Observer Missions at Headquarters.[4]
Baronet.  A baronet (/ˈbærənɪt/ or /ˈbærəˌnɛt/;[1] abbreviated Bart or Bt[1]) or the female equivalent, a baronetess (/ˈbærənɪtɪs/,[2] /ˈbærənɪtɛs/,[3] or /ˌbærəˈnɛtɛs/;[4] abbreviation Btss), is the holder of a baronetcy, a hereditary title awarded by the British Crown. The title of baronet is mentioned as early as the 14th century; however, in its current usage it was created by James I of England in 1611 as a means of raising funds for the crown. Baronets rank below barons, but above all other knights. Like all British knights, baronets are addressed as Sir and baronetesses as Dame. They are conventionally seen to belong to the lesser nobility, although William Thoms in 1844 wrote: The precise quality of this dignity is not yet fully determined, some holding it to be the head of the nobiles minores, while others, again, rank Baronets as the lowest of the nobiles majores, because their honour, like that of the higher nobility, is both hereditary and created by patent.[5]
Belfast (disambiguation). Belfast is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. Belfast may also refer to:
Cook Islands.  The Cook Islands[a] is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of 15 islands whose total land area is approximately 236.7 square kilometres (91 sq mi). The Cook Islands Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covers 1,960,027 square kilometres (756,771 sq mi) of ocean.[8] Avarua on the main island of Rarotonga is the capital. The Cook Islands is self-governing while in free association with New Zealand. Since the start of the 21st century, the Cook Islands conducts its own independent foreign and defence policy, and also has its own customs regulations.[9] Like most members of the Pacific Islands Forum, it has no armed forces, but the Cook Islands Police Service owns a Guardian Class Patrol Boat, CIPPB Te Kukupa II, provided by Australia, for policing its waters. In recent decades, the Cook Islands has adopted an increasingly assertive and distinct foreign policy, and a Cook Islander, Henry Puna, served as Secretary General of the Pacific Islands Forum from 2021 to 2024.[10][11] Most Cook Islanders have New Zealand citizenship, plus the status of Cook Islands nationals, which is not given to other New Zealand citizens. The Cook Islands has been an active member of the Pacific Community, formerly the South Pacific Commission, since 1980. The Cook Islands main population centres are on Rarotonga (10,863 in 2021),[4] also the location of Rarotonga International Airport, the main international gateway to the country. The census of 2021 put the total population at 14,987. There is also a larger population of Cook Islanders in New Zealand and Australia: in the 2018 New Zealand census, 80,532 people said they were Cook Islanders, or of Cook Islands descent.[12] The last Australian census recorded 28,000 Cook Islanders living in Australia, many with Australian citizenship.[13] With over 168,000 visitors to the islands in 2018,[14] tourism is the countrys main industry and leading element of its economy, ahead of offshore banking, pearls, and marine and fruit exports. The Cook Islands comprise 15 islands that have had individual names in indigenous languages, including Cook Islands Māori and Pukapukan throughout the time they have been inhabited. The first name given by Europeans was Gente Hermosa (beautiful people) by Spanish explorers to Rakahanga in 1606.[15]
Millbrook, New York.  Millbrook is a village in Dutchess County, New York, United States. Millbrook is located in the Hudson Valley, on the east side of the Hudson River, 90 miles (140 km) north of New York City. Millbrook is near the center of the town of Washington, of which it is a part. In the 2020 census, Millbrooks population was 1,455. It is often referred to as a low-key version of the Hamptons, and is one of the most affluent villages in New York.[2] Millbrook is part of the Kiryas Joel–Poughkeepsie–Newburgh, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area as well as the larger New York–Newark–Bridgeport Combined Statistical Area. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.901 square miles (4.92 km2), of which 1.9 square miles (4.9 km2) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.26 km2) (2.60%) is water. As of the census[4] of 2000, there were 1,429 people, 678 households, and 361 families residing in the village. The population density was 764.3 inhabitants per square mile (295.1/km2). There were 744 housing units at an average density of 397.90 per square mile (153.63/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 95.90% white, 2.70% African American, 0.20% Asian, 0.30% from other races, and 1.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.00% of the population.
Northern Ireland.  – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the United Kingdom (green) Northern Ireland[d] is a part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It has been variously described as a country, province or region.[12][13][14][15][16] Northern Ireland shares an open border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. At the 2021 census, its population was 1,903,175,[7] making up around 3% of the UKs population and 27% of the population on the island of Ireland. The Northern Ireland Assembly, established by the Northern Ireland Act 1998, holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, while other areas are reserved for the UK Government. The government of Northern Ireland cooperates with the government of Ireland in several areas under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement.[17] The Republic of Ireland also has a consultative role on non-devolved governmental matters through the British–Irish Governmental Conference (BIIG).[18] Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, creating a devolved government for the six northeastern counties. As was intended by unionists and their supporters in Westminster, Northern Ireland had a unionist majority, who wanted to remain in the United Kingdom;[19] they were generally the Protestant descendants of colonists from Britain. Meanwhile, the majority in Southern Ireland (which became the Irish Free State in 1922), and a significant minority in Northern Ireland, were Irish nationalists (generally Catholics) who wanted a united independent Ireland.[20] Today, the former generally see themselves as British and the latter generally see themselves as Irish, while a Northern Irish or Ulster identity is claimed by a significant minority from all backgrounds.[21] The creation of Northern Ireland was accompanied by violence both in defence of and against partition. During The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922), the capital Belfast saw major communal violence, mainly between Protestant unionist and Catholic nationalist civilians.[22] More than 500 were killed[23] and more than 10,000 became refugees, mostly Catholics.[24] For the next fifty years, Northern Ireland had an unbroken series of Unionist Party governments.[25] There was informal mutual segregation by both communities,[26] and the Unionist governments were accused of discrimination against the Irish nationalist and Catholic minority.[27] In the late 1960s, a campaign to end discrimination against Catholics and nationalists was opposed by loyalists, who saw it as a republican front.[28] This unrest sparked the Troubles, a thirty-year conflict involving republican and loyalist paramilitaries and state forces, which claimed over 3,500 lives and injured 50,000 others.[29][30] The 1998 Good Friday Agreement was a major step in the peace process, including paramilitary disarmament and security normalisation, although sectarianism and segregation remain major social problems, and sporadic violence has continued.[31]
Order of Saint John (chartered 1888).  The Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (French: lOrdre très vénérable de lHôpital de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem),[n 1] commonly known as the Order of St John,[3] and also known as St John International,[4] is an order of chivalry constituted in 1888 by royal charter from Queen Victoria and dedicated to St John the Baptist. The order traces its origins back to the Knights Hospitaller in the Middle Ages, the oldest surviving chivalric order which is generally considered to be founded in Jerusalem in 1099, which was later known as the Order of Malta. A faction of them emerged in France in the 1820s and moved to Britain in the early 1830s, where, after operating under a succession of grand priors and different names, it became associated with the founding in 1882 of the St John Ophthalmic Hospital near the old city of Jerusalem and the St John Ambulance Brigade in 1887. The order is found throughout the Commonwealth of Nations,[5] Hong Kong, the Republic of Ireland, and the United States of America,[6] with the worldwide mission to prevent and relieve sickness and injury, and to act to enhance the health and well-being of people anywhere in the world.[6] The orders approximately 25,000 members, known as confrères,[5] are mostly of the Protestant faith, though those of other Christian denominations, as well as adherents of other religions are accepted into the order. Except via appointment to certain government or ecclesiastical offices in some realms, membership is by invitation only and individuals may not petition for admission. The Order of St John is perhaps best known for the health organisations it founded and continues to run, including St John Ambulance and St John Eye Hospital Group. As with the order, the memberships and work of these organisations are not constricted by denomination or religion. The order is a constituent member of the Alliance of the Orders of Saint John of Jerusalem. Its headquarters are in London and it is a registered charity under English law.[7]
Holy See.  The Holy See[7][8] (Latin: Sancta Sedes, lit. Holy Chair,[9] Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation: [ˈsaŋkta ˈsedes]; Italian: Santa Sede [ˈsanta ˈsɛːde]), also called the See of Rome, the Petrine See or the Apostolic See,[10] is the central governing body of the Catholic Church and Vatican City.[11] It encompasses the office of the pope as the bishop of the apostolic episcopal see of Rome, and serves as the spiritual and administrative authority of the worldwide Catholic Church and Vatican City.[12] Under international law, the Holy See holds the status of a sovereign juridical entity.[13] According to Catholic tradition and historical records, the Holy See was founded in the first century by Saint Peter and Saint Paul. By virtue of the doctrines of Petrine and papal primacy, it is the focal point of full communion for Catholics around the world.[14] The Holy See is headquartered in, operates from, and exercises exclusive dominion over Vatican City, an independent city-state enclaved in Rome, and of which the pope is the head of state.[15] The Holy See is administered by the Roman Curia, which are the central institutions assisting the pope and through which the affairs of the Catholic Church are conducted.[16][17] The Roman Curia includes dicasteries, comparable to ministries and executive departments. The Cardinal Secretary of State is its chief administrator. Papal elections are carried out by members of the College of Cardinals. Although the Holy See is often metonymically referred to as the Vatican, the Vatican City State was distinctively established with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, agreed between the Holy See and Italy, to ensure the temporal, diplomatic, and spiritual independence of the papacy.[18] As such, papal nuncios, who are papal diplomats to states and international organizations, are recognized as representing the Holy See and not the Vatican City State, as prescribed in the Canon law of the Catholic Church. The Holy See is thus viewed as the central government of the Catholic Church and Vatican City.[17] The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.[19]
Magical girl.  Magical girl (Japanese: 魔法少女, Hepburn: mahō shōjo) is a subgenre of primarily Japanese fantasy media (including anime, manga, light novels, and live-action media) centered on young girls who possess magical abilities, which they typically use through an ideal alter ego into which they can transform.[1][2] The genre emerged in 1962 with the manga Himitsu no Akko-chan, followed by Sally the Witch in 1966.[3] A wave of similar anime produced in the 1970s led to majokko (魔女っ子; lit. little witch) being used as a common term for the genre. In the 1980s, the term was largely replaced by magical girl, reflecting the new popularity of shows produced by other studios, including Magical Princess Minky Momo and Creamy Mami, the Magic Angel. In the 1990s, Sailor Moon redefined the genre by combining transforming hero elements from live-action tokusatsu hero shows. The growth of late-night anime in the early 2000s led to a demographic shift for the genre, where series with more mature themes such as Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha (2004) were created and marketed towards an older male audience. Despite no presence of magic, the manga series Princess Knight (1953) is seen as a prototype for the magical girl genre,[4] as it set forth the appeal of girls who transform to do things they normally cannot perform.[2] Himitsu no Akko-chan (1962), serialized in the shōjo manga magazine Ribon, is credited as the earliest magical girl manga series.[5]: 8  Sally the Witch followed in 1966, with a concept inspired by the American sitcom Bewitched.[1][2] Its 1966 anime television adaptation produced by Toei Animation, is regarded as the first magical girl anime.[4]: 78 [6][7] This anime adaptation introduced the idea of using a compact to transform, a characteristic that is still present in modern series in the genre.[8]
Marylebone.  Marylebone (usually /ˈmɑːrlɪbən/ MAR-lib-ən, also /ˈmærɪ(lə)bən/ MARR-il-ə-bən, MARR-ib-ən)[1] is an area in London, England, and is located in the City of Westminster. It is in Central London and part of the West End. Oxford Street forms its southern boundary. An ancient parish and latterly a metropolitan borough, it merged with the boroughs of Westminster and Paddington to form the new City of Westminster in 1965. Marylebone station lies two miles north-west of Charing Cross. The area is also served by numerous tube stations: Baker Street, Bond Street, Edgware Road (Bakerloo line), Edgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines), Great Portland Street, Marble Arch, Marylebone, Oxford Circus, and Regents Park.
Jesus.   Jesus[e] (c. 6 to 4 BC – AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ,[f] Jesus of Nazareth, and many other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader.[12] He is the central figure of Christianity, the worlds largest religion. Most Christians consider Jesus to be the incarnation of God the Son and awaited messiah, or Christ, a descendant from the Davidic line that is prophesied in the Old Testament. Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically.[g] Accounts of Jesuss life are contained in the Gospels, especially the four canonical Gospels in the New Testament. Since the Enlightenment, academic research has yielded various views on the historical reliability of the Gospels and how closely they reflect the historical Jesus.[20][h][23][24] According to Christian tradition, as preserved in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, Jesus was circumcised at eight days old, was baptized by John the Baptist as a young adult, and after 40 days and nights of fasting in the wilderness, began his own ministry. He was an itinerant teacher who interpreted the law of God with divine authority and was often referred to as rabbi. Jesus often debated with his fellow Jews on how to best follow God, engaged in healings, taught in parables, and gathered followers, among whom 12 were appointed as his apostles. He was arrested in Jerusalem and tried by the Jewish authorities,[25] handed over to the Roman government, and crucified on the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judaea. After his death, his followers became convinced that he rose from the dead, and following his ascension, the community they formed eventually became the early Christian Church that expanded as a worldwide movement.[26] Christian theology includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Christian Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement for sin, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven from where he will return. Commonly, Christians believe Jesus enables people to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead, either before or after their bodily resurrection, an event tied to the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of the Trinity.[i] The birth of Jesus is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December,[j] as Christmas. His crucifixion is honoured on Good Friday and his resurrection on Easter Sunday. The worlds most widely used calendar era—in which the current year is AD 2025 (or 2025 CE)—is based on the approximate date of the birth of Jesus.[27]
CBE (disambiguation). CBE is the initialism for Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, a grade within the British order of chivalry. CBE may also refer to:
Distinguished Service Order.  The Distinguished Service Order (DSO) is a military award of the United Kingdom, as well as formerly throughout the Commonwealth, awarded for operational gallantry for highly successful command and leadership during active operations, typically in actual combat. Equal in British precedence of military decorations to the Conspicuous Gallantry Cross and Royal Red Cross, since 1993 the DSO is eligible to all ranks awarded specifically for highly successful command and leadership during active operations.[6] Instituted on 6 September 1886 by Queen Victoria by Royal Warrant published in The London Gazette on 9 November,[8] the first DSOs awarded were dated 25 November 1886.[9] The order was established to recognise individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service in war. It is a military order, and was, until recently, typically awarded to officers in command above the rank of major (or equivalent), with awards to lower ranks usually being for a high degree of gallantry, just short of deserving the Victoria Cross.[10]
Royal Central School of Speech and Drama.  The Royal Central School of Speech and Drama, commonly shortened to Central, is a drama school founded by Elsie Fogerty in 1906, as the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art, to offer a new form of training in speech and drama for young actors and other students. It became a constituent college of the University of London in 2005 and is a member of Conservatoires UK and the Federation of Drama Schools.[3] The school offers undergraduate, postgraduate, research degrees and short courses in acting, actor training, applied theatre, theatre crafts and making, design, drama therapy, movement, musical theatre, performance, producing, research, scenography, stage management, teacher training, technical arts, voice and writing.[4] In 2006, the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art was absorbed into Central. On 29 November 2012, the Royal title was bestowed on the school by Queen Elizabeth II in recognition of its reputation as a world-class institution for exceptional professional training in theatre and performance studies. It is entitled to use it in official documentation, although it continues to be colloquially referred to as Central. The schools Patron, Princess Alexandra of Kent, played a role in recommending the institution for the title.[5]
Tonkatsu. Tonkatsu (豚カツ, とんかつ or トンカツ; pronounced [toŋkatsɯ]; pork cutlet) is a Japanese dish that consists of a breaded, deep-fried pork cutlet. It involves coating slices of pork with panko (bread crumbs), and then frying them in oil. The two main types are fillet and loin. Tonkatsu is also the basis of other dishes such as katsu curry and katsudon. The word tonkatsu is a combination of the Sino-Japanese word ton (豚) meaning pig, and katsu (カツ), which is a shortened form of katsuretsu (カツレツ),[1] an old transliteration of the English word cutlet,[2][3] which was in turn adopted from the French word côtelette.[4] Tonkatsu originated in Japan during the Meiji era in the late 19th century, a dish derived from a French dish known as côtelette de veau, a veal cutlet coated in breadcrumbs and fried in a pan with butter.[5] European katsuretsu (loanword/gairaigo for cutlet) was usually made with beef; the pork version was created in 1899 at a restaurant serving European-style foods named Rengatei in Tokyo, Japan.[6][7][8] It is a type of yōshoku—Japanese versions of European cuisine invented in the late 19th and early 20th centuries—and was called katsuretsu or simply katsu.[9] Either a pork fillet (ヒレ, hire) or pork loin (ロース, rōsu) cut may be used; the meat is usually salted, peppered, dredged lightly in flour, dipped into beaten egg and then coated with panko (bread crumbs) before being deep-fried.[10]
City status in the United Kingdom.  City status in the United Kingdom is granted by the monarch of the United Kingdom to specific centres of population, which might or might not meet the generally accepted definition of cities. As of 22 November 2022[update],[1] there are 76 cities in the United Kingdom—55 in England,[2][3] eight in Scotland, seven in Wales and six in Northern Ireland.[4] Although it carries no special rights, the status of city can be a marker of prestige and confer local pride.[5] The status does not apply automatically on the basis of any particular criteria, though until 1889 in England and Wales it was limited to towns with diocesan cathedrals. This association between having an Anglican cathedral and being called a city was established in the early 1540s when King Henry VIII founded dioceses (each having a cathedral in the see city) in six English towns and granted them city status by issuing letters patent. A city with a cathedral is often termed a cathedral city. City status in Ireland was granted to far fewer communities than in England and Wales, and there are only two pre-19th-century cities in present-day Northern Ireland. In Scotland, city status did not explicitly receive any recognition by the state until the 19th century. At that time, a revival of grants of city status took place, first in England, where the grants were accompanied by the establishment of new cathedrals, and later in Scotland and Ireland. In the 20th century, it was explicitly recognised that the status of city in England and Wales would no longer be bound to the presence of a cathedral, and grants made since have been awarded to communities on a variety of criteria, including population size. The abolition of some corporate bodies as part of successive local-government reforms, beginning with the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840, has deprived some ancient cities of their status. However, letters patent have been issued for most of the affected cities to ensure the continuation or restoration of their status. At present, Rochester and Elgin are the only former cities in the United Kingdom.
Obe. Obe or OBE may refer to:
Royal Victorian Order.  The Royal Victorian Order (French: Ordre royal de Victoria)[a] is a dynastic order of knighthood established in 1896 by Queen Victoria. It recognises distinguished personal service to the monarch, members of the royal family, or to any viceroy or senior representative of the monarch.[1][2] The present monarch, King Charles III, is the sovereign of the order. The orders motto is Victoria. The orders official day is 20 June.[b] The orders chapel is the Savoy Chapel in London. There is no limit on the number of individuals honoured at any grade.[3] Admission is at the sole discretion of the monarch.[3] Each of the orders five grades represent different levels of service, as does the medal, which has three levels of service. While all those honoured may use the prescribed styles of the order – the top two grades grant titles of knighthood, and all grades accord distinct post-nominal letters – the Royal Victorian Orders precedence amongst other honours differs from realm to realm and admission to some grades may be barred to citizens of those realms by government policy. Prior to the close of the 19th century, most general honours within the British Empire were bestowed by the sovereign on the advice of her British ministers, who sometimes forwarded advice from ministers of the Crown in the Dominions and colonies (appointments to the then most senior orders of chivalry, the Order of the Garter and the Order of the Thistle, had been made on ministerial advice since the 18th century and were not restored to the personal gift of the sovereign until 1946 and 1947, respectively[4]). Queen Victoria thus established on 21 April 1896 the Royal Victorian Order as a junior and personal order of knighthood that allowed her to bestow directly to an empire-wide community honours for personal services.[3][1][5][6] The organisation was founded a year before Victorias Diamond Jubilee, so as to give the Queen time to complete a list of first inductees. The orders official day was made 20 June of each year, marking the anniversary of Queen Victorias accession to the throne.[6] In 1902, King Edward VII created the Royal Victorian Chain as a personal decoration for royal personages and a few eminent British subjects and it was the highest class of the Royal Victorian Order.[7] It is today distinct from the order, though it is officially issued by the chancery of the Royal Victorian Order.
Godzilla (1954 film).  Godzilla (Japanese: ゴジラ, Hepburn: Gojira)[b] is a 1954 Japanese epic[c] kaiju film directed and co-written by Ishirō Honda, with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya. Produced and distributed by Toho, it is the first film in the Godzilla franchise. The film stars Akira Takarada, Momoko Kōchi, Akihiko Hirata, Takashi Shimura, Sachio Sakai, Fuyuki Murakami, Keiji Sakakida, Toyoaki Suzuki, Tsuruko Mano, Kin Sugai, Takeo Oikawa, Kan Hayashi, Seijiro Onda, and Toranosuke Ogawa with Haruo Nakajima and Katsumi Tezuka as Godzilla. In the film, Japans authorities deal with the sudden appearance of a giant monster, whose attacks trigger fears of nuclear holocaust in post-war Japan. Godzilla entered production after a Japanese-Indonesian co-production collapsed. Tsuburaya originally proposed a giant octopus before the filmmakers decided on a dinosaur-inspired creature. Godzilla pioneered a form of special effects called suitmation in which a stunt performer wearing a suit interacts with miniature sets. Principal photography ran 51 days, and special effects photography ran 71 days. Godzilla premiered in Nagoya on October 27, 1954, and received a wide release in Japan on November 3. It was met with mixed reviews upon release but was a box-office success, winning the Japanese Movie Association Award for Best Special Effects. The film earned ¥183 million in distributor rentals, making it the eighth-highest-grossing Japanese film of that year. In 1956, a heavily-re-edited Americanized version, titled Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, was released in the United States. The film spawned a multimedia franchise that was recognized by Guinness World Records as the longest-running film franchise in history. The character Godzilla has since become an international popular culture icon. The film and Tsuburaya have been largely credited for establishing the template for tokusatsu media. The film received reappraisal in later years and has since been regarded as one of the best monster films ever made. The film was followed by the sequel Godzilla Raids Again.[16]
Ulster Scots dialect.  Ulster Scots or Ulster-Scots  (Ulstèr-Scotch),[6][7] also known as Ulster Scotch and Ullans, is the dialect of Scots spoken in parts of Ulster, being almost exclusively spoken in parts of Northern Ireland and County Donegal.[5][8][9] It is normally considered a dialect or group of dialects of Scots, although groups such as the Ulster-Scots Language Society[10] and Ulster-Scots Academy[11] consider it a language in its own right, and the Ulster-Scots Agency[12] and former Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure[13] have used the term Ulster-Scots language. Some definitions of Ulster Scots may also include Standard English spoken with an Ulster Scots accent.[14][15] This is a situation like that of Lowland Scots and Scottish Standard English[16] with words pronounced using the Ulster Scots phonemes closest to those of Standard English.[16] Ulster Scots has been influenced by Hiberno-English, particularly Ulster English, and by Ulster Irish. As a result of the competing influences of English and Scots, varieties of Ulster Scots can be described as more English or more Scots.[15] While once referred to as Scotch-Irish by several researchers, that has now been superseded by the term Ulster Scots.[17] Speakers usually refer to their vernacular as Big Scots,[1] Scotch[3][18] or the hamely tongue.[19] Since the 1980s Ullans, a neologism popularized by the physician, amateur historian and politician Ian Adamson,[20] merging Ulster and Lallans, the Scots for Lowlands,[21] but also an acronym for Ulster-Scots language in literature and native speech[22] and Ulstèr-Scotch,[6][7] the preferred revivalist parlance, have also been used. Occasionally, the term Habitual-Scots appears,[23] whether for the vernacular or the ethnic group.[24] During the middle of the 20th century, the linguist Robert John Gregg established the geographical boundaries of Ulsters Scots-speaking areas based on information gathered from native speakers.[25] By his definition, Ulster Scots is spoken in mid and east Antrim, north Down, north-east County Londonderry, and in the fishing villages of the Mourne coast. It is also spoken in the Laggan district and parts of the Finn Valley in east Donegal and in the south of Inishowen in north Donegal.[26] Writing in 2020, the Fintona-born linguist Warren Maguire argued that some of the criteria that Gregg used as distinctive of Ulster Scots are common in south-west Tyrone and were found in other sites across Northern Ireland investigated by the Linguistic Survey of Scotland.[27]
Local government in Northern Ireland.  Local government in Northern Ireland is divided among 11 single-tier districts known as local government districts (abbreviated LGDs) and formerly known as district council areas (DCAs).[1] Councils in Northern Ireland do not carry out the same range of functions as those in the rest of the United Kingdom; for example they have no responsibility for education, road-building or housing (although they do nominate members to the advisory Northern Ireland Housing Council). Their  functions include planning, waste and recycling services, leisure and community services, building control and local economic and cultural development. The collection of rates is handled centrally by the Land and Property Services agency of the Northern Ireland Executive. The 11 districts first had their boundaries determined in 2012. Elections were held to the new councils in 2014, and they assumed the powers of the previous councils in 2015.[1] Basic geographical statistics are shown below. Previously (between 1972 and 2015) the country was divided into 26 smaller districts. Each of the 11 councils is divided into 7 District Electoral Areas (DEAs), with the exception of Belfast, which has 10 DEAs. Each DEA, in turn, is made up of 5, 6 or 7 wards, with the number of councillors for each DEA equal to the number of wards. There are 80 DEAs in Northern Ireland in total, and the current DEA boundaries were finalised in 2012, and first used in the 2014 election, with the new councils coming into operation in May 2015. Prior to this, the 1993 election was the last time local government boundaries had been redrawn - between 1993 and 2011, there were 102 DEAs across the old 26 councils, with each council having between 3 and 9 DEAs each.[4]
Detective. A detective is an investigator, usually a member of a law enforcement agency. They often collect information to solve crimes by talking to witnesses and informants, collecting physical evidence, or searching records in databases. This leads them to arrest criminals and enable them to be convicted in court.[1] A detective may work for the police or privately. Informally, and primarily in fiction, a detective is a licensed or unlicensed person who solves crimes, including historical crimes, by examining and evaluating clues and personal records in order to uncover the identity and/or whereabouts of criminals. In some police departments, a detective position is obtained by passing a written test after a person completes the requirements for being a police officer. In many other police systems, detectives are college graduates who join directly from civilian life without first serving as uniformed officers. Some argue that detectives do a completely different job and therefore require completely different training, qualifications, qualities, and abilities than uniformed officers.[2] The other side says that a detective who has worked as a uniformed officer will excel as a private detective due to their knowledge about standard police procedures, their contact network and their own experience with typical problems.[3] Some are not public officials, and may be known as a private investigator, colloquially referred to, especially in fiction, as a PI or private eye, private ducky or shamus. The detective branch in most large police agencies is organized into several squads and departments, each of which specializes in investigation into a particular type of crime or a particular type of undercover operation, which may include: homicide, robbery, burglary, auto theft, organized crimes, missing persons, juvenile crime, fraud, narcotics, vice, criminal intelligence, aggravated assault/battery, sexual assault, computer crime, domestic violence, surveillance, and arson, among others.
Non-fiction.  Non-fiction (or nonfiction) is any document or media content that attempts, in good faith, to convey information only about the real world, rather than being grounded in imagination.[1] Non-fiction typically aims to present topics objectively based on historical, scientific, and empirical information. However, some non-fiction ranges into more subjective territory, including sincerely held opinions on real-world topics.[2] Often referring specifically to prose writing,[3] non-fiction is one of the two fundamental approaches to story and storytelling, in contrast to narrative fiction, which is largely populated by imaginary characters and events.[1][4] Non-fiction writers can show the reasons and consequences of events, they can compare, contrast, classify, categorise and summarise information, put the facts in a logical or chronological order, infer and reach conclusions about facts, etc.[5] They can use graphic, structural and printed appearance features such as pictures, graphs or charts, diagrams, flowcharts, summaries, glossaries, sidebars, timelines, table of contents, headings, subheadings, bolded or italicised words, footnotes, maps, indices, labels, captions, etc. to help readers find information.[5] While specific claims in a non-fiction work may prove inaccurate, the sincere author aims to be truthful at the time of composition. A non-fiction account is an exercise in accurately representing a topic, and remains distinct from any implied endorsement. The numerous narrative techniques used within fiction are generally thought inappropriate for use in non-fiction. They are still present particularly in older works, but are often muted so as not to overshadow the information within the work. Simplicity, clarity, and directness are some of the most important considerations when producing non-fiction. Audience is important in any artistic or descriptive endeavour, but it is perhaps most important in non-fiction. In fiction, the writer believes that readers will make an effort to follow and interpret an indirectly or abstractly presented progression of theme, whereas the production of non-fiction has more to do with the direct provision of information. Understanding of the potential readers use for the work and their existing knowledge of a subject are both fundamental for effective non-fiction. Despite the claim to truth of non-fiction, it is often necessary to persuade the reader to agree with the ideas and so a balanced, coherent, and informed argument is vital. However, the boundaries between fiction and non-fiction are continually blurred and argued upon, especially in the field of biography;[6] as Virginia Woolf said: if we think of truth as something of granite-like solidity and of personality as something of rainbow-like intangibility and reflect that the aim of biography is to weld these two into one seamless whole, we shall admit that the problem is a stiff one and that we need not wonder if biographers, for the most part failed to solve it.[7]
Palestine.   Palestine,[i] officially the State of Palestine,[ii][f] is a country in West Asia. Recognized by 147 of the UNs 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip, collectively known as the occupied Palestinian territories. The territories share the vast majority of their borders with Israel, with the West Bank bordering Jordan to the east and the Gaza Strip bordering Egypt to the southwest. It has a total land area of 6,020 square kilometres (2,320 sq mi) while its population exceeds five million. Its proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, while Ramallah serves as its de facto administrative center. Gaza was its largest city prior to evacuations in 2023.[2][3] Situated at a continental crossroad, the Palestine region was ruled by various empires and experienced various demographic changes from antiquity to the modern era. It was treading ground for the Nile and Mesopotamian armies and merchants from North Africa, China and India. The region has religious significance. The ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict dates back to the rise of the Zionist movement, supported by the United Kingdom during World War I. The war saw Britain occupying Palestine from the Ottoman Empire, where it set up Mandatory Palestine under the auspices of the League of Nations. Increased Jewish immigration led to intercommunal conflict between Jews and Palestinian Arabs, which escalated into a civil war in 1947 after a proposed partitioning by the United Nations was rejected by the Palestinians and other Arab nations. The 1948 Palestine war saw the forcible displacement of a majority of the Arab population, and consequently the establishment of Israel; these events are referred to by Palestinians as the Nakba (catastrophe). In the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel occupied the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, which had been held by Jordan and Egypt respectively. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) declared independence in 1988. In 1993, the PLO signed the Oslo Accords with Israel, creating limited PLO governance in the West Bank and Gaza Strip through the Palestinian Authority (PA). Israel withdrew from Gaza in its unilateral disengagement in 2005, but the territory is still considered to be under military occupation and has been blockaded by Israel. In 2007, internal divisions between political factions led to a takeover of Gaza by Hamas. Since then, the West Bank has been governed in part by the Fatah-led PA, while the Gaza Strip has remained under the control of Hamas.
Order of chivalry. An order of chivalry, order of knighthood, chivalric order, or equestrian order is a society, fellowship and college of knights,[1] typically founded during or inspired by the original Catholic military orders of the Crusades (c. 1099–1291) and paired with medieval concepts of ideals of chivalry. Since the 15th century, orders of chivalry, often as dynastic orders, began to be established in a more courtly fashion[clarification needed] than could be created ad hoc. These orders would often retain the notion of being a confraternity, society or other association of members, but some of them were ultimately purely honorific and consisted of a medal decoration. In fact, these decorations themselves often came to be known informally as orders. These institutions in turn gave rise to the modern-day orders of merit of sovereign states.[2] An order of knights is a community of knights composed by order rules with the main purpose of an ideal or charitable task. The original ideal lay in monachus et miles (monk and knight), who in the order – ordo (Latin for order / status) – is dedicated to a Christian purpose. The first orders of knights were religious orders that were founded to protect and guide pilgrims to the Holy Land. The knightly orders were characterized by an order-like community life in poverty, obedience and chastity, which was linked with charitable tasks, armed pilgrimage protection and military action against external and occasionally internal enemies of Christianity. Examples are the Knights Templar, Knights of the Holy Sepulchre officially called The Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, founded in 1090, the Order of St. John and the Order of Malta. These communities only became orders in the sense of canon law through papal recognition of their own binding rules of order and through the dissolution of ecclesiastical diocesan organizations. In addition to the religious orders of knights, courtly orders of knights emerged in many European royal houses from the middle of the 14th century. This enabled the monarchs and princes to create a reliable household power independent of the church and to combine their court life with knightly virtues. During this time, the Burgundian court culture was leading and so the Order of the Golden Fleece, founded there in 1430, was for many a model in the sense of a princely order based on the ideals of Christian chivalry.[3] In the course of time, many orders of knights have been dissolved due to a lack of people or the field of activity has changed. So in many areas the charitable aspect and nursing came to the fore. There were also dissolutions for political reasons, such as the Knights Templar in 1312 or many orders of knights as opposition by Nazi Germany. While the Knights Templar was not re-established, some orders were reactivated after the end of World War II and the fall of the Iron Curtain.
Whodunit. A whodunit (less commonly spelled as whodunnit; a colloquial elision of Who [has] done it?) is a complex plot-driven variety of detective fiction in which the puzzle regarding who committed the crime is the main focus.[1] The reader or viewer is provided with the clues to the case, from which the identity of the perpetrator may be deduced before the story provides the revelation itself at its climax. The investigation is usually conducted by an eccentric, amateur, or semi-professional detective. A whodunit follows the paradigm of the traditional detective story in the sense that it presents crime as a puzzle to be solved through a chain of inquiries questions that the detective poses.[2] In a whodunit, however, the audience is given the opportunity to engage in the same process of deduction as the protagonist throughout the investigation of a crime. This engages the readers so that they strive to compete with or outguess the expert investigator.[3] A defining feature of the whodunit narrative is the so-called double narrative. Here, one narrative is hidden and gradually revealed while the other is the open narrative, which often transpires in the present time of the story. This feature has been associated with the Russian literary terms syuzhet and fabula. The former involves the narrative presented to the reader by the author or the actual story as it happened in chronological order while the latter focuses on the underlying substance or material of the narrative.[4] The double narrative has a deep structure but is specific, particularly when it comes to time and a split gaze on the narrative itself. The two tales coexist and interweave with the first tale focusing on the crime itself, what led to it, and the investigation to solve it while the second story is all about the reconstruction of the crime.[5] Here, the diegesis, or the way the characters live on the inquiry level creates the phantom narration where the objects, bodies, and words become signs for both the detective and the reader to interpret and draw their conclusions from.[5] For instance, in a detective novel, solving a mystery entails the reconstruction of the criminal events. This process, however, also involves on the part of the detective the production of a hypothesis that could withstand scrutiny, including the crafting of findings about cause and motive as well as crime and its intended consequences. This discourse of explanation constitutes the second narrative besides the primary story relating to the crime.[6] The double narrative is cited as a main distinguishing element between the whodunit and the thriller. The whodunit goes backward as it goes forward, reconstructing the timeline of both crime and investigation, while the thriller coincides with the action in a single story. According to Tzvetan Todorov, in terms of temporal logic, the whodunit narrative is considered a paradigm for fiction in general because the story unfolds in relation not to a future event but one that is already known and merely lying in wait. Such certainty pertains to the crime and not to the identity of the culprit, who the reader must anticipate as part of the unknown future.[7]
Genre fiction. In the book-trade, genre fiction, also known as formula fiction,[1] or commercial fiction,[2] encompasses fictional works written with the intent of fitting into a specific literary genre in order to appeal to readers and fans already familiar with that genre.[3]  These labels commonly imply that this type of fiction places more value on plot and entertainment than on character development, philosophical themes, or artistic depth.[2] This distinguishes genre fiction from literary fiction. The main genres are crime, fantasy, romance, science fiction and horror—as well as perhaps Western, inspirational and historical fiction. Slipstream genre is sometimes thought to be in between genre and non-genre fiction.[4] In the publishing industry the term category fiction is often used as a synonym for genre fiction,[citation needed] with the categories serving as the familiar shelf headings within the fiction section of a bookstore, such as Western or mystery. Some authors classified instead as literary fiction have written genre novels under pseudonyms, while others are argued to have employed genre elements in literary fiction.[5][6][7][better source needed]
Little, Brown Book Group. Little, Brown Book Group is a UK publishing company created in 1988, with multiple predecessors. Since 2006 Little, Brown Book Group has been owned by Hachette UK, a subsidiary of Hachette Livre. It was acquired in 2006 from  Time Warner of New York City, who then owned LBBG via the American publisher Little, Brown and Company. [1] Little, Brown has won the Publisher of the Year Award four times – in 1994, 2004, 2010 and 2014.[citation needed] Little and Brown was established in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, by Charles Little and James Brown in 1837; as Little, Brown and Company it was acquired by Time Inc in 1968. Little, Brown became part of the Time Warner Book Group when Time merged with Warner Communications in 1989. Still based in Boston, the Time Warner subsidiary Little, Brown purchased British publisher Macdonald from Maxwell Communication Corporation in 1992.[2] The firm was renamed Little, Brown Book Group (Little, Brown offices moved to New York City in 2001.) In 2014, Little, Brown acquired independent publisher Constable and Robinson, and soon merged Piatkus with the Constable and Robinson imprints to form Piatkus Constable Robinson (PCR).[3] Another Constable and Robinson imprint, Corsair, publishes literary fiction and non-fiction separately from PCR.[4] In 2015, Ursula Doyle (formerly Associate Publisher of Virago) announced a new imprint, Fleet. Fleets launch titles in 2016 included Charlotte Rogans Now and Again, Melissa Flemings A Hope More Powerful than the Sea, and the paperback edition of Virginia Bailys Early One Morning. The Fleet imprints releases include Material Girls: Why Reality Matters for Feminism (2021) by Kathleen Stock,[5][6] and Did Ye Hear Mammy Died? (2021) by Seamas OReilly.[7]
Holding company.  A holding company is a company whose primary business is holding a controlling interest in the securities of other companies.[1] A holding company usually does not produce goods or services itself. Its purpose is to own stock of other companies to create a corporate group. Holding companies also conduct trade and other business activities themselves. Holding companies reduce risk for the shareholders, and can permit the ownership and control of a number of different companies. They can be subsidiaries in a tiered structure. Holding companies are also created to hold assets such as intellectual property or trade secrets that are protected from the operating company. That creates a smaller risk when it comes to litigation. In the United States, 80% of stock, in voting and value, must be owned before tax consolidation benefits such as tax-free dividends can be claimed.[2] That is, if Company A owns 80% or more of the stock of Company B, Company A will not pay taxes on dividends paid by Company B to its stockholders, as the payment of dividends from B to A is essentially transferring cash within a single enterprise. Any other shareholders of Company B will pay the usual taxes on dividends, as they are legitimate and ordinary dividends to these shareholders.
Genovese. Genovese is an Italian surname meaning, properly, someone from Genoa. Its Italian plural form Genovesi has also developed into a surname.
Eiji Tsuburaya.  Eiji Tsuburaya (Japanese: 円谷 英二, Hepburn: Tsuburaya Eiji; July 7, 1901[b] – January 25, 1970) was a Japanese special effects director, filmmaker, and cinematographer. A co-creator of the Godzilla and Ultraman franchises, he is considered one of the most important and influential figures in the history of cinema. Tsuburaya is known as the Father of Tokusatsu,[6][d] having pioneered Japans special effects industry and introduced several technological developments in film productions. In a career spanning five decades, Tsuburaya worked on approximately 250 films—including globally renowned features directed by Ishirō Honda, Hiroshi Inagaki, and Akira Kurosawa—and earned six Japan Technical Awards. Following a brief stint as an inventor, Tsuburaya was employed by Japanese cinema pioneer Yoshirō Edamasa in 1919 and began his career working as an assistant cinematographer on Edamasas A Tune of Pity. Thereafter, he worked as an assistant cinematographer on several films, including Teinosuke Kinugasas A Page of Madness (1926). At the age of thirty-two, Tsuburaya watched King Kong, which greatly influenced him to work in special effects. Tsuburaya completed the first iron shooting crane in October 1934, and an adaptation of the crane is still in use across the globe today. After filming his directorial debut on the cruiser Asama in the Pacific Ocean, he worked on Princess Kaguya (1935), one of Japans first major films to incorporate special effects. His first majorly successful film in effects, The Daughter of the Samurai (1937), remarkably featured the first full-scale rear projection. In 1937, Tsuburaya was employed by Toho and established the companys effects department. Tsuburaya directed the effects for The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya in 1942, which became the highest-grossing Japanese film in history upon its release. His elaborate effects were believed to be behind the films major success, and he won an award for his work from the Japan Motion Picture Cinematographers Association. In 1948, however, Tsuburaya was purged from Toho by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers because of his involvement in propaganda films during World War II. Thus, he founded Tsuburaya Special Technology Laboratory with his eldest son Hajime and worked without credit at major Japanese studios outside Toho, creating effects for films such as Daieis The Invisible Man Appears (1949), widely regarded as the first Japanese science fiction film. In 1950, Tsuburaya returned to Toho alongside his effects crew from Tsuburaya Special Technology Laboratory. At age fifty-three, he gained international recognition and won his first Japan Technical Award for Special Skill for directing the effects in Ishirō Hondas kaiju film Godzilla (1954). He served as the effects director for Tohos string of financially successful tokusatsu films that followed, including, Rodan (1956), The Mysterians (1957), The Three Treasures (1959), Mothra, The Last War (both 1961), and King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962). In April 1963, Tsuburaya founded Tsuburaya Special Effects Productions; his company would go onto produce the television shows Ultra Q, Ultraman (both 1966), Ultraseven (1967–1968), and Mighty Jack (1968). Ultra Q and Ultraman were extremely successful upon their 1966 broadcast, with Ultra Q making him a household name in Japan and gaining him more attention from the media who dubbed him the God of Tokusatsu. While he spent his late years working on several Toho films and operating his company, Tsuburayas health began to decline, and he died in 1970.
Russell Square.  Russell Square is a large garden square in Bloomsbury, in the London Borough of Camden, built predominantly by the firm of James Burton. It is near the University of Londons main buildings and the British Museum. Almost exactly square, to the north is Woburn Place and to the south-east is Southampton Row. Russell Square tube station sits to the north-east.[1] It is named after the surname of the Earls and Dukes of Bedford; the freehold remains with the latters conservation trusts who have agreed public access and management by Camden Council. The gardens are in the mainstream, initial category (of Grade II listing) on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.[2] Following the demolition of Bedford House, Russell Square and Bedford Square were laid out in 1804.[3] The square is named after the surname of the Earls and Dukes of Bedford, who developed the familys London landholdings in the 17th and 18th centuries.[3] Between 1805 and 1830, Thomas Lawrence had a studio at number 65.[4] Other past residents include the famous 19th-century architectural father-and-son partnership, Philip and Philip Charles Hardwick, who lived at number 60 in the 1850s.[5] On the eastern side the Hotel Russell, built in 1898 to a design by Charles Fitzroy Doll, dominates (its builders were connected with the company which created RMS Titanic),[6] alongside the Imperial Hotel, which was also designed by Charles Fitzroy Doll and built from 1905 to 1911. The old Imperial building was demolished in 1967.[7]
Archibald Constable.  Archibald David Constable (24 February 1774 – 21 July 1827) was a Scottish publisher, bookseller and stationer. Constable was born at Carnbee, Fife, son of the land steward to the Earl of Kellie.[1] In 1788 Archibald was apprenticed to Peter Hill, an Edinburgh bookseller, based on the High Street south of the Mercat Cross. In 1795 Constable started in business for himself as a dealer in rare books, taking a unit immediately opposite Peter Hill, on the north side of the Mercat Cross. He was then living in a house in Calton village on the edge of Calton Hill.[2] He bought the rights to publish the Scots Magazine in 1801, and John Leyden, the orientalist, became its editor. In 1800 Constable began the Farmers Magazine, and in November 1802 he issued the first number of the Edinburgh Review, under the nominal editorship of Sydney Smith; Lord Jeffrey, was, however, the guiding spirit of the review, having as his associates Lord Brougham, Sir Walter Scott, Henry Hallam, John Playfair and afterwards Lord Macaulay.[1]
Geneva (disambiguation). Geneva is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland. Geneva may also refer to:
Commonwealth realm.  A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state in the Commonwealth of Nations that has the same constitutional monarch and head of state as the other realms. The current monarch is King Charles III.[1][2][3] Except for the United Kingdom, in each of the realms the monarch is represented by a governor-general. The phrase Commonwealth realm is an informal description not used in any law. As of 2025[update], there are 15 Commonwealth realms: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, The Bahamas, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and the United Kingdom. While the Commonwealth of Nations has 56 independent member states, only these 15 have Charles III as head of state. He is also Head of the Commonwealth, a non-constitutional role. The notion of these states sharing the same person as their monarch traces back to 1867 when Canada became the first dominion, a largely self-governing nation in the British Empire; others, such as Australia (1901) and New Zealand (1907), followed. With the growing independence of the dominions in the 1920s, the Balfour Declaration of 1926 established the Commonwealth of Nations and that the nations were considered equal in status ... though united by a common allegiance to the Crown.[1] The Statute of Westminster 1931 further set the relationship between the realms and the Crown, including a convention that any alteration to the line of succession in any one country must be voluntarily approved by all the others. The modern Commonwealth of Nations was then formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949 when India wanted to become a republic without leaving the Commonwealth; this left seven independent nations sharing the Crown: Australia, Canada, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Since then, new realms have been created through the independence of former colonies and dependencies; Saint Kitts and Nevis is the youngest extant realm, becoming one in 1983. Some realms became republics; Barbados changed from being a realm to a republic in 2021.[4] There are currently 15 Commonwealth realms scattered across three continents (nine in North America, five in Oceania, and one in Europe), with a combined area of 18.7 million km2 (7.2 million sq mi)[a] (excluding the Antarctic claims which would raise the figure to 26.8 million km2 (10.3 million sq mi)) and a population of more than 150 million.[5]
Canton of Geneva.  The Canton of Geneva, officially the Republic and Canton of Geneva,[4][5] is one of the 26 cantons of the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of forty-five municipalities, and the seat of the government and parliament is in the city of Geneva. Geneva is the French-speaking westernmost canton of Switzerland. It lies at the western end of Lake Geneva and on both sides of the Rhone, its main river. Within the country, the canton borders Vaud to the east, the only adjacent canton. However, most of Genevas border is with France, specifically the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. As is the case in several other Swiss cantons (Ticino, Neuchâtel, and Jura), Geneva is referred to as a republic within the Swiss Confederation. One of the most populated cantons, Geneva is considered one of the most cosmopolitan regions of the country. As a center of the Calvinist Reformation, the city of Geneva has had a great influence on the canton, which essentially consists of the city and its suburbs. Notable institutions of international importance based in the canton are the United Nations, the International Committee of the Red Cross and CERN. The Canton of Geneva, whose official name is the Republic and Canton of Geneva, is the successor of the Republic of Geneva.[6]
Sherlock Holmes.  Sherlock Holmes (/ˈʃɜːrlɒk ˈhoʊmz/) is a fictional detective created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle. Referring to himself as a consulting detective in his stories, Holmes is known for his proficiency with observation, deduction, forensic science and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic, which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients, including Scotland Yard. The character Sherlock Holmes first appeared in print in 1887s A Study in Scarlet. His popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine, beginning with A Scandal in Bohemia in 1891; additional tales appeared from then until 1927, eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories. All but one[a] are set in the Victorian or Edwardian eras between 1880 and 1914. Most are narrated by the character of Holmess friend and biographer, Dr. John H. Watson, who usually accompanies Holmes during his investigations and often shares quarters with him at the address of 221B Baker Street, London, where many of the stories begin. Though not the first fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes is arguably the best known.[1] By the 1990s, over 25,000 stage adaptations, films, television productions, and publications had featured the detective,[2] and Guinness World Records lists him as the most portrayed human literary character in film and television history.[3] Holmess popularity and fame are such that many have believed him to be not a fictional character but an actual person;[4][5][6] many literary and fan societies have been founded on this pretence. Avid readers of the Holmes stories helped create the modern practice of fandom, with the Sherlock Holmes fandom being one of the first cohesive fan communities in the world.[7] The character and stories have had a profound and lasting effect on mystery writing and popular culture as a whole, with the original tales, as well as thousands written by authors other than Conan Doyle, being adapted into stage and radio plays, television, films, video games, and other media for over one hundred years. Edgar Allan Poes C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the forerunner of the modern detective story in English fiction and served as the prototype for many later characters, including Holmes.[8] Conan Doyle once wrote, Each [of Poes detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed ... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?[9] Similarly, the stories of Émile Gaboriaus Monsieur Lecoq were extremely popular at the time Conan Doyle began writing Holmes, and Holmess speech and behaviour sometimes follow those of Lecoq.[10][11] Doyle has his main characters discuss these literary antecedents near the beginning of A Study in Scarlet, which is set soon after Watson is first introduced to Holmes. Watson attempts to compliment Holmes by comparing him to Dupin, to which Holmes replies that he found Dupin to be a very inferior fellow and Lecoq to be a miserable bungler.[12]
Crime Story (disambiguation). Crime fiction stories are narratives that centre on criminal acts and especially on the investigation of a crime. Crime Story may also refer to:
Chicago (disambiguation). Chicago, Illinois, is the third-most populous city in the United States. Chicago may also refer to: Any of several disciplines, some associated with the University of Chicago, including
Municipalities of Switzerland.  Municipalities (German: Gemeinden, Einwohnergemeinden or politische Gemeinden; French: communes; Italian: comuni; Romansh: vischnancas) are the lowest level of administrative division in Switzerland. Each municipality is part of one of the Swiss cantons, which form the Swiss Confederation. In most cantons, municipalities are also part of districts or other sub-cantonal administrative divisions. There are 2,121 municipalities as of January 2025[update].[1] Their populations range between several hundred thousand (Zürich), and a few dozen people (Kammersrohr, Bister), and their territory between 0.32 km² (Rivaz) and 439 km² (Scuol). The beginnings of the modern municipality system date back to the Helvetic Republic. Under the Old Swiss Confederacy, citizenship was granted by each town and village to only residents. These citizens enjoyed access to community property and in some cases additional protection under the law. Additionally, the urban towns and the rural villages had differing rights and laws. The creation of a uniform Swiss citizenship, which applied equally for citizens of the old towns and their tenants and servants, led to conflict. The wealthier villagers and urban citizens held rights to forests, common land and other municipal property which they did not want to share with the new citizens, who were generally poor. The compromise solution, which was written into the municipal laws of the Helvetic Republic, is still valid today. Two politically separate but often geographically similar organizations were created. The first, the so-called municipality, was a political community formed by election and its voting body consists of all resident citizens. However, the community land and property remained with the former local citizens who were gathered together into the Bürgergemeinde/bourgeoisie. During the Mediation era (1803–1814), and especially during the Restoration era (1814–1830), many of the gains toward uniform citizenship were lost. Many political municipalities were abolished and limits were placed on the exercise of political rights for everyone except the members of the Bürgergemeinde. In the Regeneration era (1830–1848), the liberal revolutions of the common people helped to restore some rights again in a few cantons. In other cantons, the Bürgergemeinden were able to maintain power as political communities. In the city of Zürich it was not until the Municipal Act of 1866 that the political municipality came back into existence.[2] The relationship between the political municipality and the Bürgergemeinde was often dominated by the latters ownership of community property. Often the administration and profit from the property were totally held by the Bürgergemeinden, leaving the political municipality dependent on the Bürgergemeinde for money and use of the property. It was not until the political municipality acquired rights over property that served the public (such as schools, fire stations, etc.) and taxes, that they obtained full independence. For example, in the city of Bern, it was not until after the property division of 1852 that the political municipality had the right to levy taxes.[2]
Crime Stories (disambiguation). Crime Stories are narratives that centre on criminal acts and especially on the investigation of a crime. Crime Stories may also refer to:
Murder mystery (disambiguation). A murder mystery is a work of crime fiction. Murder mystery may also refer to:
Fable (disambiguation). A fable is a story intended to illustrate a moral. Fable(s), The Fable(s), or A Fable may also refer to:
Chicago River. 41°53′11″N 87°38′15″W / 41.88639°N 87.63750°W / 41.88639; -87.63750 The Chicago River is a system of rivers and canals with a combined length of 156 miles (251 km)[1] that runs through the city of Chicago, including its center (the Chicago Loop).[2] The river is one of the reasons for Chicagos geographic importance: the related Chicago Portage is a link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River Basin, and ultimately the Gulf of Mexico. In 1887, the Illinois General Assembly decided to reverse the flow of the Chicago River through civil engineering by taking water from Lake Michigan and discharging it into the Mississippi River watershed, partly in response to concerns created by an extreme weather event in 1885 that threatened the citys water supply.[3][n 1] In 1889, the state created the Chicago Sanitary District (now the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District) to replace the Illinois and Michigan Canal with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, a much larger waterway, because the former had become inadequate to serve the citys increasing sewage and commercial navigation needs.[4] Completed by 1900,[5] the project reversed the flow of the main stem and South Branch and altered the flow of the North Branch by using a series of canal locks and pumping stations, increasing the flow from Lake Michigan into the river, causing the river to empty into the new canal instead. In 1999, the system was named a Civil Engineering Monument of the Millennium by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).[6] The river is represented on the municipal flag of Chicago by two horizontal blue stripes.[7] Its three branches serve as the inspiration for the municipal device,[8][9][10] a three-branched, Y-shaped symbol that is found on many buildings and other structures throughout Chicago. When it followed its natural course, the North and South Branches of the Chicago River converged at Wolf Point to form the main stem, which jogged southward from the present course of the river to avoid a baymouth bar, entering Lake Michigan at about the level of present-day Madison Street.[11] Today, the main stem of the Chicago River flows west from Lake Michigan to Wolf Point, where it converges with the North Branch to flow into the South Branch, where the rivers course goes south and west to empty in the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal.
French language.   French (français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] ⓘ or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] ⓘ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. French evolved from Northern Old Gallo-Romance, a descendant of the Latin spoken in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French (Francien) largely supplanted. It was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul and by the Germanic Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, it was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia, and numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole, were developed. A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is an official language in 26 countries, as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with speakers in about 50 countries.[4] Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share the use or teaching of French. It is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 74 million are native speakers;[5] it is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France, Canada (Quebec), Belgium (Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region), western Switzerland (Romandy region), parts of Luxembourg, and Monaco.[6] Meanwhile in Francophone Africa it is spoken mainly as a second language or lingua franca, though it has also become a native language in a small number of urban areas; in some North African countries like Algeria, despite not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside the indigenous ones, but only a second one among the general population.[7] In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania.[8] French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.[9] Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as a second language.[10] Many institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English, German and Italian; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union).[11] French is also the 22th most natively spoken language in the world,[12] the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers, and is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017.[13][14]  French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including the United Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the World Trade Organization, the International Olympic Committee, the General Conference on Weights and Measures, and the International Committee of the Red Cross.
Saying. A saying is any concise expression that is especially memorable because of its meaning or style. A saying often shows a wisdom or cultural standard, having different meanings than just the words themselves.[1] Sayings are categorized as follows:
Narrative. A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences,[1][2] whether non-fictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller, novel, etc.).[3][4][5] Narratives can be presented through a sequence of written or spoken words, through still or moving images, or through any combination of these. Narrative is expressed in all mediums of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech, literature, theatre, dance, music and song, comics, journalism, animation, video (including film and television), video games, radio, structured and unstructured recreation, and potentially even purely visual arts like painting, sculpture, drawing, and photography, as long as a sequence of events is presented. The social and cultural activity of humans sharing narratives is called storytelling, the vast majority of which has taken the form of oral storytelling.[6] Since the rise of literate societies however, many narratives have been additionally recorded, created, or otherwise passed down in written form. The formal and literary process of constructing a narrative—narration—is one of the four traditional rhetorical modes of discourse, along with argumentation, description, and exposition. This is a somewhat distinct usage from narration in the narrower sense of a commentary used to convey a story, alongside various additional narrative techniques used to build and enhance any given story. The noun narration and adjective narrative entered English from French in the 15th century; narrative became usable as a noun in the following century.[7] These words ultimately derive from the Latin verb narrare (to tell), itself derived from the adjective gnarus (knowing or skilled).[8][9] A narrative is the telling of some actual or fictitious sequence of connected events to an audience, by a narrator in some cases (and in all cases of written narratives). A personal narrative is any narrative in prose in which the speaker or writer presents, usually informally and in a spontaneous moment, their own personal experiences, such as in casual face-to-face conversation or in text messaging. Narratives are to be distinguished from simple descriptions of qualities, states, or situations without any particular individuals involved. Narratives range all the way from the shortest accounts of events (for example, the simple sentence the cat sat on the mat or a brief news item) to the most extended works, in the form of long and complex series that contain multiple books, films, television episodes, etc.
Charles III.  Charles III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms.[b] Charles was born during the reign of his maternal grandfather, King George VI, and became heir apparent when his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, acceded to the throne in 1952. He was created Prince of Wales in 1958 and his investiture was held in 1969. He was educated at Cheam School and Gordonstoun, and later spent six months at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After completing a history degree from the University of Cambridge, Charles served in the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy from 1971 to 1976. After his 1981 wedding to Lady Diana Spencer, they had two sons, William and Harry. After years of estrangement and well-publicised extramarital affairs, Charles and Diana divorced in 1996. Diana died as a result of injuries sustained in a car crash the following year. In 2005 Charles married his long-term partner, Camilla Parker Bowles. As heir apparent, Charles undertook official duties and engagements on behalf of his mother and represented the United Kingdom on visits abroad. He founded The Princes Trust[e] in 1976, sponsored the Princes Charities and became patron or president of more than 800 other charities and organisations. He advocated for the conservation of historic buildings and the importance of traditional architecture in society. In that vein, he generated the experimental new town of Poundbury. An environmentalist, Charles supported organic farming and action to prevent climate change during his time as the manager of the Duchy of Cornwall estates, earning him awards and recognition as well as criticism. He is also a prominent critic of the adoption of genetically modified food, while his support for alternative medicine has been criticised. He has authored or co-authored 17 books. Charles became king upon his mothers death in 2022. At the age of 73 he was the oldest person to accede to the British throne, after having been the longest-serving heir apparent and Prince of Wales in British history. Significant events in his reign have included his coronation in 2023 and his cancer diagnosis the following year, the latter of which temporarily suspended planned public engagements.
Folklore (disambiguation). Folklore is a body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people. Folklore may also refer to:
Anthropomorphism.  Anthropomorphism (from the Greek words ánthrōpos (ἄνθρωπος), meaning human, and morphē (μορφή), meaning form or shape) is the attribution of human form, character, or attributes to non-human entities.[1] It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.[2] Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and weather. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters. People have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioral traits to wild as well as domesticated animals.[3] Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphization derive from the verb form anthropomorphize,[a] itself derived from the Greek ánthrōpos (ἄνθρωπος, lit. human) and morphē (μορφή, form). It is first attested in 1753, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian God.[b][1] From the beginnings of human behavioral modernity in the Upper Paleolithic, about 40,000 years ago, examples of zoomorphic (animal-shaped) works of art occur that may represent the earliest known evidence of anthropomorphism. One of the oldest known is an ivory sculpture, the Löwenmensch figurine, Germany, a human-shaped figurine with the head of a lioness or lion, determined to be about 32,000 years old.[5][6] It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks represent. A more recent example is The Sorcerer, an enigmatic cave painting from the Trois-Frères Cave, Ariège, France: the figures significance is unknown, but it is usually interpreted as some kind of great spirit or master of the animals. In either case there is an element of anthropomorphism.
People. The term the people refers to the public or common mass of people of a polity.[1] As such it is a concept of human rights law, international law as well as constitutional law, particularly used for claims of popular sovereignty. In contrast, a people is any plurality of persons considered as a whole. Used in politics and law, the term a people refers to the collective or community of an ethnic group or nation.[1] Chapter One, Article One of the Charter of the United Nations states that peoples have the right to self-determination.[2] Though the mere status as peoples and the right to self-determination, as for example in the case of Indigenous peoples (peoples, as in all groups of indigenous people, not merely all indigenous persons as in indigenous people),[clarification needed] does not automatically provide for independent sovereignty and therefore secession.[3][4] Indeed, judge Ivor Jennings identified the inherent problems in the right of peoples to self-determination, as it requires pre-defining a said people.[5] Both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire used the Latin term Senatus Populusque Romanus, (the Senate and People of Rome). This term was fixed abbreviated (SPQR) to Roman legionary standards, and even after the Roman Emperors achieved a state of total personal autocracy, they continued to wield their power in the name of the Senate and People of Rome. The term Peoples Republic, used since late modernity, is a name used by states, which particularly  identify constitutionally with a form of socialism. In criminal law, in certain jurisdictions, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the People. Several U.S. states, including California, Illinois, and New York, use this style.[6] Citations outside the jurisdictions in question usually substitute the name of the state for the words the People in the case captions.[7] Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process.  Other states, such as Indiana, typically refer to themselves as the State in case captions and legal process. Outside the United States, criminal trials in Ireland and the Philippines are prosecuted in the name of the people of their respective states.
Hansel and Gretel. Hansel and Gretel (/ˈhænsəl, ˈhɛn- ... ˈɡrɛtəl/; German: Hänsel und Gretel [ˈhɛnzl̩ ʔʊnt ˈɡʁeːtl̩])[a] is a German fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm and published in 1812 as part of Grimms Fairy Tales (KHM 15).[1][2] Hansel and Gretel are siblings who are abandoned in a forest and fall into the hands of a witch who lives in a house made of bread,[3] cake, and sugar. The witch, who has cannibalistic intentions, intends to fatten Hansel before eventually eating him. However, Gretel saves her brother by pushing the witch into her own oven, killing the witch. The children then escape with the witchs treasure.[4] Set in medieval Germany, Hansel and Gretel has been adapted into various media, including the opera Hänsel und Gretel by Engelbert Humperdinck, which was first performed in 1893.[5][6] Although Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm credited various tales from Hesse (the region where they lived) as their source, scholars have argued that the brothers heard the story in 1809 from the family of Wilhelms friend and future wife, Dortchen Wild, and partly from other sources.[7] A handwritten note in the Grimms personal copy of the first edition reveals that in 1813 Wild contributed to the childrens verse answer to the witch, The wind, the wind,/ The heavenly child, which rhymes in German: Der Wind, der Wind,/ Das himmlische Kind.[2] According to folklorist Jack Zipes, the tale emerged in the Late Middle Ages Germany (1250–1500). Shortly after this period, close written variants like Martin Montanus Garten Gesellschaft (1590) began to appear.[4] Scholar Christine Goldberg argues that the episode of the paths marked with stones and crumbs, already found in the French Finette Cendron and Hop-o-My-Thumb (1697), represents an elaboration of the motif of the thread that Ariadne gives Theseus to use to get out of the Minoan labyrinth.[8] A house made of confectionery is also found in a 14th-century manuscript about the Land of Cockayne.[5]
Arthur Rackham.  Arthur Rackham RWS (19 September 1867 – 6 September 1939) was an English book illustrator. He is recognised as one of the leading figures during the Golden Age of British book illustration. His work is noted for its robust pen and ink drawings, which were combined with the use of watercolour, a technique he developed due to his background as a journalistic illustrator. Rackhams 51 colour pieces for the early American tale Rip Van Winkle became a turning point in the production of books since – through colour-separated printing – it featured the accurate reproduction of colour artwork.[1]  His best-known works also include the illustrations for Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, and Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm. Rackham was born at 210 South Lambeth Road, Vauxhall, London as one of 12 children. In 1884, at the age of 17, he was sent on an ocean voyage to Australia to improve his fragile health, accompanied by two aunts.[2]  At the age of 18, he worked as an insurance clerk at the Westminster Fire Office and began studying part-time at the Lambeth School of Art.[3] In 1892, he left his job and started working for the Westminster Budget as a reporter and illustrator. His first book of illustrations were published in 1893 in To the Other Side by Thomas Rhodes, but his first serious commission was in 1894 for The Dolly Dialogues, the collected sketches of Anthony Hope, who later went on to write The Prisoner of Zenda. Book illustrating then became Rackhams career for the rest of his life.
Common Era. Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE)  are year notations for the Gregorian or Julian calendar, and are exactly equivalent to the Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations. 2025 CE and AD 2025 each describe the current year; 400 BCE and 400 BC are the same year.[1][2] BCE/CE are primarily used to avoid religious connotations[3] by not referring to Jesus as Our Lord.[4][5][a] Nevertheless, the year numbers remain the same as Anno Domini. The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by Johannes Kepler as the Latin: annus aerae nostrae vulgaris (year of our common era),[7][8] and to 1635 in English as Vulgar Era.[b] The term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708,[9] and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars. Around the year 525, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the principle of taking  the moment that he believed to be the date of the incarnation of Jesus to be the point from which years are numbered (the epoch) of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar.[10][11][12] Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).[10]: 52  He did this to replace the Era of the Martyrs system (then used for some Easter tables) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.[10]: 50 This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before 1 backwards, without a year zero.[c] The term Common Era is traced back in English to its appearance as Vulgar Era to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law.[14] (The word vulgar originally meant of the ordinary people, with no derogatory associations.[15])
King James Version.  The King James Version (KJV), also the King James Bible (KJB) and the Authorized Version (AV), is an Early Modern English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, which was commissioned in 1604 and published in 1611, by sponsorship of King James VI and I.[d] The 80 books of the King James Version[4] include 39 books of the Old Testament, 14 books of Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament. Noted for its majesty of style, the King James Version has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.[5][6] The King James Version remains the preferred translation of many Protestant Christians, and is considered the only valid one by some Evangelicals.  It is considered one of the important literary accomplishments of early modern England. The KJV 1611 is a 17th-century translation and thus contains a large number of archaisms and false friends—words that contemporary readers may think they understand but that actually carry obsolete or unfamiliar meanings—making understanding the text difficult for modern readers, even pastors and preachers trained in formal theological institutes.[7] The KJV was the third translation into English approved by the Church of England. The first had been the Great Bible in 1535, and the second had been the Bishops Bible in 1568.[8] Meanwhile in Switzerland the first generation of Protestant Reformers had produced the Geneva Bible[9] which was published in 1560[10] which proved more popular among the laity. However, the footnotes represented a Calvinistic Puritanism that was too radical for James. James convened the Hampton Court Conference in January 1604, where a new English version was conceived in response to the problems of the earlier translations perceived by the Puritans,[11] a faction of the Church of England.[12] James gave translators instructions intended to ensure the new version would conform to the ecclesiology, and reflect the episcopal structure, of the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy.[13][14] In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin.[15]
Chicago Loop.  The Loop is Chicagos central business district and one of the citys 77 municipally recognized community areas. Located at the center of downtown Chicago[3] on the shores of Lake Michigan, it is the second-largest business district in North America, after Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The world headquarters and regional offices of several global and national businesses, retail establishments, restaurants, hotels, museums, theaters, and libraries—as well as many of Chicagos most famous attractions—are located in the Loop.[4] The district also hosts Chicagos City Hall, the seat of Cook County, offices of the state of Illinois, United States federal offices, as well as several foreign consulates. The intersection of State Street and Madison Street in the Loop is the origin point for the address system on Chicagos street grid, a grid system that has been adopted by numerous cities worldwide. The Loops definition and perceived boundaries have evolved over time. Since the 1920s, the area bounded by the Chicago River to the west and north, Lake Michigan to the east, and Roosevelt Road to the south has been called the Loop. It took its name from a somewhat smaller area, the 35 city blocks bounded on the north by Lake Street, on the west by Wells Street, on the south by Van Buren Street, and on the east by Wabash Avenue—the Union Loop formed by the L in the late 1800s.[5] Similarly, the South Loop and the West Loop historically referred to areas within the Loop proper, but in the 21st century began to refer to the entire Near South and much of the Near West Sides of the city, respectively.[6][7] In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn in what is now the Loop; although earlier settlement was present, this was the first settlement in the area sponsored by the United States federal government. When Chicago and Cook County were incorporated in the 1830s, the area was selected as the site of their respective seats. Originally mixed-use, the neighborhood became increasingly commercial in the 1870s. This process accelerated in the aftermath of the 1871 Great Chicago Fire, which destroyed most of the neighborhoods buildings. Some of the worlds earliest skyscrapers were constructed in the Loop, giving rise to the Chicago School of architecture. By the late 19th century, cable car turnarounds and the Union Loop encircled the area, giving the neighborhood its name. Near the lake, Grant Park, known as Chicagos front yard, is Chicagos oldest park; it was significantly expanded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and houses a number of features and museums. Starting in the 1920s, road improvements for highways were constructed to and into the Loop, perhaps most famously U.S. Route 66 (US 66), which was commissioned in 1926. While dominated by offices and public buildings, its residential population boomed during the latter 20th century and first decades of the 21st, partly due to the development of former rail yards (at one time, the area had six major interurban railroad terminals and land was also needed for extensive rail cargo storage and transfer), industrial building conversions, as well as additional high-rise residences. Since 1950, the Loops resident population has increased in percentage terms the most out of all of Chicagos community areas.
Chicago L.  The Chicago L (short for elevated)[4] is the rapid transit system serving the city of Chicago and some of its surrounding suburbs in the U.S. state of Illinois. Operated by the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA), it is the fourth-largest rapid transit system in the United States in terms of total route length, at 102.8 miles (165.4 km) long as of 2014,[1][note 1] and the third-busiest rapid transit system in the United States after the New York City Subway and the Washington Metro.[5] As of January 2024, the L had 1,480 rail cars operating across eight different routes on 224.1 miles of track. CTA trains make about 1,888 trips each day servicing 146 train stations.[6] In 2024, the system had 127,463,400 rides, or about 422,200 per weekday in the second quarter of 2025.[7] The L provides 24-hour service on the Red and Blue Lines, making Chicago, New York City, and Copenhagen the only three cities in the world to offer 24-hour train service on some of their lines throughout their respective city limits.[note 2]  The oldest sections of the Chicago L started operations in 1892,[8] making it the second-oldest rapid transit system in the Americas, after New York Citys elevated lines. The L gained its name from el because large parts of the system run on elevated track.[9][10] Portions of the network are in subway tunnels, at grade level, or in open cuts.[1] The L has been credited for fostering the growth of Chicagos dense city core that is one of the citys distinguishing features.[11] And according to urban engineer Christof Speiler, the system stands out in the United States because it continued to invest in services even through the post-World-War era growth of the expressway; its general use of alleyways instead of streets throughout its history, and expressway medians after the war, better knit the system into the city, and in pioneering ways.[12] It consists of eight rapid transit lines laid out in a spoke–hub distribution paradigm focusing transit towards the Loop. In a 2005 poll, Chicago Tribune readers voted it one of the seven wonders of Chicago, behind the lakefront and Wrigley Field, and ahead of Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower), the Water Tower, the University of Chicago, and the Museum of Science and Industry.[13]
Hoodening.  Hoodening (/ʊd.ɛnɪŋ/), also spelled hodening and oodening, is a folk custom found in Kent, a county in South East England. The tradition entails the use of a wooden hobby horse known as a hooden horse that is mounted on a pole and carried by a person hidden under a sackcloth. Originally, the tradition was restricted to the area of East Kent, although in the twentieth century it spread into neighbouring West Kent. It represents a regional variation of a hooded animal tradition that appears in various forms throughout Britain and Ireland. As recorded from the eighteenth to the early twentieth centuries, hoodening was a tradition performed at Christmas time by groups of farm labourers. They would form into teams to accompany the hooden horse on its travels around the local area, and although the makeup of such groups varied, they typically included someone to carry the horse, a leader, a man in female clothing known as a Mollie, and several musicians. The team would then carry the hooden horse to local houses and shops, where they would expect payment for their appearance. Although this practice is extinct, in the present the hooden horse is incorporated into various Kentish mummers plays and Morris dances that take place at different times of the year. The origins of the hoodening tradition, and the original derivation of the term hooden, remain subject to academic debate. An early suggestion was that hooden was related to the Anglo-Saxon pre-Christian god Woden (Odin), and that the tradition therefore originated with pre-Christian religious practices in the early medieval Kingdom of Kent. This idea has not found support from historians or folklorists studying the tradition. A more widely accepted explanation among scholars is that the term hooden relates to hooded, a reference to the sackcloth worn by the person carrying the horse. The absence of late medieval references to such practices and the geographic dispersal of the various British hooded animal traditions—among them the Mari Lwyd of south Wales, the Broad of the Cotswolds, and the Old Ball, Old Tup, and Old Horse of northern England—have led to suggestions that they derive from the regionalised popularisation of the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century fashion for hobby horses among the social elite. The earliest textual reference to the hoodening tradition comes from the first half of the eighteenth century. Scattered references to it appeared over the next century and a half, many of which considered it to be a declining tradition that had died out in many parts of Kent. Aware of this decline, in the early twentieth century the folklorist and historian Percy Maylam documented what survived of the tradition and traced its appearances in historical documents, publishing his findings as The Hooden Horse in 1909. Although deemed extinct at the time of the First World War, the custom was revived in an altered form during the mid-twentieth century, when the use of the hooden horse was incorporated into some modern Kentish folk traditions.
Culture.  Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/ KUL-chər) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these groups.[1] Culture often originates from or is attributed to a specific region or location. Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies. A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group. Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.[2] Thus in military culture, valor is counted as a typical behavior for an individual, and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group. Cultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.
Trick-or-treating. Trick-or-treating is a traditional Halloween custom for children and adults in some countries. During the evening of Halloween, on October 31, people in costumes travel from house to house, asking for treats with the phrase trick or treat. The treat is some form of confectionery, usually candy/sweets, although in some cultures money is given instead. The trick refers to a threat, usually idle, to perform mischief on the resident(s) or their property if no treat is given. Some people signal that they are willing to hand out treats by putting  up Halloween decorations outside their doors; houses may also leave their porch lights on as a universal indicator that they have candy; some simply leave treats available on their porches for the children to take freely, on the honor system. The history of trick-or-treating traces back to Scotland and Ireland, where the tradition of guising, going house to house at Halloween and putting on a small performance to be rewarded with food or treats, goes back at least as far as the 16th century, as does the tradition of people wearing costumes at Halloween. There are many accounts from 19th-century Scotland and Ireland of people going house to house in costume at Halloween, reciting verses in exchange for food, and sometimes warning of misfortune if they were not welcomed.[1][2][3] In North America, the earliest known occurrence of guising is from 1898, when children were recorded as having done this in the province of British Columbia, Canada.[4] The interjection trick or treat! was then first recorded in the Canadian province of Ontario in 1917.[5] While going house to house in costume has long been popular among the Scots and Irish, it is only in the 2000s that saying trick or treat has become common in Scotland and Ireland.[2] Prior to this, children in Ireland would commonly say help the Halloween party at the doors of homeowners.[2] The activity is prevalent in the Anglospheric countries of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States and Canada. It also has extended into Mexico. In northwestern and central Mexico, the practice is called calaverita (Spanish diminutive for calavera, skull in English), and instead of trick or treat, the children ask, ¿Me da mi calaverita? ([Can you] give me my little skull?), where a calaverita is a small skull made of sugar or chocolate. Traditions similar to the modern custom of trick-or-treating extend all the way back to classical antiquity, although it is extremely unlikely that any of them are directly related to the modern custom. The ancient Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis records in his book The Deipnosophists that, in ancient times, the Greek island of Rhodes had a custom in which children would go from door-to-door dressed as swallows, singing a song, which demanded the owners of the house to give them food and threatened to cause mischief if the owners of the house refused.[6][7][8] This tradition was claimed to have been started by the Rhodian lawgiver Cleobulus.[9] Starting as far back as the 15th century, among Christians, there had been a custom of sharing soul-cakes at Allhallowtide (October 31 through November 2).[11][12] People would visit houses and take soul-cakes, either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for their souls.[13] Later, people went from parish to parish at Halloween, begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as this: Soul, souls, for a soul-cake; Pray you good mistress, a soul-cake![14] They typically asked for mercy on all Christian souls for a soul-cake.[15] It was known as Souling and was recorded in parts of Britain, Flanders, southern Germany, and Austria.[16] Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of puling [whimpering or whining] like a beggar at Hallowmas.[17] In western England, mostly in the counties bordering Wales, souling was common.[12] According to one 19th century English writer parties of children, dressed up in fantastic costume […] went round to the farm houses and cottages, singing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as soal-cakes), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give them.[18] In England, souling remained an important part of Allhallowtide observances until the 19th century, in both Protestant and Catholic areas.[19][20]
Mummers play.  Mummers plays are folk plays performed by troupes of amateur actors, traditionally all male, known as mummers or guisers (also by local names such as rhymers, pace-eggers, soulers, tipteerers, wrenboys, and galoshins). Historically, mummers plays consisted of informal groups of costumed community members that visited from house to house on various holidays.[1][2][3] The  modern term refers especially to a play in which a number of characters are called on stage, two of whom engage in a combat, the loser being revived by a doctor character. This play is sometimes found associated with a sword dance though both also exist in Britain independently. Plays may be performed in the street or during visits to houses and pubs. They are generally performed seasonally, often at Christmas, Easter or on Plough Monday, more rarely on Halloween or All Souls Day, and often with a collection of money. The practice may be compared with other customs such as those of Halloween, Bonfire Night, wassailing, pace egging and first-footing at new year.[4] Although the term mummer has been in use since the Middle Ages, no scripts or details survive from that era and the term may have been used loosely to describe performers of several different kinds. The earliest evidence of mummers plays as they are known today is from the mid- to late 18th century. Mummers plays should not be confused with the earlier mystery plays. Mumming spread from the British Isles to a number of former British colonies. Ireland has its own unique history of mummers play, and adopted the term for the tradition from the English language.[5]
List of municipalities in Illinois.   Illinois is a state located in the Midwestern United States. According to the 2020 United States census, Illinois is the 6th most populous state with 12,812,508 inhabitants but the 24th largest by land area spanning 55,499.0 square miles (143,742 km2) of land.[1] Illinois is divided into 102 counties and, as of 2020, contained 1,300 municipalities consisting of cities, towns, and villages. The most populous city is Chicago with 2,746,388 residents while the least populous is Valley City with 14 residents.[2] The largest municipality by land area is Chicago, which spans 227.73 sq mi (589.8 km2), while the smallest is Irwin at 0.045 sq mi (0.12 km2).[2]
Family law (disambiguation). Family law is an area of the law that deals with family matters and domestic relations. Family Law may also refer to:
The Decemberists. The Decemberists are an American indie rock band from Portland, Oregon, formed in 2000. The band consists of Colin Meloy (lead vocals, guitar), Chris Funk (guitar, multi-instrumentalist), Jenny Conlee (piano, keyboards, accordion, backing vocals), Nate Query (bass), and John Moen (drums). As of 2024[update], the band has released nine studio albums with their lyrics often focusing on historical incidents and folklore. Audience participation is a part of their live performances, typically during encores. The band stages whimsical reenactments of sea battles and other centuries-old events, typically of regional interest, or acts out songs with members of the crowd. In 2011,  the track Down by the Water from their album The King Is Dead was nominated for Best Rock Song at the 54th Grammy Awards. The Decemberists formed in 2000 when Colin Meloy left his band Tarkio in Montana and moved to Portland, Oregon. There he met Nate Query, who introduced Meloy to Jenny Conlee (they had played together in the band Calobo) and the three scored a silent film together. Playing a solo show prior to meeting Query, Meloy met Chris Funk. Funk was a fan of Tarkio and played pedal steel on the first two Decemberists releases, not officially becoming a member until the third effort. The bands first drummer, Ezra Holbrook, was replaced by Rachel Blumberg after Castaways and Cutouts, who in turn was replaced by John Moen after Picaresque. The bands name refers to the Decembrist revolt, an 1825 insurrection in Imperial Russia. Meloy has stated that the name is also meant to invoke the drama and melancholy of the month of December.[1] 5 Songs, the bands debut extended play, was self-released in 2001. The members at that time played for several hours in a McMenamins hotel the night before to raise the money needed to record in the studio the next day.[2] This originally served as a demo tape and the five songs on it (minus Apology Song) were recorded in under two hours. After releasing its first full record, Castaways and Cutouts, on Hush Records, the group moved onto the Kill Rock Stars recording label. After the re-release of Castaways, Her Majesty the Decemberists was released in 2003. In 2004, the band released The Tain, an eighteen-and-a-half minute single track based on the Irish mythological epic Táin Bó Cúailnge. The bands final album with Kill Rock Stars was Picaresque, which was recorded in a former church.
Soul cake.  A soul cake, also known as a soulmass-cake, is a small round cake with sweet spices, which resembles a shortbread biscuit. It is traditionally made for Halloween, All Saints Day, and All Souls Day to commemorate the dead in many Christian traditions.[1][2] The cakes, often simply referred to as souls, are given out to soulers (mainly consisting of children and the poor) who go from door to door during the days of Allhallowtide, singing and saying prayers for the souls of the givers and their friends,[1] especially the souls of deceased relatives, thought to be in the intermediate state between Earth and Heaven.[3] In England, the practice dates to the medieval period,[4] and it continued there until the 1930s by both Protestant and Catholic Christians.[5][6][1] In Sheffield and Cheshire, the custom has continued into modern times. In Lancashire and in the North-east of England, soul cakes were known as Harcakes, a kind of thin parkin.[7] The practice of giving and eating soul cakes continues in some countries today, such as Portugal (where it is known as Pão-por-Deus and occurs on All Saints Day and All Souls Day), as well as the Philippines (where it is known as Pangangaluwa and occurs on All Hallows Eve).[8][9] In other countries, souling is seen as the origin of the practice of trick-or-treating.[10] In the United States, some churches, during Allhallowtide, have invited people to come receive sweets from them and have offered to pray for the souls of their friends, relatives or even pets as they do so.[11] Among Catholics and Lutherans, some parishioners have their soul cakes blessed by a priest before being distributed; in exchange, the children promise to pray for the souls of the deceased relatives of the giver during the month of November, which is a month dedicated especially to praying for the Holy Souls. Any leftover soul cakes are shared among the distributing family or given to the poor. The tradition of giving soul cakes was celebrated in Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages,[12] although similar practices for the souls of the dead were found as far south as Italy.[13] The cakes are usually filled with allspice, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger or other sweet spices, raisins or currants, and before baking are topped with the mark of a cross to signify that these were alms. They were traditionally set out with glasses of wine, an offering for the dead as in early Christian tradition,[14] and either on All Hallows Eve (Halloween),[15] All Saints Day or All Souls Day, children would go souling,[16] or ritually begging for cakes door to door.[citation needed]
Winter solstice.  The winter solstice, or hibernal solstice, occurs when either of Earths poles reaches its maximum tilt away from the Sun. This happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere (Northern and Southern). For that hemisphere, the winter solstice is the day with the shortest period of daylight and longest night of the year, and when the Sun is at its lowest daily maximum elevation in the sky.[7] Each polar region experiences continuous darkness or twilight around its winter solstice. The opposite event is the summer solstice. The winter solstice occurs during the hemispheres winter. In the Northern Hemisphere, this is the December solstice (December 21 or 22) and in the Southern Hemisphere, this is the June solstice (June 20 or 21). Although the winter solstice itself lasts only a moment, the term also refers to the day on which it occurs. Traditionally, in many temperate regions, the winter solstice is seen as the middle of winter; midwinter is another name for the winter solstice, although it carries other meanings as well. Other names are the extreme of winter, or the shortest day. Since prehistory, the winter solstice has been a significant time of year in many cultures and has been marked by festivals and rites.[8] This is because it is the point when the shortening of daylight hours is reversed and the daytime begins to lengthen again. In parts of Europe it was seen as the symbolic death and rebirth of the Sun. Some ancient monuments such as Newgrange, Stonehenge, and Cahokia Woodhenge are aligned with the sunrise or sunset on the winter solstice. There is evidence that the winter solstice was deemed an important moment of the annual cycle for some cultures as far back as the Neolithic (New Stone Age). Astronomical events were often used to guide farming activities, such as the mating of animals, the sowing of crops and the monitoring of winter reserves of food. Livestock were slaughtered so they would not have to be fed during the winter, so it was almost the only time of year when a plentiful supply of fresh meat was available.[9]
Album.  An album is a collection of audio recordings (e.g., music) issued on a medium such as compact disc (CD), vinyl (record), audio tape (like 8-track or cassette), or digital. Albums of recorded sound were developed in the early 20th century as individual 78 rpm records (78s) collected in a bound book resembling a photo album; this format evolved after 1948 into single vinyl long-playing (LP) records played at 33+1⁄3 rpm. The album was the dominant form of recorded music expression and consumption from the mid-1960s to the early 21st century, a period known as the album era.[1] Vinyl LPs are still issued, though album sales in the 21st-century have mostly focused on CD and MP3 formats. The 8-track tape was the first tape format widely used alongside vinyl from 1965 until being phased out by 1983, being gradually supplanted by the cassette tape throughout the 1970s and early 1980s; the popularity of the cassette reached its peak during the late 1980s before sharply declining during the 1990s. The cassette had largely disappeared by the first decade of the 2000s. Most albums are recorded in a studio,[2] making them studio albums, although they may also be recorded in a concert venue, at home, in the field, or a mix of places. The time frame for completely recording an album varies between a few hours to several years. This process usually requires several takes with different parts recorded separately, and then brought or mixed together. Recordings that are done in one take without overdubbing are termed live, even when done in a studio. Studios are built to absorb sound, eliminating reverberation, to assist in mixing different takes; other locations, such as concert venues and some live rooms, have reverberation, which creates a live sound.[3] Recordings, including live, may contain editing, sound effects, voice adjustments, etc. With modern recording technology, artists can be recorded in separate rooms or at separate times while listening to the other parts using headphones; with each part recorded as a separate track. An album is generally considered to contain more tracks than an extended play (EP). Album covers and liner notes are used, and sometimes additional information is provided, such as analysis of the recording, and lyrics or librettos.[4][5] Historically, the term album was applied to a collection of various items housed in a book format. In musical usage, the word was used for collections of short pieces of printed music from the early nineteenth century.[6] Later, collections of related 78s were bundled in book-like albums[7] (one side of a 78 rpm record could hold only about 3.5 minutes of sound). When LP records were introduced, a collection of pieces or songs on a single record was called an album; the word was extended to other recording media such as compact disc, MiniDisc, compact audio cassette, 8-track tape and digital albums as they were introduced.[8]
Types of marriages.  The type, functions, and characteristics of marriage vary from culture to culture, and can change over time. In general there are two types: civil marriage and religious marriage, and typically marriages employ a combination of both (religious marriages must often be licensed and recognized by the state, and conversely civil marriages, while not sanctioned under religious law, are nevertheless respected). Marriages between people of differing religions are called interfaith marriages, while marital conversion, a more controversial concept than interfaith marriage, refers to the religious conversion of one partner to the others religion for sake of satisfying a religious requirement. In the Americas and Europe, in the 21st century, legally recognized marriages are formally presumed to be monogamous (although some pockets of society accept polygamy socially, if not legally, and some couples choose to enter into open marriages). In these countries, divorce is relatively simple and socially accepted. In the West, the prevailing view toward marriage today is that it is based on a legal covenant recognizing emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily. In the West, marriage has evolved from a life-time covenant that can only be broken by fault or death to a contract that can be broken by either party at will. Other shifts in Western marriage since World War I include: Outside the West, same-race marriage was illegal in Paraguay before becoming legal.
Legitimacy (criminal law). In law, legitimacy is distinguished from legality (see also color of law). An action can be legal but not legitimate or vice versa it can be legitimate but not legal. Thomas Hilbink suggests that the power to compel obedience to the law, is derived from the power to sway public opinion, to the belief that the law and its agents are legitimate and deserving of this obedience.[1] Where as Tyler says, Legitimacy is ...a psychological property of an authority, institution, or social arrangement, that leads those connected to it to believe that it is appropriate, proper, and just (Tyler, 2006b: 375). Thus viewed, the legal legitimacy is the belief that the law and agents of the law are rightful holders of authority; that they have the right to dictate appropriate behaviour and are entitled to be obeyed; and that laws should be obeyed, simply because, that is the right thing to do (Tyler, 2006a; Tyler, 2006b; cf. Easton, 1965).[2] Peter Kropotkin suggested that acceptance of the rule of law developed in response to the rampant abuse of authority by the nobility; post advent of the middle class after the French Revolution, strict adherence to the law was conceived as the ultimate equalizer within society. “Whatever this law might be,” Kropotkin writes, “it promised to affect lord and peasant alike; it proclaimed the equality of rich and poor before the judge”.[1] To establish that a government action can be legal whilst not being legitimate; e.g., the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allowed the United States to wage war against Vietnam without a formal declaration of war. It is also possible for a government action to be legitimate without being legal; e.g., a pre-emptive war, a military junta. An example of such matters arises when legitimate institutions clash in a constitutional crisis.
Music genre.  A music genre is a conventional category that identifies some pieces of music as belonging to a shared tradition or set of conventions.[1] Genre is to be distinguished from musical form and musical style, although in practice these terms are sometimes used interchangeably.[2] Music can be divided into genres in numerous ways, sometimes broadly and with polarity, e.g., popular music as opposed to art music or folk music, or, as another example, religious music and secular music. Often, however, classification draws on the proliferation of derivative subgenres, fusion genres, and microgenres that has started to accrue, e.g., screamo, country pop, and mumble rap, respectively. The artistic nature of music means that these classifications are often subjective and controversial, and some may overlap. As genres evolve, novel music is sometimes lumped into existing categories. Douglass M. Green distinguishes between genre and form in his book Form in Tonal Music. He lists madrigal, motet, canzona, ricercar, and dance as examples of genres from the Renaissance period. To further clarify the meaning of genre, Green writes about Beethovens Op. 61 and Mendelssohns Op. 64 . He explains that both are identical in genre and are violin concertos that have different forms. However, Mozarts Rondo for Piano, K. 511, and the Agnus Dei from his Mass, K. 317, are quite different in genre but happen to be similar in form.[3] In 1982, Franco Fabbri proposed a definition of the musical genre that is now considered to be normative:[4] musical genre is a set of musical events (real or possible) whose course is governed by a definite set of socially accepted rules, where a musical event  can be defined as any type of activity performed around any type of event involving sound.[5]
Common-law marriage. Common-law marriage, also known as non-ceremonial marriage,[1][2] sui iuris marriage, informal marriage, de facto marriage, more uxorio or marriage by habit and repute, is a marriage that results from the parties agreement to consider themselves married, followed by cohabitation, rather than through a statutorily defined process. Not all jurisdictions permit common law marriage, but will typically respect the validity of such a marriage lawfully entered in another state or country. The original concept of a common-law marriage is one considered valid by both partners, but not formally recorded with a state or religious registry, nor celebrated in a formal civil or religious service. In effect, the act of the couple representing themselves to others as being married and organizing their relation as if they were married, means they are married. The term common-law marriage (or similar) has wider informal use, often to denote relations that are not legally recognized as marriages. It is often used colloquially or by the media to refer to cohabiting couples, regardless of any legal rights or religious implications involved. This can create confusion in regard to the term and to the legal rights of unmarried partners (in addition to the actual status of the couple referred to).[3] Common-law marriage is a marriage that takes legal effect without the prerequisites of a marriage license or participation in a marriage ceremony. The marriage occurs when two people who are legally capable of being married, and who intend to be married, live together as a married couple and hold themselves out to the world as a married couple.[4] The term common-law marriage is often used incorrectly to describe various types of couple relationships, such as cohabitation (whether or not registered) or other legally formalized relations. Although these interpersonal relationships are often called common-law marriage, they differ from its original meaning in that they are not legally recognized as marriages, but may be a parallel interpersonal status such as a domestic partnership, registered partnership, common law partner conjugal union, or civil union. Non-marital relationship contracts are not necessarily recognized from one jurisdiction to another.
Indie rock.  Indie rock is a subgenre of rock music that originated in the United Kingdom, United States and New Zealand in the early to mid-1980s. Although the term was originally used to describe rock music released through independent record labels, by the 1990s it became more widely associated with the music such bands produced. The sound of indie rock has its origins in the UK DIY music of the Buzzcocks, Desperate Bicycles[1] and Television Personalities,[2][3] the New Zealand Dunedin sound of the Chills, Tall Dwarfs,[4] the Clean[5] and the Verlaines, alongside Australias The Go-Betweens[6] and early 1980s college rock radio stations who would frequently play jangle pop bands like the Smiths and R.E.M. The genre solidified itself during the mid–1980s with NMEs C86 cassette in the United Kingdom and the underground success of Sonic Youth, Dinosaur Jr. and Unrest in the United States. During the 1990s, indie rock bands like Sonic Youth, the Pixies and Radiohead all released albums on major labels and subgenres like slowcore, Midwest emo, slacker rock and space rock began. By this time, indie had evolved to refer to bands whose music was released on independent record labels, in addition to the record labels themselves. As the decade progressed many individual local scenes developed their own distinct takes on the genre: baggy in Manchester; grebo in Stourbridge and Leicester; and shoegaze in London and the Thames Valley. During the 1990s, the mainstream success of grunge and Britpop, two movements influenced by indie rock, brought increased attention to the genre and saw record labels use their independent status as a marketing tactic. This led to a split within indie rock: one side conforming to mainstream radio; the other becoming increasingly experimental. By this point, indie rock referred to the musical style rather than ties to the independent music scene. In the 2000s, indie rock reentered the mainstream through the garage rock and post-punk revival and the influence of the Strokes and the Libertines. This success was exacerbated in the middle of the decade by Bloc Party, Arctic Monkeys and the Killers, while indie rock further proliferated into the 2000s blog rock era and the British landfill indie movement. Lately weve been hearing the tag 90s indie rock used to describe bands ranging from Waxahatchee to Speedy Ortiz to Yuck, and while our brain immediately turns a switch that associates the phrase with sounds like Pavement, 90s indie rock was really as eclectic and undefinable as, well, contemporary indie rock.
English and Welsh bastardy laws.  In the law of England and Wales, a bastard (also historically called whoreson, although both of these terms have largely dropped from common usage)  is an illegitimate child, one whose parents were not married at the time of their birth. Until 1926, there was no possibility of post factum legitimisation of a bastard. The word bastard is from the Old French bastard, which in turn was from Medieval Latin bastardus.  In the modern French bâtard, the circumflex (â) merely represents the loss of the s over time. According to some sources, bastardus may have come from the word bastum, which means pack saddle,[1]  the connection possibly being the idea that a bastard might be the child of a passing traveller (who would have a pack saddle).  In support of this is the Old French phrase fils de bast loosely meaning child of the saddle, which had a similar meaning.[1] A more defined possibility is that such a traveller was a member of the corps de bast, referring to the division of an army who arrived in town with their pack saddles the night before the troops, and left the day after, so that they may deal with all of the provisions of an army, and even do advanced scouting. This meant that for two days, they had unfettered access to all of the women in town, and were therefore the ones most likely to be the cause of the towns illegitimate offspring. (This explanation is apocryphal, but no attempt at dispute seems to have been proffered.) Bastardy was not a status, like villeinage, but the fact of being a bastard had a number of legal effects on an individual.  One exception to the general principle that a bastard could not inherit occurred when the eldest son (who would otherwise be heir) was born a bastard but the second son was born after the parents were married. The Provisions of Merton 1235 (20 Hen. 3 c. IX), otherwise known as the Special Bastardy Act 1235, provided that except in the case of real actions the fact of bastardy could be proved by trial by jury, rather than necessitating a bishops certificate.
Concubinage.  Concubinage is an interpersonal and sexual relationship between two people in which the couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage.[1] Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar, but mutually exclusive.[2] During the early stages of European colonialism, administrators often encouraged European men to practice concubinage to discourage them from paying prostitutes for sex (which could spread venereal disease) and from homosexuality. Colonial administrators also believed that having an intimate relationship with a native woman would enhance white mens understanding of native culture and would provide them with essential domestic labor. The latter was critical, as it meant white men did not require wives from the metropole, hence did not require a family wage. Colonial administrators eventually discouraged the practice when these liaisons resulted in offspring who threatened colonial rule by producing a mixed race class. This political threat eventually prompted colonial administrators to encourage white women to travel to the colonies, where they contributed to the colonial project, while at the same time contributing to domesticity and the separation of public and private spheres.[3] In China, until the 20th century, concubinage was a formal and institutionalized practice that upheld concubines rights and obligations.[4] A concubine could be freeborn or of slave origin, and her experience could vary tremendously according to her masters whim.[4] During the Mongol conquests, both foreign royals[5] and captured women were taken as concubines.[6] Concubinage was also common in Meiji Japan as a status symbol.[7] Many Middle Eastern societies used concubinage for reproduction.[8] The practice of a barren wife giving her husband a slave as a concubine is recorded in the Code of Hammurabi.[8] The children of such relationships would be regarded as legitimate.[8] Such concubinage was also widely practiced in the premodern Muslim world, and many of the rulers of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire were born out of such relationships.[9] Throughout Africa, from Egypt to South Africa, slave concubinage resulted in racially mixed populations.[10] The practice declined as a result of the abolition of slavery.[9]
Spanish Netherlands. The Spanish Netherlands (Spanish: Países Bajos Españoles; Dutch: Spaanse Nederlanden; French: Pays-Bas espagnols; German: Spanische Niederlande; historically in Spanish: Flandes, the name Flanders was used as a pars pro toto)[4] were a collection of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries, held in personal union by the Spanish Habsburgs, but not annexed to the Spanish Crown, thus encompassing the second period in history of the Habsburg Netherlands, that lasted from 1556 to 1714. This region comprised most of the modern states of Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as parts of northern France, the southern Netherlands, and western Germany, with the capital being Brussels. The Army of Flanders was given the task of defending the territory. The Imperial fiefs in the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of the Habsburg Netherlands, which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556.  Spanish hegemony in Netherlands was solidified following their victory in the Fall of Antwerp during the Eighty Years War. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581, the remainder of the area stayed under Spanish rule until the War of the Spanish Succession. A common administration of fiefs in the Low Countries, centered in the Duchy of Brabant, already existed under the rule of the Burgundian Duke Philip the Good with the implementation of a stadtholder and the first convocation of the States General of the Netherlands in 1464.[5] His granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477.[6] After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria, the States insisted on their privileges, culminating in a Hook rebellion in Holland and Flemish revolts. Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome, husband of Joanna of Castile, could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493.[7][8] Philip as well as his son and successor Charles V retained the title of a Duke of Burgundy referring to their Burgundian inheritance, but not having the Duchy of Burgundy in their possession, since it was taken by the French already in 1477. Only the Free County of Burgundy, in the Holy Roman Empire, remained in Habsburg rule, since 1493. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their hereditary lands both in historical Burgundy and the Low Countries (e.g. in the name of the Imperial Burgundian Circle established in 1512), actually until 1795, when the Austrian Netherlands were lost to the French Republic. The Governor-general of the Netherlands was responsible for the administration of the Habsburg lands in the Low Countries. Charles V was born and raised in the Low Countries and often stayed at the Palace of Coudenberg in Brussels. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles V declared the Seventeen Provinces a united and indivisible Habsburg dominion. Between 1555 and 1556, the House of Habsburg split into an Austrian and a Spanish branch as a consequence of Charless abdications: the Netherlands were left to his son Philip II of Spain, while his brother King Ferdinand I succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor. The Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs.
Political legitimacy. In political science, legitimacy is a concept concerning the right of an authority, usually a governing law or a regime, to rule the actions of a society.[1][2] In political systems where this is not the case, unpopular regimes survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, influential elite.[3] In Chinese political philosophy, since the historical period of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), the political legitimacy of a ruler and government was derived from the Mandate of Heaven, and unjust rulers who lost said mandate therefore lost the right to rule the people. In moral philosophy, the term legitimacy is often positively interpreted as the normative status conferred by a governed people upon their governors institutions, offices, and actions, based upon the belief that their governments actions are appropriate uses of power by a legally constituted government.[4] The Enlightenment-era British social  John Locke (1632–1704) said that political legitimacy derives from popular explicit and implicit consent of the governed: The argument of the [Second] Treatise is that the government is not legitimate unless it is carried on with the consent of the governed.[5] The German political philosopher Dolf Sternberger said that [l]egitimacy is the foundation of such governmental power as is exercised, both with a consciousness on the governments part that it has a right to govern, and with some recognition by the governed of that right.[6] The American political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset said that legitimacy also involves the capacity of a political system to engender and maintain the belief that existing political institutions are the most appropriate and proper ones for the society.[7] The American political scientist Robert A. Dahl explained legitimacy as a reservoir: so long as the water is at a given level, political stability is maintained, if it falls below the required level, political legitimacy is endangered.[3] Legitimacy is a value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper.[8] In political science, legitimacy has traditionally been understood as the popular acceptance and recognition by the public of the authority of a governing régime, whereby authority has political power through consent and mutual understandings, not coercion. The three types of political legitimacy described by German sociologist Max Weber, in Politics as Vocation, are traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal: More recent scholarship distinguishes between multiple other types of legitimacy in an effort to draw distinctions between various approaches to the construct. These include empirical legitimacy versus normative legitimacy, instrumental versus substantive legitimacy, popular legitimacy, regulative legitimacy, and procedural legitimacy.[10][11][12] Types of legitimacy draw distinctions that account for different sources of legitimacy, different frameworks for evaluating legitimacy, or different objects of legitimacy.[13][12]
Novella.  A novella is a narrative prose fiction whose length is shorter than most novels, but longer than most novelettes and short stories. The English word novella derives from the Italian novella meaning a short story related to true (or apparently so) facts. The Italian term is a feminine of novello, which means new, similarly to the English word news.[1] Merriam-Webster defines a novella as a work of fiction intermediate in length and complexity between a short story and a novel.[1] There is disagreement regarding the number of pages or words necessary for a story to be considered a novella, a short story or a novel.[2] The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association defines a novellas word count to be between 17,500 and 40,000 words;[3][4] at 250 words per page, this equates to 70 to 160 pages. See below for definitions used by other organisations. The novella as a literary genre began developing in the Italian literature of the early Renaissance, principally by Giovanni Boccaccio, author of The Decameron (1353).[5] The Decameron featured 100 tales (named novellas) told by ten people (seven women and three men) fleeing the Black Death, by escaping from Florence to the Fiesole hills in 1348. This structure was then imitated by subsequent authors, notably the French queen Marguerite de Navarre, whose Heptaméron (1559) included 72 original French tales and was modeled after the structure of The Decameron. The Italian genre novella grew out of a rich tradition of medieval short narrative forms. It took its first major form in the anonymous late 13th century Libro di novelle et di bel parlar gentile, known as Il Novellino, and reached its culmination with The Decameron. Followers of Boccaccio such as Giovanni Fiorentino, Franco Sacchetti, Giovanni Sercambi and Simone de Prodenzani continued the tradition into the early 15th century. The Italian novella influenced many later writers, including Shakespeare.[6]
Hardcover. A hardcover, hard cover, or hardback (also known as hardbound, and sometimes as casebound[1]) book is one bound with rigid protective covers (typically of binders board or heavy paperboard covered with buckram or other cloth, heavy paper, or occasionally leather).[1] It has a flexible, sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened.[1] Modern hardcovers may have the pages glued onto the spine in much the same way as paperbacks.[1] Following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk. Hardcover books are often printed on acid-free paper, and they are much more durable than paperbacks, which have flexible, easily damaged paper covers.  Hardcover books are marginally more costly to manufacture.  Hardcovers are frequently protected by artistic dust jackets, but a jacketless alternative has increased in popularity: these paper-over-board or jacketless hardcover bindings forgo the dust jacket in favor of printing the cover design directly onto the board binding.[2][3] If brisk sales are anticipated, a hardcover edition of a book is typically released first, followed by a trade paperback edition (same format as hardcover) the next year. Some publishers publish paperback originals if slow hardback sales are anticipated. For very popular books these sales cycles may be extended, and followed by a mass market paperback edition typeset in a more compact size and printed on thinner, less hardy paper. This is intended to, in part, prolong the life of the immediate buying boom that occurs for some best sellers: After the attention to the book has subsided, a lower-cost version in the paperback, is released to sell further copies. In the past the release of a paperback edition was one year after the hardback, but by the early 21st century paperbacks were released six months after the hardback by some publishers.[4] It is very unusual for a book that was first published in paperback to be followed by a hardback. One example is the novel The Judgment of Paris by Gore Vidal, which had its revised edition of 1961 first published in paperback, and later in hardcover.[5] Hardcover books are usually sold at higher prices than comparable paperbacks. Books for the general public are usually printed in hardback only for authors who are expected to be successful, or as a precursor to the paperback to predict sale levels; however, many academic books are often only published in hardcover editions. Hardcovers usually consist of a page block, two boards, and a cloth or heavy paper covering.[1] The pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, and it too is covered by the cloth.[1] A paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is usually put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. Dust jackets serve to protect the underlying cover from wear. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is generally a blurb, or a summary of the book. The back flap is where the biography of the author can be found. Reviews are often placed on the back of the jacket. Many modern bestselling hardcover books use a partial cloth cover, with a cloth-covered board on the spine only, and only boards covering the rest of the book.
Paperback.  A paperback (softcover, softback) book is one with a thick paper or paperboard cover, also known as wrappers, and often held together with glue rather than stitches or staples. In contrast, hardback (hardcover) books are bound with cardboard covered with cloth, leather, paper, or plastic. Inexpensive books bound in paper have existed since at least the 19th century in such forms as pamphlets, yellowbacks and dime novels.[a] Modern paperbacks can be differentiated from one another by size. In the United States, there are mass-market paperbacks and larger, more durable trade paperbacks. In the United Kingdom, there are A-format, B-format, and the largest C-format sizes.[1] Paperback editions of books are issued when a publisher decides to release a book in a low-cost format. Lower-quality paper, glued (rather than stapled or sewn) bindings, and the lack of a hard cover may contribute to the lower cost of paperbacks. In the early days of modern paperbacks, the 1930s and 1940s, they were sold as a cheaper, less permanent, and more convenient alternative to traditional hardcover books, as the name of the first American paperback publisher, Pocket Books, indicates. In addition, the Pocket Books edition of Wuthering Heights, one of the first ten books it published in 1939, emphasized the impermanence of paperbacks by telling readers: if you enjoyed it so much you may wish to own it in a more permanent edition, they could return the 25 cent book to Pocket Books with an additional 70 cents and it would send them a copy of the 95 cent Modern Library edition substantially bound in durable cloth.[2] Since the mid-20th century, paperbacks can also be the preferred medium when a book is not expected to be a major seller and the publisher wishes to release the book without a large investment. Examples include many novels and newer editions or reprintings of older books.
Cohabitation.  Cohabitation is an arrangement where people who are not legally married live together as a couple. They are often involved in a romantic or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis. Such arrangements have become increasingly common in Western countries since the late 20th century, led by changing social views, especially regarding marriage. The term dates from the mid 16th century, being used with this meaning as early as 1530.[1] Cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world. In Europe, the Scandinavian countries began this trend, although many countries have since followed.[3] Mediterranean Europe has traditionally been very conservative, with religion playing a strong role. Until the mid-1990s, cohabitation levels remained low in this region, but have since increased;[4] for example, in Portugal the majority of children have been born of unwed parents since 2015, constituting 60% of the total in 2021.[5] In the United States, over the past few decades there has been an increase in unmarried couples cohabiting.[6] Historically, Western countries have been influenced by Christian doctrine on sex, which opposes unmarried cohabitation. As social norms have changed, such beliefs have become less widely held and some Christian denominations view cohabitation as a precursor to marriage.[7] Pope Francis has performed the marriages of cohabiting couples who had children,[8] while former archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams[9] and the archbishop of York John Sentamu have expressed tolerance of cohabitation.[10]
Picaresque novel. The picaresque novel (Spanish: picaresca, from pícaro,  for rogue or rascal) is a genre of prose fiction. It depicts the adventures of a roguish but appealing hero, usually of low social class, who lives by his wits in a corrupt society.[1] Picaresque novels typically adopt the form of an episodic prose narrative[2] with a realistic style. There are often elements of comedy and satire. The picaresque genre began with the Spanish novel Lazarillo de Tormes[3] (1554), which was published anonymously during the Spanish Golden Age because of its anticlerical content.  Literary works from Imperial Rome published during the 1st–2nd century AD, such as Satyricon[3] by Petronius and The Golden Ass by Apuleius had a relevant influence on the picaresque genre and are considered predecessors. Other notable early Spanish contributors to the genre included Mateo Alemáns Guzmán de Alfarache (1599–1604) and Francisco de Quevedos El Buscón (1626). Some other ancient influences of the picaresque genre include Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence. The Golden Ass by Apuleius nevertheless remains, according to various scholars such as F. W. Chandler, A. Marasso, T. Somerville and T. Bodenmüller, the primary antecedent influence for the picaresque genre.[4] Subsequently, following the example of Spanish writers, the genre flourished throughout Europe for more than 200 years and it continues to have an influence on modern literature and fiction. According to the traditional view of Thrall and Hibbard (first published in 1936), seven qualities distinguish the picaresque novel or narrative form, all or some of which an author may employ for effect:[5] In the English-speaking world, the term picaresque is often used loosely to refer to novels that contain some elements of this genre; e.g. an episodic recounting of adventures on the road.[6] The term is also sometimes used to describe works which only contain some of the genres elements, such as Miguel de Cervantes Don Quixote (1605 and 1615), or Charles Dickens The Pickwick Papers (1836–1837). The word pícaro first starts to appear in Spain with the current meaning in 1545, though at the time it had no association with literature.[7] The word pícaro does not appear in Lazarillo de Tormes (1554), the novella credited by modern scholars with founding the genre. The expression picaresque novel was coined in 1810.[8][9] Whether it has any validity at all as a generic label in the Spanish sixteenth and seventeenth centuries—Cervantes certainly used picaresque with a different meaning than it has today—has been called into question. There is unresolved debate within Hispanic studies about what the term means, or meant, and which works were, or should be, so called. The only work clearly called picaresque by its contemporaries was Mateo Alemáns Guzmán de Alfarache (1599–1604), which they considered El libro del pícaro (English: The Book of the Pícaro).[10]
Moorabbin, Victoria.  Moorabbin is a suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 15 km south-east of Melbournes Central Business District,[2] located within the City of Kingston local government area. Moorabbin recorded a population of 6,287 at the 2021 census.[3] Most of the eastern side of Moorabbin has been an industrial area since the first development in the mid-1960s. Major businesses with a presence in the area include Coca-Cola. Moorabbin is also well known locally for its residential area built after World War II.[4] The word Moorabbin is believed to have come from the Aboriginal word moorooboon meaning mothers milk, as it was purportedly a place where women and children stayed and rested while the men hunted further afield.[citation needed] In 1846, the first European settlers arrived, brothers John and Richard King, who are thought to have come from the Western Port area.[citation needed]
Nomarch. A nomarch (Ancient Greek: νομάρχης,[1] Ancient Egyptian: ḥrj tp ꜥꜣ Great Chief) was a provincial governor in ancient Egypt; the country was divided into 42 provinces, called nomes (singular spꜣ.t, plural spꜣ.wt). A nomarch was the government official responsible for a nome.[2] More recent studies are more cautious about using this term as it is a Greek word that does not exactly match Ancient Egyptian administrative titles[3] and modern scholars often prefer other, more neural words for describing the heads of the provinces, such as governor.[4] The term nome is derived from Ancient Greek: νομός nomós province, district. Nomarch is derived from νομάρχης nomárkhēs: province + -άρχης ruler. The division of the Egyptian kingdom into nomes can be documented as far back as the reign of Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty in the early Old Kingdom, c. 2670 BCE, and potentially dates even further back to the Predynastic kingdoms of the Nile valley. The earliest topographical lists of the nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt date back to the reign of Nyuserre Ini, of the mid 5th Dynasty, from which time the nomarchs no longer lived at royal capital but stayed in their nomes.[5] The power of the nomarchs grew with the reforms of Nyuserres second successor, Djedkare Isesi, which effectively decentralized the Egyptian state. The post of nomarch then quickly became hereditary, thereby creating a virtual feudal system where local allegiances slowly superseded obedience to the pharaoh. Less than 200 years after Djedkares reign, the nomarchs had become the all-powerful heads of the provinces. At the dawn of the First Intermediate Period, the power of the Pharaohs of the 8th Dynasty had diminished to the extent that they owed their position to the most powerful nomarchs, upon whom they could only bestow titles and honours. The power of the nomarchs remained important during the later royal revival under the impulse of the 11th Dynasty, originally a family of Theban nomarchs. Their power diminished during the subsequent 12th Dynasty, setting the stage for the apex of royal power during the Middle Kingdom.
Monarch (disambiguation). A monarch is the head of state of a monarchy, who holds the office for life or until abdication. Monarch or Monarchy may also refer to:
Order of Australia.  The Order of Australia is an Australian honour that recognises Australian citizens and other persons for outstanding achievement and service.[2] It was established on 14 February 1975 by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia, on the advice of then prime minister Gough Whitlam. Before the establishment of the order, Australians could receive British honours, which continued to be issued in parallel until 1992. Appointments to the order are made by the governor-general, with the approval of The Sovereign,[1][a] according to recommendations made by the Council for the Order of Australia.[4] Members of the government are not involved in the recommendation of appointments, other than for military and honorary awards. The King of Australia is the sovereign head of the order,[2][5] and the governor-general is the principal companion and chancellor of the order. The governor-generals official secretary, Gerard Martin (appointed 1 July 2024), is secretary of the order. The order is divided into a general and a military division. The five levels of appointment to the order in descending order of seniority are:
Royal prerogative.  The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege, and immunity recognised in common law (and sometimes in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy) as belonging to the sovereign, and which have become widely vested in the government.[note 1] It is the means by which some of the executive powers of government, possessed by and vested in a monarch with regard to the process of governance of the state, are carried out. In most constitutional monarchies, prerogatives can be abolished by Parliament under its legislative authority.[citation needed] In the Commonwealth realms, this draws on the constitutional statutes at the time of the Glorious Revolution, when William III and Mary II were invited to take the throne.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom, the remaining powers of the royal prerogative are devolved to the head of the government, which, for more than two centuries, has been the Prime Minister; the benefits, equally, such as ratification of treaties and mineral rights in all gold and silver ores, vest in (belong to) the government.[1][citation needed] In Britain, prerogative powers were originally exercised by the monarch acting without an observed requirement for parliamentary consent (after its empowerment in certain matters following Magna Carta). Since the accession of the House of Hanover, these powers have been exercised, with minor exceptions in economically unimportant sectors, on the advice of the prime minister or the Cabinet, who are accountable to Parliament (and exclusively so, except in matters of the Royal Family) since at least the time of William IV.[citation needed]
East Slavic name.  East Slavic naming customs are the traditional way of identifying a persons given name, patronymic name, and family name in East Slavic cultures in Russia and some countries formerly part of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. They are used commonly in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and to a lesser extent in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia. East Slavic parents select a given name for a newborn child. Most first names in East Slavic languages originate from two sources: Almost all first names are single. Doubled first names (as in, for example, French, like Jean-Luc) are very rare and are from foreign influence. Most doubled first names are written with a hyphen: Mariya-Tereza.
Illegitimate (film).  Illegitimate (Romanian: Ilegitim) is a 2016 Romanian drama film directed by Adrian Sitaru. The film premiered at 2016 Berlin Film Festival, where it received C.I.C.A.E Award[1][2] Also, the film won the Golden Arena for the Best Film (Pula, Croatia), Namur Award for the Best Screenplay and Best Actor (Adrian Titieni), and Prix Sauvage - Special Mention-Best Actress (Alina Grigore) at L’Europe autour de l’Europe, Paris.[1] The film shows the story of two siblings, brother - Romeo Anghelescu (Robi Urs) and sister - Sasha Anghelescu (Alina Grigore), who have an incestuous love.  This article related to a Romanian film is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This 2010s drama film–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Musical theatre. Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals. Although music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the light opera works of Jacques Offenbach in France, Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and the works of Harrigan and Hart in America. These were followed by Edwardian musical comedies, which emerged in Britain, and the musical theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan at the turn of the 20th century. The Princess Theatre musicals (1915–1918) were artistic steps forward beyond the revues and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as Show Boat (1927), Of Thee I Sing (1931) and Oklahoma! (1943). Some of the best-known musicals through the decades that followed include My Fair Lady (1956), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1985), The Phantom of the Opera (1986), Rent (1996), Wicked (2003) and Hamilton (2015). Musicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller venues, such as off-Broadway, off-off-Broadway, regional theatre, fringe theatre, or community theatre productions, or on tour. Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.  Since the 20th century, the book musical has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals and which is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter.[2][3] The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the libretto (Italian for small book). The music and lyrics together form the score of a musical and include songs, incidental music and musical scenes, which are theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue.[4] The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an orchestrator. A musicals production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties (props), lighting and sound. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the original production, for example, Bob Fosses choreography in Chicago.
Abdication system. The abdicational system (Chinese: 禪讓制; pinyin: Shàn ràng zhì) was a historical Chinese political system.[1] According to Chinese mythology, it was the system used by the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors before the switch to hereditary rule in the Xia dynasty.[1] Emperor Yao abdicated and chose Emperor Shun as his successor.[2] Chinese archaeologist Feng Shi (冯時; 馮時) argues Qi of Xia had violently seized power and established a hereditary system after the death of his father Yu the Great, he argues this with traces of violence discovered around that time.[3] The idea was most influential in the 4th century BC and declined in later periods.[4] According to Chinese mythology, following the rule of the Yellow Emperor, chieftains of different tribes in the Yellow River basin, including Yao, Shun, and Yu, came together to create a tribal alliance. Rather than engaging in warfare to establish dominance, these tribes opted for a more peaceful approach by selecting their leaders via an electoral process. This method drew its inspiration from the time-honored military democratic custom. In this system, the head of the tribal coalition was chosen through a democratic procedure involving representatives from each tribe.[5] A well-known instance of this mechanism at work is the resignation of Emperor Yao. As he aged, Yao sought to identify a successor who could carry on his legacy. He called upon the chieftains of different tribes and inquired, Who can assume my role? A minister recommended the skilled and righteous Shun, who was subsequently assessed and promoted to the rank of Emperor Shun.[5] This method facilitated a nonviolent transition of power, with the leaders role being transferred through dialogue and a democratic approach instead of through conflict and aggression. This system was widespread in ancient China, particularly during the advanced phases of primitive society.[5] A resurgence of curiosity in the abdication system has been sparked by the discovery of four brief texts unearthed in recent Chinese archeological excavations.[4] Although the primary texts were lost in the burning of books and burying of scholars that took place between 213 and 212 BCE, the concept continued to be a part of political discussions throughout history.[1]
Monash University.  Monash University (/ˈmɒnæʃ/) is a public research university based in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Named after World War I general Sir John Monash, it was founded in 1958 and is the second oldest university in the state. The university has a number of campuses, four of which are in Victoria (Clayton, Caulfield, Peninsula, and Parkville), one in Malaysia and another one in Indonesia. Monash also owns land (3.6 hectares)  in Notting Hill, opposite its Clayton campus.[15] Monash has a research and teaching centre in Prato, Italy, a graduate research school in Mumbai, India and graduate schools in Suzhou, China and Tangerang, Indonesia. Courses are also delivered at other locations, including South Africa. Monash is home to major research facilities, including the Monash Law School, the Australian Synchrotron, the Monash Science Technology Research and Innovation Precinct (STRIP), the Australian Stem Cell Centre, Victorian College of Pharmacy, and 100 research centres[16] and 17 co-operative research centres. In 2019, its total revenue was over $2.72 billion (AUD), with external research income around $462 million.[17] In 2019, Monash enrolled over 55,000 undergraduate and over 25,000 postgraduate students.[18] It has more applicants than any other university in the state of Victoria.[19] Monash is a member of Australias Group of Eight research universities, a member of the ASAIHL, and is the only Australian member of the M8 Alliance of Academic Health Centers, Universities and National Academies. Monash is one of the Australian universities to be ranked in the École des Mines de Paris (Mines ParisTech) ranking on the basis of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies.[20] Established by an Act of Parliament in 1958, the original campus was in the suburb of Clayton where the university was granted an expansive site of 100 hectares of open land.[21] The 100 hectares of land consisted of farmland and included the former Talbot Epileptic Colony.[22] The Tudor-style farmhouse built by the OShea family became the original Vice-Chancellors House — now University House.[23][24][25][26]
Absolute monarchy. Absolute monarchy[1][2] is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign is the sole source of political power, unconstrained by constitutions, legislatures or other checks on their authority.[3] Throughout history, there have been many examples of absolute monarchs, with some famous examples including Louis XIV of France, and Frederick the Great.[4][5] Absolute monarchies include Brunei, Eswatini,[6] Oman,[7] Saudi Arabia,[8] Vatican City,[9] and the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, which itself is a federation of such monarchies – a federal monarchy.[10][11] Though absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents (such as the Kings Law of Denmark-Norway), they are distinct from constitutional monarchies, in which the authority of the monarch is restricted (e.g. by legislature or unwritten customs) or balanced by that of other officials, such as a prime minister, as is in the case of the United Kingdom, or the Nordic countries.[3] Absolute monarchies are similar to but should not be confused with hereditary dictatorships such as North Korea or Baathist Syria. In the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan wielded absolute power over the state and was considered a Padishah meaning Great King by his people. Many sultans wielded absolute power through heavenly mandates reflected in their titles, such as Shadow of God on Earth. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well. Throughout Imperial China, many emperors and one empress (Wu Zetian) wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven. In pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Korea under the Joseon dynasty[12] and short-lived empire was also an absolute monarchy.
Dame. Dame is a  traditionally British honorific title given to women who have been admitted to certain orders of chivalry. It is the female equivalent of Sir, the title used by knights.[1] Baronetesses in their own right also use the title Dame.[citation needed] A woman appointed to the grades of Dame Commander or Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saint John,[2] the Order of the Holy Sepulchre,[3] the Order of the Bath, the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, the Royal Victorian Order, or the Order of the British Empire becomes a dame.[4] A Central European order in which female members receive the rank of Dame is the Order of Saint George.[5] Since there is no female equivalent to a Knight Bachelor, women are always appointed to an order of chivalry.[6] Women who are appointed to the Order of the Garter or the Order of the Thistle are given the title of Lady rather than Dame.[7] Women receive all their honours in the same fashion as men receiving decorations or medals, even if they are receiving a damehood, so there is no female word equivalent of being knighted. The Order of the Ermine, founded in France by John V, Duke of Brittany, in 1381, was the first order of chivalry to accept women. However, female knights existed for centuries in many places in the world prior to this.[8] Like their male counterparts, they were distinguished by the flying of coloured banners and generally bore a coat of arms. One woman who participated in tournaments was Joane Agnes Hotot (born 1378), but she was not the only one.[9][10] Additionally, women adopted certain forms of regalia which became closely associated with the status of knighthood.[11]
Big Bad Wolf. The Big Bad Wolf is a fictional wolf appearing in several cautionary tales, including some of Grimms Fairy Tales. Versions of this character have appeared in numerous works, and it has become a generic archetype of a menacing predatory antagonist. Little Red Riding Hood, The Three Little Pigs, The Wolf and the Seven Young Kids, The Boy Who Cried Wolf and the Russian tale Peter and the Wolf, reflect the theme of the ravening wolf and of the creature released unharmed from its belly, but the general theme of restoration is very old. The dialogue between the wolf and Little Red Riding Hood has its analogies to the Norse Þrymskviða from the Elder Edda; the giant Þrymr had stolen Mjölner, Thors hammer, and demanded Freyja as his bride for its return. Instead, the gods dressed Thor as a bride and sent him. When the giants note Thors unladylike eyes, eating, and drinking, Loki explains them as Freyja not having slept, or eaten, or drunk, out of longing for the wedding.[1] 19th-century Folklorists and cultural anthropologists such as P. Saintyves and Edward Burnett Tylor saw Little Red Riding Hood in terms of solar myths and other naturally occurring cycles, stating that the wolf represents the night swallowing the sun, and the variations in which Little Red Riding Hood is cut out of the wolfs belly represent the dawn.[2] In this interpretation, there is a connection between the wolf of this tale and Skoll or Fenrir, the wolf in Norse mythology that will swallow the sun at Ragnarök.[3] Ethologist Dr. Valerius Geist of the University of Calgary, Alberta wrote that the fable was likely based on genuine risk of wolf attacks at the time. He argues that wolves are in fact dangerous predators, and fables served as a valid warning not to enter forests where wolves were known to live, and to be on the look out for such. Both wolves and wilderness were treated as enemies of humanity in that region and time.[4]
Little Red Riding Hood.  Little Red Riding Hood (French: Le Petit Chaperon Rouge) is a fairy tale by Charles Perrault about a young girl and a Big Bad Wolf.[4][5] Its origins can be traced back to several pre-17th-century European folk tales. It was later retold in the 19th-century by the Brothers Grimm. The story has varied considerably in different versions over the centuries, translations, and as the subject of numerous modern adaptations. Other names for the story are Little Red Cap or simply Red Riding Hood. It is number 333 in the Aarne–Thompson classification system for folktales.[6] The story revolves around a girl named Little Red Riding Hood, named after the red hooded cape that she wears. The girl walks through the woods to deliver food to her sickly grandmother (wine and cake depending on the translation). A stalking wolf wants to eat the girl and the food in the basket. After he inquires as to where she is going, he suggests that she pick some flowers as a present for her grandmother. While she goes in search of flowers, he goes to the grandmothers house and gains entry by pretending to be Riding Hood. He swallows the grandmother whole, climbs into her bed, and waits for the girl, disguised as the grandmother.
Japan black. Japan black (also called black japan and bicycle paint[1]) is a lacquer or varnish suitable for many substrates but known especially for its use on iron and steel. It can also be called japan lacquer and Brunswick black. Its name comes from the association between the finish and Japanese products in the West.[2] Used as a verb, japan means to finish in japan black. Thus japanning and japanned are terms describing the process and its products. Its high bitumen content provides a protective finish that is durable and dries quickly. This allowed japan black to be used extensively in the production of automobiles in the early 20th century in the United States. Japan black consists mostly of an asphaltic base dissolved in naphtha or turpentine, sometimes with other varnish ingredients, such as linseed oil. It is applied directly to metal parts, and then baked at about 200°C (400°F) for up to an hour.[3] Japan blacks popularity was due in part to its durability as an automotive finish; however, it was the ability of japan black to dry quickly that made it a favorite of early mass-produced automobiles such as Henry Fords Model T.[4] While other colors were available for automotive finishes, early colored variants of automotive lacquers could take up to 14 days to cure, whereas japan black would cure in 48 hours or less.  Thus, variously colored pre-1925 car bodies were usually consigned to special orders, or custom-bodied luxury automobiles.
Patronymic. A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of ones father, grandfather (more specifically an avonymic),[1][2] or an earlier male ancestor. It is the male equivalent of a matronymic. Patronymics are used, by custom or official policy, in many countries worldwide, although elsewhere their use has been replaced by or transformed into patronymic surnames. Examples of such transformations include common English surnames such as Johnson (son of John). The usual noun and adjective in English is patronymic, but as a noun this exists in free variation alongside patronym.[a] The first part of the word patronym comes from Greek πατήρ patēr father (GEN πατρός patros whence the combining form πατρο- patro-);[3] the second part comes from Greek ὄνυμα onyma, a variant form of ὄνομα onoma name.[4] In the form patronymic, this stands with the addition of the suffix -ικός (-ikos), which was originally used to form adjectives with the sense pertaining to (thus pertaining to the fathers name). These forms are attested in Hellenistic Greek as πατρώνυμος (patrōnymos) and πατρωνυμικός (patrōnymikos).[5] The form patronym, first attested in English in 1834, was borrowed into English from French patronyme, which had previously borrowed the word directly from Greek. Patronymic, first attested in English in 1612, has a more complex history. Both Greek words had entered Latin, and, from Latin, French. The English form patronymic was borrowed through the mutual influence of French and Latin on English.[6] In many areas around the world, patronyms predate the use of family names. Family names in many Celtic, Germanic, Iberian, Georgian, Armenian and Slavic languages originate from patronyms, e.g. Wilson (son of William), FitzGerald (son of Gerald), Powell (from ap Hywel), Fernández (son of Fernando), Rodríguez (son of Rodrigo), Andersson or Andersen (son of Anders, Scandinavian form of Andrew), Carlsen (son of Carl), Ilyin (of Ilya), Petrov (of Peter), Grigorovich (son of Grigory, Russian form of Gregory), Stefanović (son of Stefan, little Stefan), MacAllister (from mac Alistair, meaning son of Alistair, anglicized Scottish form of Alexander) and OConor (from Ó Conchobhair, meaning grandson/descendant of Conchobhar). Other cultures which formerly used patronyms have switched to the more widespread style of passing the fathers last name to the children (and wife) as their own. In Iceland, family names are unusual; Icelandic law favours the use of patronyms (and more recently, matronyms) over family names. Traditionally Muslim and non-Arabic speaking African people, such as Hausa and Fulani people, usually (with some exceptions) follow the Arab naming pattern.[7] The word or phrase meaning son of is, however, omitted. As such, Mohamed son of Ibrahim son of Ahmed is Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmed, and Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmeds son Ali is Ali Mohamed Ibrahim.
Vagrancy (biology). Vagrancy is a phenomenon in biology whereby an individual animal (usually a bird) appears well outside its normal range;[1] they are known as vagrants. The term accidental is sometimes also used. There are a number of poorly understood factors which might cause an animal to become a vagrant, including internal causes such as navigation errors (endogenous vagrancy)  and external causes such as severe weather (exogenous vagrancy).[2] Vagrancy events may lead to colonisation and eventually to speciation.[3] In the Northern Hemisphere, adult birds (possibly inexperienced younger adults) of many species are known to continue past their normal breeding range during their spring migration and end up in areas further north (such birds are termed spring overshoots).[4] In autumn, some young birds, instead of heading to their usual wintering grounds, take incorrect courses and migrate through areas which are not on their normal migration path. For example, Siberian passerines which normally winter in Southeast Asia are commonly found in Northwest Europe, e.g. Arctic warblers in Britain.[5] This is reverse migration, where the birds migrate in the opposite direction to that expected (say, flying north-west instead of south-east). The causes of this are unknown, but genetic mutation or other anomaly relating to the birds magnetic sensibilities is suspected.[6] Other birds are sent off course by storms and high winds, such as some North American birds blown across the Atlantic Ocean to Europe. Birds can also be blown out to sea, become physically exhausted, land on a ship and end up being carried to the ships destination. While many vagrant birds do not survive, if sufficient numbers wander to a new area they can establish new populations. Many isolated oceanic islands are home to species that are descended from landbirds blown out to sea, Hawaiian honeycreepers and Darwins finches being prominent examples.
Fairy tale (disambiguation). A fairy tale is a story featuring folkloric characters. Fairy Tale(s), Faerie Tale(s), Faery Tale(s), or Fairytale(s) may also refer to:
Japan, Missouri. Japan (pronounced /ˈdʒeɪˌpæn/ JAY-pan or /ˈdʒeɪpən/ JAY-pun[1]) is an unincorporated community in southwest Franklin County, in the U.S. state of Missouri.[2] The community is located on Missouri Route AE 7.5 mile west-northwest of Sullivan.[3] A post office called Japan was established in 1860, and remained in operation until 1908.[4] The community was named after a local Roman Catholic Church, the Church of the Holy Martyrs of Japan.[1] The name was almost changed in the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor due to anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States.[5]  38°14′21″N 91°18′22″W / 38.2392150°N 91.3059819°W / 38.2392150; -91.3059819[1] 
Japan, Montenegro.  Japan (Cyrillic: Јапан) is a hamlet in the municipality of Andrijevica, Montenegro. The village is roughly 6 km away from the border of Albania. The name of the village is often disputed; one source bases it on a legend from the time of the Kingdom of Montenegro, where a village wiseman and flag-bearer (barjaktar) by the name of Samilo Fatić was a prominent fighter in the war against the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I. Afterwards, on a ceremony where he was awarded with a medal from King Nikola I, the King himself asked him of his aspirations, and he responded that his greatest wish would be to bring water to the village from the source of Biruljak. When the King asked him of the location of this village, he responded with far away in the unseen, far away as Japan.[1] Due to the increasingly difficult conditions during the winter, some of the inhabitants have chosen to leave the village and settle elsewhere, given the village is located at the foothills of Mount Komovi, which is now a protected national park since 2018. The village came to the attention of the Japanese, which was visited by some Japanese journalists, who except in an unusual name, were convinced and with what natural beauties Montenegro has at its disposal.[2]
Carl Larsson.  Carl Olof Larsson (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈkɑːɭ ˈlɑ̌ːʂɔn] ⓘ; 28 May 1853 – 22 January 1919) was a Swedish painter representative of the Arts and Crafts movement. His many paintings include oils, watercolors, and frescoes. He is principally known for his watercolors of idyllic family life. He considered his finest work to be Midvinterblot (Midwinter Sacrifice), a large painting now displayed inside the Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts.[2][3] Larsson was born on 28 May 1853, in the Gamla stan neighborhood of Stockholm, Sweden.[1] His parents were extremely poor, and his childhood was not happy. Renate Puvogel, in her book Carl Larsson (Cologne: Taschen; 1994), gives detailed information about Larssons life: His mother was thrown out of the house, together with Carl and his brother Johan; after enduring a series of temporary dwellings, the family moved into Grev Magnigränd No. 7 (later No. 5) in what was then Ladugårdsplan, present-day Östermalm.[4] As a rule, each room was home to three families; penury, filth and vice thrived there, leisurely seethed and smouldered, eaten-away and rotten bodies and souls. Such an environment is the natural breeding ground for cholera, he wrote in his autobiographical novel Jag.[5] Larssons father worked as a casual laborer, sailed as a stoker on a ship headed for Scandinavia, and lost the lease to a nearby mill, only to work there later as a mere grain carrier. Larsson portrays him as a loveless man lacking self-control; he drank, ranted and raved, and incurred the lifelong anger of his son after an outburst in which he declared, I curse the day you were born. In contrast, Carls mother worked long hours as a laundress to provide for her family.[4]
Vagrant (disambiguation). A vagrant is a person who lives without a home or regular employment and wanders from place to place. Vagrant or vagrancy may also refer to:
Japanese lacquerware. Japanese Lacquerware (日本漆器, shikki) is a Japanese craft with a wide range of fine and decorative arts, as lacquer has been used in urushi-e, prints, and on a wide variety of objects from Buddha statues to bento boxes for food. The characteristic of Japanese lacquerware is the diversity of lacquerware using a decoration technique called maki-e (蒔絵) in which metal powder is sprinkled to attach to lacquer. The invention of various maki-e techniques in Japanese history expanded artistic expression, and various tools and works of art such as inro are highly decorative.[2] A number of terms are used in Japanese to refer to lacquerware. Shikki (漆器) means lacquer ware in the most literal sense, while nurimono (塗物) means coated things, and urushi-nuri (漆塗) means lacquer coating.[3] The terms related to lacquer or lacquerware such as Japanning, Urushiol and maque which means lacquer in Mexican Spanish, are derived from Japanese lacquerware.[4][5] It has been confirmed that the lacquer tree existed in Japan from 12,600 years ago in the incipient Jōmon period. This was confirmed by radioactive carbon dating of the lacquer tree found at the Torihama shell mound, and is the oldest lacquer tree in the world found as of 2011.[7] Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima B Excavation Site in Hokkaido. The ornaments woven with lacquered red thread were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period. Also, at Kakinoshima A Excavation Site, earthenware with a spout painted with vermilion lacquer, which was made 3200 years ago, was found almost completely intact.[8][9][7]
Order of the British Empire.  The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities.[2] It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or a dame if female.[3] There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with the order, but are not members of it. The order was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, who created the order to recognise such persons, male or female, as may have rendered or shall hereafter render important services to Our Empire.[3] Equal recognition was to be given for services rendered in the UK and overseas.[4] Today, the majority of recipients are UK citizens, though a number of Commonwealth realms outside the UK continue to make appointments to the order.[5] Honorary awards may be made to citizens of other nations of which the orders sovereign is not the head of state. The five classes of appointment to the Order are, from highest grade to lowest grade: The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross and Knight or Dame Commander entitle their members to use the titles Sir for men and Dame for women before their forenames, except with honorary awards.[6]
Vagabond (disambiguation). A vagabond is a person who wanders from place to place without a permanent home or regular work. (The) Vagabond or Vagabonds may also refer to:
Melbourne.  Melbourne (/ˈmɛlbərn/ MEL-bərn,[note 1] locally [ˈmæɫbən] ⓘ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: Narrm or Naarm[9][10]) is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second most-populous city in Australia, after Sydney.[1] The citys name generally refers to a 9,993 km2 (3,858 sq mi) area,[2] comprising an urban agglomeration of 31 local government areas.[11] The name is also used to specifically refer to the local government area named City of Melbourne, whose area is centred on the Melbourne central business district and some immediate surrounds. The city occupies much of the northern and eastern coastlines of Port Phillip Bay. As of 2024, the population of the city was 5.35 million, or 19% of the population of Australia;[1] inhabitants are referred to as Melburnians. The area of Melbourne has been home to Aboriginal Victorians for over 40,000 years and serves as an important meeting place for local Kulin nation clans.[12][13] Of the five peoples of the Kulin nation, the traditional custodians of the land encompassing Melbourne are the Boonwurrung, Woiwurrung and the Wurundjeri peoples. In 1803, a short-lived British penal settlement was established at Port Phillip, then part of the Colony of New South Wales. Melbourne was founded in 1835 with the arrival of free settlers from Van Diemens Land (modern-day Tasmania).[12] It was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837, and named after the then-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne.[12] Declared a city by Queen Victoria in 1847, it became the capital of the newly separated Colony of Victoria in 1851.[14] During the 1850s Victorian gold rush, the city entered a lengthy boom period that, by the late 1880s, had transformed it into Australias, and one of the worlds, largest and wealthiest metropolises.[15][16] After the federation of Australia in 1901, Melbourne served as the interim seat of government of the new nation until Canberra became the permanent capital in 1927.[17] Today, Melbourne is culturally diverse and, among world cities, has the fourth-largest foreign born population. It is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region, ranking 28th globally in the 2024 Global Financial Centres Index.[18] The citys eclectic architecture blends Victorian era structures, such as the World Heritage-listed Royal Exhibition Building, with one of the worlds tallest skylines. Additional landmarks include the Melbourne Cricket Ground and the National Gallery of Victoria. Noted for its cultural heritage, the city gave rise to Australian rules football, Australian impressionism and Australian cinema, and is noted for its street art, live music and theatre scenes. It hosts major annual sporting events, such as the Australian Grand Prix and the Australian Open, and also hosted the 1956 Summer Olympics. Melbourne ranked as the worlds most livable city for much of the 2010s.[19]
The Blind Girl.  The Blind Girl is an oil on canvas painting by John Everett Millais, from 1856. It depicts two itinerant beggars, presumed to be sisters, one of whom is a blind musician, her concertina on her lap. They are resting by the roadside after a rainstorm, before travelling to the town of Winchelsea, visible in the background.[1] The painting has been interpreted as an allegory of the senses, contrasting the experiences of the blind and sighted sisters.[2] The former feels the warmth of the sun on her face, and fondles a blade of grass, while the latter shields her eyes from the sun or rain and looks at a double rainbow that has just appeared. Some critics have interpreted the rainbow in Biblical terms, as the sign of Gods covenant described in Genesis 9:16.[3] When the painting was first exhibited in 1856 it was pointed out to Millais that in double rainbows the secondary rainbow inverts the order of the colours. Millais had originally painted the colours in the same order in both rainbows. He altered it for scientific accuracy.[4] A tortoiseshell butterfly rests on the blind girls shawl, implying that she is holding herself extremely still. The sign around her neck reads Pity the Blind.
John Everett Millais.  Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet PRA (UK: /ˈmɪleɪ/ MIL-ay, US: /mɪˈleɪ/ mil-AY;[1][2] 8 June 1829 – 13 August 1896) was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.[3] He was a child prodigy who, aged eleven, became the youngest student to enter the Royal Academy Schools. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded at his family home in London, at 83 Gower Street (now number 7). Millais became the most famous exponent of the style, his painting Christ in the House of His Parents (1849–50) generating considerable controversy, and he produced a picture that could serve as the embodiment of the historical and naturalist focus of the group, Ophelia, in 1851–52. By the mid-1850s, Millais was moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style to develop a new form of realism in his art. His later works were enormously successful, making Millais one of the wealthiest artists of his day, but some former admirers including William Morris saw this as a sell-out (Millais notoriously allowed one of his paintings to be used for a sentimental soap advertisement). While these and early 20th-century critics, reading art through the lens of Modernism, viewed much of his later production as wanting, this perspective has changed in recent decades, as his later works have come to be seen in the context of wider changes and advanced tendencies in the broader late nineteenth-century art world, and can now be seen as predictive of the art world of the present. Millaiss personal life has also played a significant role in his reputation. His wife Effie was formerly married to the critic John Ruskin, who had supported Millaiss early work. The annulment of the Ruskin marriage and Effies subsequent marriage to Millais have sometimes been linked to his change of style, but she became a powerful promoter of his work and they worked in concert to secure commissions and expand their social and intellectual circles. Millais was born in Southampton, England, in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family. His parents were John William Millais and Emily Mary Millais (née Evermy). Most of his early childhood was spent in Jersey, to which he retained a strong devotion throughout his life. The author Thackeray once asked him when England conquered Jersey.  Millais replied Never! Jersey conquered England.[4] The family moved to Dinan in Brittany for a few years in his childhood.
Folk music (disambiguation). Folk music is a genre of music. Folk music may also refer to:
Empire of Japan.  The Empire of Japan,[c] also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state[d] that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947.[8] From 1910 to 1945, it included the Japanese archipelago, the Kurils, Karafuto, Korea, and Taiwan. The South Seas Mandate and concessions such as the Kwantung Leased Territory were de jure not internal parts of the empire but dependent territories. In the closing stages of World War II, with Japan defeated alongside the rest of the Axis powers, the formalized surrender was issued on September 2, 1945, in compliance with the Potsdam Declaration of the Allies, and the empires territory subsequently shrunk to cover only the Japanese archipelago resembling modern Japan. Under the slogans of Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Armed Forces[e] and Promote Industry[f] which followed the Boshin War and the restoration of power to the emperor from the shogun, Japan underwent a period of large-scale industrialization and militarization, often regarded as the fastest modernization of any country to date. All of these aspects contributed to Japans emergence as a great power following the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, and World War I. Economic and political turmoil in the 1920s, including the Great Depression, led to the rise of militarism, nationalism, statism and authoritarianism, during which Japan joined the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, conquering a large part of the Asia–Pacific;[15] during this period, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) committed numerous atrocities and war crimes, including the Nanjing Massacre.[16][17][18][19][20] There has been a debate over defining the political system of Japan as a dictatorship, which has been refuted due by the absence of a dictator,[21] and over calling it fascist. The other suggested terms were para-fascism,[22] militarism, corporatism, totalitarianism,[23] and police state.[24] The Imperial Japanese Armed Forces initially achieved large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War. However, from 1942 onwards, and particularly after decisive Allied advances at Midway Atoll and Guadalcanal, Japan was forced to adopt a defensive stance against the United States. The American-led island-hopping campaign led to the eventual loss of many of Japans Oceanian island possessions in the following three years. Eventually, the American military captured Iwo Jima and Okinawa Island, leaving the Japanese mainland unprotected and without a significant naval defense force. By August 1945, plans had been made for an Allied invasion of mainland Japan, but were shelved after Japan surrendered in the face of a major breakthrough by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The Pacific War officially came to an end on September 2, 1945, leading to the beginning of the Allied occupation of Japan, during which United States military leader Douglas MacArthur administered the country. In 1947, through Allied efforts, a new Japans constitution was enacted, officially ending the Japanese Empire and forming modern Japan. During this time, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces were dissolved. It was later replaced by the current Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1954. Reconstruction under the Allied occupation continued until 1952, consolidating the modern Japanese constitutional monarchy. In total, the Empire of Japan had three emperors: Meiji, Taishō, and Shōwa. The Imperial era came to an end partway through Shōwas reign, and he remained emperor until 1989.
Traditional music (disambiguation). Traditional music refers to any music reproduced and shared through musical traditions and may equally refer to:
Folksinger (disambiguation). A folk singer or folksinger or is a person who sings traditional or contemporary folk music. Folksinger may also refer to:
Parkville, Victoria.  Parkville is an inner-city suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 3 km (1.9 mi) north of Melbournes Central Business District, located within the Cities of Melbourne and Merri-bek local government areas.[2] Parkville recorded a population of 7,074 at the 2021 census.[1] Parkville is bordered by North Melbourne to the south-west, Carlton and Carlton North to the south and east, Brunswick to the north (where a part of Parkville lies within the City of Merri-bek), and Flemington to the west. The suburb includes the postcodes 3052 and 3010 (University). The suburb encompasses Royal Park, an expansive parkland which is notable as home to the Royal Melbourne Zoological Gardens. Parkville was also the location of the athletes village for the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Parkville is a major education, research and healthcare precinct and home to the University of Melbourne, Monash University Pharmacy faculty, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Royal Womens Hospital, Royal Childrens Hospital, the Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre and CSL.
Béla Bartók.  Béla Viktor János Bartók (/ˈbeɪlə ˈbɑːrtɒk/; Hungarian: [ˈbɒrtoːk ˈbeːlɒ]; 25 March 1881 – 26 September 1945) was a Hungarian composer, pianist and ethnomusicologist. He is considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century; he and Franz Liszt are regarded as Hungarys greatest composers.[1] Among his notable works are the opera Bluebeards Castle, the ballet The Miraculous Mandarin, Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, the Concerto for Orchestra and  six string quartets. Through his collection and analytical study of folk music, he was one of the founders of comparative musicology, which later became known as ethnomusicology. Per Anthony Tommasini, Bartók has empowered generations of subsequent composers to incorporate folk music and classical traditions from whatever culture into their works and was a formidable modernist who in the face of Schoenberg’s breathtaking formulations showed another way, forging a language that was an amalgam of tonality, unorthodox scales and atonal wanderings.[2] Bartók was born in the Banatian town of Nagyszentmiklós in the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Sânnicolau Mare, Romania) on 25 March 1881.[3] On his fathers side, the Bartók family was a Hungarian lower noble family, originating from Borsodszirák, Borsod.[4] His paternal grandmother was a Catholic of Bunjevci origin, but considered herself Hungarian.[5] Bartóks father (1855–1888) was also named Béla [hu]. Bartóks mother, Paula (née Voit) [hu] (1857–1939), spoke[6] Hungarian fluently.[7] A native of Turócszentmárton (present-day Martin, Slovakia),[8] she had German, Hungarian and Slovak or Polish ancestry. Béla displayed notable musical talent very early in life. According to his mother, he could distinguish between different dance rhythms that she played on the piano before he learned to speak in complete sentences.[9] By the age of four he was able to play 40 pieces on the piano, and his mother began formally teaching him the next year. In 1888, when he was seven, his father, the director of an agricultural school, died suddenly. His mother then took Béla and his sister, Erzsébet, to live in Nagyszőlős (present-day Vynohradiv, Ukraine) and then in Pressburg (present-day Bratislava, Slovakia). Béla gave his first public recital aged 11 in Nagyszőlős, to positive critical reception.[10][page needed] Among the pieces he played was his own first composition, written two years previously: a short piece called The Course of the Danube.[11] Shortly thereafter, László Erkel [hu] accepted him as a pupil.[12]
Carlton, Victoria.  Carlton is an inner-city suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, three kilometres north of the Melbourne central business district within the city of Melbourne local government area. Carlton recorded a population of 16,055 at the 2021 census.[2] Immediately adjoining the CBD, Carlton is known nationwide for its Little Italy precinct centred on Lygon Street, for its preponderance of 19th-century Victorian architecture and its garden squares including the Carlton Gardens, the latter being the location of the Royal Exhibition Building, one of Australias few man-made sites with World Heritage status. Due to its proximity to the University of Melbourne, the CBD campus of RMIT University and the Fitzroy campus of Australian Catholic University, Carlton is also home to one of the highest concentrations of university students in Australia. Carlton was founded in 1851, at the beginning of the Victorian gold rush, with the Carlton Post Office opening on 19 October 1865.[3] The suburb was named after Carlton House, the Westminster residence of King George IV.[4]
Tianming (disambiguation). Tianming may refer to:
Jack Charles (disambiguation). Jack Charles (1943–2022) was an Australian actor and activist. Jack Charles may also refer to:
Nindethana Theatre.  Nindethana Theatre was Australias first Aboriginal theatre company, founded in Melbourne in 1971, with its last performance in Adelaide in 1974. The theatre company was formed after the Australia Council for the Arts asked Jack Charles to form a group of Aboriginal actors. The initial cohort consisted of seven young people from Aboriginal hostels in Melbourne, four of whom had never acted before.[1] Nindethana was established by Charles and Bob Maza at the Pram Factory in Melbourne in 1971,[2][3][4][5] with help from New Zealand-born playwright, theatre director, and actor John Smythe and others.[6][7] Its stated objective was the performance, encouragement and promotion of Aboriginal drama, music, art, literature, film production and other such cultural activities in the community.[2] It was the first Aboriginal theatre group in the country.[1] The first production planned was Rocket Range, by  Jim Crawford, but that did not get staged due to production difficulties and lack of trained staff.[8] Their earliest production was The Cherry Pickers, in August 1971,[9] written by Kevin Gilbert and  recognised as the first Aboriginal play.[10] In 1972, the theatre staged a performance called Jack Charles is up and fighting (1972),[11]
Kingdom of Hungary.  The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Catholic kingdom emerged as a continuation of the Grand Principality of Hungary upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom around the year 1000;[8] his family (the Árpád dynasty) led the monarchy for 300 years. By the 12th century, the kingdom had become a European power.[8] Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: the Habsburg Royal Hungary, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania.[8] The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 continuously until 1918 and also played a key role in the wars against the Ottoman Empire and the eventual expulsion of the Turks during and after the Great Turkish War. The Hungarians fought many wars of independence against the Habsburgs, including in 1604–06, 1664–71, 1680–85, 1703–11, and 1848–49. From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the Regency of 1920–46, ending under the Soviet occupation in 1946.[8] The Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic[9] state from its inception[10] until the Treaty of Trianon and it covered what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania and other parts of Romania, Carpathian Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), the territory of Burgenland (now part of Austria), Međimurje (now part of Croatia), Prekmurje (now part of Slovenia) and a few villages which are now part of Poland. From 1102, it also included the Kingdom of Croatia, being in personal union with it, united under the King of Hungary.
Australian Aboriginal elder.  Australian Aboriginal elders in the context of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture, is defined as someone who has gained recognition as a custodian of knowledge and lore, and who has permission to disclose knowledge and beliefs.[1][2] They may be male or female, and of any age, but must be trusted and respected by their community[3] for their wisdom, cultural knowledge and community service.[4] Elders provide support for their communities in the form of guidance, counselling and knowledge, which help tackle problems of health, education, unemployment and racism,[5][6] particularly for younger people. They may be distinguished as one of two types: community elders and traditional elders.[3] Elders play an important role in maintenance of culture, songs, oral histories, sacred stories, Aboriginal Australian languages,[7] and dance, and are also educators who demonstrate leadership and skills in resolving conflicts. Elders also preside over ceremonies and other spiritual practices, and attend to the health and well-being of young people.[6] Elders are sometimes addressed by other Aboriginal people as Uncle or Aunty as a mark of respect. The honorific may be used by non-Aboriginal people, but generally only when permission is given to do so.[3][4][1] Self-determination advocacy organisation the Aboriginal Provisional Government was initially headed by a Council of Elders in accordance with the traditions and beliefs of Aboriginal groups nationwide.[8] The Dreaming Path, a book written by the first Aboriginal CEO of an Australian TAFE, Paul Callaghan, in collaboration with Ngemba elder Paul Gordon, describes the important role played by elders in Aboriginal society. Some organisations have created formal elder-in-residence programs, such as the University of South Australias Elders on Campus project, which helps to support Indigenous students.[6][9]
Family (biology).  Family (Latin: familia, pl.: familiae) is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between order and genus.[1] A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks between the ranks of family and genus. The official family names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, but that family is commonly referred to as the walnut family. The delineation of what constitutes a family—or whether a described family should be acknowledged—is established and decided upon by active taxonomists. There are not strict regulations for outlining or acknowledging a family, yet in the realm of plants, these classifications often rely on both the vegetative and reproductive characteristics of plant species. Taxonomists frequently hold varying perspectives on these descriptions, leading to a lack of widespread consensus within the scientific community for extended periods. The naming of families is codified by various international bodies using the following suffixes: Name changes at the family level are regulated by the codes of nomenclature. For botanical families, some traditional names like Palmae (Arecaceae), Cruciferae (Brassicaceae), and Leguminosae (Fabaceae) are conserved alongside their standardized -aceae forms due to their historical significance and widespread use in the literature. Family names are typically formed from the stem of a type genus within the family. In zoology, when a valid family name is based on a genus that is later found to be a junior synonym, the family name may be maintained for stability if it was established before 1960. In botany, some family names that were found to be junior synonyms have been conserved due to their widespread use in the scientific literature.[5]
Monarch (disambiguation). A monarch is the head of state of a monarchy, who holds the office for life or until abdication. Monarch or Monarchy may also refer to:
Family Life. Family Life may also refer to:
Family (disambiguation). A family is a domestic or social group. Family or The Family may also refer to:
Standard Chinese.  Standard Chinese (simplified Chinese: 现代标准汉语; traditional Chinese: 現代標準漢語; pinyin: Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ; lit. modern standard Han speech) is a modern standard form of Mandarin Chinese that was first codified during the republican era (1912–1949). It is designated as the official language of mainland China and a major language in the United Nations, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is largely based on the Beijing dialect. Standard Chinese is a pluricentric language with local standards in mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore that mainly differ in their lexicon.[8] Hong Kong written Chinese, used for formal written communication in Hong Kong and Macau, is a form of Standard Chinese that is read aloud with the Cantonese reading of characters. Like other Sinitic languages, Standard Chinese is a tonal language with topic-prominent organization and subject–verb–object (SVO) word order. Compared with southern varieties, the language has fewer vowels, final consonants and tones, but more initial consonants. It is an analytic language, albeit with many compound words. In the context of linguistics, the dialect has been labeled Standard Northern Mandarin[9][10][11] or Standard Beijing Mandarin,[12][13] and in common speech simply Mandarin,[14] more specifically qualified as Standard Mandarin, Modern Standard Mandarin, or Standard Mandarin Chinese. Among linguists, Standard Chinese has been referred to as Standard Northern Mandarin[9][10][11] or Standard Beijing Mandarin.[12][13] It is colloquially referred to as simply Mandarin,[14] though this term may also refer to the Mandarin dialect group as a whole, or the late imperial form used as a lingua franca.[15][16][17][14] Mandarin is a translation of Guanhua (官話; 官话; bureaucrat speech),[18] which referred to the late imperial lingua franca.[19] The term Modern Standard Mandarin is used to distinguish it from older forms.[18][20]
Punk (Chai album). Punk (stylized in all caps) is the second studio album by Japanese band Chai. The album was released on February 13, 2019, by Otemoyan Records.[14] It was released on March 15, 2019, in North America and Europe by Burger Records and Heavenly Recordings, respectively.[14] AllMusics Tim Sendra felt the record left some of the rap rock influences prominent on PINK behind in exchange for more pop-oriented stylings.[2] Indeed, PUNK dives into several pop-based genres from bubblegum to indie to synth-pop. Kicking off the record is Choose Go!, a punchy piece of cheerleader rock,[2] that features synths that churn like vacuum cleaners.[5] Following is the pulsing electronic pop[1] of Great Job. Wintime is Paramore-plucked, rose-tinted tropic-pop.[12] This Is Chai, the records only song to have its writing credited to all four members, has been called everything from post-punk[10] to Europop[12] to happily corny handbag house.[2] Fashionista, along with This is CHAI, has some seriously infectious funk woven into its DNA.[4] Curly Adventure is a synth-pop ballad that throw[s] heavy metal guitar grind into its mix.[2] In 2019, a music video for the eighth track (Curly Adventure) was directed by Sean Solomon, using character designs from band member and visual director Yuuki, in which the video picks a load of eccentric (and surreal)scenes with vibrant colours[20] with the simplistic style of the albums cover, inspired by Peanuts characters and the hyper-stylized Hanna-Barbera cartoons of the 1970s.[21] The additional credits in the video are storyboards drawn by Evan Red Borja and animation by Sarah Schmidt and Ian Ballantyne.[22]
Robert Nihon.  Robert Alexis Nihon (born July 4, 1950 – August 10, 2007) was a Canadian businessman, one of the heirs of the Nihon family fortune and former wrestler. He was Alexis Nihons son along with his brother Alexis Nihon Jr., and eventually inherited a part of his fathers fortune. Robert Nihon lived in Lyford Cay, Bahamas where he was known to spend time on his yacht. He also competed at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City along with his brother Alexis as a freestyle wrestler. He had 2 children (Gregory & Robert), and 3 grandchildren (Adriana, Scarlett, River). 
Alexis Nihon.  Alexis Louis Nihon, OBE (15 May 1902 – 8 April 1980) was a Belgian-born Canadian inventor and businessman. Alexis was born in Liège, Belgium, the son of Alexis Laurent Nihon and Marie Florentine Thiry, he moved to Canada when he was eighteen years old[citation needed]. In 1940, he started the glass manufacturer Compagnie industrielle du verre limitée (Industrial Glass Works Company Limited) in Saint-Laurent, Quebec; it was one of the few Canadian glass manufacturers during the Second World War.[1] He sold it in the 1940s[citation needed]. In 1946, he started Corporation Alexis Nihon (today Alexis Nihon REIT) that would later become one of the largest[citation needed] real estate companies in Canada. He was married to Alice Robert Nihon and they had four children: two daughters who died young, and Olympic wrestlers Alexis Nihon Jr. and Robert Nihon.[2] He died at his home in Nassau, Bahamas[3] in 1980.
Kinship. In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that the study of kinship is the study of what humans do with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are working with the same raw material as exists in the animal world, but [we] can conceptualize and categorize it to serve social ends.[1] These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of basic economic, political and religious groups. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures (i.e. kinship studies). Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms in the study of kinship, such as descent, descent group, lineage, affinity/affine, consanguinity/cognate and fictive kinship. Further, even within these two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i.e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called affinity in contrast to the relationships that arise in ones group of origin, which may be called ones descent group. In some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods[2] or animal ancestors (totems). This may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into social groups, roles, categories and genealogy by means of kinship terminologies. Family relations can be represented concretely (mother, brother, grandfather) or abstractly by degrees of relationship (kinship distance). A relationship may be relative (e.g. a father in relation to a child) or reflect an absolute (e.g. the difference between a mother and a childless woman). Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession. Many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety. In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared ontological origin, a shared historical or cultural connection, or some other perceived shared features that connect the two entities. For example, a person studying the ontological roots of human languages (etymology) might ask whether there is kinship between the English word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, the news headline Madonna feels kinship with vilified Wallis Simpson, to imply a felt similarity or empathy between two or more entities.
Alexis Nihon Jr.. Alexis Joseph Nihon Jr. (January 10, 1946 – February 24, 2013)[1] was an Olympic wrestler for the Bahamas. Born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, he competed at the 1968 Summer Olympics.[2]  His brother Robert Nihon, who was also a wrestler also competed at the same Olympics.[3]  This biographical article relating to a Bahamian sport wrestler or wrestling coach is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This biographical article relating to a Canadian sport wrestler or wrestling coach is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Nihon University.  Nihon University (日本大学, Nihon Daigaku; lit. Japan University), abbreviated as Nichidai (日大), is a private research university in Japan. Its predecessor, Nihon Law School (currently the Department of Law), was founded by Yamada Akiyoshi, the Minister of Justice, in 1889.[6] The universitys name is derived from the Japanese word Nihon meaning Japan. Nihon University now has 16 colleges and 87 departments, 20 postgraduate schools, one junior college which is composed of five departments, one correspondence division, 32 research institutes and three hospitals.[7] The number of students exceeds 70,000 and is the largest in Japan.[8][9] Most of the universitys campuses are in the Kantō region, with the vast majority in Tokyo or surrounding areas, although two campuses are as far away from Tokyo as Shizuoka Prefecture and Fukushima Prefecture. These campuses mostly accommodate single colleges or schools (gakubu (学部) in Japanese). In December 2016 the university acquired the former Newcastle Court House in Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia for A$6.6 million as its inaugural international campus.[10][11] The university comprises a federation of colleges and institutes known for having produced numerous Japanese CEOs. Its College of Art (日芸 — Nichigei), located right next to Ekoda train station in Tokyos Nerima ward, is well-known for producing many artists who represent Japan in photography, theater, and cinema. In addition, the university has over 20 affiliated high schools bearing its name across Japan, from which a significant number of students go on to study at the institution as undergraduates.[citation needed] See Academic staff of Nihon University
Pinyin.  Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, officially the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese. Hanyu (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語) literally means Han language—that is, the Chinese language—while pinyin literally means spelled sounds. Pinyin is the official romanization system used in China, Singapore, and Taiwan, and by the United Nations. Its use has become common when transliterating Standard Chinese mostly regardless of region, though it is less ubiquitous in Taiwan. It is used to teach Standard Chinese, normally written with Chinese characters, to students in mainland China and Singapore. Pinyin is also used by various input methods on computers and to categorize entries in some Chinese dictionaries. In pinyin, each Chinese syllable is spelled in terms of an optional initial and a final, each of which is represented by one or more letters. Initials are initial consonants, whereas finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), a nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant). Diacritics are used to indicate the four tones found in Standard Chinese, though these are often omitted in various contexts, such as when spelling Chinese names in non-Chinese texts. Hanyu Pinyin was developed in the 1950s by a group of Chinese linguists including Wang Li, Lu Zhiwei, Li Jinxi, Luo Changpei and, particularly,  Zhou Youguang, who has been called the father of pinyin. They based their work in part on earlier romanization systems. The system was originally promulgated at the Fifth Session of the 1st National Peoples Congress in 1958, and has seen several rounds of revisions since. The International Organization for Standardization propagated Hanyu Pinyin as ISO 7098 in 1982, and the United Nations began using it in 1986. Taiwan adopted Hanyu Pinyin as its official romanization system in 2009, replacing Tongyong Pinyin. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary in China, wrote the first book that used the Latin alphabet to write Chinese, entitled Xizi Qiji (Hsi-tzŭ Chi-chi; 西字奇蹟; Miracle of Western Letters) and published in Beijing in 1605.[1] Twenty years later, fellow Jesuit Nicolas Trigault published Aid to the Eyes and Ears of Western Literati (西儒耳目資; Xīrú ěrmù zī; Hsi ju erh mu tzŭ)) in Hangzhou.[2] Neither book had any influence among the contemporary Chinese literati, and the romanizations they introduced primarily were useful for Westerners.[3]
Nippon (aircraft).  Nippon (ニッポン, Nippon) was a converted Mitsubishi G3M2 Model 21 bomber operated by the Mainichi Shimbun newspaper and used to make a round-the-world flight in 1939. Nippon took off from Haneda airport[2] in the district of Kamata in Tokyo on 25 August 1939,  flew around the globe and returned to Tokyo, after 55 days, on 20 October 1939 having flown 52,886 km (32,862 mi; 28,556 nmi) in 194 flying hours. Nippon had the armament removed, was equipped with the latest autopilot and could carry 5,200 L of fuel enabling it to fly continuously for 24 hours.[citation needed] Tokyo - Chitose - Nome, Alaska - Fairbanks, USA - Whitehorse - Seattle - Oakland, USA - Los Angeles - Albuquerque, USA - Chicago - New York - Washington D.C - Miami - San Salvador, El Salvador - Cali, Colombia -  Lima - Arica - Santiago - Buenos Aires - Santos (Brazil) - Dakar - Casablanca Morocco - Seville, Spain - Rhodos, Greece - Basra (Iraq) - Karachi - Kolkata, India - Bangkok - Taipei - Haneda, Tokyo
God emperor.  God-Emperor or God Emperor may refer to:
Warhammer Fantasy (setting).  Warhammer Fantasy (later renamed Warhammer: The Old World) is a fictional fantasy universe created by Games Workshop and used in many of its games, including the table top wargame Warhammer, the Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay (WFRP) pen-and-paper role-playing game, and a number of video games: the MMORPG Warhammer Online: Age of Reckoning, the strategy games Total War: Warhammer, Total War: Warhammer II and Total War: Warhammer III and the two first-person shooter games in the Warhammer Vermintide series, Warhammer: End Times – Vermintide and Warhammer: Vermintide 2, among many others. Warhammer is notable for its “dark and gritty” background world, which references a range of historical cultures such as the Holy Roman Empire, Mesoamerica, ancient Egypt, and medieval France, and is populated with a variety of races such as humans, high elves, dark elves, wood elves, dwarfs, undead, orcs, lizardmen, and other creatures familiar to many fantasy/role-playing settings. The development of the setting began with the release of a game simply called “Warhammer” in 1983.[1] The Warhammer world drew inspiration from Tolkien’s Middle-earth, but also from Robert E. Howard (Conan the Barbarian) and Michael Moorcock, as well as real-world history, particularly European history. What is recognisable as the Warhammer World began with the expansion material to the first edition of the game Warhammer, but was formulated as a distinct setting with a world map in the second edition.[citation needed]
Nippon Paint.  Nippon Paint Holdings Co., Ltd. (日本ペイントホールディングス株式会社, Nippon Peinto Hōrudingusu Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese paint and paint products manufacturing company.[4] It is the worlds fourth largest paint manufacturer, as measured by revenue in 2020.[3] The company was founded in 1881 by Jujiro Motegi under the name Komyosha (Yamato Jujiro Shoten). In 1898, the company was incorporated and renamed Nippon Paint Manufacturing and in 1927 the companys name was changed to Nippon Paint.[5] In 1954, Nippon Paint established a 50/50 joint venture with Bee Chemical. In 2006, it became a wholly owned subsidiary of Nippon Paint.[6][7] In October 2014, Nippon Paint was reorganised into a holding company and the company adopted its current name.[8]
ISO 3166-1 alpha-3. ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes are three-letter country codes defined in ISO 3166-1, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), to represent countries, dependent territories, and special areas of geographical interest. They allow a better visual association between the codes and the country names than the two-letter alpha-2 codes (the third set of codes is numeric and hence offers no visual association).[1] They were first included as part of the ISO 3166 standard in its first edition in 1974. The ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes are used most prominently in ISO/IEC 7501-1 for machine-readable passports, as standardized by the International Civil Aviation Organization, with a number of additional codes for special passports; some of these codes are currently reserved and not used at the present stage in ISO 3166-1.[2] The United Nations uses a combination of ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 and alpha-3 codes, along with codes that pre-date the creation of ISO 3166, for international vehicle registration codes, which are codes used to identify the issuing country of a vehicle registration plate; some of these codes are currently indeterminately reserved in ISO 3166-1.[3] The following is a complete list of the current officially assigned ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes,[4] using a title case version of the English short names officially defined by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA): User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories, or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use these codes in the updating process of the standard. The following alpha-3 codes can be user-assigned: AAA to AAZ, QMA to QZZ, XAA to XZZ, and ZZA to ZZZ.[5]
Absolutism (European history).  Absolutism or the Age of Absolutism (c. 1610 – c. 1789) is a historiographical term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites.[1]  The term absolutism is typically used in conjunction with some European monarchs during the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and monarchs described as absolute can especially be found in the 16th century through the 19th century. Absolutism is characterized by the ending of feudal partitioning, consolidation of power with the monarch, rise of state power, unification of the state laws, and a decrease in the influence of the church and the nobility. Absolute monarchs are also associated with the rise of professional standing armies, professional bureaucracies, the codification of state laws, and the rise of ideologies that justify the absolutist monarchy. Absolutist monarchs typically were considered to have the divine right of kings as a cornerstone of the philosophy that justified their power (as opposed to the previous order when the kings were considered vassals of the pope and the emperor). Absolute monarchs spent considerable sums on extravagant houses for themselves and their nobles. In an absolutist state, monarchs often required nobles to live in the royal palace, while state officials ruled the nobles lands in their absence. This was designed to reduce the effective power of the nobility by causing nobles to become reliant upon the largesse of the monarch for their livelihoods. There is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs.  Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, while historians such as Roger Mettam dispute the very concept of absolutism.[2] In general, historians who disagree with the appellation of absolutism argue that most monarchs labeled as absolutist exerted no greater power over their subjects than other non-absolutist rulers, and these historians tend to emphasize the differences between the absolutist rhetoric of monarchs and the realities of the effective use of power by these absolute monarchs. The Renaissance historian William Bouwsma summed up this contradiction: Nothing so clearly indicates the limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those most able to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income.[3]
Nippon (song). Nippon is a song by Japanese musician Ringo Sheena. It was released as a single on June 11, 2014, two weeks after her self-cover album Gyakuyunyū: Kōwankyoku and a year after her previous solo single Irohanihoheto / Kodoku no Akatsuki.[1] The song is being used as the 2014 soccer theme song for NHK.,[2] Including the NHK broadcast of 2014 FIFA World Cup. In 2013 and 2014, Sheena had celebrated her 15th anniversary since her debut single Kōfukuron. She began with the single Irohanihoheto/Kodoku no Akatsuki in May, following this up in November with two compilation albums, Ukina and Mitsugetsu-shō, and a series of lives entitled Tōtaikai: Heisei Nijūgo-nen Kaneyama-chō Taikai (党大会 平成二十五年神山町大会; The Party Convention: 2013 Kamiyama Event). She finished the anniversary year on the day with an album called Gyakuyunyū: Kōwankyoku, which featured new versions of songs she had given to other musicians.[3][4] In previous years, NHK had selected Superflys Tamashii Revolution (2010), Radwimps Kimi to Hitsuji to Ao (2011–2012) and Sakanactions Aoi (2013–2014) as their soccer broadcast theme song.[2] Tamashii Revolution in particular was commercially successful, being certified gold twice by the RIAJ for digital downloads.[5] The song was written for NHK after they requested a song by Sheena for their soccer broadcasts.[6] NHK asked Sheena to create the song in March, and she quickly produced it at the start of April.[7] NHK requested a song that expressed the samurai and nadeshiko spirit of Japan that could also be used for broadcasts featuring other teams, and asked if the song could feature blue in the lyrics (i.e. the colour of the Japan national football team)[8] Sheena wanted to use the Tokyo Jihen song Gunjō Biyori due to its mention of blue and its well-fitting tempo and chords, however created a new song after considerings specific requests for the song they desired.[9][8] The song was inspired by her time living in Shimizu, Shizuoka, which she considers the soccer kingdom of Japan. It was also inspired by everything she experienced with her band Tokyo Jihen, such as their 2010 sports-themed album Sports and the song Atarashii Bunmeimaika (2011).[10]  Sheena felt a lot of pressure, as she does not consider herself seen as a sporty musician.[7] The B-side Sakasa ni Kazoete was also given the Spanish language title Cuenta atrás (count back), her second song title in Spanish after  Paisaje on Gyakuyunyū: Kōwankyoku.[11][12] Contrasting Nippon, a song about special occasions, Sheena wrote the song dealing with everyday things.[6][10]
Legalism (Chinese philosophy).  Fajia (Chinese: 法家; pinyin: fǎjiā), or the School of fa (law, method), often translated Legalism,[1][2] was a school of thought representing a broader collection of primarily Warring States period classical Chinese philosophy, incorporating more administrative works traditionally said to be rooted in Huang-Lao Daoism. Addressing practical governance challenges of the unstable feudal system,[3] their ideas contributed greatly to the formation of the Chinese empire and bureaucracy,[4] advocating concepts including rule by law, sophisticated administrative technique, and ideas of state and sovereign power.[5] They are often interpreted in the West along realist lines.[6][7] Though persisting, the Qin to Tang were more characterized by the centralizing tendencies of their traditions.[8] The school incorporates the more legalistic ideas of Li Kui and Shang Yang, and more administrative Shen Buhai and Shen Dao,[9] with Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, and Han Fei traditionally said to be rooted in Huang-Lao (Daoism), as attested by Sima Qian.[3] Shen Dao may have been a significant early influence for Daoism and administration.[10] These earlier currents were synthesized in the Han Feizi,[11][12] including some of the earliest commentaries on the Daoist text Daodejing. The later Han dynasty considered Guan Zhong to be a forefather of the school, with the Guanzi added later. Later dynasties regarded Xun Kuang as a teacher of Han Fei and Qin Chancellor Li Si, as attested by Sima Qian,[13] approvingly included during the 1970s along with figures like Zhang Binglin.[14] With a lasting influence on Chinese law, Shang Yangs reforms transformed Qin from a peripheral power into a strongly centralized, militarily powerful kingdom, ultimately unifying China in 221 BCE. While Chinese administration cannot be traced to a single source, Shen Buhais ideas significantly contributed to the meritocratic system later adopted by the Han dynasty. Sun Tzus Art of War recalls the Han Feizis concepts of power, technique, wu wei inaction, impartiality, punishment, and reward. With an impact beyond the Qin dynasty, despite a harsh reception in later times, succeeding emperors and reformers often recalled the templates set by Han Fei, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, resurfacing as features of Chinese governance even as later dynasties officially embraced Confucianism.[15] One of Sima Tans (165–110 BCE) six schools of thought discussing approaches to governance in the last chapter of the early Han dynastys Records of the Grand Historian,[16] those the Confucian archivists grouped under the fa school (Fajia) probably never formed organized schools to the extent of the Confucians or Mohists.[17]
Seiyu Group.  Seiyu KK (株式会社西友, Kabushiki-gaisha Seiyū; lit. Friend of Seibu Department Stores  or Friend of West), or Seiyu Group (西友グループ, Seiyū Gurūpu), is a Japanese group of supermarkets, shopping centers and department stores, headquartered in Akabane (赤羽), Kita, Tokyo.[1][4] On May 8, 2023, the Akabane headquarters office was relocated due to the redevelopment of Seiyus Akabane store site. The current head office location is Kichijoji Honmachi, Musashino City, Tokyo.[5] Its company name means innovation, leadership and excellence.[6] The group was established in December 1946, and was formed in 1956 by Seibu Department Stores, a group company of Seibu Railway. In 1980, Seiyu launched its private brand Mujirushi-Ryōhin (commonly known as MUJI outside Japan). MUJI was transferred to the Ryohin Keikaku Company[7] in 1990, and is no longer part of Seiyu. Also in 1980, Seiyu launched the All-Value-No-Frills brand, an innovation in product-line development. Over 1,450 high quality items in the brand are sold at a moderate price.[6] In 1991, Seiyu formed a consortium with six Asian retailers and one Hawaiian company to exchange expertise and set up joint ventures across Asia.[8]
Kōshinetsu region. Kōshinetsu (甲信越) is a subregion of the Chūbu region in Japan consisting of Yamanashi, Nagano, and Niigata prefectures.[1] The name Kōshinetsu is a composite formed from the names of old provinces which are adjacent to each other — Kai (now Yamanashi), Shinano (now Nagano) and Echigo (now Niigata). The region is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to its north west, Hokuriku region to its west, Tōkai region to its south west, Kantō region to its south east, and Tōhoku region to its north east. The name for this geographic area is usually combined with Kantō region (as in Kantō-Kōshinetsu[2]); and it is sometimes combined with Hokuriku region (as in Kantō-Kōshinetsu-Hokuriku[3] or Hokuriku-Kōshinetsu[4]). The Kōshinetsu subregion economy is for almost all purposes the same as the Shinetsu subregion economy. The economy of Kōshinetsu subregion is large and highly diversified with a strong focus on silverware, electronics, information technology, precision machinery, agriculture and food products, and tourism. It also produces crude oil. Until 1989, the Kōshinetsu subregion also partook in gold mining, particularly at Sado Island. Per Japanese census data,[7][8] Kōshinetsu subregion has had negative population growth since 2000. Media related to Kōshinetsu region at Wikimedia Commons
JPN (album). JPN is the third studio album (fourth overall) by Japanese girl group Perfume, released on November 30, 2011, by Tokuma Japan Communications, nearly two and a half years after their second studio album Triangle. The album sold a total of 268,414 after two weeks of release, making it the 24th best-selling album of 2011 according to Oricon.[2] JPN is the groups last release under Tokuma Japan Communications as the group moved to Universal Music Japan (as announced February 28, 2012) for their future releases.[3] JPN was released worldwide on March 6, 2012, to over 50 countries via iTunes.[4] The album was announced at Perfumes official website on September 5, 2011, along with a dance contest, their nineteenth single Spice and their third nationwide arena tour Perfume Third Tour: JPN starting in January 2012.[5] It was released in two different versions; as a CD-only version and in a limited edition CD+DVD featuring promotional videos and commercial spots. The B-side track of Nee (FAKE IT) was not included in this album but two years later in Perfume Global Compilation LOVE THE WORLD album. The album includes all of the groups past four singles: Fushizen na Girl/Natural ni Koishite, Voice, Nee, and Laser Beam/Kasuka na Kaori. It also includes the singles corresponding B-side songs. The only song out of all the singles that did not make it to this album was Fake it from the single Nee.[6]
Rikken Seiyūkai. Defunct Defunct The Rikken Seiyūkai (立憲政友会; Association of Friends of Constitutional Government) was one of the main political parties in the pre-war Empire of Japan. It was also known simply as the Seiyūkai. Founded on September 15, 1900, by Itō Hirobumi,[2] the Seiyūkai was a pro-government alliance of bureaucrats and former members of the Kenseitō. The Seiyūkai was the most powerful political party in the Lower House of the Diet of Japan from 1900 to 1921, and it promoted big government and large-scale public spending. Though labeled liberal by its own members, it was generally conservative by modern definitions. It often opposed social reforms and it supported bureaucratic control and militarism to win votes.  It viewed the Rikken Minseitō as its main rival. The Seiyūkai came into power in October 1900 under the 4th Itō administration. Under its second leader, Saionji Kinmochi, it participated in the Movement to Protect Constitutional Government from 1912 to 1913. It was the ruling party under the Prime Minister Yamamoto Gonnohyōe from 1913 to 1914. Cabinet minister (and later 4th party president) Takahashi Korekiyo helped reinforce its ties with the zaibatsu, especially the Mitsui financial interests.
Pentagon Army Heliport.  Pentagon Army Heliport (ICAO: KJPN, FAA LID: JPN) is a military heliport serving the Pentagon in the U.S. state of Virginia. It consists of a single pentagon-shaped helipad and is located on the northern side of the Pentagon building.[1][2] It is used for ferrying VIPs such as military leaders and foreign guests to and from the Pentagon by helicopter or tilt-rotor aircraft.[3] It replaced a previous helipad on the west side of the building adjacent to the impact site of the hijacked American Airlines Flight 77 on 11 September 2001 and which was closed to create the National 9/11 Pentagon Memorial.  This article about an airport in Virginia is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Toyota JPN Taxi.  The Toyota JPN Taxi (Japanese: トヨタ・ジャパンタクシー, Hepburn: Toyota Japantakushī), sometimes known as the Toyota Japan Taxi,[1] is a hybrid electric taxicab built to universal design specifications mandated by the Japanese government.[2][3] Exhibited as the JPN Taxi Concept at the 43rd Tokyo Motor Show in 2013, it has been produced by Toyota since 2017, mainly for the Japanese, Thai, and Hong Kong markets. Marketed as a successor to the Comfort and the Crown Sedan, it is currently being manufactured by Toyota Motor East Japan under the supervision of chief engineer Hiroshi Kayukawa.[4] The JPN Taxi was based around an emissions and accessibility mandate by the Japanese government through consultation from carmakers, taxi companies and advocates for the disabled in 2012 to meet its universal design goals for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[2][3] Built in part to evoke the same sense of recognition as the iconic London black cab, it is available from Toyota in 3 colours: black, white, and a deep indigo Toyota refers to as koiai (深藍).[1][5][6] The vehicles exterior dimensions are in compliance with Japanese vehicle size regulations that allow tax savings for commercial use. While the JPN Taxi was developed in conjunction with the Toyota Sienta, the two vehicles share almost no elements besides the floor pan to allow for the fitment of specialized taxi equipment.[7]
Louis XIV.  Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand [lwi lə ɡʁɑ̃]) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil [lə ʁwa sɔlɛj]), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch in history.[1][a] An emblem of the age of absolutism in Europe,[3] Louis XIVs legacy includes French colonial expansion, the conclusion of the Thirty Years War involving the Habsburgs, and a controlling influence on the style of fine arts and architecture in France, including the transformation of the Palace of Versailles into a center of royal power and politics. Louis XIVs pageantry and opulence helped define the French Baroque style of art and architecture and promoted his image as supreme leader of France in the early modern period. Louis XIV began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin. A believer in the divine right of kings, Louis XIV continued Louis XIIIs work of creating a centralized state governed from a capital. Louis XIV sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France by compelling many members of the nobility to reside at his lavish Palace of Versailles. In doing so, he succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many of whom had participated in the Fronde rebellions during his minority. He consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured until the French Revolution. Louis XIV enforced uniformity of religion under the Catholic Church. His revocation of the Edict of Nantes abolished the rights of the Huguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate or convert, virtually destroying the French Protestant community. During Louis long reign, France emerged as the leading European power and regularly made war. A conflict with Spain marked his entire childhood, while during his personal rule, Louis fought three major continental conflicts, each against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. In addition, France contested shorter wars such as the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions. Warfare defined Louiss foreign policy, impelled by his personal ambition for glory and power: a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique.[4] His wars strained Frances resources to the utmost, while in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military.[5] Upon his death in 1715, Louis XIV left his great-grandson and successor, Louis XV, a powerful but war-weary kingdom, in major debt after the War of the Spanish Succession that had raged on since 1701. Some of his other notable achievements include the construction of the 240 km (150 mi) Canal du Midi in Southern France, the patronage of artists (the playwrights Molière, Racine, the man of letters Boileau, the composer and dancer Lully, the painter Le Brun and the landscape architect Le Nôtre, all contributed to the apogee of French classicism, described during his lifetime as the Grand Siècle, or even the century of Louis XIV), and the founding of the French Academy of Sciences.
Heir Apparent (novel).  Heir Apparent is a science fiction/fantasy novel by young adult fiction author Vivian Vande Velde, about a girl who becomes trapped inside a looping virtual reality role-playing game called Heir Apparent. The same girl appeared as a secondary character in User Unfriendly, Vande Veldes earlier book about a game from the same fictional company, Rasmussem, Inc. She later wrote a third book about this company, Deadly Pink. She does not consider the second or third book sequels, despite their taking place in the same universe as the first one, and she says the three books can be read in any order.[1] Vande Velde says, Heir Apparent was a lot of fun to write because its about a girl caught in a virtual-reality-type game. Even though Giannine finds herself in a vaguely medieval world, I didnt have to worry about historical accuracy. I also was able to keep throwing all sorts of things at her -- a dragon, an army of ghosts, and a poetry-loving/head-chopping statue.[2] Giannine receives a gift certificate for a Rasmussem Gaming Center as a birthday present from her father. When she arrives at the local center, a crowd from CPOC, the Citizens to Protect Our Children, has come for a demonstration against such games. She enters the arcade and gets hooked up to Heir Apparent, a single-player RPG. Giannines character, Janine de St. Jehan, is the illegitimate child of the recently deceased King Cynric, who pronounced her heir to the throne, passing over three legitimate sons. Her task is to survive the three days (which will only last thirty minutes in the real world) before her coronation. Anytime her character dies, she will be sent back to the beginning of the game.
Europa Universalis III. Europa Universalis III is a grand strategy video game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. The game was released for Microsoft Windows in January 2007, and was later ported to Mac OS X by Virtual Programming in November 2007. The player controls a nation and handles matters concerning war, diplomacy, trade, and economy. The original game without expansions starts in 1453, right after the Fall of Constantinople, and continues to 1789, just past the beginning of the French Revolution. The expansion Napoleons Ambition extends the end game year forward to 1821, whereas the expansion In Nomine moves the starting year back to 1399, making it the longest as far as gameplay time in the series thus far. Europa Universalis III was the first to use Paradoxs new 3D engine, Clausewitz Engine, that required user systems to meet the Pixel Shader 2.0 specification. The map has 1,700 land and sea provinces encompassing most of the world, with 250 playable historical nations. The game also uses elements of other Paradox games such as Crusader Kings, Victoria, and Hearts of Iron II. Players begin the game by choosing what date they would like to start their campaign and which country they would like to play as. Once in game, players can shape their countries in many different ways. Forms of government include various kingdoms, republics, theocracies, and tribal governments. Players can influence a nations society and values by adjusting sliders such as free trade/mercantilism, and may hire court advisors such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. As the game advances, players can pick national ideas such as Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, which give specialized bonuses. The game has over 300 playable countries, including giants like Ming China, regional powers like Bohemia and Kazan, and tiny nations like the Maldives. Without formal victory conditions, players sometimes set goals for themselves like raising a minor city-state to world prominence. The world map includes some 1,700 provinces and sea zones. Many provinces in the Americas, Africa, and Oceania are not owned by any country, allowing for colonization.
Henry VIII.  Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated by the pope. Born in Greenwich, Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England, expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy. He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder. He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration. Henry was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament. He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King James V of Scotland, and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise. He founded the Royal Navy, oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542. Henrys contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne and his reign described as the most important in English history.[3][4] He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch.[5][6] He was succeeded by his son Edward VI.
West Iberian languages. West Iberian is a branch of the Ibero-Romance languages that includes the Castilian languages (Spanish, Judaeo-Spanish), Astur-Leonese (Asturian, Leonese, Mirandese, Extremaduran (sometimes), Cantabrian),[1][2] Navarro-Aragonese and the descendants of Galician-Portuguese. Until a few centuries ago, they formed a dialect continuum covering the western, central and southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula—excepting the Basque and Catalan-speaking territories. This is still the situation in a few regions, particularly in the northern part of the peninsula, but due to the differing sociopolitical histories of these languages (independence of Portugal since the early 12th century, unification of Spain in the late 15th century under the Catholic Monarchs, who privileged Castilian Spanish over the other Iberian languages), Spanish and Portuguese have tended to overtake and to a large extent absorb their sister languages while they kept diverging from each other. There is controversy over whether the members of the modern Galician-Portuguese and Astur-Leonese sub-groups are languages or dialects. A common, though disputed, classification is to state that Portuguese and Galician are separate languages, as are Asturian, Leonese, and Mirandese. Cantabrian and Extremaduran are considered codialects of the Leonese language for UNESCO, whereas the latter is a Castilian dialect in the ISO codes. Papiamento is a West Iberian creole language spoken in the Dutch West Indies and believed to be derived from Portuguese, Judaeo-Portuguese and Spanish. Bold indicates language families. Daggers indicate extinct languages.
Watershed (Opeth album).  Watershed is the ninth studio album by Swedish progressive metal band Opeth. Released by Roadrunner Records, Watershed is the first studio album by Opeth to feature guitarist Fredrik Åkesson and drummer Martin Axenrot, who replaced longtime guitarist Peter Lindgren and drummer Martin Lopez. The artwork for the album was made by Travis Smith (who has created the artwork for eight previous Opeth releases) in collaboration with Mikael Åkerfeldt.[3] It was the bands last studio album to contain death growls or any death metal elements until 2024s The Last Will and Testament. On opening track Coil, Mikael Åkerfeldt duets with Nathalie Lorichs, who was dating drummer Martin Axenrot at the time.[4] The band has revealed that they were initially going to start the album with what eventually became the second track, Heir Apparent; however, they preferred Coil as an introductory track for its contrast to Heir Apparent.[4] Åkerfeldt was inspired to write the single Burden while listening to the Scorpions song Living And Dying during a stay in Turkey.[5] The album was met with universal acclaim according to Metacritic, receiving a metascore of 82/100 based on 10 critics.[6]
Heir Apparent (band).  Heir Apparent is an American heavy metal/progressive metal band from Seattle, formed in 1983. Heir Apparent was formed in 1983 in Seattle by guitarist Terry Gorle.[1] Vocalist Paul Davidson, bassist Derek Peace, and drummer Jim Kovach joined Gorle to form Heir Apparents original lineup. In July 1984, the band entered Triad Studios in Redmond, WA, to record a five-song demo[2] that received local airplay on KISW and KZOK. A month after recording their first demo in 1984, Jim Kovach was replaced by Ray Schwartz (using the name Raymond Black). This lineup recorded Heir Apparents debut studio album, Graceful Inheritance.[1]   The album was released for the European market in January 1986 by the independent French label Black Dragon Records.[3][4] Supported by the UKs Metal Hammer magazine, Heir Apparent toured France, the Netherlands, and Germany in May and June 1986, originally as a support act but ending as the headliner on a tour with Savage Grace. Germanys Rock Hard gave the album a rating of 49/50 points in the February 1986 issue.[5] Encouraged by strong sales, Black Dragon re-released the album in October 1986, this time on CD, making it one of the first CDs released by an independent label in Europe.[citation needed] Graceful Inheritance was never released in the US during the 1980s, the groups home country. Graceful Inheritance was ranked No. 188 in the German hardcover book, Best of Rock and Metal – Top 500 Albums of All Time,[6] published in 2005. Following the departure of lead vocalist Paul Davidson in 1987, Steve Benito took over singing duties.[4] Additionally, Heir Apparent’s lineup became a quintet with the addition of keyboardist Mike Jackson.[1] The new lineup recorded Heir Apparent’s second studio album, One Small Voice, which marked a musical shift toward the more technical sound of progressive metal, compared to the traditional heavy and power metal style of the previous release. In the summer of 1988, Heir Apparent had their first large arena performance, serving as an opening act for David Lee Roth at the Seattle Center Coliseum. Soon after, the band signed a seven-album contract in 1988 through a joint venture with Capitol Records/Metal Blade, but suddenly dissolved even before the official release of One Small Voice in June 1989.[3] Without concert support, and with the emergence of grunge in the Seattle area, the second album did not reach the underground success and critical acclaim of the debut until many years later, prompting the Greek label Arkeyn Steel Records to release a digitally remastered limited edition of One Small Voice with bonus tracks and a live DVD[7] from a 1988 concert video of this lineup in 2010. The German label Hellion Records released the Triad demo compilation album in late 1999, along with a reissue of the band’s first album, Graceful Inheritance. The band remained inactive until 2000, when guitarist Terry Gorle was invited to perform at the Wacken Open Air festival. Gorle reunited with the original rhythm section of Ray Schwartz and Derek Peace, with the addition of Michael James Flatters on vocals. Following that comeback performance, Terry Gorle led several different lineups in concerts between 2002 and 2004. The 2004 lineup—Terry Gorle (guitar), Bobby Ferkovich (bass), Op Sakiya (keyboards), Jeff McCormack (drums), and Peter Orullian (vocals)—reunited to perform in Europe in November 2006, headlining Germanys Keep It True festival and playing two additional shows in Greece.
The Battle for Wesnoth.  The Battle for Wesnoth is a free and open-source[a] turn-based strategy video game with a high fantasy setting (similar to J. R. R. Tolkiens legendarium), designed by Australian-American[b] developer David White and first released in June 2003. In Wesnoth, the player controls a particular faction/race and attempts to build a powerful army by controlling villages and defeating enemies for experience. The game is loosely based on the Sega Genesis games Master of Monsters and Warsong.[7] The Battle for Wesnoth is a turn-based wargame played on a hex map.[8] The strategy of battle involves trying to fight on favorable terrain, at a favorable time of day, and, if possible, with units that are strong or well suited against the enemies. Other concerns are capturing villages that produce a particular trickle rate of gold per turn for unit recruitment, and positioning units to restrict enemy movement. Games of Wesnoth come both in the form of single-player campaigns and multiplayer matches. The goal of these games is usually to defeat all enemy leaders, but there may be other goals. Each unit in Wesnoth has its own strengths and weaknesses. A units defense (which this case means dodge chance) is based on the terrain it stands on. Elves, for example, are difficult to hit when fighting in a forest. Different types of attacks (melee and ranged), weapon types (pierce, blade, impact, arcane, cold, and fire), and a day-night cycle (in most maps) that alternately favors lawful and chaotic units, altering the amount of damage a unit deals. Units can advance to higher level counterparts and become more powerful as they participate in combat.[9][10] A central design philosophy of the game is the KISS principle; for a new idea to be accepted, it should not complicate gameplay.[11] Another important facet of the game is randomness and its manipulation: it is never certain whether a units attack will fail or succeed, only likely or unlikely. Developers have stated that the potential for a skirmish to go better or worse than expected adds excitement, replayability and strategic depth to the game.[12]
Castilian Spanish. In English, Castilian Spanish can mean the variety of Peninsular Spanish spoken in northern and central Spain, the standard form of Spanish, or Spanish from Spain in general.[1][2][3][4][5][6] In Spanish, the term castellano (Castilian) can either refer to the Spanish language as a whole (to distinguish it from other Spanish languages such as Catalan, Basque, Galician, etc.), or to the medieval Old Spanish, a predecessor to Early Modern Spanish. The term Castilian Spanish is used in English for the specific varieties of Spanish spoken in north and central Spain. This is because much of the variation in Peninsular Spanish is between north and south, often imagined as Castilian versus Andalusian.[7] Typically, it is more loosely used to denote the Spanish spoken in all of Spain as compared to Latin American Spanish. In Spain itself, Spanish is not a uniform language and there exist several different varieties of Spanish; in addition, there are other official and unofficial languages in the country, although Spanish is official throughout Spain. Castellano septentrional (Northern Castilian) is the Spanish term for the dialects from the Northern half of Spain, including those from Aragón or Navarre, which were never part of Castile. These dialects can be distinguished from the southern varieties of Andalusia, Extremadura, and Murcia.[8] Español castellano, the literal translation of Castilian Spanish, is not a common expression; it could refer to varieties found in the region of Castile; however, the dialects of Castile, like other dialects, are not homogenous, and they tend to merge gradually with the dialects of other regions.[9]
Japan.   Japan[a] is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland, it is bordered to the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The Japanese archipelago consists of four major islands alongside 14,121 smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometers (145,937 sq mi). Divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions, about 75% of the countrys terrain is mountainous and heavily forested, concentrating its agriculture and highly urbanized population along its eastern coastal plains. With a population of over 123 million as of 2025, it is the 11th most populous country. The countrys capital and largest city is Tokyo. The first known habitation of the archipelago dates to the Upper Paleolithic, with the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic dating to c. 36,000 BC. Between the 4th and 6th centuries, its kingdoms were united under an emperor in Nara and later Heian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators known as shōgun and feudal lords called daimyō, enforced by warrior nobility named samurai. After rule by the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates and a century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by the Tokugawa shogunate, which implemented an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, an American fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meiji period, Japan pursued rapid industrialization and modernization, as well as militarism and overseas colonization. The country invaded China in 1937 and attacked the United States and European colonial powers in 1941, thus entering World War II as an Axis power. After being defeated in the Pacific War and suffering the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under Allied occupation. Afterwards, the country underwent rapid economic growth and became one of the five earliest major non-NATO allies of the U.S. Since the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in the early 1990s, it has experienced a prolonged period of economic stagnation referred to as the Lost Decades.
Seiyūhontō. Naruhito  Fumihito  Shigeru Ishiba (LDP)
UK (disambiguation). UK usually refers to the United Kingdom, a country in Europe. UK, U.K., Uk, or uk may also refer to:
United Kingdom (disambiguation).  The United Kingdom (full name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) is a country located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. United Kingdom may also refer to:
First language.  A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language a person has been exposed to from birth[1] or within the critical period. In some countries, the term native language or mother tongue refers to the language of ones ethnic group rather than the individuals actual first language. Generally, to state a language as a mother tongue, one must have full native fluency in that language.[2] The first language of a child is part of that childs personal, social and cultural identity.[3] Another impact of the first language is that it brings about the reflection and learning of successful social patterns of acting and speaking.[clarification needed][4] Research suggests that while a non-native speaker may develop fluency in a targeted language after about two years of immersion, it can take between five and seven years for that child to be on the same working level as their native speaking counterparts.[5] On 17 November 1999, UNESCO designated 21 February as International Mother Language Day. A person qualifies as a native speaker of a language by being born and immersed in the language during youth, in a family in which the adults shared a similar language experience to the child.[6] Native speakers are considered to be an authority on their given language because of their natural acquisition process regarding the language, as opposed to having learned the language later in life. That is achieved by personal interaction with the language and speakers of the language. Native speakers will not necessarily be knowledgeable about every grammatical rule of the language, but they will have good intuition of the rules through their experience with the language.[6]
Language family.  A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. The term family is a metaphor borrowed from biology, with the tree model used in historical linguistics analogous to a family tree, or to phylogenetic trees of taxa used in evolutionary taxonomy. Linguists thus describe the daughter languages within a language family as being genetically related.[1] The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with different regional dialects of the proto-language undergoing different language changes and thus becoming distinct languages over time.[2] One well-known example of a language family is the Romance languages, including Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh, and many others, all of which are descended from Vulgar Latin.[note 1][3] The Romance family itself is part of the larger Indo-European family, which includes many other languages native to Europe and South Asia, all believed to have descended from a common ancestor known as Proto-Indo-European. A language family is usually said to contain at least two languages, although language isolates — languages that are not related to any other language — are occasionally referred to as families that contain one language. Conversely, there is no upper bound to the number of languages a family can contain. Some families, such as the Austronesian languages, contain over 1000.[4] Language families can be identified from characteristics shared amongst their languages. Sound changes are one of the strongest pieces of evidence that can be used to identify a genetic relationship because of their predictable and consistent nature, and through the comparative method can be used to reconstruct proto-languages. However, languages can also change through language contact, which can falsely suggest genetic relationships. For example, the Mongolic, Tungusic, and Turkic languages share many similarities that have led several scholars to believe they were related. These supposed relationships were later discovered (in the view of most scholars) to be derived through language contact and thus they are not related through shared ancestry.[5] Eventually though, intense language contact with other language families, and inconsistent changes within the original language family, will obscure inherited characteristics and make it virtually impossible to deduce earlier relationships; even the oldest demonstrable language family, Afroasiatic, is far younger than language itself.[6]
Second language. A second language (L2) is a language spoken in addition to ones first language (L1). A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speakers home country, or a foreign language. A speakers dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speakers first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as What is the language that this person first learned at home in childhood and still understands?,[1] recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment. The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen[2] as part of his monitor theory. According to Krashen, the acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as second-language acquisition (SLA). Research in SLA ...focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and] a knowledge of second-language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults.[3] SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. One of the dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms, responsible for much of human learning, process language.
Japan.   Japan[a] is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland, it is bordered to the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The Japanese archipelago consists of four major islands alongside 14,121 smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometers (145,937 sq mi). Divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions, about 75% of the countrys terrain is mountainous and heavily forested, concentrating its agriculture and highly urbanized population along its eastern coastal plains. With a population of over 123 million as of 2025, it is the 11th most populous country. The countrys capital and largest city is Tokyo. The first known habitation of the archipelago dates to the Upper Paleolithic, with the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic dating to c. 36,000 BC. Between the 4th and 6th centuries, its kingdoms were united under an emperor in Nara and later Heian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators known as shōgun and feudal lords called daimyō, enforced by warrior nobility named samurai. After rule by the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates and a century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by the Tokugawa shogunate, which implemented an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, an American fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meiji period, Japan pursued rapid industrialization and modernization, as well as militarism and overseas colonization. The country invaded China in 1937 and attacked the United States and European colonial powers in 1941, thus entering World War II as an Axis power. After being defeated in the Pacific War and suffering the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under Allied occupation. Afterwards, the country underwent rapid economic growth and became one of the five earliest major non-NATO allies of the U.S. Since the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in the early 1990s, it has experienced a prolonged period of economic stagnation referred to as the Lost Decades.
Great Britain.  Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland and Wales. With an area of 209,331 km2 (80,823 sq mi), it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island, and the ninth-largest island in the world.[6][d] It is dominated by a maritime climate with narrow temperature differences between seasons. The island of Ireland, with an area 40 per cent that of Great Britain, is to the west – these islands, along with over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands and named substantial rocks, comprise the British Isles archipelago.[7] Connected to mainland Europe until 9,000 years ago by a land bridge now known as Doggerland,[8] Great Britain has been inhabited by modern humans for around 30,000 years. In 2011, it had a population of about 61 million, making it the worlds third-most-populous island after Honshu in Japan and Java in Indonesia,[9][10] and the most populated island outside of Asia. The term Great Britain can also refer to the political territory of England, Scotland and Wales, which includes their offshore islands.[11] This territory, together with Northern Ireland, constitutes the United Kingdom.[2] The archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years: the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC, Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a collective name for the British Isles.[12] However, with the Roman conquest of Britain, the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, and later Roman-occupied Britain south of Caledonia.[13][14][15]
Union Jack.  The Union Jack[1][2] or Union Flag is the national flag of the United Kingdom. The flag consists of the red cross of Saint George (the patron saint of England), edged in white, superimposed on the red saltire of Saint Patrick (the patron saint of Ireland), also edged in white, superimposed on the saltire of Saint Andrew (the patron saint of Scotland). Wales is not represented in the flag by Waless patron saint, Saint David, because the flag was designed while Wales was part of the Kingdom of England. The origins of the flag date to the earlier flag of Great Britain which was established in 1606 by a proclamation of King James VI and I of Scotland and England.[3] The present design was established by an Order in Council following the Act of Union 1801, which joined the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was unchanged following the secession of the Irish Free State in 1922. It is sometimes asserted that the term Union Jack properly refers only to naval usage, but this assertion was dismissed by the Flag Institute in 2013 after historical investigations.[4][5][6][a]
Vascular plant.  Vascular plants (from Latin  vasculum duct), also called tracheophytes (UK: /ˈtrækiːəˌfaɪts/,[5] US: /ˈtreɪkiːəˌfaɪts/)[6] or collectively tracheophyta (/ˌtreɪkiːˈɒfɪtə/;[7][8][9] from Ancient Greek  τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία (trakheîa artēría) windpipe and  φυτά (phutá) plants),[9] are plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified tissue (the phloem) to conduct products of photosynthesis. The group includes most land plants (c. 300,000 accepted known species)[10] excluding mosses. Vascular plants include the clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms (including conifers), and angiosperms (flowering plants). They are contrasted with nonvascular plants such as mosses and green algae. Scientific names for the vascular plants group include Tracheophyta,[11][4]: 251  Tracheobionta[12] and Equisetopsida sensu lato. Some early land plants (the rhyniophytes) had less developed vascular tissue; the term eutracheophyte has been used for all other vascular plants, including all living ones. Historically, vascular plants were known as higher plants, as it was believed that they were further evolved than other plants due to being more complex organisms. However, this is an antiquated remnant of the obsolete scala naturae, and the term is generally considered to be unscientific.[13] Botanists define vascular plants by three primary characteristics:
Monorchism. Monorchism (also monorchidism) is the state of having only one testicle within the scrotum. An individual having monorchism can be referred to as monorchid. This can be due to one testicle: Although extremely rare, monorchism has been observed to be characteristic of some animal species, notably in beetles.[21]
Gorge (disambiguation). A gorge or canyon is a deep cleft resulting from weathering and the erosive activity of rivers. Gorge may also refer to:
Constitutional monarchy.  Constitutional monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in making decisions.[1][2][3] Constitutional monarchies differ from absolute monarchies (in which a monarch is the only decision-maker) in that they are bound to exercise powers and authorities within limits prescribed by an established legal framework. A constitutional monarch in a parliamentary democracy is a hereditary symbolic head of state (who may be an emperor, king or queen, prince or grand duke) who mainly performs representative and civic roles but does not exercise executive or policy-making power.[4] Constitutional monarchies range from countries such as Liechtenstein, Monaco, Morocco, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain and Bhutan, where the constitution grants substantial discretionary powers to the sovereign, to countries such as the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, the Netherlands, Spain, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Lesotho, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Japan, where the monarch retains significantly less, if any, personal discretion in the exercise of their authority. On the surface level, this distinction may be hard to establish, with numerous liberal democracies restraining monarchic power in practice rather than written law, e.g., the constitution of the United Kingdom, which affords the monarch substantial, if limited, legislative and executive powers. Constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the monarch acts as a non-party political ceremonial head of state under the constitution, whether codified or uncodified.[5] While most monarchs retain formal authority and governments may legally operate in their name, in the typical European model, the monarch no longer personally sets public policy or selects political leaders. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as A sovereign who reigns but does not rule.[6] In addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. However, such powers generally may only be exercised strictly in accordance with either written constitutional principles or unwritten constitutional conventions, rather than any personal political preferences of the sovereign.
Monarchianism. Monarchianism is a doctrine that emphasizes God as one indivisible being,[1][2][3][4] in direct contrast to Trinitarianism, which defines the Godhead as three co-eternal, consubstantial, co-immanent, and equally divine hypostases. During the patristic period, Christian theologians attempted to clarify the relationship between the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.[5] Monarchianism developed in the 2nd century and persisted further into the 3rd century.[1][2] Monarchianism (from the Greek monarkhia, meaning ruling of one, and -ismos, meaning practice or teaching) stresses the absolute, uncompromising unity of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity,[1][6] which is often lambasted as veiled tritheism by nontrinitarian Christians and other monotheists.[7] Monarchians were opposed by Logos theologians (Tertullian, Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria). The Trinitarian view gained prominence and was adopted at the First Council of Constantinople in 381.[8] Monarchianism was considered a heresy after the 4th century.[2] Two types of monarchianism were propounded.[2] Adoptionism (or dynamic monarchianism or Dynamism) holds that God is one being, above all else, wholly indivisible, and of one nature. It holds that the Son was not co-eternal with the Father and that Jesus Christ was essentially granted godhood (adopted) for the plans of God and for his own perfect life and works. Different variations of Dynamism hold that Jesus was adopted either at the time of his baptism or his ascension. Notable adherents included Artemon, Beryllus of Bostra, a third-century bishop who debated with Origen, Paul of Samosata, a bishop of Antioch, and Theodotus of Byzantium.[3] Modalistic monarchianism (or Modalism) considers God to be one, who appears and works through the different modes of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Following this view, all of the Godhead is understood to dwell in the person of Jesus from the incarnation.[9] The terms Father and Son are then used to describe the distinction between the transcendence of God and the incarnation. Lastly, since God is understood as a Spirit in the context of the Gospel of John,[10] it is held that the Holy Spirit should not be understood as a separate entity but rather as a mere descriptor of Gods action.[citation needed] Notable adherents included Noetus, Praxeas, and Sabellius, hence why the view is commonly called Sabellianism. Nevertheless, Sabelliuss writings did not survive and so the little that is known about his beliefs is from secondary sources.[citation needed]
Fandub. A fandub is a fan-made dub or redub of a live-action or animated production. Dubbing is the act of re-recording of a live-action or animated production, typically in a language other than the original. Most productions are translated from different languages, but some fandubs are for productions originally in the fandubbers native language. The dialogue can range from being a close translation to a completely-altered version of the original scripts story and plots, as well as the personalities of protagonists. The reasons behind fandubbing can range from the production not receiving an official dub to the official dub being poorly received.[1] Fandubs are most commonly done with Japanese animation, but sometimes include live-action and animated series and movies in any language. Versions where the story line, character personalities, and content are dramatically altered, typically for humor, are called Abridged Series and fundubs. Fandubbing can also refer to a translated cover of a song in another language, frequently anime theme songs. Several English-language voice actors, such as Amanda Lee and Cristina Vee, have published fandub covers on YouTube. Amateur voice acting began simultaneously and independently from each other in a small number of developed countries. One of the first recorded projects, dating from 1989,[2] was the anime fan-dub parody Laputa II: The Sequel, an English redub of the first four episodes of Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water. A Star Wars fandub of Dominik Kuhn (Dodokay), using a scene in the film for a viral marketing parody, gained fame with German mainstream media.[3] Another Star Wars fandub of Revenge of the Sith, using mistranslated subtitles from a bootleg Chinese version, became popular on YouTube as Star War The Third Gathers: Backstroke of the West.[4]
Original net animation. An original net animation (ONA), known in Japan as web anime (ウェブアニメ, webu anime), is an anime that is directly released onto the Internet.[1][2] ONAs may also have been aired on television if they were first directly released on the Internet. The name mirrors original video animation, a term that has been used in the anime industry for straight-to-video animation since the early 1980s. A growing number of trailers and preview episodes of new anime have been released as ONA. For example, the anime movie of Megumi can be considered an ONA. ONAs have the tendency to be shorter than traditional anime titles, sometimes running only a few minutes.[3] There are many examples of an original net animation, such as Hetalia: Axis Powers, which only last a few minutes per episode. But while that was true for the beginning of the 2010s, this began to change in the second half of the decade as full series began to be licensed exclusively for streaming services like Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and Disney+. Most animation in Japan is made for television or for other audio-visual formats, which include ONAs that can be viewed on television, mobile devices or computers.[4] Makoto Shinkai was a pioneer of original net animation (ONA) in the late 1990s, producing his first animated short films on a home computer and distributing them on the Internet.[5] He produced the earliest animated short ONA, including Tōi Sekai (Other Worlds) in 1997,[5] Kakomareta Sekai (The World Be Enclosed) in 1998,[6] and Kanojo to Kanojo no Neko (She and Her Cat) in 1999.[5] Another early short ONA was Azumanga Web Daioh (2000).[7] As broadband Internet bandwidth began to increase in speed and availability, delivering high-quality online video over the Internet became a reality. In the early 2000s, the Japanese anime industry began broadcasting ONA web series on the Internet.[8] Early examples of ONA series include Infinite Ryvius: Illusion (2000),[9] Ajimu (2001)[10] and Mahou Yuugi (2001).[8]
Canon. Canon or Canons may refer to:
Extract from Captain Stormfields Visit to Heaven.  Extract from Captain Stormfields Visit to Heaven is a short story written by American writer Mark Twain.  It first appeared in print in Harpers Magazine in December 1907 and January 1908, and was published in book form with some revisions in 1909.  This was the last story published by Twain during his life.[2] The story follows Captain Elias Stormfield on his decades long cosmic journey to Heaven; his accidental misplacement after racing a comet; his short-lived interest in singing and playing the harp (generated by his preconceptions of heaven); and the general obsession of souls with the celebrities of Heaven such as Adam, Moses, and Elijah, who according to Twain become as distant to most people in Heaven as living celebrities are on Earth.  Twain uses this story to show his view that the common conception of Heaven is ludicrous, and points out the incongruities of such beliefs with his characteristic adroit usage of hyperbole. Much of the storys description is given by the character Sandy McWilliams, a cranberry farmer who is very experienced in the ways of Heaven. Sandy gives Stormfield, a newcomer, the description in the form of a conversational question-and-answer session. The Heaven described by him is similar to the conventional Christian Heaven, but includes a larger version of all the locations on Earth, as well as of everywhere in the universe (which mention of, albeit as a backdrop, is the last science fiction element). All sentient life-forms travel to Heaven, often through interplanetary or interstellar space, and land at a particular gate (which are without number), which is reserved for people from that originating planet. Each newcomer must then give his name and planet of origin to a gatekeeper, who sends him in to Heaven. Once inside, the being spends eternity living as they think fit, usually according to its true (sometimes undiscovered) talent. According to one of the characters, a cobbler who has the soul of a poet in him wont have to make shoes here, implying that he would instead turn to poetry and achieve perfection in it. On special occasions a procession of the greatest people in history is formed; on this particular occasion this includes Buddha, William Shakespeare, Homer, Muhammed, Daniel, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah plus several otherwise unknown people whose talents far exceeded those of the worlds pivotal figures, but who were never famous on Earth. As Stormfield proceeds through Heaven he learns that the conventional image of angels as winged, white-robed figures bearing haloes, harps, and palm leaves is a mere illusion generated for the benefit of humans, who mistake figurative language for accurate description (the wings are part of their uniforms, and not functionally wings); that all of Heavens denizens choose their ages, thus aligning themselves with the time of life at which they were most content; that anything desired is awarded to its seeker, if it does not violate any prohibition; that the prohibitions themselves are different from those envisioned on Earth; that each of the Earth-like regions of Heaven includes every human being who has ever lived on it; that families are not always together forever, because of decisions made by those who have died first; that white-skinned people are a minority in Heaven; that kings are not kings in Heaven (Charles II is a comedian while Henry VI has a religious book-stand), etc.
Storm Field. Elliott David Storm Field (born November 25, 1948)[1] is an American retired television meteorologist, most noted for his time in the New York media market. He followed his father, longtime New York weatherman Frank Field, into the business. Field was given the nickname Storm by his parents as a baby, as a result of being very active while still in his mothers womb (which led a doctor to refer to him as a stormy child), as well as being born on a stormy night on Thanksgiving Day.[1] Storm Fields first foray into weather-casting came as part of WABC-TVs Eyewitness News program. Hired by the station in March 1976, he first appeared on television when covering Hurricane Belle, followed by working when Tex Antoine was ill. Field did the weekend weather broadcasts as well as the 11:00 PM weather broadcast on weekdays.[1] Field became the permanent forecaster on November 29, 1976, as a replacement for the suspended Antoine, who had been dismissed after an inappropriate comment concerning a rape story five days earlier. Fields primary responsibilities were the 6:00 PM and 11:00 PM newscasts, with other forecasters (such as Ira Joe Fisher and Sam Champion) appearing on the 5:00 PM newscast.  In 1978 Storm Field joined the morning team with Jimmy Fink and Shelli Sonstein at New York radio station WPLJ. In addition to his weather duties, in 1981 Field became the anchor of the recently launched 5:00 PM Eyewitness News broadcast, working alongside Tracy Egan and Kaity Tong. He would do so until 1983, when Tom Snyder took over the newscast, and subbed off and on until 1984. He left WABC in 1991 and was replaced by Sam Champion.
Plant.   See text Plants are the eukaryotes that comprise the kingdom Plantae; they are predominantly photosynthetic. This means that they obtain their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water, using the green pigment chlorophyll. Exceptions are parasitic plants that have lost the genes for chlorophyll and photosynthesis, and obtain their energy from other plants or fungi. Most plants are multicellular, except for some green algae. Historically, as in Aristotles biology, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi. Definitions have narrowed since then; current definitions exclude fungi and some of the algae. By the definition used in this article, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (green plants), which consists of the green algae and the embryophytes or land plants (hornworts, liverworts, mosses, lycophytes, ferns, conifers and other gymnosperms, and flowering plants). A definition based on genomes includes the Viridiplantae, along with the red algae and the glaucophytes, in the clade Archaeplastida.
Canyon (disambiguation). A canyon, cañon or gorge is a geographical feature. Canyon may also refer to:
Albert Paine.  Albert Bigelow Paine (July 10, 1861 – April 9, 1937) was an American author and biographer best known for his work with Mark Twain. Paine was a member of the Pulitzer Prize Committee and wrote in several genres, including fiction, humor, and verse.[1] Paine was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, the son of Vermont farmer Samuel Estabrook Paine and Massachusetts shopkeeper Mercy Coval Kirby Paine, and was moved to Bentonsport, Iowa when he was one year old. From early childhood until early adulthood, Paine lived in the village of Xenia in southern Illinois; here he received his schooling. His home in Xenia is still standing. At the age of 20, he moved to St. Louis, where he trained as a photographer, and became a dealer in photographic supplies in Fort Scott, Kansas. Paine sold out in 1895 to become a full-time writer, moving to New York. He spent most of his life in Europe, including France, where he wrote two books about Joan of Arc. The works were so well received in France that he was awarded the title of Chevalier in the Légion dhonneur by the French government.[1] Albert and Dora Paine had three daughters.[1] Max McCoy in his Biographer Obscura: The Secret Life of Albert Bigelow Paine (in Mark Twain Journal Vol. 56, No. 1 [Spring 2018], pp. 249–267) claims Paine was earlier married to Minnie Schultz, and he either lied or committed bigamy by marrying Dora while still married to his first wife.[2]
Fansub. A fansub (short for fan-subtitled) is a version of a foreign film or foreign television program, typically anime or dorama which has been translated by fans (as opposed to an officially licensed translation done by paid professionals) and subtitled into a language usually other than that of the original.[1] The practice of making fansubs is called fansubbing and is done by a fansubber.[2] Fansubbers typically form groups to divide the work. The first distribution media of fansubbed material was VHS and Betamax tapes.[3] Early fansubs were produced using analog video editing equipment.[citation needed] They would copy the anime (often from laserdiscs) onto VHS, translate the dialogue, and painstakingly time and format the subtitles for the video. Popular tools for this included JACOsub (Amiga) and Substation Alpha (Windows). The next step was to produce one or more masters, a high-quality copy of the finished fansub from which many distribution copies could be made. The fansubber would playback the raw video through a computer equipped with a genlock in order to generate the subtitles and then overlay them on the raw signal. The hardware most often used was an Amiga computer, as most professional genlocks were prohibitively expensive. The final output of the arrangement was then recorded. The master was most often recorded onto S-VHS tape in an attempt to maximize quality, though some fansubbers used the less expensive VHS or Beta. Once it was completed, the master copy was sent to a distributor.[4] The internet allows for highly collaborative fansubbing, and each member of a fansub team may only complete one task.[5] Online fansubbing communities such as DameDesuYo are able to release a fully subtitled episode (including elaborate karaoke[5] with translation, kana, and kanji for songs, as well as additional remarks and translations of signs)[6] within 24 hours of an episodes debut in Japan.[7] Platforms like Fansnub have emerged to showcase creative works by fansubbers and similar content creators. These platforms provide a space for fansubbers to connect with their audience, share their work, and earn recognition for their efforts.[8]
Monocotyledon. Monocotyledons (/ˌmɒnəˌkɒtəˈliːdənz/),[d][13][14] commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal) are flowering plants whose seeds contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. A monocot taxon has been in use for several decades, but with various ranks and under several different names. The APG IV system recognises its monophyly but does not assign it to a taxonomic rank, and instead uses the term monocots to refer to the group. Monocotyledons are contrasted with the dicotyledons, which have two cotyledons. Unlike the monocots however, the dicots are not monophyletic and the two cotyledons are instead the ancestral characteristic of all flowering plants. Botanists now classify dicots into the eudicots (true dicots) and several basal lineages from which the monocots emerged. The monocots are extremely important economically, culturally, and ecologically, and make up a majority of plant biomass used in agriculture. Common crops such as dates, onions, garlic, rice, wheat, maize, and sugarcane are all monocots. The grasses alone cover over 40% of Earths land area[e][15] and contribute a significant portion of the human diet. Other monocots, like orchids, tulips, daffodils, and lilies are common houseplants and have been the subjects of several celebrations, holidays, and artworks for thousands of years. The monocots have, as the name implies, a single (mono-) cotyledon, or embryonic leaf, in their seeds. Historically, this feature was used to contrast the monocots with the dicotyledons or dicots which typically have two cotyledons; however, modern research has shown that the dicots are paraphyletic. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly useful characteristic (as they are only present for a very short period in a plants life), nor is it completely reliable. The single cotyledon is only one of a number of modifications of the body plan of the ancestral monocotyledons, whose adaptive advantages are poorly understood, but may have been related to adaption to aquatic habitats, prior to radiation to terrestrial habitats. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, despite considerable diversity in terms of external morphology.[16] With over 70,000 species, monocots are extremely evolutionarily successful and occupy a diverse set of niches:[17] Perennial geophytes including orchids (Asparagales); tulips and lilies (Liliales); rosette and succulent epiphytes (Asparagales); mycoheterotrophs (Liliales, Dioscoreales, Pandanales), all in the lilioid monocots; major cereal grains (maize, rice, barley, rye, oats, millet, sorghum and wheat) in the grass family; and forage grasses (Poales) as well as woody tree-like palm trees (Arecales), bamboo, reeds and bromeliads (Poales), bananas and ginger (Zingiberales) in the commelinid monocots, as well as floating or submerged aquatic plants such as seagrass (Alismatales) are all monocots.[18][19][20][21]
John Mead Howells.  John Mead Howells FAIA (/ˈhaʊəlz/ HOW-əlz; August 14, 1868 – September 22, 1959) was an American architect. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the son of author William Dean Howells, he earned an undergraduate degree from Harvard University in 1891 and completed further architectural studies there in 1894 before studying at the École des Beaux-Arts, in Paris, where he earned a diploma in 1897. Howells moved to New York City and founded the architectural firm Howells & Stokes with Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, who had also studied at the École. The partnership designed such works as St. Pauls Chapel at Columbia University and Stormfield, an Italianate villa commissioned by Samuel Clemens,[1] a longtime friend of his father.[2] Ending the partnership in 1916, Howells would focus his practice on office buildings in the Art Deco style, some of which he completed with Raymond Hood, whom he had met during his time at the École, and whom he had invited to become a partner when he was selected to enter the Chicago Tribune building competition in 1922. These projects include the prize-winning design of the Tribune Tower in Chicago and the American Radiator Building and Daily News Building in New York City. Howells also designed the Beekman Tower in New York and the plan for the University of Brussels in Belgium in 1922 at the request of U.S. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. Howellss institutional works include the Engineering Quadrangle at Pratt Institute, built in phases from 1909 to 1928; Memorial Hall at Pratt Institute in 1927; and Willoughby Hall at Pratt Institute in 1957.
Flowering plant.  Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/).[5][6] The term angiosperm is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον (angeion; container, vessel) and σπέρμα (sperma; seed), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta.[7] Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species.[8] They include all forbs (flowering plants without a woody stem), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees, shrubs and vines, and most aquatic plants. Angiosperms are distinguished from the other major seed plant clade, the gymnosperms, by having flowers, xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids, endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago. In the Cretaceous, angiosperms diversified explosively, becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet.
Howells & Stokes. Howells & Stokes was an American architectural firm founded in 1897 by John Mead Howells and Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes. The firm dissolved in 1917. Howells & Stokes designed, among other structures, St. Pauls Chapel at Columbia University; Woodbridge Hall, part of the Hewitt Quadrangle on the campus of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut; the Engineering Quadrangle at Pratt Institute; Horace Mann Hall, in collaboration with Edgar A. Josselyn at Teachers College, Columbia University;[1] and office buildings in New York City, Seattle, San Francisco, and Providence, Rhode Island. The firm was hired to plan the redevelopment of the original downtown Seattle site of the University of Washington. The Metropolitan Tract was, at the time, the largest development of a downtown site undertaken in the United States.[2] Abraham H. Albertson represented the firm in Seattle and supervised construction of the project as well San Franciscos Royal Insurance Building.[3] Following their earlier close collaboration on these and other projects, the partners chose to pursue separate interests, with Howells primarily engaging in commercial skyscraper construction and Stokes in the design of public housing projects in New York City.
England.  – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the United Kingdom (green) England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. England shares a land border with Scotland to the north and another land border with Wales to the west, and is otherwise surrounded by the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south, the Celtic Sea to the south-west, and the Irish Sea to the west. Continental Europe lies to the south-east, and Ireland to the west. At the 2021 census, the population was 56,490,048. London is both the largest city and the capital. The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic. It takes its name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had extensive cultural and legal impact on the wider world since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century.[8] The Kingdom of England, which included Wales after 1535, ceased to be a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union brought into effect a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland that created the Kingdom of Great Britain.[9] England is the origin of the English language, the English legal system (which served as the basis for the common law systems of many other countries), association football, and the Anglican branch of Christianity; its parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.[10] The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation.[11] England is home to the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world: the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, and the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209. Both universities are ranked amongst the most prestigious in the world.[12][13]
Grand Canyon.  The Grand Canyon[a] is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in Arizona, United States. The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles (29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6,093 feet or 1,857 meters).[6]: 902 The canyon and adjacent rim are contained within Grand Canyon National Park, the Kaibab National Forest, Grand Canyon–Parashant National Monument, the Hualapai Indian Reservation, the Havasupai Indian Reservation and the Navajo Nation. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of the preservation of the Grand Canyon area and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery. Nearly two billion years of Earths geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted.[7][8] While some aspects about the history of incision of the canyon are debated by geologists,[7][9] several recent studies support the hypothesis that the Colorado River established its course through the area about 5 to 6 million years ago.[1][7][10][11] Since that time, the Colorado River has driven the down-cutting of the tributaries and retreat of the cliffs, simultaneously deepening and widening the canyon. For thousands of years, the area has been continuously inhabited by Native Americans, who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon a holy site, and made pilgrimages to it.[12] The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was García López de Cárdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.[13]
Superhero comics. Superhero comics is one of the most common genres of American comic books. The genre rose to prominence in the 1930s and became extremely popular in the 1940s and has remained the dominant form of comic book in North America since the 1960s.  Superhero comics feature stories about superheroes and the universes these characters inhabit. Beginning with the introduction of Superman in 1938 in Action Comics #1 (an anthology of adventure features) comic books devoted to superheroes (heroic people with extraordinary or superhuman abilities and skills, or god-like powers and attributes) ballooned into a widespread genre, coincident with the beginnings of World War II and the end of the Great Depression. In comics format, superpowered and costumed heroes like Popeye and The Phantom had appeared in newspaper comic strips for several years prior to Superman.  The first fully-masked hero The Clock first appeared in the comic book Funny Pages #6 (Nov. 1936). In the Great Depression and World War II era, the first superhero comics appeared, the most popular being Superman, Batman, Captain Marvel, Wonder Woman and Captain America. After World War II superhero comic books gradually declined in popularity, their sales hindered in part by the publication of Seduction of the Innocent and the investigations of The Senate Subcommittee hearings on juvenile delinquency. By 1954 only three superheroes still had their own titles; Superman and Batman, who also costarred in Worlds Finest Comics, and Wonder Woman.[1]
Action fiction. Action fiction is a genre in literature that focuses on stories involving high-stakes, high-energy, and fast-paced events. This genre includes a wide range of subgenres, such as spy novels, adventure stories, tales of terror, intrigue (cloak and dagger), and mysteries.  These kinds of stories utilize suspense, the tension that is built up when the reader wishes to know how the conflict between the protagonist and antagonist is going to be resolved or the solution to a mystery of a thriller.[1] The intricacies of human relationships or the nuances of philosophy and psychology are rarely explored in action fiction, typically being fast-paced mysteries that merely seek to provide the reader with an exhilarating experience.[2] Action fiction can also be a plot element of non-literary works such as graphic novels and film. Action genre is a form of fiction whose subject matter is characterized by emphasis on exciting action sequences. This does not always mean they exclude character development or story-telling. The action genre is also related to non-literary media including comic books, graphic novels (such as manga), anime, action film, action television series, and action games. It includes martial arts action, extreme sports action, car chases and vehicles, hand-to-hand combat, suspense action, and action comedy, with each focusing in more detail on its own type and flavor of action.[3][4][5][6]
Saitama (One-Punch Man).  Saitama (Japanese: サイタマ) is a fictional superhero and the titular protagonist of the Japanese manga and anime series One-Punch Man created by One.  An unaffiliated superhero from Z-City who dreams of fame and performs heroic acts as a hobby. For three years straight, Saitama had trained enough to become the strongest being that can defeat any enemy with a single punch. However, his overwhelming power leaves him without real challenges, leading to boredom and a sense of emptiness. He becomes the reluctant mentor of Genos, a cybernetic hero seeking revenge on the one who killed his family and destroyed his hometown, after Saitama saves him from a powerful monster. Through Genos, Saitama learns about the Hero Association, a professional organization that combats monsters and protects the Earth. The character was created by One as part of a webcomic involving an alternate style of superhero who already started as the strongest one in the world and most of his stories involved daily chores. For the manga serialization, Saitama was illustrated by Yusuke Murata. In October 2015, an anime adaptation was released. In the anime adaptation, Saitama is voiced by Makoto Furukawa in Japanese and Max Mittelman in the English dub. Japanese manga author One became interested in creating a comic superhero who was already the strongest in the world.[1][2] He wanted to focus on different aspects of storytelling than those normally relied on in standard superhero stories, such as everyday problems. He said: Punching is oftentimes pretty useless against lifes problems. But inside One-Punch Mans universe, I made Saitama a sort of guy who was capable of adapting his life to the world that surrounded him, only armed with his immense power. The only obstacles he faces are mundane things, like running short of money.[2] One came up with Saitamas simplistic design when thinking about how the world is full of cool looking heroes.[3]
One (manga artist).  ONE (stylized in all caps) or Tomohiro is the pseudonym of a Japanese manga artist, who is best known for his web manga[1] series One-Punch Man, which was later remade into a digital manga illustrated by Yusuke Murata.[2][3] One serializes the One-Punch Man webcomic on his own website under no official publisher, while the manga remake is serialized in the web version of Weekly Young Jump. His other well-known series, Mob Psycho 100, was serialized in the online version of Weekly Shōnen Sunday, Ura Sunday.[4] One was born in Niigata and grew up in Saitama. While visiting his grandparents in Niigata, his parents bought him a series of manga called Crayon Shin-chan by Yoshito Usui.[5] One was a fan of the manga, which influenced his decision to become a manga artist, and began practicing on his notebook during middle and high school.[6] In July 2009, One began publishing a short version of One-Punch Man on Shintosha, a comic-posting website. He later began irregularly uploading One-Punch Man to his FC2 blog on July 3, 2009.[7] Originally, One-Punch Man was intended to be a one-off to further practice drawing, but became a series following positive reception.[6] Due to its humorous setting and story, One-Punch Man became popular in Japan.[7]  One had a special interest in creating a protagonist that had already become the strongest in the world,[8][9] which enabled him to concentrate on a different perspective of the background and storytelling. One stated that he envisioned the protagonist, Saitama, as a character capable of adapting to the world that surrounded him, with his primary obstacles being mundane things.[8] Before One decided to become a full-time manga artist, he had taken several hiatuses from updating the webcomic, including a one-year hiatus in February 2010 to work at a full-time job,[6] and a two-year hiatus after releasing the 109th chapter in January 2017.[1] Manga artist Yusuke Murata was interested in Ones work and eventually reached out to One.[10] The two would collaborate in publishing two one-shots in 2012; Dotō no Yūshatachi, which released on April 1 in Weekly Young Jump, and Dangan Tenshi Fan Club, which released on April 17 in Miracle Jump.[11][12] A remake of One-Punch Man  began serialization in Shueishas Tonari no Young Jump website on June 14, 2012.[13][9][14] One-Punch Man would also receive an anime adaptation, announced in the 15th issue of Weekly Young Jump on March 10, 2015.[15] The first season aired in Japan from October 5 to December 21, 2015,[16] with live-action film adaptation also in development.[17] The same year, One wrote and illustrated Mob Psycho 100, which began serialization in Shogakukans Ura Sunday webcomic magazine on April 18, 2012.[18] The protagonist, Shigeo Kageyama, is meant to come off as somewhat standoffish or nerdy, while also possessing heroic traits.[19] The series finished on December 22, 2017.[20] On November 26, 2022, Versus began serialization in Kodanshas Shonen Sirius magazine, written by One and illustrated by  Kyōtarō Azuma.[21] On April 27, 2023, Bug Ego had its first chapter published in Weekly Young Jump, later getting an official serialization. [22]
Village (United States).  In the United States, the meaning of village varies by geographic area and legal jurisdiction. In formal usage, a village is a type of administrative division at the local government level. Since the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the federal government from legislating on local government, the states are free to have political subdivisions called villages or not to and to define the word in many ways. Typically, a village is a type of municipality, although it can also be a special district or an unincorporated area. It may or may not be recognized for governmental purposes. In informal usage, a U.S. village may be simply a relatively small clustered human settlement without formal legal existence. In colonial New England, a village typically formed around the meetinghouses that were located in the center of each town.[1] Many of these colonial settlements still exist as town centers. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, industrial villages also sprang up around water-powered mills, mines, and factories.[1] Because most New England villages were contained within the boundaries of legally established towns, many such villages were never separately incorporated as municipalities. A relatively small unincorporated community, similar to a hamlet in New York state, or even a relatively small community within an incorporated city or town, may be termed a village. This informal usage may be found even in states that have villages as incorporated municipalities and is similar to the usage of the term unincorporated town in states having town governments. States that formally recognize villages vary widely in the definition of the term.[2]  Most commonly, a village is either a special district or a municipality.  As a municipality, a village may
Monroe County, Missouri.  Monroe County is a county in northeast Missouri. As of the 2020 census, the population was 8,666.[2] Its county seat is Paris.[3] It is the birthplace of Mark Twain. The county was organized January 6, 1831[4] and named for James Monroe, the fifth President of the United States.[5] Monroe County was one of several along the Missouri River settled by migrants from the Upper South, especially Kentucky and Tennessee. They brought slaves and slaveholding traditions with them and quickly started cultivating crops similar to those in Middle Tennessee and Kentucky: hemp and tobacco. They also brought characteristic antebellum architecture and culture. The county was at the heart of what was called Little Dixie.[6] According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 670 square miles (1,700 km2), of which 648 square miles (1,680 km2) is land and 23 square miles (60 km2) (3.4%) is water.[7]
Elmira, New York.  Elmira (/ɛlˈmaɪrə/) is a city in and the county seat of Chemung County, New York, United States. It is the principal city of the Elmira, New York, metropolitan statistical area, which encompasses Chemung County. The population was 26,523 at the 2020 census, down from 29,200 at the 2010 census, a decline of more than 7 percent.[4] The City of Elmira is in the south-central part of the county, surrounded on three sides by the Town of Elmira.  It is in the Southern Tier of New York, a short distance north of the Pennsylvania state line. The city was the site of the Elmira Prison, a prisoner-of-war camp that held over 12,000 captured Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War. Elmira College is located within the city. The region of Elmira was inhabited by the Cayuga nation (also known as the Gayogo̱hó꞉nǫʼ) of the Haudenosaunee prior to European colonization. Cayuga residing in the region maintained relations with European settlers, primarily related to the fur trade, but were otherwise relatively isolated from encroaching colonial settlements.[5]
Woodlawn Cemetery. Woodlawn Cemetery is the name of several cemeteries, including: (by state then city or town)
Mark Twain (crater). Mark Twain is a crater on Mercury.[1] Its name was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1976. Mark Twain is named for the American author Mark Twain, who lived from 1835 to 1910.[2] Mark Twain is one of 110 peak ring basins on Mercury.[3]  This article about geology, geography or other features of the planet Mercury is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Mark Twain (film).  Mark Twain is a documentary film on the life of Mark Twain, also known as Samuel Clemens, produced by Ken Burns in 2001 which aired on Public Broadcasting System on January 14 and 15, 2002.[1] Burns attempted to capture both the public and private persona of Mark Twain from his birth to his death. The film was narrated by Keith David.[2] The voice of Mark Twain was provided by Kevin Conway and the voice of Olivia Langdon Clemens was portrayed by Blythe Danner.[2] Other voice work was provided by actors Philip Bosco, Carolyn McCormick, Amy Madigan, Cynthia Nixon, and Tim Clark. The film also includes interviews with playwright Arthur Miller,[2] novelist and Twain biographer Ron Powers,[3] writer William Styron,[4] poet Russell Banks,[4] historian John Boyer (executive director of the Mark Twain House),[5] Harvard University professor Jocelyn Chadwick,[6] Stanford University English literature professor Shelley Fisher Fishkin, comedian and civil rights activist Dick Gregory,[4] actor Hal Holbrook,[1] animator and actor Chuck Jones,[4] and Mark Twain scholar Laura Skandera Trombley.[7] Mark Twain Legacy Scholar Barbara Schmidt asserts on her website twainquotes.com that some artistic license was taken, resulting in some historical inaccuracies and misrepresentations.[8] She also notes, that some of these errors are the result of the Twain scholarship during the time that the documentary was made, and that more recent scholarship has revealed some of the factual errors that are in the documentary.[8] Schmidts website twainquotes.com is widely cited in academic publications on Twain and is highly regarded as an authoritative resource within Twain research.[9] Film critic Caryn James wrote the following in her review in The New York Times:
List of counties in Missouri.  There are 114 counties and one independent city in the U.S. State of Missouri. Following the Louisiana Purchase and the admittance of Louisiana into the United States in 1812, five counties were formed out of the Missouri Territory at the first general assembly: Cape Girardeau, New Madrid, Saint Charles, Saint Louis, and Ste. Genevieve. Most subsequent counties were apportioned from these five original counties. Six more counties were added through the 1836 Platte Purchase, the acquired lands of which formed the northwest tip of the state and consisted of Andrew, Atchison, Buchanan, Holt, Nodaway, and Platte counties.[1] In Missouri, the county level of government comes between those of the city and the state. Its primary responsibilities include maintaining roads, providing security, prosecuting criminals, and collecting taxes. Elected officials at this level include a sheriff, prosecuting attorney, and assessor.[2] Most of the counties in Missouri are named after politicians. One such county, Cass, was originally named Van Buren County after President Martin Van Buren, and was changed to its present name in support of Van Burens Democratic opponent Lewis Cass during the presidential election of 1848. Other counties are named after war heroes, natural resources, explorers, and former U.S. territories.[3] The city of St. Louis is an independent city, and is not within the limits of a county. Its residents voted to secede from St. Louis County in 1876. Throughout the United States, St. Louis is one of three independent cities outside the state of Virginia (the other two are Baltimore, Maryland, and Carson City, Nevada).[4]
Mark Twain, St. Louis.  Mark Twain is a neighborhood of St. Louis, Missouri named after author and Missouri native Mark Twain. It is located between Interstate 70 and Bellefontaine Cemetery. In 2020 Mark Twains racial makeup was 95.1% Black, 2.4% White, 0.2% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 1.4% Two or More Races, and 0.6% Some Other Race. 1.0% of the population was of Hispanic or Latino origin.[4] 38°41′24″N 90°14′30″W / 38.6899°N 90.2417°W / 38.6899; -90.2417 
Ray-Ban Meta. Ray-Ban Meta is a series of smartglasses created by Meta Platforms and EssilorLuxottica. They include two cameras, open-ear speakers, a microphone, and touchpad built into the frame.[1] They are the second generation of a line of smartglasses released by major companies including Snap Inc and Google and are designed as one component of Facebook’s plans for a metaverse.[2] Unlike other smart glasses, the Ray-Ban Meta glasses do not include any HUD or AR head-mounted display. Meta announced them on September 27, 2023. They use a Qualcomm Snapdragon AR1 Gen1 processor, upgrade of the cameras to 12 MP, improved audio, livestreaming to Facebook and Instagram, and Meta AI.[3] On April 23, 2024, Meta announced an update to Meta AI on the smart glasses to enable multimodal input via computer vision.[4] They received criticism stemming from mistrust over Facebook’s privacy controls.[5] The small size of the recording indicator light has also led to criticism.[6] The partnership between EssilorLuxottica, Ray-Bans parent company, and Facebook to create the first generation of Ray-Ban Stories was publicly announced on September 20, 2020, by CEO Mark Zuckerberg during the seventh annual Facebook Connect conference.[7] During the keynote video, Zuckerberg described several new Facebook innovations, such as the Oculus Quest 2, a new augmented reality division called Project Aria, and the Ray-Ban Stories themselves.[8] In the following year after its initial announcement, Zuckerberg and Facebook Chief Technology Officer Andrew Bosworth would hint at a 2021 release date through FPV (first person view) video clips appearing to be taken using a Ray-Ban Stories prototype.[9]
U.S. state.  In the United States, a state is a constituent political entity, of which there are 50. Bound together in a political union, each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a separate and defined geographic territory where it shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Due to this shared sovereignty, Americans are citizens both of the federal republic and of the state in which they reside.[3] State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons restricted by certain types of court orders, such as paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who share child custody. State governments in the U.S. are allocated power by the people of each respective state through their individual state constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles (this being required by the federal constitution), and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches, each with separate and independent powers: executive, legislative, and judicial.[4] States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, and states also create other local governments. States, unlike U.S. territories, possess many powers and rights under the United States Constitution. States and their citizens are represented in the United States Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors, equal to the total number of representatives and senators from that state, to vote in the Electoral College, the body that directly elects the president of the United States. Each state has the opportunity to ratify constitutional amendments. With the consent of Congress, two or more states may enter into interstate compacts with one another. The police power of each state is also recognized. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, intrastate commerce regulation, and local transportation and infrastructure, in addition to local, state, and federal elections, have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.
Arizona.  Arizona[b] is a state in the Southwestern region of the United States, sharing the Four Corners region of the western United States with Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. It also borders Nevada to the northwest and California to the west, and shares an international border with the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California to the south and southwest. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, which is the most populous state capital and fifth most populous city in the United States. Arizona is divided into 15 counties. Arizona is the 6th-largest state by area and the 14th-most-populous of the 50 states. It is the 48th state and last of the contiguous states to be admitted to the Union, achieving statehood on February 14, 1912. Historically part of the territory of Alta California and Nuevo México in New Spain, it became part of independent Mexico in 1821. After being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848, where the area became part of the New Mexico Territory. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase. Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with extremely hot summers and mild winters. Northern Arizona features forests of pine, Douglas fir, and spruce trees; the Colorado Plateau; mountain ranges (such as the San Francisco Mountains); as well as large, deep canyons, with much more moderate summer temperatures and significant winter snowfalls. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Sunrise, and Tucson. In addition to the internationally known Grand Canyon National Park, which is one of the worlds seven natural wonders, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. Arizona is home to a diverse population. About one-quarter of the state[12][13] is made up of Indian reservations that serve as the home of 27 federally recognized Native American tribes, including the Navajo Nation, the largest in the state and the country, with more than 300,000 citizens. Since the 1980s, the proportion of Hispanics has grown significantly owing to migration from Mexico and Central America. A substantial portion of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Arizonas population and economy have grown dramatically since the 1950s because of inward migration, and the state is now a major hub of the Sun Belt. Cities such as Phoenix and Tucson have developed large, sprawling suburban areas. Many large companies, such as PetSmart and Circle K,[14] have headquarters in the state, and Arizona is home to major universities, including the University of Arizona, Arizona State University, and Northern Arizona University. The state is known for a history of conservative politicians such as Barry Goldwater and John McCain, though it has become a swing state in recent years.
Woodlawn National Cemetery.  Woodlawn National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery within Woodlawn Cemetery, which is in the city of Elmira, in Chemung County, New York. Administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, it encompasses 10.5 acres (4.2 ha), and as of 2021, had over 11,000 interred remains. In 1861, Camp Rathbun, near the town of Elmira, was established as a training camp at the beginning of the Civil War. As the Union troops who trained there were sent to their respective assignments, the camp emptied and in 1864 it was turned into the Elmira Prison prisoner-of-war camp. The facilities were not adequate to house the thousands of Confederate prisoners, and many succumbed to exposure, malnutrition, and smallpox and were subsequently interred at the cemetery. Woodlawn National Cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.
National Register of Historic Places.  The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal governments official list of sites, buildings, structures, districts, and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or great artistic value. The enactment of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966 established the National Register and the process for adding properties to it. Of the more than one and a half million properties on the National Register, 95,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts. For most of its history, the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service (NPS), an agency within the United States Department of the Interior. Its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and coordinate, identify and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties. Protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. The application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. A property listed in the National Register, or located within a National Register Historic District, may qualify for tax incentives derived from the total value of expenses incurred in preserving the property. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts and multiple property submissions (MPS). The Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties: district, site, structure, building or object.
Disney riverboats. The Disney riverboats are paddle steamer watercraft attraction ride vehicles operating on a track on a series of attractions located at Disney theme parks around the world. The first was the Mark Twain Riverboat, located at the Disneyland theme park in Anaheim, California, on which passengers embark on a scenic, 12-minute journey around the Rivers of America. Originally named Mark Twain Steamboat when the park opened in 1955, the 5/8-scale stern-wheeler was the first functional steamboat to be built in the United States for 50 years.[1] Other Disney riverboat attractions also appear at Tokyo Disneyland and Disneyland Park Paris. Passengers wait for the 150-ton, 28-foot-high (8.5 m), 105-foot-long (32 m) riverboat, which departs every 20 minutes, inside a sheltered area in the Frontierland section of the park. The waiting area resembles a real riverboat loading area, with cargo deliveries sharing space on the dock. Historic United States flags are displayed at the attractions entrance. Upon boarding Mark Twain, passengers are free to move about her three levels. The lower decks bow has chairs. The upper deck provides a vantage point for viewing landmarks during the voyage. The wheelhouse, where Mark Twains pilot is stationed, is located on the upper deck. The lower level of the wheelhouse features sleeping quarters and a sink to maintain the illusion of this being the captains living quarters. The pilot signals the departure and arrival of Mark Twain using a whistle and bell system, along with various signals to other river craft attractions. Because the riverboat travels along a hidden I-beam guide rail throughout the ride, the pilot does not maneuver the ship. Instead, the pilot serves as lookout for other river traffic, such as Davy Crocketts Explorer Canoes and the rafts to Pirates Lair at Tom Sawyer Island, and communicates his observations with the boiler engineer. The boiler engineer is stationed on the bottom deck towards the stern. This is where the throttle and reverser are located. From here, the boiler engineer controls the speed and forward or reverse direction of the riverboat. Steam from the boiler is used to power the paddle wheels which push the craft along its guide-way.[citation needed]
Writing.  Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of language. A writing system includes a particular set of symbols called a script, as well as the rules by which they encode a particular spoken language. Every written language arises from a corresponding spoken language; while the use of language is universal across human societies, most spoken languages are not written.[1] Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes. The outcome of this activity, also called writing (or a text) is a series of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented symbols. Reading is the corresponding process of interpreting a written text, with the interpreter referred to as a reader.[2] In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space.[3][4] While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. written correspondence) and stored over time (e.g. libraries).[5] Writing can also impact what knowledge people acquire, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise.[6][7][8] Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the systems used.[9] Writing implements used to make physical inscriptions include fingers, styluses, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography; writing surfaces on which inscriptions may be made include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slips, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, and slate.[10]
Blonde (Frank Ocean album).  Blonde is the second studio album by the American singer Frank Ocean.[a] It was released on August 20, 2016, as a timed exclusive on the iTunes Store and Apple Music, and followed the August 19 release of Oceans video album Endless. The album features guest vocals from André 3000, Beyoncé, and Kim Burrell, among others. Production was handled by Ocean himself, alongside a variety of high-profile record producers, including Malay and OmMas Keith, who collaborated with Ocean on Channel Orange, as well as James Blake, Jon Brion, Buddy Ross, Pharrell Williams, and Rostam Batmanglij, among others. In 2013, Ocean confirmed that his follow up to Channel Orange would be another concept album. Initially known as Boys Dont Cry and teased for a July 2015 release, the album suffered several delays and was the subject of widespread media anticipation leading up to its release. Recording for the album took place throughout 2013 and 2016 at New Yorks Electric Lady Studios and, after a period of writers block, in London at Abbey Road Studios and in Los Angeles Henson Recording Studios. Its physical release was accompanied by a magazine entitled Boys Dont Cry. Blonde features an abstract and experimental sound in comparison to Oceans previous releases, encompassing styles such as R&B, pop, soul, avant-garde, indie rock, electronica, psychedelia, and hip-hop. Ocean also notably makes use of pitch shifted vocals. The Beach Boys de facto leader Brian Wilson is recognized as a strong influence on the albums lush arrangements and layered vocal harmonies, while the guitar and keyboard rhythms on the album are considered languid and minimal. The albums themes surround Ocean dealing with his masculinity and emotions, inspired by sexual experiences, heartbreak, loss, duality, and trauma. Blonde received widespread acclaim, with critics praising Oceans introspective lyrics and the albums unconventional and progressive sounds. Critics also complimented the album for challenging the conventions of R&B and pop music. Supported by its lead single Nikes, the album debuted at number one in several countries, including the United States. It earned first week sales of 275,000 with album-equivalent units in the US, with 232,000 being pure sales, and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Among other publications, Time named it the best album of 2016. Metacritic named it one of the most critically acclaimed albums of the year by music publications. In 2020, Pitchfork named it the best album of the 2010s and Rolling Stone ranked it at number 79 on their updated list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.
Snapchat.  Snapchat is an American multimedia social media and instant messaging app and service developed by Snap Inc., originally Snapchat Inc. One of the principal features of the app are that pictures and messages, known as snaps, are usually available for only a short time before they become inaccessible to their recipients. The app has evolved from originally focusing on person-to-person photo sharing to presently featuring users Stories of 24 hours of chronological content, along with Discover, letting brands show ad-supported short-form content. It also allows users to store photos in a password-protected area called My Eyes Only. It has also reportedly incorporated limited use of end-to-end encryption, with plans to broaden its use in the future. Snapchat was created by Evan Spiegel, Bobby Murphy, and Reggie Brown,[6] former students at Stanford University. It is known for representing a mobile-first direction for social media, and places significant emphasis on users interacting with virtual stickers and augmented reality objects. In 2023, Snapchat had over 300 million monthly active users.[7] On average more than four billion Snaps were sent each day in 2020.[8] Snapchat is popular among the younger generations, with most users being between 18 and 24.[7] Snapchat is subject to privacy concerns with social networking services. According to documents and deposition statements, Reggie Brown brought the idea for a disappearing-pictures application to Evan Spiegel because Spiegel had prior business experience. Brown and Spiegel then pulled in Bobby Murphy, who had experience coding. The three worked closely together for several months and launched Snapchat as Picaboo on the iOS operating system on July 8, 2011.[9][10] Reggie Brown was ousted from the company months after it was launched.[11][12] The app was relaunched as Snapchat in September 2011, and the team focused on usability and technical aspects, rather than branding efforts.[13] One exception was the decision to keep a mascot designed by Brown, Ghostface Chillah, named after Ghostface Killah of the hip-hop group Wu-Tang Clan.[13]
Publishing.  Publishing  is the process of making information, literature, music, software, and other content, physical or digital, available to the public for sale or free of charge.[1] Traditionally, the term publishing refers to the creation and distribution of printed works, such as books, comic books, newspapers, and magazines  to the public. With the advent of digital information systems, the scope has expanded to include digital publishing such as e-books, digital magazines, websites, social media, music, and video game publishing. The commercial publishing industry ranges from large multinational conglomerates such as News Corp, Pearson, Penguin Random House, and Thomson Reuters[2] to major retail brands and thousands of small independent publishers. It has various divisions such as trade/retail publishing of fiction and non-fiction, educational publishing, and academic and scientific publishing.[3] Publishing is also undertaken by governments, civil society, and private companies for administrative or compliance requirements, business, research, advocacy, or public interest objectives.[4] This can include annual reports, research reports, market research, policy briefings, and technical reports. Self-publishing has become very common. Publishing has evolved from a small, ancient form limited by law or religion to a modern, large-scale industry disseminating all types of information.[5] Publisher can refer to a publishing company, organization, or an individual who leads a publishing company, imprint, periodical, or newspaper.
Missouri.  Missouri (see pronunciation) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States.[6] Ranking 21st in land area, it borders Iowa to the north, Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee to the east, Arkansas to the south and Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska to the west. In the south are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. At 1.5 billion years old, the St. Francois Mountains are among the oldest in the world. The Missouri River, after which the state is named, flows through the center and into the Mississippi River, which makes up the eastern border. With over six million residents, it is the 19th-most populous state of the country. The largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capital is Jefferson City. Humans have inhabited present-day Missouri for at least 12,000 years. The Mississippian culture, which emerged in the ninth century, built cities with pyramidal and other ceremonial mounds before declining in the 14th century. The Indigenous Osage and Missouria nations inhabited the area when European people arrived in the 17th century. The French incorporated the territory into Louisiana, founding Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764. After a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired Missouri as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South rushed into the new Missouri Territory, taking advantage of its productive agricultural plains; Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States.[7] Missouri was admitted as a slave state as part of the Missouri Compromise of 1820. As a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex, and it was subject to rival governments, raids, and guerilla warfare. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became large centers of industrialization and business. Today the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouri has been called the Gateway to the West,[8] the Mother of the West, the Cave State, and the Show Me State.[9] Its culture blends elements of the Midwestern and Southern United States. It is the birthplace of the musical genres ragtime, Kansas City jazz and St. Louis blues. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and the lesser-known St. Louis-style barbecue, can be found across the state and beyond. Missouri is a major center of beer brewing and has some of the most permissive alcohol laws in the U.S.[10] It is home to Anheuser-Busch, the worlds largest beer producer, and produces Missouri wine, especially in the Missouri Rhineland. Outside the states major cities, popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, Table Rock Lake and Branson. Some of the largest companies based in the state include Cerner, Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, H&R Block, Wells Fargo Advisors, Centene Corporation, and OReilly Auto Parts. Well-known universities in Missouri include the University of Missouri, Saint Louis University, and Washington University in St. Louis.[11]
Epic poetry.  In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants.[1] With regard to oral tradition, epic poems consist of formal speech and are usually learnt word for word, contrasted with narratives that consist of everyday speech, categorised into factual or fiction, the former of which is less susceptible to variation.[2] Influential epics that have shaped Western literature and culture include Homers Iliad and Odyssey; Virgils Aeneid; and the anonymous Beowulf and Epic of Gilgamesh. The genre has inspired the adjective epic as well as derivative works in other mediums (such as epic films) that evoke or emulate the characteristics of epics.[3] The English word epic comes from Latin epicus, which itself comes from the Ancient Greek adjective epikos (ἐπικός), from epos (ἔπος),[4] word, story, poem.[5] In Ancient Greek, epic could refer to all poetry in dactylic hexameter (epea), which included not only Homer but also the wisdom poetry of Hesiod, the utterances of the Delphic oracle, and the strange theological verses attributed to Orpheus. Later tradition, however, has restricted the term epic to heroic epic, as described in this article.
News style. News style, journalistic style, or news-writing style is the prose style used in journalism, such as newspapers, radio, and broadcast news. News writing attempts to answer all the basic questions about any particular event—who, what, when, where, and why (the Five Ws) and often how—at the opening of the article. This form of structure is sometimes called the inverted pyramid, to refer to the decreasing importance of information in subsequent paragraphs. News stories also contain at least one of the following important characteristics relative to the intended audience: proximity, prominence, timeliness, human interest, oddity, or consequence. The related term journalese is sometimes used, usually pejoratively,[1] to refer to news-style writing. Another is headlinese. Newspapers generally adhere to an expository writing style. Over time and place, journalism ethics and standards have varied in the degree of objectivity or sensationalism they incorporate. It is considered unethical not to attribute a scoop to the journalist(s) who broke a story, even if they are employed by a rival organization. Definitions of professionalism differ among news agencies; their reputations, according to both professional standards and reader expectations, are often tied to the appearance of objectivity. In its most ideal form, news writing strives to be intelligible to the majority of readers, engaging, and succinct. Within these limits, news stories also aim to be comprehensive. However, other factors are involved, some stylistic and some derived from the media form.
Electronic media. Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical means for the audience to access the content.[1] This is in contrast to static media (mainly print media), which today are most often created digitally, but do not require electronics to be accessed by the end user in the printed form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general public are video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM and online content. Most new media are in the form of digital media. However, electronic media may be in either analogue electronics data or digital electronic data format. Although the term is usually associated with content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live broadcasting and online networking. Any equipment used in the electronic communication process (e.g. television, radio, telephone, game console, handheld device) may also be considered electronic media. Wire and transmission lines emerged as communication tools, starting with the telegraph in the late 18th century. Samuel Morse invented the telegraph in 1832, introducing wires to transmit electrical signals over long distances. In 1844, the first successful telegraph line was established in the United States, and in the 1850s, telegraph cables were laid across the Atlantic connecting North America and Europe.[2] At the same time the telegraph was becoming mainstream, the need to transmit images over wire emerged. The first commercially successful fax machine was developed by Elisha Gray in 1861, allowing printed images to be transmitted over a wire.[3] The telephone was another breakthrough in electronic communication, allowing people to communicate using voice rather than written messages. Alexander Graham Bell pioneered the first successful telephone transmission in 1876, and by the 1890s, telephone lines were being laid worldwide.[4] Since all these significant breakthroughs relied on transmission lines for communication, a minor improvement was made by the English engineer Oliver Heaviside who patented the coaxial cable in 1880.[5] The coaxial cable allowed for greater bandwidth and longer transmission distances.
Equestrian statue of Israel Putnam.  General Israel Putnam, also known as Putnams Escape at Horseneck, is an equestrian statue at the Putnam Memorial State Park in Redding, Connecticut, United States. The statue was designed by sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and dedicated in 1969 in honor of Connecticut native Israel Putnam, a military officer who served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Israel Putnam was a military officer who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.[1] Putnam became a well-known historical figure for his actions during the war, which included leading troops at the Battle of Bunker Hill.[1] In 1779, while in Greenwich, Connecticut, the 60-year-old Putnam was spotted by British troops, who proceeded to chase him on horseback. In one of his most well-known escapades, Putnam managed to escape capture by riding his horse down a notably steep hill that was considered unsafe for horse-riding.[2] More than a century later, this story inspired sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington to create an equestrian statue memorializing the event.[3] Huntington, who was born in 1876, was an American sculptor from the Boston area who was recognized by the Metropolitan Museum of Art as one of the preeminent female sculptors in the country and had studied the craft at the Art Students League of New York in the early 1900s.[4][5] For some time, Huntington had lived in Redding, Connecticut, near the Putnam Memorial State Park,[3] which had served as Putnams winter encampment during the war.[4][6] Huntington was especially renowned for her equestrian statues,[7] with some of her more notable works including an equestrian statue of Joan of Arc in New York City and El Cid Campeador.[5] Working on the Putnam sculpture in 1966 at the age of 90,[5][8] it would be the last of seven major equestrian statues she had created during her career, as well as one of the last works created before her death in 1973.[8] Completed in 1967,[note 1] the sculpture was donated to the Putnam Memorial State Park in 1969.[4] It was dedicated on September 21, 1969, near the entrance of the park,[9] with Albert D. Putnam, a descendant of Israel, giving the main speech at the ceremony,[10] during which he stated that his ancestor had rode down the hill to everlasting fame and into the heart of Mrs. Huntington.[10] Another speech was given by Donald C. Matthews, Director of the Connecticut State Park and Forest Commission, who said: We are here to honor two great citizens, General Israel Putnam and Mrs. Huntington, the most remarkable woman I have ever known.[9]
Legend. A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude. Legend, for its active and passive participants, may include miracles. Legends may be transformed over time to keep them fresh and vital. Many legends operate within the realm of uncertainty, never being entirely believed by the participants, but also never being resolutely doubted.[1] Legends are sometimes distinguished from myths in that they concern human beings as the main characters and do not necessarily have supernatural origins, and sometimes in that they have some sort of historical basis whereas myths generally do not.[2][3] The Brothers Grimm defined legend as folktale historically grounded.[4] A by-product of the concern with human beings is the long list of legendary creatures, leaving no resolute doubt that legends are historically grounded. A modern folklorists professional definition of legend was proposed by Timothy R. Tangherlini in 1990:[5] Legend, typically, is a short (mono-) episodic, traditional, highly ecotypified[6] historicized narrative performed in a conversational mode, reflecting on a psychological level a symbolic representation of folk belief and collective experiences and serving as a reaffirmation of commonly held values of the group to whose tradition it belongs. Legend is a loanword from Old French that entered English usage c. 1340. The Old French noun legende derives from the Medieval Latin legenda.[7] In its early English-language usage, the word indicated a narrative of an event. The word legendary was originally a noun (introduced in the 1510s) meaning a collection or corpus of legends.[8][9] This word changed to legendry, and legendary became the adjectival form.[8]
Filter (social media). Filters are digital image effects often used on social media. They initially simulated the effects of camera filters, and they have since developed with facial recognition technology and computer-generated augmented reality. Social media filters—especially beauty filters—are often used to alter the appearance of selfies taken on smartphones or other similar devices. While filters are commonly associated with beauty enhancement and feature alterations, there is a wide range of filters that have different functions. From adjusting photo tones to using face animations and interactive elements, users have access to a range of tools. These filters allow users to enhance photos and allow room for creative expression and fun interactions with digital content. Beauty filters originate from Purikura (print club),[1][2] a type of Japanese photographic arcade game machine conceived in 1994 by Sasaki Miho, a female employee at Atlus, and released in 1995 by Atlus and Sega primarily for female visitors at Japanese arcades.[3] They allowed the manipulation of digital selfie photos[4] with kawaii beauty filters[5] similar to later Snapchat filters.[2] Purikura filters included beautifying the image, cat whiskers, bunny ears, writing text, scribbling graffiti,[1] selecting backdrops, borders, insertable decorations, icons, hair extensions, twinkling diamond tiaras,[6] tenderized light effects, and predesigned decorative margins.[5] To capitalize on the Purikura phenomenon in Japan during the late 1990s, Japanese mobile phones began including a front-facing camera,[5][7] starting with the Kyocera Visual Phone VP‑210 in 1999.[8] The Sanyo SCP-5300 released in 2002 was the first camera phone with filter effects, such as illumination, white‑balance control, sepia, black and white, and negative colors.[9] Purikura-like beauty filters later appeared in smartphone apps such as Instagram and Snapchat in the 2010s.[1] In 2010, Apple introduced the iPhone 4—the first iPhone model with a front-facing camera.[10] It gave rise to a dramatic increase in selfies, which could be touched up with more flattering lighting effects with applications such as Instagram.[10] The American photographer Cole Rise was involved in the creation of the original filters for Instagram around 2010, designing several of them himself, including Sierra, Mayfair, Sutro, Amaro, and Willow.[11][12] However, the technology for virtual lens filters was invented and patented by Patrick Levy-Rosenthal in 2007. The patent received 100 citations, including Facebook, Nvidia, Microsoft, Samsung, and Snap.[13][14] In September, 2011, the Instagram 2.0 update for the application introduced live filters, which allowed the user to preview the effect of the filter while shooting with the applications camera.[15][16] #NoFilter, a hashtag label to describe an image that had not been filtered, became popular around 2013.[17] An update in 2014 allowed users to adjust the intensity of the filters as well as fine-tune other aspects of the image, features that had been available for years on applications such as VSCO and Litely.[18][19]
Putnam Memorial State Park.  Putnam Memorial State Park is a history-oriented public recreation area in the town of Redding, Connecticut.[3] The state park preserves the site that Major General Israel Putnam chose as the winter encampment for his men in the winter of 1778/1779 during the American Revolutionary War.[4] It is Connecticuts oldest state park, created in 1887 at the instigation of Redding town residents. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.[5] In addition to its historic features, the parks 183 acres (74 ha) include facilities for hiking, picnicking, pond fishing, and winter sports. The park is located at the intersection of Route 107 and Route 58 and is managed by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection.[3] Over 3,000 men were sent into winter quarters spread throughout three camps in Redding. The camps were established to keep an eye on the storehouses in Danbury, Connecticut, and to protect Long Island Sound and the Hudson River Valley. Many of these men were the same who had suffered at Valley Forge the previous winter. The 2nd Canadian Regiment, or Congress Own, under the command of Moses Hazen and the 2nd New Hampshire Regiment under the command of Enoch Poor were stationed at this location.[4][6][7] Preservation of the park grounds was initiated in 1887 when Aaron Treadwell, at the encouragement of Redding historian Charles Burr Todd, sold 12.4 acres to the state for one dollar. In 1955, the Park and Forest Commission took over park management. The park was decommissioned with maintenance performed by local volunteers during most of the 1990s. It reopened under state auspices in 1997.[8][9]
New England town. The town is the basic unit of local government and local division of state authority in the six New England states. Most other U.S. states lack a direct counterpart to the New England town. New England towns overlie the entire area of a state, similar to civil townships in other states where they exist, but they are fully functioning municipal corporations, possessing powers similar to cities and counties in other states. New Jerseys system of equally powerful townships, boroughs, towns, and cities is the system which is most similar to that of New England. New England towns are often governed by a town meeting, an assembly of eligible town residents. The great majority of municipal corporations in New England are based on the town model; there, statutory forms based on the concept of a compact populated place are uncommon, though elsewhere in the U.S. they are prevalent. County government in New England states is typically weak, and in some states nonexistent. Connecticut, for example, has no county governments,[1] nor does Rhode Island.[2] Both of those states retain counties only as geographic subdivisions with no governmental authority, while Massachusetts[3] has abolished eight of fourteen county governments so far. Counties serve mostly as dividing lines for the states judicial systems and some other state services in the southern New England states while providing varying (but generally limited) services in the more sparsely populated three northern New England states. Towns date back to the time of the earliest English colonial settlement, which predominated in New England, and they pre-date the development of counties in the region. Areas were organized as towns as they were settled, throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Town boundaries were not usually laid out on any kind of regular grid, but were drawn to reflect local settlement and transportation patterns, often affected by natural features. In early colonial times, recognition of towns was very informal, generally connected to local church divisions. By 1700, colonial governments had become more involved in the official establishment of new towns. Towns were typically governed by a town meeting form of government, as many still are today. Towns originally were the only form of incorporated municipality in New England. The city form of government was not introduced until much later. Boston, for instance, was a town for the first two centuries of its existence. The entire land areas of Connecticut and Rhode Island had been divided into towns by the late 18th century, and Massachusetts was almost completely covered early in the 19th century. By 1850, the only New England state that still had large unincorporated areas was Maine; by the end of the 19th century, most areas in Maine that could realistically be settled had been organized into towns. Early town organization in Vermont and much of New Hampshire proceeded in a somewhat different manner from that of the other New England states. In these areas, towns were often chartered long before any settlers moved into a particular area. This was very common in the mid to late 18th century—although there were towns which predated that period and were not part of this process in southeastern New Hampshire, such as Exeter. Once there were enough residents in a town to formally organize a town government, no further action was necessary to incorporate. This practice can lead to inconsistencies in the dates of incorporation for towns in this region. Dates given in reference sources sometimes reflect the date when the town was chartered, which may have been long before it was settled, and not the date when its town government became active. In other parts of New England, some future towns were laid out along these lines, but such areas would not be formally incorporated as towns until they were sufficiently settled to organize a town government.
Myth.  Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is totally different from the ordinary sense of the term myth, meaning a belief that is not true, as the veracity of a piece of folklore is entirely irrelevant to determining whether it constitutes a myth.[1] Myths are often endorsed by religious and secular authorities, and may be natural or supernatural in character.[2] Many societies group their myths, legends, and history together, considering myths and legends to be factual accounts of their remote past.[6] In particular, creation myths take place in a primordial age when the world had not achieved its later form.[10] Origin myths explain how a societys customs, institutions, and taboos were established and sanctified.[2][8] National myths are narratives about a nations past that symbolize the nations values. There is a complex relationship between recital of myths and the enactment of rituals. The word myth comes from Ancient Greek μῦθος (mȳthos),[11] meaning speech, narrative, or fiction. In turn, Ancient Greek μυθολογία (mythología story, legends, or story-telling) combines the word mȳthos with the suffix -λογία (-logia study).[12] Accordingly, Plato used mythología as a general term for fiction or story-telling of any kind. This word began was adapted into other European languages in the early 19th century, in a much narrower sense, as a scholarly term for [a] traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining a natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events.[13][14] The Greek term mythología was then borrowed into Late Latin, occurring in the title of Latin author Fabius Planciades Fulgentius 5th-century Mythologiæ to denote what is now referred to as classical mythology—i.e., Greco-Roman etiological stories involving their gods. Fulgentiuss Mythologiæ explicitly treated its subject matter as allegories requiring interpretation and not as true events.[15] The Latin term was then adopted in Middle French as mythologie. Whether from French or Latin usage, English adopted the word mythology in the 15th century, initially meaning the exposition of a myth or myths, the interpretation of fables, or a book of such expositions. The word is first attested in John Lydgates Troy Book (c. 1425).[16][18][19]
Western Connecticut Planning Region, Connecticut.  The Western Connecticut Planning Region is a planning region and county-equivalent in Connecticut. It is served by the coterminous Western Connecticut Council of Governments (WestCOG), one of nine regional councils of governments in Connecticut. Within the region, there are two Metropolitan Planning Organizations, South Western CT MPO and the Housatonic Valley MPO. The region includes the Connecticut Panhandle, Greater Danbury, and the Gold Coast. In 2022, planning regions were approved to replace Connecticuts counties as county-equivalents for statistical purposes, with full implementation occurring in 2024.[1][2] WestCOG serves as the states planning region closest to New York. All towns within the planning region are included within the New York Metropolitan Area, with towns like Greenwich & Stamford being hubs for commuters who work in the city. As of the 2020 United States census, there were 620,549 people living in the Western Connecticut Planning Region, making it the second most populated region in the state behind the Capitol Planning Region.
Smartphone.  A smartphone is a mobile device that combines the functionality of a traditional mobile phone with advanced computing capabilities. It typically has a touchscreen interface, allowing users to access a wide range of applications and services, such as web browsing, email, and social media, as well as multimedia playback and streaming. Smartphones have built-in cameras, GPS navigation, and support for various communication methods, including voice calls, text messaging, and internet-based messaging apps. Smartphones are distinguished from older-design feature phones by their more advanced hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems, access to the internet, business applications, mobile payments, and multimedia functionality, including music, video, gaming, radio, and television. Smartphones typically feature metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chips, various sensors, and support for multiple wireless communication protocols. Examples of smartphone sensors include accelerometers, barometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers; they can be used by both pre-installed and third-party software to enhance functionality. Wireless communication standards supported by smartphones include LTE, 5G NR, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and satellite navigation. By the mid-2020s, manufacturers began integrating satellite messaging and emergency services, expanding their utility in remote areas without reliable cellular coverage. Smartphones have largely replaced personal digital assistant (PDA) devices, handheld/palm-sized PCs, portable media players (PMP),[1] point-and-shoot cameras, camcorders, and, to a lesser extent, handheld video game consoles, e-reader devices, pocket calculators, and GPS tracking units. Following the rising popularity of the iPhone in the late 2000s, the majority of smartphones have featured thin, slate-like form factors with large, capacitive touch screens with support for multi-touch gestures rather than physical keyboards. Most modern smartphones have the ability for users to download or purchase additional applications from a centralized app store. They often have support for cloud storage and cloud synchronization, and virtual assistants. Since the early 2010s, improved hardware and faster wireless communication have bolstered the growth of the smartphone industry. As of 2014[update], over a billion smartphones are sold globally every year. In 2019 alone, 1.54 billion smartphone units were shipped worldwide.[2] As of 2020[update], 75.05 percent of the world population were smartphone users.[3] A typical smartphone contains a number of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chips,[4] which in turn contain billions of tiny MOS field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).[5] A typical smartphone contains the following MOS IC chips:[4]
Storey (disambiguation). A storey is a level in a building. Storey may also refer to:
Instagram.  Instagram[a] is an American photo and short-form video sharing social networking service owned by Meta Platforms. It allows users to upload media that can be edited with filters, be organized by hashtags, and be associated with a location via geographical tagging. Posts can be shared publicly or with preapproved followers. Users can browse other users content by tags and locations, view trending content, like photos, and follow other users to add their content to a personal feed.[8] A Meta-operated image-centric social media platform, it is available on iOS, Android, Windows 10, and the web. Users can take photos and edit them using built-in filters and other tools, then share them on other social media platforms like Facebook. It supports 33 languages including English, Hindi, Spanish, French, Korean, and Japanese.[9] Instagram was originally distinguished by allowing content to be framed only in a square (1:1) aspect ratio of 640 pixels to match the display width of the iPhone at the time. In 2015, this restriction was eased with an increase to 1080 pixels. It also added messaging features, the ability to include multiple images or videos in a single post, and a Stories feature—similar to its main competitor, Snapchat, which allowed users to post their content to a sequential feed, with each post accessible to others for 24 hours. As of January 2019, Stories was used by 500 million people daily.[8] Instagram was launched for iOS in October 2010 by Kevin Systrom and the Brazilian software engineer Mike Krieger. It rapidly gained popularity, reaching 1 million registered users in two months, 10 million in a year, and 1 billion in June 2018. In April 2012, Facebook acquired the service for approximately US$1 billion in cash and stock. The Android version of Instagram was released in April 2012, followed by a feature-limited desktop interface in November 2012, a Fire OS app in June 2014, an app for Windows 10 in October 2016, and an app for iPadOS in September 2025. Although often admired for its success and influence, Instagram has also been criticized for negatively affecting teens mental health, its policy and interface changes, its alleged censorship, and illegal and inappropriate content uploaded by users. Instagram began development in San Francisco as Burbn, a mobile check-in app created by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger. On March 5, 2010, Systrom closed a $500,000 (equivalent to $682,200 in 2023) seed funding round with Baseline Ventures and Andreessen Horowitz while working on Burbn.[10][11] Realizing that it was too similar to Foursquare, they refocused their app on photo-sharing, which had become a popular feature among its users.[12][13] They renamed it Instagram, a portmanteau of instant camera and telegram.[14]
Multistorey car park.  A multistorey car park[1][2] (Commonwealth English) or parking garage (American English),[1] also called a multistorey,[3] parking building, parking structure, parkade (Canadian), parking ramp, parking deck, or indoor parking, is a building designed for car, motorcycle, and bicycle parking in which parking takes place on more than one floor or level. The first known multistorey facility was built in London in 1901 and the first underground parking was built in Barcelona in 1904 (see history).[1] The term multistorey (or multistory) is almost never used in the United States, because almost all parking structures have multiple parking levels. Parking structures may be heated if they are enclosed. Design of parking structures can add considerable cost for planning new developments, with costs in the United States around $28,000 per space and $56,000 per space for underground (excluding the cost of land), and can be required by cities in parking mandates for new buildings.[4] Some cities such as London have abolished previously enacted minimum parking requirements.[5] Minimum parking requirements are a hallmark of zoning and planning codes for municipalities in the US. (States do not prescribe parking requirements, while counties and cities can).[6] The earliest known multi-storey car park was opened in May 1901 by City & Suburban Electric Carriage Company at 6 Denman Street, central London. The location had space for 100 vehicles over seven floors, totaling 19,000 square feet. The same company opened a second location in 1902 for 230 vehicles. The company specialized in the sale, storage, valeting, and on-demand delivery of electric vehicles that could travel about 40 miles and had a top speed of 20 miles per hour. The earliest known parking garage in the United States was built in 1918 for the Hotel La Salle at 215 West Washington Street in the West Loop area of downtown Chicago, Illinois. It was designed by Holabird and Roche.[7] The Hotel La Salle was demolished in 1976, but the parking structure remained because it had been designated as preliminary landmark status[8] and the structure was several blocks from the hotel. It was demolished in 2005 after failing to receive landmark status from the city of Chicago.[9] A 49-storey apartment tower, 215 West, has taken its place, also featuring a parking garage.[10] When the Capital Garage in Washington, D.C. was built in 1927, it was reportedly the largest parking structure of its kind in the country. It was imploded in 1974.[11]
Facebook.  Facebook is an American social media and social networking service owned by the American technology conglomerate Meta. Created in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with four other Harvard College students and roommates, Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes, its name derives from the face book directories often given to American university students. Membership was initially limited to Harvard students, gradually expanding to other North American universities. Since 2006, Facebook allows everyone to register from 13 years old, except in the case of a handful of nations, where the age requirement is 14 years.[6] As of December 2023[update], Facebook claimed almost 3.07 billion monthly active users worldwide.[7] As of July 2025[update], Facebook ranked as the third-most-visited website in the world, with 23% of its traffic coming from the United States.[8] It was the most downloaded mobile app of the 2010s.[9] Facebook can be accessed from devices with Internet connectivity, such as personal computers, tablets and smartphones. After registering, users can create a profile revealing personal information about themselves. They can post text, photos and multimedia which are shared with any other users who have agreed to be their friend or, with different privacy settings, publicly. Users can also communicate directly with each other with Messenger, edit messages (within 15 minutes after sending),[10][11] join common-interest groups, and receive notifications on the activities of their Facebook friends and the pages they follow. Facebook has often been criticized over issues such as user privacy (as with the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal), political manipulation (as with the 2016 U.S. elections) and mass surveillance.[12] The company has also been subject to criticism over its psychological effects such as addiction and low self-esteem, and over content such as fake news, conspiracy theories, copyright infringement, and hate speech.[13] Commentators have accused Facebook of willingly facilitating the spread of such content, as well as exaggerating its number of users to appeal to advertisers.[14]
English in the Commonwealth of Nations.   The use of the English language in current and former countries of the Commonwealth was largely inherited from British colonisation, with some exceptions. English forms part of the Commonwealths common culture and serves as the medium of inter-Commonwealth relations.[1][2] Commonwealth English refers to English as practised in the Commonwealth; the term is most often interchangeable with British English, but is also used to distinguish between British English and that in the rest of the Commonwealth.[3] English in the Commonwealth is diverse, and many regions have developed their own local varieties of the language. The official status of English varies; in Bangladesh, it lacks any but is widely used, and likewise in Cyprus, it is not official but is used as the lingua franca.[4][5] Written English in current and former Commonwealth countries generally favours British English spelling as opposed to that of American English,[6] with some exceptions, particularly in Canada, where there are strong influences from neighbouring American English.[7]
Solid ground floor. A solid ground floor consists of a layer of concrete, which in the case of a domestic building will be the surface layer brought up to ground floor level with hardcore filling under it. The advantage of a solid ground floor is the elimination of dry rot and other problems normally associated with hollow joisted floors. The disadvantage is that the floor is less resilient to walk upon and may be more tiring for the user. Solid ground floors are usually found or situated in a kitchen but will be necessary for other rooms where wood blocks and other similar finishes are required. The concrete floor may be topped with a 25 mm thick cement and sand screed trowelled to a smooth finish. The usual mix is 1:3 and a colouring agent may be added to the mix to obtain a more attractive finish. The mix should be as dry as possible and the sand should be coarsely graded and clean to avoid shrinkage and cracking which might occur with a wet mix. The floor finish is carefully cured after laying. Granolithic is composed of cement and fine aggregate mortar, the aggregate being granite chippings, which will give the hard wearing quality of the finish. It will be laid with screed, troweled or floated to an even and fine finish. Granolithic paving will be suitable in areas which are to receive hard wear although its appearance would not normally be suitable for internal domestic work. Polyvinyl Chloride Tiles- These are another commonly used floor finish. After the floor has been laid with screed, these tiles are fixed with adhesive. They are attractive, smooth and cool, and damage can be repaired very easily as they are made in small square size, usually 150 mm to 225 mm. Though due to poor workmanship and dust this type of floor finish fails through lifting.[1]
Ground Floor.  Ground Floor is an American sitcom created by Bill Lawrence and Greg Malins, that aired on TBS for two seasons, from November 14, 2013, through February 10, 2015.[1] The series stars Skylar Astin, Briga Heelan, Rory Scovel and John C. McGinley and followed Brody, a successful banker who falls for Jenny, an intelligent maintenance supervisor who works in the same building. Following earlier reports, the show was cancelled on February 13, 2015,[2] despite positive reviews. Ground Floor follows Brody (Skylar Astin), a young and successful banker at Remington Trust, who after a one-night stand with Jenny (Briga Heelan) discovers that she works in maintenance for his building. From there, they deal with their growing feelings for each other, much to the annoyance of their co-workers, while trying to find a balance between their vastly different work environments. TBS ordered a pilot for Ground Floor on February 21, 2013. The series was created by Bill Lawrence and Greg Malins, with Lawrence serving as executive producer alongside Jeff Astrof and Jeff Ingold, and the production companies Warner Bros. Television and Doozer.[4]
List of minor planets: 2001–3000. The following is a partial list of minor planets, running from minor-planet number 2001 through 3000, inclusive. The primary data for this and other partial lists is based on JPLs Small-Body Orbital Elements[1] and data available from the Minor Planet Center.[2][3] Critical list information is also provided by the MPC,[2][3] unless otherwise specified from Lowell Observatory.[4] A detailed description of the tables columns and additional sources are given on the main page including a complete list of every page in this series, and a statistical break-up on the dynamical classification of minor planets. Also see the summary list of all named bodies in numerical and alphabetical order, and the corresponding naming citations for the number range of this particular list. New namings may only be added to this list after official publication, as the preannouncement of names is condemned by the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union.   
Kitazawa Rakuten.  Kitazawa Yasuji (北澤 保次; 20 July 1876 – 25 August 1955), better known by the pen name Kitazawa Rakuten (北澤 楽天), was a Japanese manga artist and nihonga artist.  He drew many editorial cartoons and comic strips during the years from the late Meiji era through the early Shōwa era. He is considered by many historians to be the founding father of modern manga because his work was an inspiration to many younger manga artists and animators. He was the first professional cartoonist in Japan, and the first to use the term manga in its modern sense.[1] Kitazawa was born in 1876 in the Kita Adachi district of Ōmiya in Saitama Prefecture. He studied western-style painting under Ōno Yukihiko and Nihonga under Inoue Shunzui. He joined the English-language magazine Box of Curios in 1895, and started drawing cartoons under Frank Arthur Nankivell, an Australian artist who later emigrated to America and became a popular cartoonist for Puck magazine. In 1899, Kitazawa moved to Jiji Shimpo, a daily newspaper founded by Yukichi Fukuzawa. From January 1902, he contributed to Jiji Manga, a comics page that appeared in the Sunday edition. His comics for this page were inspired by American comic strips such as Katzenjammer Kids, Yellow Kid, and the work of Frederick Burr Opper.
Manga (disambiguation). Manga are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Manga may also refer to:
Amuse Inc.. Amuse Inc. (株式会社アミューズ, Kabushikigaisha Amyūzu)[5] is a Japanese entertainment company that provides artist management services. The artists include idols,[6] musicians, and more. Amuse produces TV and radio programs, commercial films, and movies. Other interests are in publication, music software, and patent agent businesses. The private Amuse Museum, located in Asakusa, Tokyo, was owned by the company. It featured ukiyo-e and textile displays. Amuse Inc. was created in 1978 when it signed with the rock band Southern All Stars. Soon after in 1981, the company created its movie production and distribution subsidiary Amuse Cinema City Inc. and produced Morning Moon Wa Sozatsu Ni (starring Shin Kishida) that same year, followed by Aiko 16 sai (1983). In 1983, Amuse signed with the actress Yasuko Tomita. The next year, the firm opened its subsidiary in the United States.[7] Amuse Video Inc. was created in 1990 as the video software production and sales subsidiary of the company. In 1995, Amuse established Ayers Inc. through a joint venture with Bandai, and opened its first movie theater. In 2000, Amuse opened its Korean subsidiary, Amuse Korea Inc. On 20 September 2001, Amuse was listed on the Osaka Securities Exchange. Its distributed film The Pianist won the Palme dOr at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.[7] In 2004, Amuse opened its e-commerce site, Ambra. In 2007, it established its music label Taishita in joint venture with Victor Entertainment. In 2008, the group invested in Brussels Co. Ltd., a company that develops Belgian beer bars; and also formed the A-Sketch label in joint venture with KDDI Corporation. In 2009, the group launched its subsidiary Amuse Edutainment Inc. In 2012, Amuse Singapore was created. Amuse intended to give a second life to J-pop by promoting the bands Flumpool and Weaver.[8] In 2013, it produced and distributed the movie The Eternal Zero. In 2015, Amuse France Inc. was created.[7]
Manhua.  Manhua (traditional Chinese: 漫畫; simplified Chinese: 漫画; pinyin: mànhuà) are Chinese-language comics produced in Greater China. Chinese comics and narrated illustrations have existed in China throughout its history. They are usually graphic and can be written for a myriad of genres, including romance, fantasy, historical, thrillers, paranormal and horror. The storylines are varied but could include tropes and plotlines common to Asian culture and settings. The first major manhua magazine, Shanghai Sketch, first published in 1928. During the early 20th century, political manhua  were printed as propaganda during times of political upheaval. At the start of the 21st century, Chinese cartoonists began to publish manhua through social media and microblogging websites. The word manhua was originally an 18th-century term used in Chinese literati painting. It became popular in Japan as manga in the late 19th century. Feng Zikai reintroduced the word to Chinese, in the modern sense, with his 1925 series of political cartoons entitled Zikai Manhua in the Wenxue Zhoubao (Literature Weekly).[1][2] While terms other than manhua had existed before, this particular publication took precedence over the many other descriptions for cartoon art that were used previously and manhua came to be associated with all Chinese comic materials.[3]
The New York Times.  The New York Times (NYT)[b] is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. The New York Times covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of the longest-running newspapers in the United States, the Times serves as one of the countrys newspapers of record. As of August 2025[update], The New York Times had 11.88 million total and 11.3 million online subscribers, both by significant margins the highest numbers for any newspaper in the United States; the total also included 580,000 print subscribers. The New York Times is published by the New York Times Company; since 1896, the company has been chaired by the Ochs-Sulzberger family, whose current chairman and the papers publisher is A. G. Sulzberger. The Times is headquartered at The New York Times Building in Midtown Manhattan. The Times was founded as the conservative New-York Daily Times in 1851, and came to national recognition in the 1870s with its aggressive coverage of corrupt politician Boss Tweed. Following the Panic of 1893, Chattanooga Times publisher Adolph Ochs gained a controlling interest in the company. In 1935, Ochs was succeeded by his son-in-law, Arthur Hays Sulzberger, who began a push into European news. Sulzbergers son Arthur Ochs Sulzberger became publisher in 1963, adapting to a changing newspaper industry and introducing radical changes. The New York Times was involved in the landmark 1964 U.S. Supreme Court case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, which restricted the ability of public officials to sue the media for defamation. In 1971, The New York Times published the Pentagon Papers, an internal Department of Defense document detailing the United Statess historical involvement in the Vietnam War, despite pushback from then-president Richard Nixon. In the landmark decision New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment guaranteed the right to publish the Pentagon Papers. In the 1980s, the Times began a two-decade progression to digital technology and launched nytimes.com in 1996. In the 21st century, it shifted its publication online amid the global decline of newspapers. Currently, the Times maintains several regional bureaus staffed with journalists across six continents. It has expanded to several other publications, including The New York Times Magazine, The New York Times International Edition, and The New York Times Book Review. In addition, the paper has produced several television series, podcasts—including The Daily—and games through The New York Times Games.
Manhwa.   Manhwa (Korean: 만화; Hanja: 漫畵; Korean pronunciation: [manβʷa]) is the general Korean term for comics and print cartoons. Outside Korea, the term usually refers to Korean comics.[1] Modern Manhwa has extended its reach to many other countries. These comics have branched outside of Korea by access to Webtoons and have created an impact that has resulted in some movie, drama and television show adaptations. The author or artist of a manhwa is called a manhwaga (만화가; 漫畫家). They take on the task of creating a comic that fits a certain format. Manhwa is read in the same direction as English books, horizontally and from left to right, because Korean is normally written and read horizontally. It can also be written and read vertically from right to left, top to bottom.[2] Webtoons tend to be structured differently in the way they are meant for scrolling where manga is meant to be looked at page by page. Manhwa, unlike their manga counterpart, is often in color when posted on the internet, but in black & white when in a printed format.[3]
List of manga publishers. This article lists publishers of manga in various markets worldwide.
State-owned enterprise. A state-owned enterprise (SOE) is a business entity created or owned by a national or local government, either through an executive order or legislation. SOEs aim to generate profit for the government, prevent private sector monopolies, provide goods at lower prices, implement government policies, or serve remote areas where private businesses are scarce. The government typically holds full or majority ownership and oversees operations. SOEs have a distinct legal structure, with financial and developmental goals, like making services more accessible while earning profit (such as a state railway).[1] They can be considered as government-affiliated entities designed to meet commercial and state capitalist objectives.[2][3] The terminology around the term state-owned enterprise is murky. All three words in the term are challenged and subject to interpretation. First, it is debatable what the term state implies (e.g., it is unclear whether municipally owned corporations and enterprises held by regional public bodies are considered state-owned). Next, it is contestable under what circumstances a SOE qualifies as owned by a state (SOEs can be fully owned or partially owned; it is difficult to determine categorically what level of state ownership would qualify an entity to be considered as state-owned since governments can also own regular stock, without implying any special interference). Finally, the term enterprise is challenged, as it implies statutes in private law which may not always be present, and so the term corporations is frequently used instead.[4][5] Thus, SOEs are known under many other terms: state-owned company, state-owned entity, state enterprise, publicly owned corporation, government business enterprise, government-owned company, government controlled company, government controlled enterprise, government-owned corporation, government-sponsored enterprise, commercial government agency, state-privatised industry public sector undertaking, or parastatal, among others. In some Commonwealth realms, ownership by The Crown is highlighted in the predominant local terminology, with SOEs in Canada referred to as a Crown corporation, and in New Zealand as a Crown entity.[citation needed] The term government-linked company (GLC) is sometimes used, for example in Malaysia,[6] to refer to private or public (listed on a stock exchange) corporate entities in which the government acquires a stake using a holding company. The two main definitions of GLCs are dependent on the proportion of the corporate entity a government owns. One definition[citation needed] purports that a company is classified as a GLC if a government owns an effective controlling interest (more than 50%), while the second definition[citation needed] suggests that any corporate entity that has a government as a shareholder is a GLC. The act of turning a part of government bureaucracy into a SOE is called corporatization.[7][8][9]
Social media.  Social media are new media technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongst virtual communities and networks.[1][2] Common features include:[2] The term social in regard to media suggests platforms enable communal activity. Social media enhances and extends human networks.[6] Users access social media through web-based apps or custom apps on mobile devices. These interactive platforms allow individuals, communities, businesses, and organizations to share, co-create, discuss, participate in, and modify user-generated or self-curated content.[7][5][1] Social media is used to document memories, learn, and form friendships.[8] They may be used to promote people, companies, products, and ideas.[8] Social media can be used to consume, publish, or share news. Social media platforms can be categorized based on their primary function. Popular social media platforms with over 100 million registered users include Twitter, Facebook, WeChat, ShareChat, Instagram, Pinterest, QZone, Weibo, VK, Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, Threads and LinkedIn. Depending on interpretation, other popular platforms that are sometimes referred to as social media services include YouTube, Letterboxd, QQ, Quora, Telegram, WhatsApp, Signal, LINE, Snapchat, Viber, Reddit, Discord, and TikTok. Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.
Fairfield County, Connecticut.  Fairfield County is a county in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Connecticut. It is the most populous county in the state and was also its fastest-growing from 2010 to 2020. As of the 2020 census, the countys population was 957,419,[1] representing 26.6% of Connecticuts overall population. The closest to the center of the New York metropolitan area, the county contains four of the states seven largest cities—Bridgeport (first), Stamford (second), Norwalk (sixth) and Danbury (seventh)—whose combined population of 433,368 is nearly half the countys total population. The United States Office of Management and Budget has designated Fairfield County as the Bridgeport–Stamford–Norwalk metropolitan statistical area.[2]  The United States Census Bureau ranked the metropolitan area as the 59th most populous metropolitan statistical area of the United States in 2019. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget has further designated the metropolitan statistical area as a component of the more extensive New York–Newark–Bridgeport, NY–NJ–CT–PA combined statistical area,[2] the most populous combined statistical area and primary statistical area of the United States.[3] As is the case with all eight of Connecticuts counties, there is no county government and no county seat. As an area, it is only a geographical point of reference. In Connecticut, the cities and towns are responsible for all local governmental activities including fire and rescue, schools, and snow removal; in a few cases, neighboring towns will share certain resources. The last county seat was Bridgeport, which had served this role from 1853 until 1960.[4] On June 6, 2022, the U.S. Census Bureau formally recognized Connecticuts nine councils of governments as county equivalents instead of the states eight counties. Connecticuts eight historical counties continue to exist in name only, and are no longer considered for statistical purposes.[5] Fairfield Countys Gold Coast helped rank it sixth in the U.S. in per-capita personal income by the Bureau of Economic Analysis in 2005,[6] contributing substantially to Connecticut being one of the most affluent states in the U.S.[7] Other communities are more densely populated and economically diverse than the affluent areas for which the county is better known.
Literary magazine. A literary magazine is a periodical devoted to literature in a broad sense. Literary magazines usually publish short stories, poetry, and essays, along with literary criticism, book reviews, biographical profiles of authors, interviews and letters. Literary magazines are often called literary journals, or little magazines, terms intended to contrast them with larger, commercial magazines.[1] Nouvelles de la république des lettres is regarded as the first literary magazine; it was established by Pierre Bayle in France in 1684.[2] Literary magazines became common in the early part of the 19th century, mirroring an overall rise in the number of books, magazines, and scholarly journals being published at that time. In Great Britain, critics Francis Jeffrey, Henry Brougham and Sydney Smith founded the Edinburgh Review in 1802. Other British reviews of this period included the Westminster Review (1824), The Spectator (1828), and Athenaeum (1828). In the United States, early journals included the Philadelphia Literary Magazine (1803–1808), the Monthly Anthology (1803–11), which became the North American Review, the Yale Review (founded in 1819), The Yankee (1828–1829) The Knickerbocker (1833–1865), Dial (1840–44) and the New Orleans–based De Bows Review (1846–80). Several prominent literary magazines were published in Charleston, South Carolina, including The Southern Review (1828–32) and Russells Magazine (1857–60).[3] The most prominent Canadian literary magazine of the 19th century was the Montreal-based Literary Garland.[4] The North American Review, founded in 1815, is the oldest American literary magazine. However, it had its publication suspended during World War II, and the Yale Review (founded in 1819) did not; thus the Yale journal is the oldest literary magazine in continuous publication. Begun in 1889, Poet Lore is considered the oldest journal dedicated to poetry.[5] By the end of the century, literary magazines had become an important feature of intellectual life in many parts of the world. One of the most notable 19th century literary magazines of the Arabic-speaking world was Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa.[6] Among the literary magazines that began in the early part of the 20th century is Poetry magazine. Founded in 1912, it published T. S. Eliots first poem, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. Another was The Bellman, which began publishing in 1906 and ended in 1919, was edited by William Crowell Edgar and was based in Minneapolis, Minnesota.[7] Other important early-20th century literary magazines include The Times Literary Supplement (1902), Southwest Review (1915), Virginia Quarterly Review (1925), World Literature Today (founded in 1927 as Books Abroad before assuming its present name in 1977), Southern Review (1935), and New Letters (1935). The Sewanee Review, although founded in 1892, achieved prominence largely thanks to Allen Tate, who became editor in 1944.[8] Two of the most influential—though radically different—journals of the last half of the 20th century were The Kenyon Review (KR) and the Partisan Review. The Kenyon Review, edited by John Crowe Ransom, espoused the so-called New Criticism. Its platform was avowedly unpolitical. Although Ransom came from the South and published authors from that region, KR also published many New York–based and international authors. The Partisan Review was first associated with the American Communist Party and the John Reed Club; however, it soon broke ranks with the party. Nevertheless, politics remained central to its character, while it also published significant literature and criticism.
Anguillan company law.  Anguillan company law is primarily codified in three principal statutes: The Companies Act is generally reserved for companies engaged in business physically in Anguilla, and companies formed under it are generally referred to as either CACs (an acronym for Companies Act Companies) or ABCs (an acronym for Anguillan Business Company).  The other two statutes relate to the incorporation of non-resident companies as part of the Territorys financial services industry.  Companies incorporated under International Business Companies Act are called International Business Companies (or, more usually, IBCs).  IBCs represent the largest number of companies in Anguilla.[2] Companies incorporated under Limited Liability Companies Act are called Limited Liability Companies, and are also commonly referred to by their three-letter acronym, LLCs.[3] In practice, all companies formed in Anguilla are ordinarily incorporated by a trust company.  Because all companies are required to have a licensed registered agent, and only trust companies are so licensed, in practice they control the incorporation procedure. Technically any person may incorporate an IBC or a CAC by subscribing and filing the Articles of Incorporation,[4] but as all IBCs and CACs are required by law to maintain a registered agent at all times,[5] in practice the registered agent will invariable deal with the incorporation procedure.[6] Similarly any person may form an LLC by subscribing the Articles of Formation,[7] but because all LLCs are required at all times to have a registered agent,[8] this process is usually undertaken by that agent.
Carol Edgarian. Carol Louise Edgarian is an American writer, editor, and publisher. Her novels include Rise the Euphrates, Three Stages of Amazement, and Vera. She is the co-founder and editor of the non-profit Narrative Magazine, a digital publisher of fiction, poetry, non-fiction, and art; and founder of Narrative for Schools, whose programs provide free learning and teaching resources for students and educators. Born in New Britain, Connecticut, to first-generation parents, Edgarian grew up in the Hartford area.[1] She attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where she graduated cum laude, receiving the Kingsbury Prize and the Pamela Weidenman Prize in Art. She received her B.A. in English with from Stanford University.[2] She moved to San Francisco soon after college and, while writing her first novel, Rise the Euphrates, worked as a freelance speechwriter for high tech and retail companies, including Levi Strauss and the Mayfield Fund.[3] Edgarian entered the national literary scene with her debut novel Rise the Euphrates (1994). In its review, The Washington Post cited Rise the Euphrates as “a book whose generosity of spirit, intelligence, humanity, and finally ambition is what literature ought to be and rarely is today—daring, heartbreaking, and affirmative, giving order and sense to our random lives.”  The Miami Herald called the novel “a stunning debut” and Mademoiselle magazine called Edgarians writing “so good it can raise the hairs on your neck.” A twentieth-anniversary revised edition of the novel was released in 2015 to mark the centennial of the Armenian Genocide.[4] Edgarians second novel, Three Stages of Amazement (2011) is both a love story and social chronicle of turbulent America set in San Francisco in 2009 during the Great Recession. The novel reached The New York Times Best Seller List in its first week of publication, O Magazine chose it as a Top Pick, and IndieBound selected it as a Pick of the Month. Three Stages of Amazement was called “furiously compelling” by Janet Maslin at The New York Times,[5] “superbly crafted, skillfully plotted” by The Washington Post,[6] and “generous and graceful and true” by O Magazine.[7]
Corporate law. Corporate law (also known as company law or enterprise law) is the body of law governing the rights, relations, and conduct of persons, companies, organizations and businesses. The term refers to the legal practice of law relating to corporations, or to the theory of corporations. Corporate law often describes the law relating to matters which derive directly from the life-cycle of a corporation.[1] It thus encompasses the formation, funding, governance, and death of a corporation. While the minute nature of corporate governance as personified by share ownership, capital market, and business culture rules differ, similar legal characteristics and legal problems exist across many jurisdictions. Corporate law regulates how corporations, investors, shareholders, directors, employees, creditors, and other stakeholders such as consumers, the community, and the environment interact with one another.[1] Whilst the term company or business law is colloquially used interchangeably with corporate law, the term business law mostly refers to wider concepts of commercial law, that is the law relating to commercial and business related purposes and activities. In some cases, this may include matters relating to corporate governance or financial law. When used as a substitute for corporate law, business law means the law relating to the business corporation (or business enterprises), including such activity as raising capital, company formation, and registration with the government. Academics identify four legal characteristics universal to business enterprises. These are: Widely available and user-friendly corporate law enables business participants to possess these four legal characteristics and thus transact as businesses. Thus, corporate law is a response to three endemic opportunism: conflicts between managers and shareholders, between controlling and non-controlling shareholders; and between shareholders and other contractual counterparts (including creditors and employees). A corporation may accurately be called a company; however, a company should not necessarily be called a corporation, which has distinct characteristics. In the United States, a company may or may not be a separate legal entity, and is often used synonymous with firm or business. According to Blacks Law Dictionary, in America a company means a corporation — or, less commonly, an association, partnership or union — that carries on industrial enterprise.[3] Other types of business associations can include partnerships (in the UK governed by the Partnership Act 1890), or trusts (such as a pension fund), or companies limited by guarantee (like some community organizations or charities). Corporate law deals with companies that are incorporated or registered under the corporate or company law of a sovereign state or their sub-national states.
Australian corporate law.  Australian corporations law has historically borrowed heavily from UK company law. Its legal structure now consists of a single, national statute, the Corporations Act 2001.[1] The statute is administered by a single national regulatory authority, the Australian Securities & Investments Commission (ASIC).[2] Since provisions in the Act can frequently be traced back to some pioneer legislation in the United Kingdom, reference is frequently made to judgments of courts there. Though other forms are permitted, the main corporate forms in Australia are public and private (in Australia termed proprietary) companies, both of which predominantly have limited liability. Upon Federation in 1901, the Constitution of Australia granted limited powers in relation to corporations to the Australian Parliament. Each State has a residual power in relation to anything not within the Commonwealth power. The main grant of powers to the Commonwealth are as follows:
Romanization (disambiguation). Romanization is the representation in the Latin alphabet of a language normally written in another writing system. Romanization may also refer to:
Stockholm.  Stockholm (/ˈstɒkhoʊ(l)m/;[10] Swedish: [ˈstɔ̂kː(h)ɔlm] ⓘ)[11] is the capital and most populous city of Sweden, as well as the largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately 1 million people live in the municipality,[12] with 1.6 million in the urban area,[13] and 2.5 million in the metropolitan area.[12] The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Mälaren flows into the Baltic Sea. Outside the city to the east, and along the coast, is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago. The area has been settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl. The city serves as the county seat of Stockholm County. Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP,[14] and is among the top 10 regions in Europe by GDP per capita.[15] Considered a global city,[16] it is the largest in Scandinavia and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region.[17] The city is home to some of Europes top-ranking universities, such as the Karolinska Institute (medicine), KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm School of Economics  and Stockholm University.[18] It hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia.[19] The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is well known for the decor of its stations; it has been called the longest art gallery in the world.[20] The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and has played host to several other international sports events since.[21] Stockholm is Swedens primary financial centre, one of the largest in Scandinavia, and hosts several of Swedens largest companies. Furthermore, the headquarters of most of Swedens largest banks are in Stockholm. Stockholm is one of Europes major tech centres; the city has sometimes been called Europes innovation hub.[22] The Stockholm region has a GDP of around $180 billion,[23] and Stockholm County has the highest GDP per capita of all counties in Sweden.[24] Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies,[25] including the highest courts in the judiciary,[26] and the official residences of the Swedish monarch and the prime minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag (Swedish parliament) is seated in the Parliament House,[27] and the prime ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House.[28] Stockholm Palace is the official residence and principal workplace of the Swedish monarch, while Drottningholm Palace in neighbouring Ekerö serves as the Royal Familys private residence.[29]
Fiction.  Fiction is any creative work, chiefly any narrative work, portraying individuals, events, or places that are imaginary or in ways that are imaginary.[1][2][3] Fictional portrayals are thus inconsistent with fact, history, or plausibility. In a traditional narrow sense, fiction refers to written narratives in prose – often specifically novels, novellas, and short stories.[4][5] More broadly, however, fiction encompasses imaginary narratives expressed in any medium, including not just writings but also live theatrical performances, films, television programs, radio dramas, comics, role-playing games, and video games. Typically, the fictionality of a work is publicly expressed, so the audience expects a work of fiction to deviate to a greater or lesser degree from the real world, rather than presenting for instance only factually accurate portrayals or characters who are actual people.[6] Because fiction is generally understood as not adhering to the real world, the themes and context of a fictional work, such as if and how it relates to real-world issues or events, are open to interpretation.[7] Since fiction is most long-established in the realm of literature (written narrative fiction), the broad study of the nature, function, and meaning of fiction is called literary theory, and the narrower interpretation of specific fictional texts is called literary criticism (with subsets like film criticism and theatre criticism also now long-established). Aside from real-world connections, some fictional works may depict characters and events within their own context, entirely separate from the known physical universe: an independent fictional universe. The creative art of constructing such an imaginary world is known as worldbuilding.[8] Literary critic James Wood argues that fiction is both artifice and verisimilitude, meaning that it requires both creative inventions as well as some acceptable degree of believability to its audience,[9] a notion often encapsulated in the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridges idea of the audiences willing suspension of disbelief. The effects of experiencing fiction, and the way the audience is changed by the new information they discover, has been studied for centuries. Infinite fictional possibilities themselves signal the impossibility of fully knowing reality, provocatively demonstrating philosophical notions, such as there potentially being no criterion to measure constructs of reality.[10] In contrast to fiction, creators of non-fiction assume responsibility for presenting information (and sometimes opinion) based only in historical and factual reality. Despite the traditional view that fiction and non-fiction are opposites, some works (particularly in the modern era) blur this boundary, particularly works that fall under certain experimental storytelling genres—including some postmodern fiction, autofiction,[11] or creative nonfiction like non-fiction novels and docudramas—as well as the deliberate literary fraud of falsely marketing fiction as nonfiction.[12]
New York Stock Exchange Building.  The New York Stock Exchange Building (also NYSE Building) is the headquarters of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), located in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is composed of two connected structures occupying much of the city block bounded by Wall Street, Broad Street, New Street, and Exchange Place. The central section of the block contains the original structure at 18 Broad Street, designed in the Classical Revival style by George B. Post. The northern section contains a 23-story office annex at 11 Wall Street, designed by Trowbridge & Livingston in a similar style. The marble facade of 18 Broad Street contains colonnades facing east toward Broad Street and west toward New Street, both atop two-story podiums. The Broad Street colonnade, an icon of the NYSE, contains a pediment designed by John Quincy Adams Ward and Paul Wayland Bartlett, depicting commerce and industry. The facade of 11 Wall Street is simpler in design but contains architectural details similar to those at 18 Broad Street. Behind the colonnades at 18 Broad Street is the main trading floor, a 72-foot-tall (22 m) rectangular space. An additional trading floor, nicknamed the Garage, is at 11 Wall Street. There are offices and meeting rooms in the upper stories of 18 Broad Street and 11 Wall Street. The NYSE had occupied the site on Broad Street since 1865 but had to expand its previous building several times. The structure at 18 Broad Street was erected between 1901 and 1903. Within two decades, the NYSEs new building had become overcrowded, and the annex at 11 Wall Street was added between 1920 and 1922. Three additional trading floors were added in the late 20th century to accommodate increasing demand, and there were several proposals to move the NYSE elsewhere during that time. With the growing popularity of electronic trading in the 2000s, the three newer trading floors were closed in 2007. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978 and designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1985. The building is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a National Register of Historic Places district created in 2007.
Romanised (horse).  Romanised (foaled 5 February 2015) is an Irish Thoroughbred racehorse. As a juvenile in 2017 he won one of his four races and finished second in the Solario Stakes. In the following year he recorded an upset victory in the Irish 2,000 Guineas and finished unplaced in his other starts. As a four-year-old he won the Minstrel Stakes and the Prix Jacques Le Marois and was narrowly beaten in a controversial race for the Prix du Moulin. He won a second Minstrel Stakes in 2020. Romanised is a bay horse with a white star and three white socks bred by the Aherne family (mother Monica and her sons Gerry, Mikey and P.J.) at the Prospect Stables in County Tipperary. He was sold when only a week old foal to the bloodstock agent John McCormack.[2] The colt entered the ownership of the Singaporean businessman Charles Ng and was sent into training with Ken Condon at the Osborne Lodge Stable, The Curragh, County Kildare. He was from the eighth crop of foals sired by Holy Roman Emperor, one of the leading European two-year-olds of his generation, who unusually began his stud career as a three-year-old. The best of his other progeny have included Homecoming Queen, Mongolian Khan and Designs On Rome.[3] Romaniseds dam Romantic Venture had a very brief racing career, winning a maiden race on her racecourse debut and finishing unplaced in the Matron Stakes on her only subsequent start.[4] Romantic Venture was a half-sister to Designs of Rome and closely related to Grey Swallow.[5] Romanised was ridden by Shane Foley in all but one of his races as a two-year-old. The colt made his racecourse debut in a maiden race over six furlongs at Navan Racecourse on 24 April and started a 14/1 outsider in an eighteen-runner field. He started slowly but stayed on strongly in the closing stages to win by half a length from the Jessica Harrington-trained Brick By Brick.[6] The colt was then stepped up sharply in class when he was sent to England to contest the Group 2 Coventry Stakes at Royal Ascot and finished seventh, beaten two and a quarter lengths by the winner Rajasinghe after struggling to obtain a clear run in the last quarter mile. On 13 August Romanised was ridden by Pat Smullen when he started the 8/1 fourth choice in the betting for the Group 1 Phoenix Stakes at the Curragh. After being restrained at the rear of the field he made some progress in the closing stages but never looked likely to win and came home sixth behind the Aidan OBrien-trained Sioux Nation. Romanised was then sent to England for a second time for the Group 3 Solario Stakes over seven furlongs at Sandown Park on 2 September and finished second to Masar, beaten two lengths by the winner.
Latinisation. Latinisation or Latinization can refer to:
Sweden.  – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend] Sweden,[f] formally the Kingdom of Sweden,[g][h] is a Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi),[4] Sweden is the largest Nordic country by both area and population, and is the fifth-largest country in Europe. Its capital and largest city is Stockholm. Sweden has a population of 10.6 million, and a low population density of 25.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (66/sq mi); 88% of Swedes reside in urban areas.[14] They are mostly in the central and southern half of the country. Swedens urban areas together cover 1.5% of its land area. Sweden has a diverse climate owing to the length of the country, which ranges from 55°N to 69°N. Sweden has been inhabited since prehistoric times around 12,000 BC. The inhabitants emerged as the Geats (Swedish: Götar) and Swedes (Svear), who formed part of the sea-faring peoples known as the Norsemen. A unified Swedish state was established during the late 10th century. In 1397, Sweden joined Norway and Denmark to form the Scandinavian Kalmar Union,[15] which Sweden left in 1523. When Sweden became involved in the Thirty Years War on the Protestant side, an expansion of its territories began, forming the Swedish Empire, which remained one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. During this era Sweden controlled much of the Baltic Sea. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Imperial Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union, a union which lasted until 1905. Sweden is a highly developed country ranked fifth in the Human Development Index.[16] It is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with legislative power vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. It is a unitary state, divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. It has the worlds 14th highest GDP per capita and ranks very highly in quality of life, health, education, protection of civil liberties, economic competitiveness, income equality, gender equality and prosperity.[17][18] Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and NATO on 7 March 2024. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe, the Nordic Council, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Romanianization. Romanianization is the series of policies aimed toward ethnic assimilation implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th and 21st century. The most noteworthy policies were those aimed at the Hungarian minority in Romania, Jews and as well the Ukrainian minority in Bukovina and Bessarabia.[1][2][3] After the end of World War I, on 1 December 1918, the Romanian National Council (elected representatives of the Romanian population) and soon afterwards, the representatives of the German population had decided to unify with Romania. The decision was contested by the Hungarian minority. The Hungarian–Romanian War of 1918–1919 established Romanian control over Transylvania, while the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 determined the Romanian border with the new Hungarian state. However, Transylvania had a large Hungarian minority of 25.5%, according to the 1920 census. A portion of them fled to Hungary after the union;[4] however, most of them remained in Romania, and by the 1930s, their number increased to 26.7% of the whole Transylvanian population. The increase in the proportion of the Hungarian minority in Transylvania was induced by the immigration of the Hungarians from Hungary and by the significant improvement of living standards of the Hungarian minority in Romania compared with those of the interwar Hungarian population. While Romania included large national minorities, the 1923 Constitution declared the country to be a nation-state, following the French model which was popular in many European nations at that time. After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the post-war mass actions undertaken by the Romanian authorities were primarily directed against the Hungarian aristocracy and, at times, the Jews.[5] The takeover did not happen without impacting the cultural and economic life of the Hungarians. While, in accordance with the Agricultural Act of 1921, a number of Hungarian estates and lands were confiscated, the land reform openly favored the Romanians, the national group which used to be the victims of the unjust land allocation systems in place during Hungarian rule. Although Romania won the war, the anti-Hungarian sentiments were not remitted. During the 1930s, in response to Hungarian irredentism, anti-revisionist demonstrations began in Romania,[6] supported by Nationalist newspapers like Universul. After a particularly violent protest in Cluj, Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu officially condemned the events in Bucharest newspapers.[7] In August 1940, during World War II, Northern Transylvania was annexed by Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award, leaving Southern Transylvania to Romania. After the coup détat of 23 August 1944, Romania left the Axis and joined the Allies, and, as such, fought together with the Soviet Unions Red Army against Nazi Germany and Hungary, regaining Northern Transylvania. During the fall of 1944, after the withdrawal of the Hungarian military forces and administration from Transylvania, the Székely Land was engaged and pillaged by the Romanian Gendarmerie and volunteers. However, on 12 November 1944, the Soviets expelled the returning Romanian authorities from Northern Transylvania with reference to the massacres committed by members of Iuliu Manius so-called Maniu Guard, and the Romanian administration was not allowed to return until the communist-led government of Petru Groza was formed on 6 March 1945.[8] The Hungarian-Romanian conflicts in 1940 and 1944 are still controversial.
Share (finance). In financial markets, a share (sometimes someone can refer to as stock or equity) is a unit of equity ownership in the capital stock of a corporation. It can refer to units of mutual funds, limited partnerships, and real estate investment trusts.[1] Share capital refers to all of the shares of an enterprise. The owner of shares in a company is a shareholder (or stockholder) of the corporation.[2] A share expresses the ownership relationship between the company and the shareholder.[1] The denominated value of a share is its face value, and the total of the face value of issued shares represent the capital of a company,[3] which may not reflect the market value of those shares. The income received from the ownership of shares is a dividend. There are different types of shares such as equity shares, preference shares, deferred shares, redeemable shares, bonus shares, right shares, and employee stock option plan shares. Shares are valued according to the various principles in different markets, but a basic premise is that a share is worth the price at which a transaction would be likely to occur were the shares to be sold. The liquidity of markets is a major consideration as to whether a share is able to be sold at any given time. An actual sale transaction of shares between buyer and seller is usually considered to provide the best prima facie market indicator as to the true value of shares at that particular time. A minority discount is usually applied when valuing a minority shareholding (less than 50%), where ownership of the shares offers limited control over the business if this is held by a majority shareholder. Tax treatment of dividends varies between tax jurisdictions. For instance, in India, dividends are tax free in the hands of the shareholder up to INR 1 million, but the company paying the dividend has to pay dividend distribution tax at 12.5%. There  is also the concept of a deemed dividend, which is not tax free. Further, Indian tax laws include provisions to stop dividend stripping.[4][citation needed] Historically, investors were given share certificates as evidence of their ownership of shares. In modern times, certificates are not always given and ownership may be recorded electronically by a system such as CREST or DTCC, a central securities depository.
Toronto Stock Exchange.  The Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX; French: Bourse de Toronto) is a stock exchange located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is the 10th largest exchange in the world and the third largest in North America based on market capitalization. Based in the EY Tower in Torontos Financial District, the TSX is a wholly owned subsidiary of the TMX Group for the trading of senior equities. The Toronto Stock Exchange likely descended from the Association of Brokers, a group formed by Toronto businessmen on July 26, 1852.[4] No records of the groups transactions have survived. It is however known that on October 25, 1861, twenty-four brokers gathered at the Masonic Hall to create and participate in the Toronto Stock Exchange.[5] Between 1852 and 1870, two other distinct, commodity-orientated, exchanges were founded : the Toronto Exchange in 1854 and the Toronto Stock and Mining Exchange in 1868. Initially the TSE had 13 listings but it grew to 18 in 1868 (a majority of bonds and banks issues). Many banks of Upper Canada failed during 1869, which halted any sort of trading in the city as the market was just too small. A bull market in 1870 boosted investors confidence and eight of the original 24 brokers joined again to re-establish the TSE.[6]: 5  The exchange was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1878.[4] The TSE grew continuously in size and in shares traded, save for a three-month period in 1914 when the exchange was shut down for fear of financial panic due to World War I. The day of the Wall Street crash of 1929, Torontos exchange was better connected to New Yorks and received the bad news before Montreals (prior to 1931, exchanges communicated via telephone or by brokers private wires, as they were not yet interconnected by ticker). By the afternoon, its three most popular stocks were down by at least 8%: International Nickel, Hiram Walker & Sons and Brazilian Light & Power. The following day, a record number of 331,000 shares changed hands on the TSE, with an overall loss of value of 20% (in Montreal, 525,000 shares and 25% loss).[6]: 7 Meanwhile, a British Columbia gold rush in the 1890s stimulated the demand for start-up capital but Montreal and Torontos exchanges deemed the ventures too risky. The boom was handled with the Toronto Stock and Mining Exchange, founded in 1896 and which merged with its rival Standard Stock and Mining Exchange in 1899. The SSME, after years of ups and downs, was amalgamated into the Toronto Stock Exchange in 1934. While a durable surge in mining trading was recorded in Toronto (either securities) or other publicly listed assets, in Montreal the volume of the equity-centric market was going down. Toronto found itself a reputation as a financial centre for mining and from 1934, the total trading volume on the TSE surpassed that of Montreals.[6]: 13
Electronic literature.  Electronic literature or digital literature is a genre of literature where digital capabilities such as interactivity, multimodality or algorithmic text generation are used aesthetically.[1] Works of electronic literature are usually intended to be read on digital devices, such as computers, tablets, and mobile phones. They cannot be easily printed, or cannot be printed at all, because elements crucial to the work cannot be carried over onto a printed version. The first literary works for computers, created in the 1950s, were computer programs that generated poems or stories, now called generative literature. In the 1960s experimental poets began to explore the new digital medium, and the first early text-based games were created. Interactive fiction became a popular genre in the late 1970s and 1980s, with a thriving online community in the 2000s. In the 1980s and 1990s hypertext fiction begun to be published, first on floppy disks and later on the web. Hypertext fictions are stories where the reader moves from page to page by selecting links. In the 2000s digital poetry became popular, often including animated text, images and interactivity. In the 2010s and 2020s, electronic literature uses social media platforms, with new genres like Instapoetry or Twitterature as well as literary practices like netprov. Although web-based genres like creepypasta and fan fiction are not always thought of as electronic literature (because they usually manifest as linear texts that could be printed out and read on paper), other scholars argue that these are born digital genres that depend on online communities and thus should be included in the field. There is an extensive body of scholarship on electronic literature. In 1999 the Electronic Literature Organization was established, which through annual conferences and other events supports both the publishing and study of electronic literature. One focus of academic study has been the preservation and archiving of works of electronic literature. This is challenging because works become impossible to access or read when the software or hardware they are designed for becomes obsolete. In addition, works of electronic literature are not part of the established publishing industry and so do not have ISBN numbers and are not findable in library catalogues. This has led to the establishment of a number of archives and documentation projects. The literary critic and professor N. Katherine Hayles defines electronic literature as digital born (..) and (usually) meant to be read on a computer,[2] clarifying that this does not include e-books and digitised print literature.
Stock.  Stocks (also capital stock, or sometimes interchangeably, shares) consist of all the shares[a] by which ownership of a corporation or company is divided.[1] A single share of the stock means fractional ownership of the corporation in proportion to the total number of shares. This typically entitles the shareholder (stockholder) to that fraction of the companys earnings, proceeds from liquidation of assets (after discharge of all senior claims such as secured and unsecured debt),[3] or voting power, often dividing these up in proportion to the number of like shares each stockholder owns. Not all stock is necessarily equal, as certain classes of stock may be issued, for example, without voting rights, with enhanced voting rights, or with a certain priority to receive profits or liquidation proceeds before or after other classes of shareholders. Stock can be bought and sold privately or on stock exchanges. Transactions of the former are closely overseen by governments and regulatory bodies to prevent fraud, protect investors, and benefit the larger economy. As new shares are issued by a company, the ownership and rights of existing shareholders are diluted in return for cash to sustain or grow the business. Companies can also buy back stock, which often lets investors recoup the initial investment plus capital gains from subsequent rises in stock price. Stock options issued by many companies as part of employee compensation do not represent ownership, but represent the right to buy ownership at a future time at a specified price. This would represent a windfall to the employees if the option were exercised when the market price is higher than the promised price, since if they immediately sold the stock they would keep the difference (minus taxes). Stock bought and sold in private markets fall within the private equity realm of finance. A person who owns a percentage of the stock has the ownership of the corporation proportional to their share. The shares form a stock; the stock of a corporation is partitioned into shares, the total of which are stated at the time of business formation. Additional shares may subsequently be authorized by the existing shareholders and issued by the company. In some jurisdictions, each share of stock has a certain declared par value, which is a nominal accounting value used to represent the equity on the balance sheet of the corporation. In other jurisdictions, however, shares of stock may be issued without associated par value.
Abbreviation. An abbreviation (from Latin  brevis short)[1] is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method including shortening, contraction, initialism (which includes acronym), or crasis. An abbreviation may be a shortened form of a word, usually ended with a trailing period. For example, the term etc. is the usual abbreviation for the Latin phrase et cetera. A contraction is an abbreviation formed by replacing letters with an apostrophe. Examples include Im for I am and lil for little. An initialism or acronym is an abbreviation consisting of the initial letter of a sequence of words without other punctuation. For example, FBI (/ˌɛf.biːˈaɪ/), USA (/ˌjuː.ɛsˈeɪ/), IBM (/ˌaɪ.biːˈɛm/), BBC (/ˌbiː.biːˈsiː/). When initialism is used as the preferred term, acronym refers more specifically to when the abbreviation is pronounced as a word rather than as separate letters; examples include SWAT and NASA. Initialisms, contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions, and are connected by the term abbreviation in loose parlance.[2]: p167 In early times, abbreviations may have been common due to the effort involved in writing (many inscriptions were carved in stone) or to provide secrecy via obfuscation.
Telegraphy.  Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not. Ancient signalling systems, although sometimes quite extensive and sophisticated as in China, were generally not capable of transmitting arbitrary text messages. Possible messages were fixed and predetermined, so such systems are thus not true telegraphs. The earliest true telegraph put into widespread use was the Chappe telegraph, an optical telegraph invented by Claude Chappe in the late 18th century. The system was used extensively in France, and European nations occupied by France, during the Napoleonic era. The electric telegraph started to replace the optical telegraph in the mid-19th century. It was first taken up in Britain in the form of the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, initially used mostly as an aid to railway signalling. This was quickly followed by a different system developed in the United States by Samuel Morse. The electric telegraph was slower to develop in France due to the established optical telegraph system, but an electrical telegraph was put into use with a code compatible with the Chappe optical telegraph. The Morse system was adopted as the international standard in 1865, using a modified Morse code developed in Germany in 1848.[1] The heliograph is a telegraph system using reflected sunlight for signalling. It was mainly used in areas where the electrical telegraph had not been established and generally used the same code. The most extensive heliograph network established was in Arizona and New Mexico during the Apache Wars. The heliograph was standard military equipment as late as World War II. Wireless telegraphy developed in the early 20th century became important for maritime use, and was a competitor to electrical telegraphy using submarine telegraph cables in international communications. Telegrams became a popular means of sending messages once telegraph prices had fallen sufficiently. Traffic became high enough to spur the development of automated systems—teleprinters and punched tape transmission. These systems led to new telegraph codes, starting with the Baudot code. However, telegrams were never able to compete with the letter post on price, and competition from the telephone, which removed their speed advantage, drove the telegraph into decline from 1920 onwards. The few remaining telegraph applications were largely taken over by alternatives on the internet towards the end of the 20th century.
Tokyo Stock Exchange Building. Tokyo Stock Exchange Building (東京証券取引所ビル, Tōkyō Shōken Torihikijo) is an office building located in Nihonbashi, Chuo, Tokyo, Japan. It houses the headquarters of Tokyo Stock Exchange, but owned by Heiwa Real Estate.[1] The reconstruction of the Tokyo Stock Exchange Building was first discussed in 1971.[2] In March 1981, the basic plan for the new stock exchange building was finalized, with the main building to have 15 floors. [3] On April 8, 1982, construction of the New Market Building began on the site of the old Main Building. [4] The New Market Building was completed on October 31, 1984, and a completion ceremony was held on December 6. On May 13, 1985, the TSE held trading on the trading floor of the New Market Building for the first time. [5] The second phase of construction, the New Main Building on the old Market Building site, had a groundbreaking ceremony held on October 3, 1985 , and was completed on April 30, 1988.[6] The annual rent was 6.62 billion yen when the building was completed, rising to 7.36 billion yen in 1998, but then declined, dropping to 2.7 billion yen in 2016.[7] In 2019, it was raised to 3 billion yen, the first increase in 25 years . [8]
Japan Exchange Group. Japan Exchange Group, Inc. (株式会社日本取引所グループ, Kabushiki-gaisha Nippon Torihikijo Gurūpu; Corporate Number: 9120001098575),[2] abbreviated as JPX or Nippon Torihikijo, is a Japanese financial services company headquartered in Tokyo and Osaka. It is a financial instruments exchange holding company[3] subject to the regulations of the Financial Instruments and Exchange Act enforced by the Financial Services Agency of Japan. It is also monitored by a separate self-regulatory body called Japan Exchange Regulation (JPX-R),[4][5] dedicated to ensuring neutral and effective self-regulation operations defined under the Financial Instruments and Exchange Act.[5][6] The exchange group was formed by the merger of Tokyo Stock Exchange Group, Inc. [ja] and Osaka Securities Exchange Co., Ltd. on January 1, 2013. As a result of this merger and market reorganization, the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE) became the sole securities exchange of JPX and the Osaka Exchange (OSE) became the largest derivatives exchange of JPX. JPX owns three licensed financial instruments exchange corporations: Tokyo Stock Exchange, Inc.,[7] Osaka Exchange, Inc.,[8] and Tokyo Commodity Exchange, Inc. (TOCOM).[9] It also has an IT services and research arm, JPX Market Innovation & Research, Inc. (JPXI),[10] and a central clearing counterparty, Japan Securities Clearing Corporation (JSCC).[11] As of July 2024, JPX is the worlds fifth-largest stock exchange operator, behind NYSE, NASDAQ, SSE, and Euronext, exceeding $5.8 trillion in July 2024.[12] The roots of JPX trace back to November 22, 2011, when TSE and OSE decided to merge into one, as a solution to slowing market conditions in Japan.[13] The merger was subsequently approved on July 5, 2012, when the Japan Fair Trade Commission approved the TSE-OSE merger, paving the way for the formation of JPX.[14] On January 1, 2013, JPX was officially launched.[15] The remainder of the merger was realized through a series of changes:
Poetry.  Poetry (from the Greek word poiesis, making[note 1]) is a form of literary art that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic[1][2][3] qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, literal or surface-level meanings. Any particular instance of poetry is called a poem and is written by a poet. Poets use a variety of techniques called poetic devices, such as assonance, alliteration, consonance, euphony and cacophony, onomatopoeia, rhythm (via metre), rhyme schemes (patterns in the type and placement of a phoneme group) and sound symbolism, to produce musical or other artistic effects. They also frequently organize these devices into poetic structures, which may be strict or loose, conventional or invented by the poet. Poetic structures vary dramatically by language and cultural convention, but they often rely on rhythmic metre: patterns of syllable stress or syllable (or mora) weight. They may also use repeating patterns of phonemes, phoneme groups, tones, words, or entire phrases. Poetic structures may even be semantic (e.g. the volta required in a Petrachan sonnet). Most written poems are formatted in verse: a series or stack of lines on a page, which follow the poetic structure. For this reason, verse has also become a synonym (a metonym) for poetry.[note 2] Some poetry types are unique to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz, or Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter. There are, however, traditions, such as Biblical poetry and alliterative verse, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony. Other traditions, such as Somali poetry, rely on complex systems of alliteration and metre independent of writing and been described as structurally comparable to ancient Greek and medieval European oral verse.[4] Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition,[5] testing the principle of euphony itself or altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm.[6][7]  In first-person poems, the lyrics are spoken by an I, a character who may be termed the speaker, distinct from the poet (the author). Thus if, for example, a poem asserts, I killed my enemy in Reno, it is the speaker, not the poet, who is the killer (unless this confession is a form of metaphor which needs to be considered in closer context – via close reading). Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretations of words, or to evoke emotive responses. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony, and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, and metonymy[8] establish a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Poetry has a long and varied history, evolving differentially across the globe. It dates back at least to prehistoric times with hunting poetry in Africa and to panegyric and elegiac court poetry of the empires of the Nile, Niger, and Volta River valleys.[9] Some of the earliest written poetry in Africa occurs among the Pyramid Texts written during the 25th century BCE. The earliest surviving Western Asian epic poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in the Sumerian language. Early poems in the Eurasian continent include folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, religious hymns (such as the Sanskrit Rigveda, the Zoroastrian Gathas, the Hurrian songs, and the Hebrew Psalms); and retellings of oral epics (such as  the Egyptian Story of Sinuhe, Indian epic poetry, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey).  Ancient Greek attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song, and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form, and rhyme, and emphasized aesthetics which distinguish poetry from the format of more objectively-informative, academic, or typical writing, which is known as prose. Poets – as, from the Greek, makers of language – have contributed to the evolution of the linguistic, expressive, and utilitarian qualities of their languages.  In an increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles, and techniques from diverse cultures and languages.  A Western cultural tradition (extending at least from Homer to Rilke) associates the production of poetry with inspiration – often by a Muse (either classical or contemporary), or through other (often canonised) poets work which sets some kind of example or challenge.
Thomas Edison.  Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory.[1] Edison was raised in the American Midwest. Early in his career he worked as a telegraph operator, which inspired some of his earliest inventions. In 1876, he established his first laboratory facility in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where many of his early inventions were developed. He later established a botanical laboratory in Fort Myers, Florida, in collaboration with businessmen Henry Ford and Harvey S. Firestone, and a laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey, that featured the worlds first film studio, the Black Maria. With 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as patents in other countries, Edison is regarded as the most prolific inventor in American history.[2] Edison married twice and fathered six children. He died in 1931 due to complications from diabetes. Thomas Edison was born in 1847 in Milan, Ohio, but grew up in Port Huron, Michigan, after the family moved there in 1854.[3] He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison Jr. (1804–1896, born in Marshalltown, Nova Scotia) and Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871, born in Chenango County, New York).[4][5] His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey;[6] the surname had originally been Edeson.[7] His great-grandfather, loyalist John Edeson, fled New Jersey for Nova Scotia in 1784. The family moved to Middlesex County, Upper Canada, around 1811, and his grandfather, Capt. Samuel Edison Sr. served with the 1st Middlesex Militia during the War of 1812. His father, Samuel Edison Jr. moved to Vienna, Ontario, and fled to Ohio after his involvement in the Rebellion of 1837.[8]
Stock exchange.  A stock exchange, securities exchange, or bourse is an exchange where stockbrokers and traders can buy and sell securities, such as shares of stock, bonds and other financial instruments. Stock exchanges may also provide facilities for the issue and redemption of such securities and instruments and capital events including the payment of income and dividends. Securities traded on a stock exchange include stock issued by listed companies, unit trusts, derivatives, pooled investment products and bonds. Stock exchanges often function as continuous auction markets with buyers and sellers consummating transactions via open outcry at a central location such as the floor of the exchange or by using an electronic system to process financial transactions.[2] To be able to trade a security on a particular stock exchange, the security must be listed there. Usually, there is a central location for record keeping, but trade is increasingly less linked to a physical place as modern markets use electronic communication networks, which give them advantages of increased speed and reduced cost of transactions. Trade on an exchange is restricted to brokers who are members of the exchange. In recent years, various other trading venues such as electronic communication networks, alternative trading systems and dark pools have taken much of the trading activity away from traditional stock exchanges.[3] Initial public offerings of stocks and bonds to investors is done in the primary market and subsequent trading is done in the secondary market. A stock exchange is often the most important component of a stock market. Supply and demand in stock markets are driven by various factors that, as in all free markets, affect the price of stocks (see stock valuation). There is usually no obligation for stock to be issued through the stock exchange itself, nor must stock be subsequently traded on an exchange. Such trading may be off-exchange or over-the-counter. This is the usual way that derivatives and bonds are traded. Increasingly, stock exchanges are part of a global securities market. Stock exchanges also serve an economic function in providing liquidity to shareholders in providing an efficient means of disposing of shares. In recent years, as the ease and speed of exchanging stocks over digital platforms has increased, volatility in the day-to-day market has increased, too.
Prose. Prose is language that follows the natural flow or rhythm of speech, ordinary grammatical structures, or, in writing, typical conventions and formatting. Thus, prose ranges from informal speaking to formal academic writing. Prose differs most notably from poetry, which follows some type of intentional, contrived, artistic structure. Poetic structures vary dramatically by language; in English poetry, language is often organized by a rhythmic metre and a rhyme scheme. The ordinary conversational language of a region or community, and many other forms and styles of language usage, fall under prose, a label that can describe both speech and writing. In writing, prose is visually formatted differently than poetry. Poetry is traditionally written in verse: a series of lines on a page, parallel to the way that a person would highlight the structure orally if saying the poem aloud; for example, poetry may end with a rhyme at the end of each line, making the entire work more melodious or memorable. Prose uses writing conventions and formatting that may highlight meaning—for instance, the use of a new paragraph for a new speaker in a novel—but does not follow any special rhythmic or other artistic structure. The word prose first appeared in English in the 14th century. It is derived from the Old French prose, which in turn originates in the Latin expression prosa oratio (literally, straightforward or direct speech).[1] In highly-literate cultures where spoken rhetoric is considered relatively unimportant, definitions of prose may be narrower, including only written language (but including written speech or dialogue). In written languages, spoken and written prose usually differ sharply. Sometimes, these differences are transparent to those using the languages; linguists studying extremely literal transcripts for conversation analysis see them, but ordinary language-users are unaware of them. Academic writing (works of philosophy, history, economics, etc.), journalism, and fiction are usually written in prose (excepting verse novels etc.). Developments in twentieth century literature, including free verse, concrete poetry, and prose poetry, have led to the idea of poetry and prose as two ends on a spectrum rather than firmly distinct from each other. The British poet T. S. Eliot noted, whereas the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure.[2] Latin was a major influence on the development of prose in many European countries. Especially important was the great Roman orator Cicero (106–43 BC).[3] It was the lingua franca among literate Europeans until quite recent times, and the great works of Descartes (1596–1650), Francis Bacon (1561–1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727).
Outline of sociology. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the discipline of sociology: Sociology is the systematic study of society, human social behavior, and patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture. The term sociology was coined in the late 18th century to describe the scientific study of society.[1]  It uses a range of methods — from qualitative interviews to quantitative data analysis — to examine how social structures, institutions, and processes shape individual and group life. Sociology encompasses various subfields such as criminology, medical sociology, education, and increasingly, digital sociology, which studies the impact of digital technologies on society. Digital sociology examines the impact of digital technologies on social behavior and institutions, encompassing professional, analytical, critical, and public dimensions.[2] The internet has reshaped social networks and power relations, illustrating the growing importance of digital sociology.[3] Sociologists seek to understand how identities, inequalities, norms, and institutions evolve across time and context. Sociology can be described as all of the following: Sociology
First-person narrative. A first-person narrative (also known as a first-person perspective, voice, point of view, etc.) is a mode of storytelling in which a storyteller recounts events from that storytellers own personal point of view, using first-person grammar such as I, me, my, and myself (also, in plural form, we, us, etc.).[1][2] It must be narrated by a first-person character, such as a protagonist (or other focal character), re-teller, witness,[3] or peripheral character.[4][5] Alternatively, in a visual storytelling medium (such as video, television, or film), the first-person perspective is a graphical perspective rendered through a characters visual field, so the camera is seeing out of a characters eyes. A classic example of a first-person protagonist narrator is Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre (1847),[1] in which the title character is telling the story in which she herself is also the protagonist:[6] I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me.[7] Srikanta by Bengali writer Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay[8] is another first-person perspective novel which is often called a masterpiece.[9][10][11] Srikanta, the title character and protagonist of the novel, tells his own story: What memories and thoughts crowd into my mind, as, at the threshold of the afternoon of my wandering life, I sit down to write the story of its morning hours![12] This device allows the audience to see the narrators minds eye view of the fictional universe,[13] but it is limited to the narrators experiences and awareness of the true state of affairs. In some stories, first-person narrators may relay dialogue with other characters or refer to information they heard from the other characters, in order to try to deliver a larger point of view.[6] Other stories may switch the narrator to different characters to introduce a broader perspective. An unreliable narrator is one that has completely lost credibility due to ignorance, poor insight, personal biases, mistakes, dishonesty, etc., which challenges the readers initial assumptions.[14] An example of the telling of a story in the grammatical first person, i.e. from the perspective of I, is Herman Melvilles Moby-Dick, which begins with Call me Ishmael.[15] First-person narration may sometimes include an embedded or implied audience of one or more people.[15] The story may be told by a person directly undergoing the events in the story without being aware of conveying that experience to readers; alternatively, the narrator may be conscious of telling the story to a given audience, perhaps at a given place and time, for a given reason.
Index of sociology articles.  1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias This is an index of sociology articles. For a shorter list, see List of basic sociology topics.  
The Narrative (album).  The Narrative is the debut studio album from the Narrative, released on July 27, 2010, through The Record Collective. The album was produced by Bryan Russell at RedWire Audio. I think one of the nice things about how Suzie and I work when we write is that we just write what comes out. Were not looking to sound like anything or anyone else. We might say, Hey, this part reminds me of this song. Maybe we can take it in that sort of a direction and itd be cool, but we never start out trying to write a song like one that has already been written. In 2008, The Narrative released their debut EP Just Say Yes. The EP received a successful promotion on MTV and MySpace. Recordings of The Narrative began in 2009 while they performing at concerts and especially SXSW and CMJ showcases. The Narrative received a chance to feature the national campaign launched for Propellerhead called Record, used on its recordings. The album was produced by previous producer Bryan Russell.[2] Originally, the album featured 15 songs, including Magazines and Like a Prayer. Magazines was fused with Starving for Attention, and Like a Prayer was never finished and recorded, being out of the track listing. The Narrative was officially released on July 27, 2010. After its release, the album was featured in the front page of Myspace U.S and PureVolume.com declaring them one of the Top Unsigned Bands of 2010.[3]
Autobiography.  An autobiography,[a] sometimes informally called an autobio, is a self-written account of ones own life, providing a personal narrative that reflects on the authors experiences, memories, and insights. This genre allows individuals to share their unique perspectives and stories, offering readers a glimpse into the authors personal journey and the historical or cultural context in which they lived. The term autobiography was first used in 1797, but the practice of writing about ones life dates back to antiquity. Early examples include Saint Augustines Confessions (c. 400), which is considered one of the first Western autobiographies. Unlike biographies, which are written by someone else, autobiographies are based on the authors memory and personal interpretation of events, making them inherently subjective. This subjectivity can sometimes lead to inaccuracies or embellishments, as the author may recall events differently or choose to present them in a certain light. Autobiographies can take various forms, including memoirs, spiritual autobiographies, and fictional autobiographies. Memoirs typically focus on specific memories or themes from the authors life, rather than providing a comprehensive account. Spiritual autobiographies, such as Augustines Confessions, detail the authors religious journey and spiritual growth. Fictional autobiographies, on the other hand, are novels written in the first person, presenting a fictional characters life as if it were an autobiography. Throughout history, autobiographies have served different purposes, from self-reflection and justification to historical documentation and personal expression. They have evolved with literary trends and societal changes, reflecting the cultural and historical contexts of their times. Autobiographies remain a popular and accessible form of literature in the 21st century, allowing individuals from all walks of life to share their stories and experiences with a wider audience.
History of sociology.  1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged, primarily out of Enlightenment thought, as a positivist science of society shortly after the French Revolution. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge, arising in reaction to such issues as modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism.[1] During its nascent stages, within the late 19th century, sociological deliberations took particular interest in the emergence of the modern nation state, including its constituent institutions, units of socialization, and its means of surveillance. As such, an emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy.[1] Likewise, social analysis in a broader sense has origins in the common stock of philosophy, therefore pre-dating the sociological field. Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses, and organizations, and have also found use in the other social sciences. Divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, social science has come to be appropriated as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction, society or culture.[2]
Discourse. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Discourse is a generalization of the notion of a conversation to any form of communication.[1] Discourse is a major topic in social theory, with work spanning fields such as sociology, anthropology, continental philosophy, and discourse analysis. Following work by Michel Foucault, these fields view discourse as a system of thought, knowledge, or communication that constructs our world experience. Since control of discourse amounts to control of how the world is perceived, social theory often studies discourse as a window into power. Within theoretical linguistics, discourse is understood more narrowly as linguistic information exchange and was one of the major motivations for the framework of dynamic semantics. In these expressions, denotations are equated with their ability to update a discourse context. In the humanities and social sciences, discourse describes a formal way of thinking that can be expressed through language. Discourse is a social boundary that defines what statements can be said about a topic. Many definitions of discourse are primarily derived from the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault. In sociology, discourse is defined as any practice (found in a wide range of forms) by which individuals imbue reality with meaning.[2] Political science sees discourse as closely linked to politics[3][4] and policy making.[5] Likewise, different theories among various disciplines understand discourse as linked to power and state, insofar as the control of discourses is understood as a hold on reality itself (e.g. if a state controls the media, they control the truth). In essence, discourse is inescapable, since any use of language will have an effect on individual perspectives. In other words, the chosen discourse provides the vocabulary, expressions, or style needed to communicate. For example, two notably distinct discourses can be used about various guerrilla movements, describing them either as freedom fighters or terrorists. In psychology, discourses are embedded in different rhetorical genres and meta-genres that constrain and enable them—language talking about language. This is exemplified in the APAs Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which tells of the terms that have to be used in speaking about mental health, thereby mediating meanings and dictating practices of professionals in psychology and psychiatry.[6]
Sociology.  1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life.[1][2][3] The term sociology was coined in the late 18th century to describe the scientific study of society.[4] Regarded as a part of both the social sciences and humanities, sociology uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis[5]: 3–5  to develop a body of knowledge about social order and social change.[5]: 32–40  Sociological subject matter ranges from micro-level analyses of individual interaction and agency to macro-level analyses of social systems and social structure. Applied sociological research may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, whereas theoretical approaches may focus on the understanding of social processes and phenomenological method.[6] Traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. Recent studies have added socio-technical aspects of the digital divide as a new focus.[7]  Digital sociology examines the impact of digital technologies on social behavior and institutions, encompassing professional, analytical, critical, and public dimensions.[8] The internet has reshaped social networks and power relations, illustrating the growing importance of digital sociology.[9] As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects and institutions, such as health and the institution of medicine; economy; military; punishment and systems of control; the Internet; sociology of education; social capital; and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge. The range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century, especially, have led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophical approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the turn of the 21st century has seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.[10][11]
Soft rock.  Soft rock (also known as light rock or mellow rock) is a form of rock music that originated in the late 1960s in the United States and the United Kingdom which smoothed over the edges of singer-songwriter and pop rock,[1] relying on simple, melodic songs with big, lush productions. Soft rock was prevalent on the radio throughout the 1970s and eventually metamorphosed into a form of the synthesized music of adult contemporary in the 1980s.[1] Softer sounds in rock music could be heard in mid-1960s songs, such as A Summer Song by Chad & Jeremy (1964) and Here, There and Everywhere[4] by the Beatles and I Love My Dog[5] by Cat Stevens, both from 1966. By 1968, hard rock had been established as a mainstream genre. From the end of the 1960s, it became common to divide mainstream rock music into soft and hard rock,[6] with both emerging as major radio formats in the US.[7] The Bee Gees were considered soft rock in the late 1960s.[8] Major artists of that time included America, Bread,[9][10] Carly Simon, Carole King, Cat Stevens and James Taylor.[11]
Political satire. Political satire is a type of satire that specializes in gaining entertainment from politics. Political satire can also act as a tool for advancing political arguments in conditions where political speech and dissent are banned. Political satire is usually distinguished from political protest or political dissent, as it does not necessarily carry an agenda nor seek to influence the political process. While occasionally it may, it more commonly aims simply to provide entertainment. By its very nature, it rarely offers a constructive view in itself; when it is used as part of protest or dissent, it tends to simply establish the error of matters rather than provide solutions.[1] Because of the exaggerated[2] manner of these parodies, satirical news shows can more effectively sway their audiences to believe specific ideas by overemphasizing the flaws of the critiqued subject.[3] This can be very harmful to the reputation of public figures or organizations since the satire frames them in a comical way.[4] Satire can be traced back throughout history; wherever organized government, or social categories have existed, so has satire.[5] The oldest example that has survived until today is Aristophanes. In his time, satire targeted top politicians, like Cleon,[6] and religion, at the time headed by Zeus. Satire and derision progressively attacked even the fundamental and most sacred facts of faith, leading to an increased doubt towards religion by the general population.[7] The Roman period, for example, gives us the satirical poems and epigrams of Martial. Cynic philosophers often engaged in political satire. Due to the lack of political freedom of speech in many ancient civilizations, covert satire is more common than overt satire in ancient literature of political liberalism. Historically, public opinion in the Athenian democracy was remarkably influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theatres.[8] Watching or reading satire has since ancient times been considered one of the best ways to understand a culture and a society.[9][10][11]
Experience. Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involves a subject to which various items are presented. In this sense, seeing a yellow bird on a branch presents the subject with the objects bird and branch, the relation between them and the property yellow. Unreal items may be included as well, which happens when experiencing hallucinations or dreams. When understood in a more restricted sense, only sensory consciousness counts as experience. In this sense, experience is usually identified with perception and contrasted with other types of conscious events, like thinking or imagining. In a slightly different sense, experience refers not to the conscious events themselves but to the practical knowledge and familiarity they produce. Hence, it is important that direct perceptual contact with the external world is the source of knowledge. So an experienced hiker is someone who has actually lived through many hikes, not someone who merely read many books about hiking. This is associated both with recurrent past acquaintance and the abilities learned through them. Many scholarly debates on the nature of experience focus on experience as a conscious event, either in the wide or the more restricted sense. One important topic in this field is the question of whether all experiences are intentional, i.e. are directed at objects different from themselves. Another debate focuses on the question of whether there are non-conceptual experiences and, if so, what role they could play in justifying beliefs. Some theorists claim that experiences are transparent, meaning that what an experience feels like only depends on the contents presented in this experience. Other theorists reject this claim by pointing out that what matters is not just what is presented but also how it is presented. A great variety of types of experiences is discussed in the academic literature. Perceptual experiences, for example, represent the external world through stimuli registered and transmitted by the senses. The experience of episodic memory, on the other hand, involves reliving a past event one experienced before. In imaginative experience, objects are presented without aiming to show how things actually are. The experience of thinking involves mental representations and the processing of information, in which ideas or propositions are entertained, judged or connected. Pleasure refers to experience that feels good. It is closely related to emotional experience, which has additionally evaluative, physiological and behavioral components. Moods are similar to emotions, with one key difference being that they lack a specific object found in emotions. Conscious desires involve the experience of wanting something. They play a central role in the experience of agency, in which intentions are formed, courses of action are planned, and decisions are taken and realized. Non-ordinary experience refers to rare experiences that significantly differ from the experience in the ordinary waking state, like religious experiences, out-of-body experiences or near-death experiences. Experience is discussed in various disciplines. Phenomenology is the science of the structure and contents of experience. It uses different methods, like epoché or eidetic variation. Sensory experience is of special interest to epistemology. An important traditional discussion in this field concerns whether all knowledge is based on sensory experience, as empiricists claim, or not, as rationalists contend. This is closely related to the role of experience in science, in which experience is said to act as a neutral arbiter between competing theories. In metaphysics, experience is involved in the mind–body problem and the hard problem of consciousness, both of which try to explain the relation between matter and experience. In psychology, some theorists hold that all concepts are learned from experience while others argue that some concepts are innate. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the definition of the term experience can be stated as a direct observation of or participation in events as a basis of knowledge.[1] The term experience is associated with a variety of closely related meanings, which is why various different definitions of it are found in the academic literature.[2] Experience is often understood as a conscious event. This is sometimes restricted to certain types of consciousness, like perception or sensation, through which the subject attains knowledge of the world.[3] But in a wider sense, experience includes other types of conscious events besides perception and sensation.[4][5] This is the case, for example, for the experience of thinking or the experience of dreaming.[6] In a different sense, experience refers not to conscious events themselves but to the knowledge and practical familiarity they bring with them.[3][7][8] According to this meaning, a person with job experience or an experienced hiker is someone who has a good practical familiarity in the respective field. In this sense, experience refers not to a conscious process but to the result of this process.[2]
Indie pop.  Indie pop (also typeset as indie-pop or indiepop) is a music genre and subculture[2] that combines guitar pop with a DIY ethic[5] in opposition to the style and tone of mainstream pop music.[6] It originated from British post-punk[7] in the late 1970s and subsequently generated a thriving fanzine, label, and club and gig circuit. Compared to its counterpart, indie rock, the genre is more melodic, less abrasive, and relatively angst-free.[8] In later years, the definition of indie pop has bifurcated to also mean bands from unrelated DIY scenes/movements with pop leanings.[7] Subgenres include chamber pop and twee pop.[8] Indie pop is defined by its DIY ethos, upbeat melodies, and an overarching sense of authenticity. It primarily takes influences from post-punk, jangle pop, and its counterpart, indie rock. While sharing overarching similarities, indie pop is more melodic, simplistic, and accessible, eschewing the more abrasive and conventional aspects of indie rock.[2] Music journalist Nitsuh Abebe noted in Pitchfork that: Indie pop is not just indie that is pop. Not too many people realize this, or really care either way. But you can be sure indie pops fans know it. They have their own names for themselves ... the music they listen to ... their own canon of legendary bands ... and legendary labels ... their own pop stars ... their own zines ... websites ... mailing lists ... aesthetics ... festivals ... iconography ... fashion accessories ... and in-jokes ... in short, their own culture.[2] Music critic Simon Reynolds says that indie pop defines itself against charting pop.[6] Abebe explains:
Mockumentary.  A mockumentary (a portmanteau of mock and documentary) is a type of film or television show depicting fictional events, but presented as a documentary.[1] Mockumentaries are often used to analyze or comment on current events and issues in a satirical way by using a fictional setting, or to parody the documentary form itself.[2] The term originated in the 1960s but was popularized in the mid-1990s when This Is Spinal Tap director Rob Reiner used it in interviews to describe that film.[3][4][5] While mockumentaries are  comedic, pseudo-documentaries are their dramatic equivalents. However, pseudo-documentary should not be confused with docudrama, a fictional genre in which dramatic techniques are combined with documentary elements to depict real events. Nor should either of those be confused with docufiction, a genre in which documentaries are contaminated with fictional elements.[6] Mockumentaries are often presented as historical documentaries, with B roll and talking heads discussing past events, or as cinéma vérité pieces following people as they go through various events. Examples emerged during the 1950s when archival film footage became available.[2] A very early example was a short piece on the Swiss spaghetti harvest that appeared as an April Fools prank on the British television program Panorama in 1957.[citation needed] Mockumentaries can be partly or wholly improvised.
Biographical film. A biographical film or biopic (/ˈbaɪoʊˌpɪk/)[1] is a film that dramatizes the life of an actual person or group of people. Such films show the life of a historical person and the central characters real name is used.[2] They differ from docudrama films and historical drama films in that they attempt to comprehensively tell a single persons life story or at least the most historically important years of their lives.[3] Biopic scholars include George F. Custen of the College of Staten Island and Dennis P. Bingham of Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis. Custen, in Bio/Pics: How Hollywood Constructed Public History (1992), regards the genre as having died with the Hollywood studio era, and in particular, Darryl F. Zanuck.[4] On the other hand, Binghams 2010 study Whose Lives Are They Anyway? The Biopic as Contemporary Film Genre[5] shows how it perpetuates as a codified genre using many of the same tropes used in the studio era that has followed a similar trajectory as that shown by Rick Altman in his study, Film/Genre.[6] Bingham also addresses the male biopic and the female biopic as distinct genres from each other, the former generally dealing with great accomplishments, the latter generally dealing with female victimization. Ellen Cheshires Bio-Pics: a life in pictures (2014) examines British/American films from the 1990s and 2000s. Each chapter reviews key films linked by profession and concludes with further viewing list.[7] Christopher Robé has also written on the gender norms that underlie the biopic in his article, Taking Hollywood Back in the 2009 issue of Cinema Journal.[8] Roger Ebert defended The Hurricane and distortions in biographical films in general, stating those who seek the truth about a man from the film of his life might as well seek it from his loving grandmother. ... The Hurricane is not a documentary but a parable.[9] Casting can be controversial for biographical films. Casting is often a balance between similarity in looks and ability to portray the characteristics of the person. Anthony Hopkins felt that he should not have played Richard Nixon in Nixon because of a lack of resemblance between the two.[citation needed] The casting of John Wayne as Genghis Khan in The Conqueror was objected to because of the American Wayne being cast as the Mongol warlord. Egyptian critics criticized the casting of Louis Gossett Jr., an African American actor, as Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in the 1983 TV miniseries Sadat.[10] Also, some objected to the casting of Jennifer Lopez in Selena because she is a New York City native of Puerto Rican descent while Selena was Mexican American.[11] Because the figures portrayed are actual people, whose actions and characteristics are known to the public (or at least historically documented), biopic roles are considered some of the most demanding of actors and actresses.[citation needed] Warren Beatty, Faye Dunaway, Ben Kingsley, Johnny Depp, Jim Carrey, Jamie Foxx, Robert Downey Jr., Brad Pitt, Emma Thompson, Tom Hanks, Eddie Redmayne, and Cillian Murphy all gained new-found respect as dramatic actors after starring in biopics:[citation needed] Beatty and Dunaway as Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker in Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Kingsley as Mahatma Gandhi in Gandhi (1982), Depp as Ed Wood in Ed Wood (1994), Carrey as Andy Kaufman in Man on the Moon (1999), Downey as Charlie Chaplin in Chaplin (1992) and as Lewis Strauss in Oppenheimer (2023), Foxx as Ray Charles in Ray (2004), Thompson and Hanks as P. L. Travers and Walt Disney in Saving Mr. Banks (2013), Redmayne as Stephen Hawking in The Theory of Everything (2014), and Murphy as J. Robert Oppenheimer in Oppenheimer (2023).
Satires (Horace).  The Satires (Latin: Saturae or Sermones) is a collection of satirical poems written in Latin dactylic hexameters by the Roman poet Horace. Published probably in 35 BC and at the latest, by 33 BC,[1][2] the first book of Satires represents Horaces first published work. It established him as one of the great poetic talents of the Augustan Age.[citation needed] The second book was published in 30 BC as a sequel.[3] In the first book of his Sermones (Latin for conversations) or Saturae (Latin for miscellaneous poems), Horace combines Greek philosophy with Roman good sense to convince his readers of the futility and silliness of their ambitions and desires. As an alternative, he proposes a life that is based on the Greek philosophical ideals of autarkeia (Greek for inner self-sufficiency) and metriotes (Greek for moderation or sticking to the Just Mean).[4] In 1.6.110–131, Horace illustrates what he means by describing a typical day in his own simple, but contented life. The second book also addresses the fundamental question of Greek Hellenistic philosophy, the search for a happy and contented life. In contrast to book I, however, many of this books poems are dialogues in which the poet allows a series of pseudo-philosophers, such as the bankrupt art-dealer turned Stoic philosopher Damasippus, the peasant Ofellus, the mythical seer Teiresias, and the poets own slave, Davus, to espouse their philosophy of life, in satiric contrast to that of the narrator.[5] Although the Satires are sometimes considered to be inferior to the Odes, they have been received positively in recent decades.[6] In the Middle Ages, they were very popular and quoted more frequently than the Odes.
Religious satire.  Religious satire is a form of satire that refers to religious beliefs and can take the form of texts, plays, films, and parody.[6] From the earliest times, at least since the plays of Aristophanes, religion has been one of the three primary topics of literary satire, along with politics and sex.[7][8][9] Satire which targets the clergy is a type of political satire, while religious satire is that which targets religious beliefs.[6] Religious satire is also sometimes called philosophical satire, and is thought to be the result of agnosticism or atheism. Notable works of religious satire surfaced during the Renaissance, with works by Geoffrey Chaucer, Erasmus and Albrecht Dürer. Religious satire has been criticised and at times censored to avoid offence, for example the film Life of Brian was initially banned in Ireland, Norway, some states of the US, and some towns and councils of the United Kingdom. This potential for censorship often leads to debates on the issue of freedom of speech such as in the case of the Religious Hatred Bill in January 2006. Critics of the original version of the Bill (such as comedian Rowan Atkinson) feared that satirists could be prosecuted. Religious satire has been criticised by those who feel that sincerely held religious views should not  be subject to ridicule.  In some cases religious satire has been censored – for example, Molières play Tartuffe was banned in 1664. The film Life of Brian was initially banned in Ireland, Norway, some states of the US, and some towns and councils of the United Kingdom.[18] In an interesting case of life mirroring art, activist groups who protested the film during its release bore striking similarities to some bands of religious zealots within the film itself.[19] Like much religious satire, the intent of the film has been misinterpreted and distorted by protesters.  According to the Pythons, Life of Brian is not a critique of religion so much as an indictment of the hysteria and bureaucratic excess that often surrounds it.[20]
Satires (Juvenal).  The Satires (Latin: Saturae) are a collection of satirical poems by the Latin author Juvenal written between 100–127 A.D. The Satires address perceived threats to society, such as socially ascendant foreigners, infidelity, and the extreme excesses of the Roman aristocracy. Juvenals audience was highly educated, and his dense poems are laced with historical and mythological allusions. The first book of Satires probably dates to 100 AD.[1]: 226  The fifth book likely dates to a point after 127, because of a reference to the Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Juncus in Satire 15. Between these two books, Juvenal wrote seven additional satires that are organized in three books. Satire 6 was written shortly after the first book and serves as a companion piece.[2]: 1f [3]: 284 The Roman satire genre featured a wide-ranging discussion of social mores in dactylic hexameter. Quintilian noted how many genres Rome borrowed from Greece but concluded, Satire, on the other hand, is all our own.[4] The other great satirist of Rome was Horace. John Dryden summed up the difference in their approach, Horace meant to make his reader laugh...Juvenal always intends to move your indignation.[5]: I.97f
Society.  A society (/səˈsaɪəti/) is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. Human social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via social roles. Societies construct roles and other patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts acceptable or unacceptable—these expectations around behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis. Societies vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns.  Societies can have many different forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles.  Human behavior varies immensely between different societies; humans shape society, but society in turn shapes human beings. The term society often refers to a large group of people in an ordered community, in a country or several similar countries, or the state of being with other people, as in they lived in medieval society.[1] The term dates back to at least 1513 and comes from the 12th-century French societe (modern French société) meaning company.[2] Societe was in turn derived from the Latin word societas (fellowship, alliance, association), which in turn was derived from the noun socius (comrade, friend, ally).[2]
Editor-in-chief. An editor-in-chief (EIC), also known as lead editor, chief editor, executive editor, or simply editor is a publications editorial leader who has final responsibility for its operations and policies.[1][2][3] The editor-in-chief heads all departments of the organization and is held accountable for delegating tasks to staff members and managing them. The term is often used at newspapers, magazines, yearbooks, and television news programs. The editor-in-chief is commonly the link between the publisher or proprietor and the editorial staff. Typical responsibilities of editors-in-chief include:[1] The term is also applied to academic journals, where the editor-in-chief gives the ultimate decision whether a submitted manuscript will be published. This decision is made by the editor-in-chief after seeking input from reviewers selected on the basis of relevant expertise. For larger journals, the decision is often upon the recommendation of one of several associate editors who each have responsibility for a fraction of the submitted manuscripts.[8][9]
Satyr.  In Greek mythology, a satyr[a] (Ancient Greek: σάτυρος, romanized: sátyros, pronounced [sátyros]), also known as a silenus[b] or silenos (Ancient Greek: σειληνός, romanized: seilēnós [seːlɛːnós]), and sileni (plural), is a male nature spirit with ears and a tail resembling those of a horse, as well as a permanent, exaggerated erection. Early artistic representations sometimes include horse-like legs, but, by the sixth century BC, they were more often represented with human legs.[4] Comically hideous, they have mane-like hair, bestial faces, and snub noses and they always are shown naked. Satyrs were characterized by their ribaldry and were known as lovers of wine, music, dancing, and women. They were companions of the god Dionysus and were believed to inhabit remote locales, such as woodlands, mountains, and pastures. They often attempted to seduce or rape nymphs and mortal women alike, usually with little success. They are sometimes shown masturbating or engaging in bestiality. In classical Athens, satyrs made up the chorus in a genre of play known as a satyr play, which was a parody of tragedy and known for its bawdy and obscene humor. The only complete surviving play of this genre is Cyclops by Euripides, although a significant portion of Sophocless Ichneutae has also survived. In mythology, the satyr Marsyas is said to have challenged the god Apollo to a musical contest and been flayed alive for his hubris. Although superficially ridiculous, satyrs were also thought to possess useful knowledge, if they could be coaxed into revealing it. The satyr Silenus was the tutor of the young Dionysus and a story from Ionia told of a silenos who gave sound advice when captured. Over the course of Greek history, satyrs gradually became portrayed as more human and less bestial. They also began to acquire goat-like characteristics in some depictions as a result of conflation with the Pans, plural forms of the god Pan with the legs and horns of goats. The Romans identified satyrs with their native nature spirits, fauns. Eventually the distinction between the two was lost entirely. Since the Renaissance, satyrs have been most often represented with the legs and horns of goats. Representations of satyrs cavorting with nymphs have been common in western art, with many famous artists creating works on the theme. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, satyrs have generally lost much of their characteristic obscenity, becoming more tame and domestic figures. They commonly appear in works of fantasy and childrens literature, in which they are most often referred to as fauns. The etymology of the term satyr (Ancient Greek: σάτυρος, romanized: sátyros) is unclear, and several different etymologies have been proposed for it,[5] including a possible Pre-Greek origin.[6] Some scholars have linked the second part of name to the root of the Greek word θηρίον, thēríon, meaning wild animal.[5] This proposal may be supported by the fact that at one point Euripides refers to satyrs as theres.[5] Another proposed etymology derives the name from an ancient Peloponnesian word meaning the full ones, alluding to their permanent state of sexual arousal.[5] Eric Partridge suggested that the name may be related to the root sat-, meaning to sow, which has also been proposed as the root of the name of the Roman god Saturn.[5] Satyrs are usually indistinguishable from sileni, whose iconography is virtually identical.[7][8][9] According to Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, the name satyr is sometimes derogatorily applied to a brutish or lustful man.[10] The term satyriasis refers to a medical condition in males characterized by excessive sexual desire.[10][11] It is the male equivalent of nymphomania.[11]
Long Island.  Long Island is a densely populated continental island in southeastern New York state, extending into the Atlantic Ocean. It constitutes a significant share of the New York metropolitan area in both population and land area. The island extends from New York Harbor 118 miles (190 km) eastward into the ocean with a maximum north–south width of 23 miles (37 km).[2][3]  With a land area of 1,401 square miles (3,630 km2), it is the largest island in the contiguous United States.[4] Long Island is divided among four counties, with Kings (Brooklyn), Queens, and Nassau counties occupying its western third and Suffolk County its eastern two-thirds. To what extent Brooklyn and Queens are considered with Long Island is a matter of debate. Geographically, both Kings and Queens county are located on the Island, but some argue they are culturally separate from Long Island.[5] Long Island may refer both to the main island and the surrounding outer barrier islands. To its west, Long Island is separated from Manhattan Island and the Bronx by the East River tidal estuary. North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which lie Westchester County, New York, and the state of Connecticut. Across the Block Island Sound to the northeast is the state of Rhode Island. Block Island, which is part of Rhode Island, and numerous smaller islands extend farther into the Atlantic Ocean. To the extreme southwest, Long Island, at Brooklyn, is separated from Staten Island and the state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, The Narrows, and Lower New York Bay. With a population of 8,063,232 residents as of the 2020 U.S. census, Long Island constitutes 40% of the states population.[6][7][8][9][10] Long Island is the most populous island in any U.S. state or territory, the third-most populous island in the Americas after Hispaniola and Cuba, and the 18th-most populous island in the world ahead of Ireland, Jamaica, and Hokkaidō. Its population density is 5,859.5 inhabitants per square mile (2,262.4/km2). Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse, featuring some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the world near the shorelines, as well as a variety of working-class areas in all four counties. As of 2022, Kings, Queens, Nassau, and Suffolk counties collectively had a gross domestic product of approximately $600 billion.[11] Median household income on the island significantly exceeds $100,000, and the median home price is approximately $600,000, with Nassau County approximating $700,000. Among residents over the age of 25, 42.6% hold a college degree or higher educational degree.[12] Unemployment on Long Island stays consistently below 4%. Biotechnology companies, engineering, and scientific research play a significant role in Long Islands economy,[13] including research facilities at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Stony Brook University, New York Institute of Technology, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the Zucker School of Medicine, and the Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research.
Outline of academic disciplines. An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of study, taught and researched as part of higher education. A scholars discipline is commonly defined by the university faculties and learned societies to which they belong and the academic journals in which they publish research. Disciplines vary between well-established ones in almost all universities with well-defined rosters of journals and conferences and nascent ones supported by only a few universities and publications. A discipline may have branches, which are often called sub-disciplines. The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next highest level (e.g., Music) is a discipline having some degree of autonomy and being the fundamental identity felt by its scholars. Lower levels of the hierarchy are sub-disciplines that do generally not have any role in the tite of the universitys governance. Also regarded as a Social science Linguistics listed in Social science
Henry Mayhew.  Henry Mayhew (25 November 1812 – 25 July 1887) was an English journalist, playwright, and advocate of reform. He was one of the co-founders of the satirical magazine Punch in 1841, and was the magazines joint editor, with Mark Lemon, in its early days. He is also known for his work as a social researcher, publishing an extensive series of newspaper articles in the Morning Chronicle that was later compiled into the three-volume book London Labour and the London Poor (1851), a groundbreaking and influential survey of the citys poor. He was born in London, the thirteenth of 17 children to Joshua Mayhew. He was educated at Westminster School before running away from his studies to the sea.[1] He then served with the East India Company as a midshipman on a ship bound for Calcutta. He returned after several years, in 1829, becoming a trainee lawyer in Wales.[2] He left this career to become a freelance journalist. He contributed to The Thief, a readers digest, followed quickly by founding a weekly comic journal – Figaro in London (1831–1839). Mayhew reputedly fled his creditors and holed up at the Erwood Inn, a small public house in the village of Erwood, south of Builth Wells in Wales. In 1835, Mayhew found himself in a state of debt and, along with a fellow writer, escaped to Paris to avoid his creditors.[2] He spent his time writing and in the company of other writers including William Thackeray and Douglas Jerrold. Mayhew spent over 10 years in Paris, returning to England in the 1850s, whereupon he was involved in several literary adventures, mostly the writing of plays. Two of his plays – The Wandering Minstrel (1834) and But, However (1842) – were successful, whilst his early work Figaro in London was less successful.[3] On 17 July 1841, Mayhew cofounded Punch magazine. At its founding, the magazine was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon. The two men hired a group of writers and illustrators to aid them. These included Douglas Jerrold, Angus Reach, John Leech, Richard Doyle, and Shirley Brooks. Initially, the magazine was subtitled The London Charivari, referencing the satirical humour magazine published in France under the title Le Charivari (a work Mayhew read often whilst in Paris). Reflecting their satirical and humorous intent, the two editors took for their name and masthead the anarchic glove puppet Mr. Punch.
Punch. Punch commonly refers to: Punch may also refer to:
Puck (magazine). Puck was the first successful humor magazine in the United States of colorful cartoons, caricatures and political satire of the issues of the day. It was founded in 1876 as a German-language publication by Joseph Keppler, an Austrian immigrant cartoonist.[1] Pucks first English-language edition was published in 1877, covering issues like New York Citys Tammany Hall, presidential politics, and social issues of the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Puckish means childishly mischievous. This led Shakespeares Puck character (from A Midsummer Nights Dream) to be recast as a charming near-naked boy and used as the title of the magazine. Puck was the first magazine to carry illustrated advertising and the first to successfully adopt full-color lithography printing for a weekly publication.[2] Puck was published from 1876 until 1918.[1][3] After working with Leslies Illustrated Weekly in New York – a well-established magazine at the time – Keppler created a satirical magazine called Puck,. The weekly magazine was founded by Keppler in St. Louis, Missouri. Keppler had begun publishing German-language periodicals in 1869, though they failed.  In 1871,[4] he attempted another cartoon weekly, Puck, which lasted until August 1872.[5]  Then in 1876, he again began publishing Puck in German. Interested backers wanted Puck in English so he published it in both languages for 15 years until he ceased the German version.[3] In 1877, after gaining wide support for an English version of Puck, Keppler published its first issue in English. The first English edition was 16 pages long and was sold for 16 cents.[3]
Satire.  Satire is a genre of the visual,  literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of exposing or shaming the perceived flaws of individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit to draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society. Satire may also poke fun at popular themes in art and film. A prominent feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—in satire, irony is militant, according to literary critic Northrop Frye—[2] but parody, burlesque, exaggeration,[3] juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This militant irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to question. Satire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, music, film and television shows, and media such as lyrics. The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant full, but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to miscellany or medley: the expression lanx satura literally means a full dish of various kinds of fruits.[4] The use of the word lanx in this phrase, however, is disputed by B.L. Ullman.[5]
Counties of Albania. Counties (Albanian: qarqe or qarqet), also sometimes known as prefectures (prefektura or prefekturat), are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Albania, replacing the earlier districts. Since 2000, there have been 12 counties. Since 2015, they have been divided into 61 municipalities, 373 communes, and 2,972 villages. Since its Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, Albania has reorganized its domestic administrative divisions 21 times. The primary division until mid-2000 was into districts (rrathë or rrathët), whose number, size, and importance varied over time.[1] They were organized into groups comprising 12 counties beginning in 1991.[1] The current status of the counties[2] is based on the 1998 constitution and was implemented on 31 July 2000.[3] The former districts were abolished entirely and replaced with urban municipalities (bashki or bashkitë) and rural municipalities (komuna or komunat), which further oversaw villages (fshatra or fshatrat) in the countryside. This was revised in 2014, so that the 2015 local elections divided the counties into municipalities (bashki or bashkitë) at the regional level and administrative units (njësi administrative or njësitë administrative) for local government.
Ebenezer Landells.  Ebenezer Landells (Newcastle 13 April 1808 – 1 October 1860 London) was a British wood-engraver, illustrator, and magazine proprietor. Born in Newcastle, Landells was apprenticed to the wood-engraver Thomas Bewick. In 1829 he moved to London,[1] and before long managed to start his own engraving workshop. After attempting a short-lived fashion journal, Cosmorama, he joined with the journalist Henry Mayhew and the printer William Last to found Punch in 1841. Initial difficulties forced Landells to sell his one-third share to the publishers Bradbury & Evans; after the new owners replaced Landells with Joseph Swain as chief engraver, Landells responded with a pamphlet entitled A Word with Punch (1847). Herbert Ingram consulted Landells about launching his weekly Illustrated London News in 1842: after a commission to sketch Queen Victorias first visit to Scotland that year, Landells became the papers first artistic correspondent and continued to supply prints for the newspaper until his death. Landells was also involved in several other magazines: the less successful Illuminated Magazine (1843–45), Great Gun (1844, in imitation of Punch), the Ladys Newspaper (1847–63, then incorporated into the Queen), Diogenes (1853, another attempt to imitate Punch), and the Illustrated Inventor. Responding to the growth in the childrens book market, he wrote and illustrated several books for children: Boys Own Toy-Maker (1858), Girls Own Toy-Maker (1859), and Illustrated Paper Model Maker (1860).
Lezhë County. Lezhë County (Albanian: Qarku i Lezhës) is one of the 12 counties of Albania. The population as of 2021 was 120,678,[3] in an area of 1,620 km².[4] Its capital is the city Lezhë. Until 2000, Lezhë County was subdivided into three districts: Kurbin, Lezhë, and Mirditë. Since the 2015 local government reform, the county consists of the following 3 municipalities: Kurbin, Lezhë and Mirditë.[5] Before 2015, it consisted of the following 21 municipalities: The municipalities consist of about 175 towns and villages in total. See Villages of Lezhë County for a structured list. As of the 2023 census, this county has 99,384 inhabitants. Ethnic groups in the county as of the 2011 census include:[4] Between the 2011 and 2023 censuses in Lezhë, the religious landscape showed some shifts. The Sunni Muslim population increased its share from 14.8% to 17.5%, and Bektashi Muslims also saw a rise from 0.3% to 0.6%. The Catholic Christian population, which remained the dominant group, increased from 72.3% to 74.4%. Orthodox Christians rose from 0.1% to 0.4%. Evangelical Christians increased from 0.0% to 0.2%.
Fukuoka Tower. Fukuoka Tower (福岡タワー, Fukuoka Tawā) is a 234-metre (768 ft) tall tower located in the Momochihama area of Fukuoka, Japan. It is the tallest seaside tower in Japan. The highest observation deck at 123 metres has a 360° view of the surrounding area, being most visited at sunset.[1] Fukuoka Tower was finished in 1989, taking a total of 14 months to build at a cost of ¥6 billion (roughly equivalent US$45 million in 1989). It was designed by Nikken Sekkei and constructed on a reclaimed land out of Hakata Bay.[2] Fukuoka Tower has a triangular cross-section which is covered with 8000 half-mirrors, giving it the appearance of a skyscraper.[3] Because of this, it has been given the nickname Mirror Sail. The half-mirrors reflect the sky when viewed from outside the structure, while also allowing visitors to see outside when riding elevators to the top. The space between the base and the observation decks is hollow and thus unoccupied. There are three observation decks: one at 116 metres, a café/lounge deck at 120 metres, and the highest at 123 metres above the ground. Above this level rises a 111-metre television mast. The underground weight of Fukuoka Tower is 25,000 tons. Its weight above ground, by contrast, is only 3,500 tons. The tower is designed to withstand magnitude 7 earthquakes and wind speeds up to 65 m/s (145 miles per hour (233 km/h)). The strongest recorded earthquake in the area has been magnitude 6 and the strongest winds 49 m/s (110 miles per hour (180 km/h)). The tower is located at 2-3-26 Momochihama, Sawara-ku, Fukuoka.[2] The tower appears in the Japanese film Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla (1994). In a battle between the titular monsters, SpaceGodzilla uses the tower to absorb energy before Godzilla destroys the tower after the foundation is weakened by the mech MOGUERA.[4] 33°35′35.7″N 130°21′5.3″E / 33.593250°N 130.351472°E / 33.593250; 130.351472
Villages of Albania. Albania has 2,972 villages (Albanian: fshatra or fshatrat) as of 2016.[1] Albania has reformed its domestic administrative divisions 21 times since its Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. Following the most recent reorganization, enacted in 2014 and carried out in June 2015, Albanias 12 counties were entirely divided into 61 municipalities for regional government and 373 administrative units for local government. These administrative units, communes, and towns now oversee most government at the village level. The Albanian Institute of Statistics stopped providing comprehensive population data for villages after the 1989 census, and as of now the administrative units comprise the lowest official level of division in Albania.
Devil.  A devil is the mythical personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions.[1] It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force.[2] Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a fallen angel) or 4) a symbol of human evil.[3]: 23 Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil.[4] The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature, developing independently within each of the traditions.[5] It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan (Judaism), Lucifer (Christianity), Beelzebub (Judeo-Christian), Mephistopheles (German), Iblis (Islam)—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on.[6][7] The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek διάβολος diábolos, slanderer,[8] from διαβάλλειν diabállein, to slander from διά diá, across, through and βάλλειν bállein, to hurl, probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, he lifts up.[9] In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil.  He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to minimize this difficulty and for the sake of clarity. In this book Russell uses the word devil as the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures, as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions.[10]
Kyushu. Kyūshū (九州, Kyūshū; pronounced [kʲɯꜜː.ɕɯː] ⓘ, lit. Nine Provinces) is the third-largest and most southerly of Japans four main islands.[3][4] In the past, it has been known as Kyūkoku (九国, Nine Countries), Chinzei (鎮西, West of the Pacified Area) and Tsukushi-no-shima (筑紫島, Island of Tsukushi). The historical regional name Saikaidō (西海道; lit. West Sea Circuit) referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands. Kyushu has a land area of 36,782 square kilometres (14,202 sq mi) and a population of 14,311,224 in 2018.[5] There is a theory that Kyushu was in ancient times home to its own independent dynasty, where a unique, southern-influenced culture and tradition distinct from that of Honshu flourished.[6][7] In the 8th-century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as a special administrative term for the region.[8] The island is mountainous, and Japans most active volcano, Mount Aso at 1,591 metres (5,220 ft), is on Kyūshū. There are many other signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, and around Mt. Aso in central Kyūshū. The island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. Being the nearest island to the Asian continent,[9] historically it is the gateway to Japan.[10] The total area is 36,782.37 km2 (14,201.75 sq mi) which makes it the 37th largest island in the world.[1] It is slightly larger than Taiwans total area of 35,808 km2 (13,826 sq mi).[5] The highest elevation is 1791 meters (5876 feet) on Mount Kujū.[11]
Mizuho PayPay Dome Fukuoka. Mizuho PayPay Dome Fukuoka (みずほPayPayドーム福岡, Mizuho Peipei Dōmu Fukuoka), officially the Fukuoka Dome (福岡ドーム, Fukuoka Dōmu) is a domed baseball field located in Chūō-ku, Fukuoka, Japan. Home to the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, the 40,000 seat stadium was built in 1993 and was originally named Fukuoka Dome.[1][2] It is Japans first stadium built with a retractable roof, and was the only baseball stadium in Japan with one until the opening of Es Con Field Hokkaido in 2023. It is the largest primary home stadium in the Pacific League. Fukuoka Dome is the home stadium of Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and, together with Hilton Fukuoka Sea Hawk Hotel, is part of the Hawks Town entertainment complex.[3] It is located near Momochi Beach, and a 15 minute walk from Tōjinmachi Station, a part of the Fukuoka City Subway system. In 2003 Colony Capital purchased the stadium with accompanying hotels from Daiei, in the process Colony assumed ¥60 billion in debts with the properties along with a ¥15 billion capital infusion for renovations.[4] After the sale of the stadiums primary tenant, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, from supermarket chain Daiei to multinational technology investment company SoftBank on January 28, 2005, Yahoo! Japan, one of SoftBanks subsidiaries, acquired the stadiums naming rights, and thus renamed it Fukuoka Yahoo! Japan Dome (福岡Yahoo! JAPANドーム, Fukuoka Yafū Japan Dōmu) or abbreviated as Yahoo Dome (ヤフードーム, Yafū Dōmu).[3] At the same time, SoftBank agreed to lease the rights to the Fukuoka Dome for 4.8 billion yen per year for 20 years.[5] In 2006, the stadium received an upgrade to its mono-color main scoreboard Hawks Vision. Sharing the same nickname as its predecessor and measured at 10 m (32.76 ft) high and 53 m (173.86 ft) wide, it was one of the largest high-definition electronic scoreboards at the time, equivalent to a 2,123-inch wide-screen display. In 2010, with further addition of two 5.7 m (120.65 ft) × 33 m (108.27 ft) displays, the stadium boasted the largest total viewing area of HD display in all baseball stadia (total area 905.2sqm or 9,743.49sqft).[6]
Academic publishing. Academic publishing is the subfield of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship. Most academic work is published in academic journal articles, books or theses. The part of academic written output that is not formally published but merely printed up or posted on the Internet is often called grey literature. Most scientific and scholarly journals, and many academic and scholarly books, though not all, are based on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication. Peer review quality and selectivity standards vary greatly from journal to journal, publisher to publisher, and field to field. Most established academic disciplines have their own journals and other outlets for publication, although many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. There is also a tendency for existing journals to divide into specialized sections as the field itself becomes more specialized. Along with the variation in review and publication procedures, the kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions to knowledge or research differ greatly among fields and subfields. In the sciences, the desire for statistically significant results leads to publication bias.[1] Academic publishing is undergoing major changes as it makes the transition from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. An important trend, particularly with respect to journals in the sciences, is open access via the Internet. In open access publishing, a journal article is made available free for all on the web by the publisher at the time of publication. Both open and closed journals are sometimes funded by the author paying an article processing charge, thereby shifting some fees from the reader to the researcher or their funder. Many open or closed journals fund their operations without such fees and others use them in predatory publishing. The Internet has facilitated open access self-archiving, in which authors themselves make a copy of their published articles available free for all on the web.[2][3] Some important results in mathematics have been published only on arXiv.[4][5][6] The Journal des sçavans (later spelled Journal des savants), established by Denis de Sallo, was the earliest academic journal published in Europe. Its content included obituaries of famous men, church history, and legal reports.[7] The first issue appeared as a twelve-page quarto pamphlet[8] on Monday, 5 January 1665,[9] shortly before the first appearance of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, on 6 March 1665.[10]
Ohio State University.  The Ohio State University (Ohio State or OSU) is a public land-grant research university in Columbus, Ohio, United States. A member of the University System of Ohio, it was founded in 1870. It is one of the largest universities by enrollment in the United States, with nearly 50,000 undergraduate students and nearly 15,000 graduate students. The university consists of sixteen colleges and offers over 400 degree programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels.[7] It is classified among R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity. As of 2024,[update] the university has an endowment of $7.9 billion. Its athletic teams compete in NCAA Division I as the Ohio State Buckeyes as a member of the Big Ten Conference for the majority of fielded sports. It is a member of the Association of American Universities. Past and present alumni and faculty include 6 Nobel Prize laureates, 9 Rhodes Scholars, 7 Churchill Scholars, 1 Fields Medalist, 7 Pulitzer Prize winners, 64 Goldwater scholars, 1 Costa Rican president, 1 U.S. vice president, 7 U.S. senators, 15 U.S. representatives, and 104 Olympic medalists. The proposal of a manufacturing and agriculture university in central Ohio was initially met in the 1870s with hostility from the states agricultural interests, and with competition for resources from Ohio University, which was chartered by the Northwest Ordinance and Miami University.[8] Championed by the Republican governor Rutherford B. Hayes, the Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university under the Morrill Act of 1862 as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College.[8]
Municipalities of Albania. Municipalities (Albanian: bashki or bashkitë) are the second-level administrative divisions of Albania, below the counties and above the communes. Since the most recent administrative reforms in 2014, Albania has 61 municipalities. Municipalities are considered the basic administrative division of Albania.[1] Since its Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, Albania has reorganized internal administration 21 times. From independence until the year 2000, regional government was organized into regions (rrethë) of varying numbers, size, and importance. They were consolidated into groups comprising 12 counties in 1991. Following the 1998 constitutional reforms, the 36 regions of the time were abolished entirely and replaced by the larger counties and two kinds of municipalities: urban municipalities (bashki) and rural ones (komuna).[2] In 2014, this was revised to reduce the number of urban municipalities to 61 and extended their jurisdiction over the surrounding countryside to create regional administrations,[3] while using the communes—renamed administrative units (njësitë administrative)—as a third-level division for local government. This first took effect in the 2015 local elections.
River mouth. A river mouth is where a river flows into a larger body of water, such as another river, a lake/reservoir, a bay/gulf, a sea, or an ocean.[1] At the river mouth, sediments are often deposited due to the slowing of the current, reducing the carrying capacity of the water.[1] The water from a river can enter the receiving body in a variety of different ways.[1] The motion of a river is influenced by the relative density of the river compared to the receiving water, the rotation of the Earth, and any ambient motion in the receiving water, such as tides or seiches.[2] If the river water has a higher density than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will plunge below the surface. The river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. However, if the river water is lighter than the receiving water, as is typically the case when fresh river water flows into the sea, the river water will float along the surface of the receiving water as an overflow. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse.[1] At the mouth of a river, the change in flow conditions can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, and tie channels.[3] Landforms at the river mouth drastically alter the geomorphology and ecosystem. Along coasts, sand bars and similar landforms act as barriers, sheltering sensitive ecosystems that are enriched by nutrients deposited from the river.[4] However, the damming of rivers can starve the river of sand and nutrients, creating a deficit at the rivers mouth.[4] As river mouths are the site of large-scale sediment deposition and allow for easy travel and ports, many towns and cities are founded there. Many places in the United Kingdom take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, such as Plymouth (i.e. mouth of the Plym River), Sidmouth (i.e. mouth of the Sid River), and Great Yarmouth (i.e. mouth of the Yare River). In Celtic, the corresponding terms are Aber or Inver, from which come numerous place names such as Aberdeen, Abercrombie, and Abernethy, as well as Inverness, Inverkip, and Inveraray.
Devon.  Devon (/ˈdɛvən/ DEV-ən; historically also known as Devonshire /-ʃɪər, -ʃər/ -⁠sheer, -⁠shər) is a ceremonial county in South West England. It is bordered by the Bristol Channel to the north, Somerset and Dorset to the east, the English Channel to the south, and Cornwall to the west. The city of Plymouth is the largest settlement, and the city of Exeter is the county town. The county has an area of 2,590 sq mi (6,700 km2) and a population of 1,194,166. The largest settlements after Plymouth (264,695) are the city of Exeter (130,709) and the seaside resorts of Torquay and Paignton, which have a combined population of 115,410.[6] They all are located along the south coast, which is the most populous part of the county; Barnstaple (31,275) and Tiverton (22,291) are the largest towns in the north and centre respectively. For local government purposes Devon comprises a non-metropolitan county, with eight districts, and the unitary authority areas of Plymouth and Torbay. Devon County Council and Torbay Council collaborate through a combined county authority. Devon has a varied geography. It contains Dartmoor and part of Exmoor, two upland moors which are the source of most of the countys rivers, including the Taw, Dart, and Exe. The longest river in the county is the Tamar, which forms most of the border with Cornwall and rises in Devons northwest hills. The southeast coast is part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, and characterised by tall cliffs which reveal the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous geology of the region. The county gives its name to the Devonian geologic period, which includes the slates and sandstones of the north coast. Dartmoor and Exmoor have been designated national parks, and the county also contains, in whole or in part, five national landscapes. In the Iron Age, Roman and the Sub-Roman periods, the county was the home of the Dumnonii Celtic Britons. The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the kingdom of Wessex in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the western boundary with Cornwall was set at the Tamar by king Æthelstan in 936.
Broadhembury.  Broadhembury is a village and civil parish in the East Devon district of Devon, England, 5 miles (8 km) north-west of Honiton.[1] The civil parish includes the hamlets of Kerswell, Dulford, Crammer Barton, Colliton and Luton, all to the west of the village.  According to the 2001 census the civil parish had a population of 654. Broadhembury is part of the electoral ward of Tale Vale. The total population of this ward at the 2011 Census was 2,514.[2]  It is within the Blackdown Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Broadhembury is set in the centre of a horseshoe of the hills of Hembury Fort and North Hill, which rise to 1000 feet and create a sheltered valley. Hembury Fort, a prehistoric hill fort dating from 3000 BC, was also used by the Romans.[1]  After the departure of the Romans, this area of Devon was sparsely occupied by the Celtic people. In those years Hembury Fort was called Handria. With the arrival of the Saxons, little wattle churches were built and the villagers lived in little cells or wooden huts. The Saxons brought the plough and cultivated the holdings. At the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the population density of Broadhembury was 9 per square mile. During the Black Death of 1364, the population was affected, with two priests dying of it.
English literature.  English literature is a form of literature written in the English language from the English-speaking world. The English language has developed over more than 1,400 years.[1] The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English. Despite being set in Scandinavia, it has achieved national epic status in England. However, following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the written form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society.[2] The English spoken after the Normans came is known as Middle English. This form of English lasted until the 1470s, when the Chancery Standard (late Middle English), a London-based form of English, became widespread. Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, was a significant figure developing the legitimacy of vernacular Middle English at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were still French and Latin. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439 also helped to standardise the language, as did the King James Bible (1611),[3] and the Great Vowel Shift.[4] Poet and playwright William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and one of the worlds greatest dramatists.[5][6][7] His plays have been translated into every primary living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[8] In the nineteenth century, Sir Walter Scotts historical romances inspired a generation of European painters, composers, and writers.[9] The English language spread throughout the world with the development of the British Empire between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history.[10] By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time.[11] During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, these colonies and the US started to produce their significant literary traditions in English. Cumulatively, from 1907 to the present, writers from Great Britain, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, the US, and former British colonies have received the Nobel Prize in Literature for works in English: more than in any other language. Old English literature, or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses the surviving literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England, in the period after the settlement of the Saxons and other Germanic tribes in England (Jutes and the Angles) c. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066.[12]  These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles and riddles.[13] In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period.[13]
River Otter, Devon.  The River Otter is a river that rises in the Blackdown Hills just inside the county of Somerset, England near Otterford, then flows south through East Devon.[3] It enters the English Channel at the western end of Lyme Bay, part of the Jurassic Coast, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Permian and Triassic sandstone aquifer in the Otter Valley is one of Devons largest groundwater sources, supplying drinking water to 200,000 people. The rivers source is north of Otterford, where a stream feeds the Otterhead Lakes: ST225152 and then through Churchstanton before entering Devon. The river flows through a predominantly rural area, with small cattle, sheep and dairy farms. The largest town in the Otter Valley is Honiton. Tourism and leisure play important roles in the economy.[4] For much of its length, the river flows through two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs) – the Blackdown Hills National Landscape (to the north of Honiton) and East Devon National Landscape (to the south of Ottery St Mary). The river passes through or by Upottery, Rawridge, Monkton, Honiton, Alfington, Ottery St Mary, Tipton St John, Newton Poppleford and Otterton. It then reaches the Otter Estuary to the east of Budleigh Salterton.[2]
Quyi. Quyi (melodious art) and shuochang yishu (speaking and singing art) are umbrella terms for over 300 regional genres of traditional Chinese oral performing arts.[1] Quyi is distinguished from xiqu (Chinese opera) by its emphasis on narration, as opposed to acting, although they share many elements including the same traditional stories. Quyi artists generally wear no to little makeup. Musical instruments like drums, wooden clappers, pipa, yangqin, or sanxian are commonly seen in quyi, as are hand fans.[2] While the storytelling art concept has been around for centuries, the narrative art concept was mostly recognized in the 1920s. Only after 1949 with the founding of the Peoples Republic of China did the term quyi become widely used. Prior to this, it was just classified as shuochang yishu.[1]  This is one of the art category that gained momentum since the New Culture Movement. With the exception of the Cultural Revolution period, a great number of stories written for this art are preserved.[1] The story is usually told by a small number of people.  The most standard number is one or two, sometimes extending to four or more. Quyi is often accompanied by clappers, drums, or stringed instruments, with the presenter wearing costumes at times.  Unlike Chinese operas which has a fixed style for costume, quyi costumes vary depending on the era of the story plot. Costumes range from dynastic period hanfu to the more modern qipao or even suits. The language used is usually associated with the spoken dialect of the local area. Sometimes it uses rhymed verse, sometimes in prose, and sometimes a combination. A lot of body movements may be used in the portrayal of the characters in the story. Each person may play multiple roles for multiple characters in the story.[1] It is also this local and regional feel for the art that some would classify it as Chinese folk art. Outside of mainland China, this entertainment form is also found in Taiwan.
A Folk Tale.  A Folk Tale (Danish: Et Folkesagn) is a ballet in three acts, created in 1854 for the Royal Danish Ballet by the Danish ballet master and choreographer August Bournonville to the music of Johan Peter Emilius Hartmann and Niels W. Gade. The first performance took place on 20 March 1854. Set in the Middle Ages, the ballet tells the story of a changeling living among the trolls and elves. Bournonville declared the ballet The most complete and best of all my choreographic works.[1] At the beginning of the 1850s, Svend Grundtvig initiated a systematic recording of Danish folklore - the stories were told and written down in every little village in Denmark – but Bournonville did not credit Grundtvig as his source of inspiration, even though today Grundtvig is probably considered to be the person who made the most effort to preserve the wealth of Danish national folk tradition. Bournonville found his inspiration in a collection of national Danish songs (Nationalmelodier) published by the philologist R. Nyerup and the composer A.P. Berggren in J.M. Thieles collection of Danish folk legends (Danske Folkesagn) published in four volumes between 1818 and 1823. Bournonville also found inspiration in the tales collected by the Grimm brothers in Germany. The Romantic artists had a passion for the national and the past. The early part of the 19th century was a difficult time both politically and economically for Denmark, and this naturally generated a glorification of times past. The emergent bourgeoisie needed to consolidate its cultural status and found motifs for this in national folklore. The economic growth in a rapidly expanding Copenhagen had to some extent overshadowed spiritual development. Artists interpreted their contemporary society in a purely materialistic light. Oehlenschlägers poem about The Golden Horns (Guldhornene) is probably the most famous example of this issue but Hans Christian Andersens fairytale The Bell (Klokken) depicted the materialistic fixation of the period with humour, irony and gravity. In the chapter about A Folk Tale in My Theatre Life (Mit Teaterliv), Bournonville makes his attitude to the present and the past clear: he indicates that our practical and rather unpoetic times (which seem about to precipitate a period of literary and artistic crop failure on the very lands that were once the richest soil of the imagination) art has fallen by the wayside. The poetic past has been replaced by a hypercritical present, as Bournonville himself writes, and it is the duty of the artist to restore the spiritual, the poetry.
Chinese literature.   The history of Chinese literature[1] extends thousands of years, and begins with the earliest recorded inscriptions, court archives, building to the major works of philosophy and history written during the Axial Age. The Han (202 BC – 220 AD) and Tang (618–907 AD) dynasties were considered golden ages of poetry, while the Song (960–1279) and Yuan (1271–1368) were notable for their lyrics (ci), essays, dramas, and plays. During the Ming and Qing, mature novels were written in written vernacular Chinese, an evolution from the preeminence of Literary Chinese patterned off the language of the Chinese classics. The introduction of widespread woodblock printing during the Tang and the invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song rapidly spread written knowledge throughout China. Around the turn of the 20th century, the author Lu Xun (1881–1936) is considered an influential voice of vernacular Chinese literature. Formation of the earliest layer of Chinese literature was influenced by oral traditions of different social and professional provenance: cult and lay musical practices (Shijing),[2] divination (Yi jing, Guicang and Lianshan), astronomy, ritual (Etiquette and Ceremonial), exorcism, etc. An attempt at tracing the genealogy of Chinese literature to religious spells and incantations (the six zhu 六祝, as presented in the Da zhu chapter of the Rites of Zhou) was made by Liu Shipei.[3] There is a wealth of early Chinese literature dating from the Hundred Schools of Thought that occurred during the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770–256 BC). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science and Chinese history. Note that, except for the books of poems and songs, most of this literature is philosophical and didactic; there is little in the way of fiction. However, these texts maintained their significance through both their ideas and their prose style.
Folk Tale (album).  Folk Tale is an album by Irish folk singer Christy Moore, released in 2011 by Sony Music.[1][2]  This 2010s folk album-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Pinyin.  Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, officially the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese. Hanyu (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語) literally means Han language—that is, the Chinese language—while pinyin literally means spelled sounds. Pinyin is the official romanization system used in China, Singapore, and Taiwan, and by the United Nations. Its use has become common when transliterating Standard Chinese mostly regardless of region, though it is less ubiquitous in Taiwan. It is used to teach Standard Chinese, normally written with Chinese characters, to students in mainland China and Singapore. Pinyin is also used by various input methods on computers and to categorize entries in some Chinese dictionaries. In pinyin, each Chinese syllable is spelled in terms of an optional initial and a final, each of which is represented by one or more letters. Initials are initial consonants, whereas finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), a nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant). Diacritics are used to indicate the four tones found in Standard Chinese, though these are often omitted in various contexts, such as when spelling Chinese names in non-Chinese texts. Hanyu Pinyin was developed in the 1950s by a group of Chinese linguists including Wang Li, Lu Zhiwei, Li Jinxi, Luo Changpei and, particularly,  Zhou Youguang, who has been called the father of pinyin. They based their work in part on earlier romanization systems. The system was originally promulgated at the Fifth Session of the 1st National Peoples Congress in 1958, and has seen several rounds of revisions since. The International Organization for Standardization propagated Hanyu Pinyin as ISO 7098 in 1982, and the United Nations began using it in 1986. Taiwan adopted Hanyu Pinyin as its official romanization system in 2009, replacing Tongyong Pinyin. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary in China, wrote the first book that used the Latin alphabet to write Chinese, entitled Xizi Qiji (Hsi-tzŭ Chi-chi; 西字奇蹟; Miracle of Western Letters) and published in Beijing in 1605.[1] Twenty years later, fellow Jesuit Nicolas Trigault published Aid to the Eyes and Ears of Western Literati (西儒耳目資; Xīrú ěrmù zī; Hsi ju erh mu tzŭ)) in Hangzhou.[2] Neither book had any influence among the contemporary Chinese literati, and the romanizations they introduced primarily were useful for Westerners.[3]
Oral literature. Oral literature, orature, or folk literature is a genre of literature that is spoken or sung in contrast to that which is written, though much oral literature has been transcribed.[1] There is no standard definition, as anthropologists have used varying descriptions for oral literature or folk literature. A broad conceptualization refers to it as literature characterized by oral transmission and the absence of any fixed form. It includes the stories, legends, and history passed through generations in a spoken form.[2] Pre-literate societies, by definition, have no written literature, but may possess rich and varied oral traditions—such as folk epics, folk narratives (including fairy tales and fables), folk drama, proverbs and folksongs—that effectively constitute an oral literature. Even when these are collected and published by scholars such as folklorists and paremiographers, the result is still often referred to as oral literature. The different genres of oral literature pose classification challenges to scholars because of cultural dynamism in the modern digital age.[3] Literate societies may continue an oral tradition — particularly within the family (for example  bedtime stories) or informal social structures. The telling of urban legends may be considered an example of oral literature, as can jokes and also oral poetry including slam poetry which has been a televised feature on Russell Simmons Def Poetry; performance poetry is a genre of poetry that consciously shuns the written form.[4] Furthermore, traditions demonstrating persistent orality can continue to thrive primarily through spoken or sung performance even within literate societies, adapting to new contexts and media. For example, Bhojpuri folk song traditions, carried by the Indian diaspora to places like Mauritius and Trinidad, demonstrate resilience and adaptation not primarily through print, but through continued performance in various settings (from weddings to public fêtes and carnivals) and circulation across multiple platforms, including commercial recordings, radio, film, and digital media like YouTube. This process often involves linguistic and musical creolisation (e.g., the development of Chutney music blending Bhojpuri elements with English lyrics and Caribbean rhythms) and the creation of what some scholars term soft texts—where familiar fragments, melodies, or evocative words maintain cultural resonance even as the original forms evolve.[5] Oral literatures forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do. The Ugandan scholar Pio Zirimu introduced the term orature in an attempt to avoid an oxymoron, but oral literature remains more common both in academic and popular writing.[6] The Encyclopaedia of African Literature, edited by Simon Gikandi (Routledge, 2003), gives this definition: Orature means something passed on through the spoken word, and because it is based on the spoken language it comes to life only in a living community. Where community life fades away, orality loses its function and dies. It needs people in a living social setting: it needs life itself. In Songs and Politics in Eastern Africa, edited by Kimani Njogu and Hervé Maupeu (2007), it is stated (page 204) that Zirimu, who coined the term, defines orature as the use of utterance as an aesthetic means of expression (as quoted by Ngũgĩ wa Thiongo, 1988). According to the book Defining New Idioms and Alternative Forms of Expression, edited by Eckhard Breitinger (Rodopi, 1996, page 78): This means that any oral society had to develop means to make the spoken word last, at least for a while. We tend to regard all the genres of orature as belonging to the homogeneous complex of folklore.
Folktales (album).  Folktales is the second studio album released by the rock and roll jam band The Big Wu.  This 2000 rock album–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Chinese opera.   Traditional Chinese opera (traditional Chinese: 戲曲; simplified Chinese: 戏曲; pinyin: xìqǔ; Jyutping: hei3 kuk1), or Xiqu, is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more than a thousand years, reaching its mature form in the 13th century, during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD). Early forms of Chinese theater are simple; however, over time, various art forms such as music, song and dance, martial arts, acrobatics, costume and make-up art, as well as literary art forms were incorporated to form traditional Chinese opera. Performers had to practice for many years to gain an understanding of the roles. Exaggerated features and colors made it easier for the audience to identify the roles portrayed by the performers.[1][2][3][4] There are over a hundred regional branches of traditional Chinese opera today. In the 20th century, the Peking opera emerged in popularity and has come to be known as the national theatre of China,[5] but other genres like Yue opera, Cantonese opera, Yu opera, kunqu, qinqiang, Huangmei opera, pingju, and Sichuan opera are also performed regularly before dedicated fans. Their differences are mainly found in the music and topolect; the stories are often shared and borrowed.[6] With few exceptions (such as revolutionary operas and to some extent Shanghai operas) the vast majority of Chinese operas (including Taiwanese operas) are set in China before the 17th century, whether they are traditional or newly written. For centuries, Chinese opera was the main form of entertainment for both urban and rural residents in China as well as the Chinese diaspora. Its popularity declined sharply in the second half of the 20th century as a result of both political and market factors. Language policies discouraging topolects in Taiwan and Singapore, official hostility against rural religious festivals in China, and de-Sinicization in Taiwan have all been blamed for the decline of various forms in different times, but overall the two major culprits were Cultural Revolution — which saw traditional culture systematically erased, innumerable theatre professionals viciously persecuted, and younger generation raised with far lesser exposure to Chinese opera – and modernization, with its immense social impact and imported values that Chinese opera has largely failed to counter.[7] The total number of regional genres was determined to be more than 350 in 1957,[8] but in the 21st century the Chinese government could only identify 162 forms for its intangible cultural heritage list, with many of them in immediate danger of disappearing.[9] For young people, Chinese opera is no longer part of the everyday popular music culture, but it remains an attraction for many older people who find in it, among other things, a national or regional identity.
Western India.  Goa: Gujarat: Maharashtra: Western India is a loosely defined region of India consisting of western states of Republic of India. The Ministry of Home Affairs in its Western Zonal Council Administrative division includes the states of Goa, Gujarat, and Maharashtra along with the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu,[1] while the Ministry of Culture and some historians also include the state of Rajasthan.[2][3] The Geological Survey of India includes Maharashtra but excludes Rajasthan[4] whereas Ministry of Minority Affairs includes Karnataka but excludes Rajasthan.[5]
Tale-e Rudbar. Tale-e Rudbar (Persian: طالع رودبار, also Romanized as Ţāle‘-e Rūdbār and Ţāle‘ Rūdbār)[1] is a village in Rastupey Rural District, in the Central District of Savadkuh County, Mazandaran Province, Iran. At the 2016 census, its population was 72, in 25 families,[2] down from 86 people in 2006.[3] This Savadkuh County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Ratnagiri district.  Ratnagiri district (Marathi pronunciation: [ɾət̪n̪aːɡiɾiː]) is a district in the state of Maharashtra, India.[1] The administrative headquarter of the district is located in the town of Ratnagiri.[1] The district is 11.34% urban.[2] The district is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, Sindhudurg district to the south, Raigad district to the north and Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur districts to the east.[1] This district is part of Konkan division.[1] From pre-Christian times until 1312, the area – like the entire region – was ruled by various Buddhist and Hindu rulers. The first state known by name was the Mauryan Empire, the last non-Muslim dynasty was the Yadavas of Devagiri. After decades of military clashes with Muslim rulers in northern India, the region was occupied by Muslim armies between 1312 and 1470. From 1500 on there was fierce fighting for rule on the coast between the Muslim rulers and the Portuguese. After that, various Muslim dynasties ruled until 1658 (Sultanate of Delhi, Bahmani, Deccan Sultanates and the Mughals). From 1658, most of the area became part of the Maratha Empire. After the defeat of the Marathas against the British in 1818, Ratnagiri area became an administrative region of the Bombay Presidency. With the independence of India in 1947 and the reorganization of the country, it became part of the new Bombay State in 1950. In 1948 the district grew through the incorporation of the Sawantwadi princely state. In 1960, Bombay State was divided and the area became part of the newly created state of Maharashtra. In 1981 the district was divided and the southern part of the district became Sindhudurg district.[3][4][5] An outstanding feature of the geography of the district is its uneven or hill landscape ,with about 45% of the area covered by hills.The Sahyadri hill range runs for 180km. According to the 2011 census Ratnagiri district has a population of 1,615,069,[8] roughly equal to the nation of Guinea-Bissau[9] or the US state of Idaho.[10] This gives it a ranking of 311th in India (out of a total of 640).[8] The district has a population density of 196 inhabitants per square kilometre (510/sq mi) .[8] Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was -4.96%.[8] Ratnagiri has a sex ratio of 1123 females for every 1000 males,[8] and a literacy rate of 82.43%. 16.33% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 4.15% and 1.26% of the population respectively.[8]
2011 census of India.  The 2011 census of India or the 15th Indian census was conducted in two phases, house listing and population enumeration. The House listing phase began on 1 April 2010 and involved the collection of information about all buildings. Information for National Population Register (NPR) was also collected in the first phase, which will be used to issue a 12-digit unique identification number to all registered Indian residents by Unique Identification Authority of India. The second population enumeration phase was conducted between 9 and 28 February 2011. Census has been conducted in India since 1872 and 2011 marks the first time biometric information was collected. According to the provisional reports released on 31 March 2011, the Indian population increased to 1.21 billion with a decadal growth of 17.70%.[2] Adult literacy rate increased to 74.04% with a decadal growth of 9.21%. The motto of the census was Our Census, Our Future. Spread across 28 states[a] and 8 union territories, the census covered 640 districts, 5,924 sub-districts, 7,935 towns and more than 600,000 villages. A total of 2.7 million officials visited households in 7,935 towns and 600,000 villages, classifying the population according to gender, religion, education and occupation.[3] The cost of the exercise was approximately ₹2,200 crore (US$260 million)[4] – this comes to less than US$0.50 per person, well below the estimated world average of US$4.60 per person.[3] Information on castes was included in the census following demands from several ruling coalition leaders including Lalu Prasad Yadav, and Mulayam Singh Yadav supported by opposition parties Bharatiya Janata Party, Shiromani Akali Dal, Shiv Sena and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.[5] Information on caste was last collected during the British Raj in 1931. During the early census, people often exaggerated their caste status to garner social status and it is expected that people downgrade it now in the expectation of gaining government benefits.[6] Earlier, there was speculation that there would be a caste-based census conducted in 2011, the first time in 80 years (last was in 1931), to find the exact population of the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India.[7][8][9][10] This was later accepted and the Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011 was conducted whose first findings were revealed on 3 July 2015 by Union Finance Minister Arun Jaitley.[11] Mandal Commission report of 1980 quoted OBC population at 52%, though National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) survey of 2006 quoted OBC population at 41%.[12] There is only one other instance of a caste count in post-independence India. It was conducted in Kerala in 1968 by the Government of Kerala under E. M. S. Namboodiripad to assess the social and economic backwardness of various lower castes. The census was termed Socio-Economic Survey of 1968 and the results were published in the Gazetteer of Kerala, 1971.[13]
Village.  A village is a human settlement or a residential community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town[1][2][3][4] with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.[citation needed] Although villages are often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighborhoods. Villages are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however, transient villages can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape, as a dispersed settlement. In the past, villages were a usual form of community for societies that practiced subsistence agriculture and also for some non-agricultural societies. In Great Britain, a hamlet earned the right to be called a village when it built a church.[5] In many cultures, towns and cities were few, with only a small proportion of the population living in them. The Industrial Revolution attracted people in larger numbers to work in mills and factories; the concentration of people caused many villages to grow into towns and cities. This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts and the development of many trades. The trend of urbanization continues but not always in connection with industrialization. Historically, homes were situated together for sociability and defence, and land surrounding the living quarters was farmed. Traditional fishing villages were based on artisan fishing and located adjacent to fishing grounds. In toponomastic terminology, the names of individual villages are called Comonyms (from Ancient Greek κώμη / village and ὄνυμα / name, [cf. ὄνομα]).[6] From Middle English village, from Old French village, from Latin villāticus, ultimately from Latin villa (English villa).[7]
Chinese language.  Chinese (spoken: simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語; pinyin: Hànyǔ,[a] written: 中文; Zhōngwén[b]) is a group of languages[f] spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China, as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora. Approximately 1.39 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language.[1] The Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family.[g] Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese).[4] These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan. All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest attested written Chinese consists of the oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty c. 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun, a rhyme dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua, based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by the government of the Peoples Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas.
Folktales (film). Folktales is a 2025 documentary film, directed and produced by Heidi Ewing and Rachel Grady. It follows teenagers at a folk high school in Norway, where they must rely on each other and a pack of sled dogs as they grow. It had its world premiere at the 2025 Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2025, and was released in the United States on July 25, 2025, by Magnolia Pictures. Teenagers at a folk high school in Norway, where they must rely on each other and a pack of sled dogs as they grow. Heidi Ewing and Rachel Grady wanted to make a documentary revolving around Folk high school in Norway, feeling the process was cinematic.[3] The two visited five schools before settling on Pasvik Folk High School, with production commencing during the school year from August to May.[4][5][6] It had its world premiere at the 2025 Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2025.[7] In April 2025, Magnolia Pictures acquired distribution rights to the film, and released it on July 25, 2025.[8]
Protein Data Bank. The Protein Data Bank (PDB)[1] is a database for the three-dimensional structural data of large biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, which is overseen by the Worldwide Protein Data Bank (wwPDB). This structural data is obtained and deposited by biologists and biochemists worldwide through the use of experimental methodologies such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and, increasingly, cryogenic electron microscopy. All submitted data are reviewed by expert biocurators and, once approved, are made freely available on the Internet under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication.[2] Global access to the data is provided by the websites of the wwPDB member organizations (PDBe,[3] PDBj,[4] RCSB PDB,[5] BMRB[6] and the EMDB[7]). The PDB is a key in areas of structural biology, such as structural genomics. Most major scientific journals and some funding agencies now require scientists to submit their structure data to the PDB. Many other databases use protein structures deposited in the PDB. For example, SCOP and CATH classify protein structures, while PDBsum provides a graphic overview of PDB entries using information from other sources, such as Gene Ontology.[8][9] Two forces converged to initiate the PDB: a small but growing collection of sets of protein structure data determined by X-ray diffraction; and the newly available (1968) molecular graphics display, the Brookhaven RAster Display (BRAD), to visualize these protein structures in 3-D. In 1969, with the sponsorship of Walter Hamilton at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, Edgar Meyer (Texas A&M University) began to write software to store atomic coordinate files in a common format to make them available for geometric and graphical evaluation. By 1971, one of Meyers programs, SEARCH, enabled researchers to remotely access information from the database to study protein structures offline.[10] SEARCH was instrumental in enabling networking, thus marking the functional beginning of the PDB. The Protein Data Bank was announced in October 1971 in Nature New Biology[11] as a joint venture between Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, UK and Brookhaven National Laboratory, US. Upon Hamiltons death in 1973, Tom Koetzle took over direction of the PDB for the subsequent 20 years. In January 1994, Joel Sussman of Israels Weizmann Institute of Science was appointed head of the PDB. In October 1998,[12] the PDB was transferred to the Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics (RCSB);[13] the transfer was completed in June 1999. The new director was Helen M. Berman of Rutgers University (one of the managing institutions of the RCSB, the other being the San Diego Supercomputer Center at UC San Diego).[14] In 2003, with the formation of the wwPDB, the PDB became an international organization. The founding members are PDBe (Europe),[3] RCSB (US), and PDBj (Japan).[4] The Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank (BMRB)[6] joined in 2006. The Electron Microscopy Data Bank (EMDB)[15] joined in 2021. Each of the five members of wwPDB can act as deposition, data processing and distribution centers for PDB data. The data processing refers to the fact that wwPDB staff review and annotate each submitted entry.[16] The data are then automatically checked for plausibility (the source code[17] for this validation software has been made available to the public at no charge).
List of sovereign states.   The following is a list providing an overview of sovereign states around the world with information on their status and recognition of their sovereignty. The 205 listed states can be divided into three categories based on membership within the United Nations System: 193 UN member states,[1] two UN General Assembly non-member observer states, and ten other states. The sovereignty dispute column indicates states having undisputed sovereignty (189 states, of which there are 188 UN member states and one UN General Assembly non-member observer state), states having disputed sovereignty (14 states, of which there are five UN member states, one UN General Assembly non-member observer state, and eight de facto states), and states having a special political status (two states, both in free association with New Zealand). Compiling a list such as this can be complicated and controversial, as there is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations concerning the criteria for statehood. For more information on the criteria used to determine the contents of this list, please see the criteria for inclusion section below. The list is intended to include entities that have been recognised as having de facto status as sovereign states, and inclusion should not be seen as an endorsement of any specific claim to statehood in legal terms.
National Center for Biotechnology Information.  The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)[1][2] is part of the National Library of Medicine (NLM), a branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). It is approved and funded by the government of the United States. The NCBI is located in Bethesda, Maryland, and was founded in 1988 through legislation sponsored by US Congressman Claude Pepper. The NCBI houses a series of databases relevant to biotechnology and biomedicine and is an important resource for bioinformatics tools and services. Major databases include GenBank for DNA sequences and PubMed, a bibliographic database for biomedical literature. Other databases include the NCBI Epigenomics database. All these databases are available online through the Entrez search engine. NCBI was directed by David Lipman,[2] one of the original authors of the BLAST sequence alignment program[3] and a widely respected figure in bioinformatics. NCBI had responsibility for making available the GenBank DNA sequence database since 1992.[4] GenBank coordinates with individual laboratories and other sequence databases, such as those of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) and the DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ).[4] Since 1992, NCBI has grown to provide other databases in addition to GenBank. NCBI provides the Gene database, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, the Molecular Modeling Database (3D protein structures), dbSNP (a database of single-nucleotide polymorphisms), the Reference Sequence Collection, a map of the human genome, and a taxonomy browser, and coordinates with the National Cancer Institute to provide the Cancer Genome Anatomy Project. The NCBI assigns a unique identifier (taxonomy ID number) to each species of organism.[5]
UniProt. UniProt is a freely accessible database of protein sequence and functional information, many entries being derived from genome sequencing projects. It contains a large amount of information about the biological function of proteins derived from the research literature. It is maintained by the UniProt consortium, which consists of several European bioinformatics organisations and a foundation from Washington, DC, USA. The UniProt consortium comprises the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI), the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB), and the Protein Information Resource (PIR). EBI, located at the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus in Hinxton, UK, hosts a large resource of bioinformatics databases and services. SIB, located in Geneva, Switzerland, maintains the ExPASy (Expert Protein Analysis System) servers that are a central resource for proteomics tools and databases. PIR, hosted by the National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF) at the Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington, DC, US, is heir to the oldest protein sequence database, Margaret Dayhoffs Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure, first published in 1965.[2] In 2002, EBI, SIB, and PIR joined forces as the UniProt consortium.[3] Each consortium member is heavily involved in protein database maintenance and annotation. Until recently, EBI and SIB together produced the Swiss-Prot and TrEMBL databases, while PIR produced the Protein Sequence Database (PIR-PSD).[4][5][6] These databases coexisted with differing protein sequence coverage and annotation priorities. Swiss-Prot was created in 1986 by Amos Bairoch during his PhD and developed by the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and subsequently developed by Rolf Apweiler at the European Bioinformatics Institute.[7][8][9] Swiss-Prot aimed to provide reliable protein sequences associated with a high level of annotation (such as the description of the function of a protein, its domain structure, post-translational modifications, variants, etc.), a minimal level of redundancy and high level of integration with other databases. Recognizing that sequence data were being generated at a pace exceeding Swiss-Prots ability to keep up, TrEMBL (Translated EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Data Library) was created to provide automated annotations for those proteins not in Swiss-Prot. Meanwhile, PIR maintained the PIR-PSD and related databases, including iProClass, a database of protein sequences and curated families. The consortium members pooled their overlapping resources and expertise, and launched UniProt in December 2003.[10]
Provinces of Iran.  Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces (Persian: استان Ostân), which are the first-level administrative divisions of the country. Each province is governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital (Persian: مرکز, Markaz) of the province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general (Persian: استاندار Ostândâr), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet. The provinces are subdivided into counties, districts (bakhsh) and villages.[1] Iran has held its modern territory since the Treaty of Paris in 1857. Prior to 1937, Iran had maintained its feudal administrative divisional structure, dating back to the time the modern state was centralized by the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century, although the boundaries, roles, and rulers changed often. On the eve of the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1905, Iran was composed of Tehran, being directly ruled by the monarch; four eyalats (Persian: ایالات elâyât pl., ایالت elayat sin.), ruled by Qajar princes; and various velayats (Persian: ولایات velâyât pl., ولایت velayat sin.). Nomadic tribal confederations, such as the Bakhtiari people and Qashqai people, were largely independent of the domestic administrative divisions and were autonomous. With the Constitutional Revolution, and the formation of the first National Consultative Assembly, Irans administrative subdivisions were legally defined in 1907.[2] Any change in the boundaries of eyalats, velayats, or their respective sub-districts was banned by the Iranian constitution, except with the passage of a new law by the assembly. Per the 1907 law, the following were defined:[2] ماده ۲ ــ ایالت قسمتی از مملکت است که دارای حکومت مرکزی و ولایات حاکم‌نشین جزء است و فعلاً منحصر به چهار ایالت است: آذربایجان، کرمان و بلوچستان، فارس، خراسان
Grothendiecks Tôhoku paper. The article Sur quelques points dalgèbre homologique by Alexander Grothendieck,[1] now often referred to as the Tôhoku paper,[2] was published in 1957 in the Tôhoku Mathematical Journal. It revolutionized the subject of homological algebra, a purely algebraic aspect of algebraic topology.[3] It removed the need to distinguish the cases of modules over a ring and sheaves of abelian groups over a topological space.[4] Material in the paper dates from Grothendiecks year at the University of Kansas in 1955–6. Research there allowed him to put homological algebra on an axiomatic basis, by introducing the abelian category concept.[5][6] A textbook treatment of homological algebra, Cartan–Eilenberg after the authors Henri Cartan and Samuel Eilenberg, appeared in 1956. Grothendiecks work was largely independent of it. His abelian category concept had at least partially been anticipated by others.[7] David Buchsbaum in his doctoral thesis written under Eilenberg had introduced a notion of exact category close to the abelian category concept (needing only direct sums to be identical); and had formulated the idea of enough injectives.[8] The Tôhoku paper contains an argument to prove that a Grothendieck category (a particular type of abelian category, the name coming later) has enough injectives; the author indicated that the proof was of a standard type.[9] In showing by this means that categories of sheaves of abelian groups admitted injective resolutions, Grothendieck went beyond the theory available in Cartan–Eilenberg, to prove the existence of a cohomology theory in generality.[10] After the Gabriel–Popescu theorem of 1964, it was known that every Grothendieck category is a quotient category of a module category.[11] The Tôhoku paper also introduced the Grothendieck spectral sequence associated to the composition of derived functors.[12] In further reconsideration of the foundations of homological algebra, Grothendieck introduced and developed with Jean-Louis Verdier the derived category concept.[13] The initial motivation, as announced by Grothendieck at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians, was to formulate results on coherent duality, now going under the name Grothendieck duality.[14]
Jump (magazine line).   Jump (ジャンプ, Janpu), also known as Jump Comics, is a line of manga anthologies (manga magazines) created by Shueisha. It began with Shōnen Jump manga anthology in 1968, later renamed Weekly Shōnen Jump. The origin of the name is unknown. The Jump anthologies are primarily intended for a teen male audiences, although the Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine has also been popular with the female demographic.[1] Along with the line of manga anthologies, Shōnen Jump also includes a crossover media franchise, where there have been various Shōnen Jump themed crossover anime and video games (since Famicom Jump), which bring together various Shōnen Jump manga characters. In 1949, Shueisha got into the business of making manga magazines, the first being Omoshiro Book.[2] In 1951, Shueisha created a female version of that anthology entitled Shōjo Book.[3] Shōjo Book led to the publication of the highly successful Shōjo manga magazine: Ribon.[3] Omoshiro Book went out of print and Shueisha decided to make another male version of their successful Shōjo Book to even it out and made the magazine Shōnen Book.[3] In the middle of Shōnen Books publication, Shōnen Jump began its run (at the time was a Semiweekly magazine and had no Weekly).[4] Shōnen Book ended when Shōnen Jump became a Weekly magazine correctly changing its name to Weekly Shōnen Jump.[4] In 1969, a special issue called Bessatsu Shōnen Jump took Shōnen Books place.[4] In addition to the success of Weekly Shōnen Jump, Shueisha created a Seinen version of the magazine in 1979, called Young Jump (now Weekly Young Jump).[5] Bessatsu Shōnen Jump, later got renamed Monthly Shōnen Jump and became a magazine of its own.[4] The seasonal issues of Weekly Shōnen Jump are now called Akamaru Jump. In 1985, Shueisha started the publication of two business related manga magazines; a salaryman Jump magazine called Business Jump and an office lady manga magazine called Office You,[5] also in 1988 started the publication of Super Jump.[6] Many other Seinen related Jump magazines, started as spin-off issues of the Weekly Young Jump magazine.[5] In 1993, Shueisha announced and released the video game/manga magazine V Jump alongside the Jump light novel line Jump j-Books.[6] In 2003, Shogakukans Viz Media released an English version of Weekly Shōnen Jump called Shonen Jump.[7] Monthly Shōnen Jump discontinued in 2007, and was replaced with the Jump SQ. magazine, four series from the magazine were moved.[8] In addition to the Jump SQ. anthology, a spin-off issue was created, called Jump SQ.II (Second).[9] Saikyō Jump was started on December 3, 2010, with close ties to Weekly Shōnen Jump and V Jump.[10] Miracle Jump Tonari no Young Jump
Maharashtra.  Maharashtra[a] is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. It is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Indian states of Karnataka and Goa to the south, Telangana to the southeast and Chhattisgarh to the east, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh to the north, and the Indian union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu to the northwest.[19] Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India, the third most populous country subdivision in South Asia and the fourth-most populous in the world. The region that encompasses the modern state has a history going back many millennia. Notable dynasties that ruled the region include the Asmakas, the Mauryas, the Satavahanas, the Western Satraps, the Abhiras, the Vakatakas, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Western Chalukyas, the Seuna Yadavas, the Khaljis, the Tughlaqs, the Bahamanis and the Mughals. In the early nineteenth century, the region was divided between the Dominions of the Peshwa in the Maratha Confederacy and the Nizamate of Hyderabad. After two wars and the proclamation of the Indian Empire, the region became a part of the Bombay Province, the Berar Province and the Central Provinces of India under direct British rule and the Deccan States Agency under Crown suzerainty. Between 1950 and 1956, the Bombay Province became the Bombay State in the Indian Union, and Berar, the Deccan states and the Gujarat states were merged into the Bombay State. Aspirations of a separate state for Marathi-speaking peoples were pursued by the United Maharashtra Movement; their advocacy eventually borne fruit on 1 May 1960, when the State of Bombay was bifurcated into the modern states of Maharasthra and Gujarat. The state is divided into 6 divisions and 36 districts. Mumbai is the capital of Maharashtra due to its historical significance as a major trading port and its status as Indias financial hub, housing key institutions and a diverse economy. Mumbais well-developed infrastructure and cultural diversity make it a suitable administrative center for the state, and the most populous urban area in India, with Nagpur serving as the winter capital.[20] The Godavari and Krishna are the states two major rivers, and forests cover 16.47% of the states geographical area.
Chūkyō metropolitan area. Chūkyō (中京圏, Chūkyō-ken), or the Chūkyō region (中京地方, Chūkyō-chihō), is a major metropolitan area in Japan that is centered on the city of Nagoya (the Chūkyō, i.e., the capital in the middle) in Aichi Prefecture. The area makes up the most urbanized part of the Tōkai region. The population is 9,439,000 in 3,704 square kilometers of built-up land area.[2] Nevertheless, like most of Japans major metro areas, the core of it lies on a fertile alluvial plain, in this case, the Nōbi Plain. It is among the 50 most populous metropolitan areas in the world, and is the third most populous metropolitan area in Japan (after Greater Tokyo and Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto), containing roughly 7% of Japans population.  Historically, this region has taken a back seat to the other two power centers, both politically and economically; however, the agglomeration of Nagoya is the worlds 22nd-largest metro area economy, in terms of gross metropolitan product at purchasing power parity in 2014, according to a study by the Brookings Institution.[5] The GDP of Greater Nagoya, Nagoya Metropolitan Employment Area, was US$256.3 billion in 2010.[3][6] The metropolitan area stretches beyond the central city of Nagoya to other municipalities in Aichi Prefecture, as well as neighboring Gifu and Mie prefectures. There are at least 38 passenger train lines in the Greater Nagoya area.  JR runs six, Nagoya Subway seven, Meitetsu 18, Kintetsu four, and five other operators one each. Per Japanese census data,[7][8][9] and[10][circular reference] , Chūkyō metropolitan area, also known as greater Nagoya, has had continuous population growth.
Mazandaran province.  Mazandaran province[a][b] is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Its capital is the city of Sari.[7] Located along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and in the adjacent Central Alborz mountain range and Hyrcanian forests, it is bordered clockwise by Russia (across the sea), Golestan, Semnan, Tehran, Alborz, Qazvin, and Gilan Provinces. Mazandaran covers an area of 23,842 km2.[8][9] The province has diverse natural resources, notably large offshore reservoirs of oil and natural gas.[10] The diverse natural habitats of the province include plains, prairies, forests and rainforest[11] stretching from the sandy beaches of the Caspian Sea to the rugged and snowcapped Alborz sierra,[12] including Mount Damavand, one of the highest peaks and volcanoes in Asia.[13] Mazandaran is a major producer of farmed fish,[14] and aquaculture provides an important economic addition to traditional dominance of agriculture.[15] Another important contributor to the economy is the tourism industry, as people from all of Iran enjoy visiting the area.[16] Mazandaran is also a fast-growing centre for biotechnology.[10] The name Mazandaran is Avestan for the gate of the giants or the valley of the giants, from مازن‎ (mâzan) + در‎ (dar) + ـان‎ (ân), (Avestan: 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬀𐬌𐬥𐬌𐬌𐬀‎, romanized: mazainiia, lit. giant). The name appears in the 10th-century CE Persian epic the Shahnameh to refer to a land inhabited by daevas (or divs)—supernatural beings in Zoroastrian belief—and sorcerers, and that this land is difficult to conquer.
Chromosome.  A chromosome is a package of DNA containing part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome-forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells, the most important of these proteins are the histones. Aided by chaperone proteins, the histones bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity.[1][2] These eukaryotic chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure that has a significant role in transcriptional regulation.[3] Normally, chromosomes are visible under a light microscope only during the metaphase of cell division, where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form.[4] Before this stage occurs, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase), and the two copies are joined by a centromere—resulting in either an X-shaped structure if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-armed structure if the centromere is located distally; the joined copies are called sister chromatids. During metaphase, the duplicated structure (called a metaphase chromosome) is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study.[5] In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation.[6] Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction plays a crucial role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe. This will usually cause the cell to initiate apoptosis, leading to its own death, but the process is occasionally hampered by cell mutations that result in the progression of cancer. The term chromosome is sometimes used in a wider sense to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, which may or may not be visible under light microscopy. In a narrower sense, chromosome can be used to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, which are visible under light microscopy due to high condensation.
Tokoname.  Tokoname (常滑市, Tokoname-shi) is a city in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 October 2019[update], the city had an estimated population of 57,872 in 24,872 households,[1] and a population density of 1,035 persons per km2. The total area of the city is 55.90 square kilometres (21.58 sq mi). The city is notable as one of the Six Ancient Kilns of Japan. Tokoname is located on the western coast of the Chita Peninsula in southern Aichi Prefecture, facing Ise Bay. The city has a climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and relatively mild winters (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The average annual temperature in Tokoname is 15.5 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1674 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.4 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.6 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[5] the population of Tokoname has been relatively steady over the past 50 years.
Tōhoku, Aomori. Tōhoku (東北町, Tōhoku-machi) is a town located in Aomori Prefecture, Japan. As of 31 December 2022[update], the town had an estimated population of 16,625 in 7251 households, and a population density of 51 persons per km² in 7,269 households.[1] The total area of the town is 326.50 km2 (126.06 sq mi). Tōhoku is located in north-central Aomori Prefecture, bordering on the west shore of Lake Ogawara. Aomori Prefecture The town has a cold maritime climate characterized by cool short summers and long cold winters with heavy snowfall (Köppen climate classification Cfa).  The average annual temperature in Tōhoku is 9.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1217 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 22.5 °C, and lowest in January, at around −2.1 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Tōhoku has steadily declined over the past 60 years.
Homeobox.  A homeobox is a DNA sequence, around 180 base pairs long, that regulates large-scale anatomical features in the early stages of embryonic development.  Mutations in a homeobox may change large-scale anatomical features of the full-grown organism. Homeoboxes are found within genes that are involved in the regulation of patterns of anatomical development (morphogenesis) in animals, fungi, plants, and numerous single cell eukaryotes.[2] Homeobox genes encode homeodomain protein products that are transcription factors sharing a characteristic protein fold structure that binds DNA to regulate expression of target genes.[3][4][2] Homeodomain proteins regulate gene expression and cell differentiation during early embryonic development, thus mutations in homeobox genes can cause developmental disorders.[5] Homeosis is a term coined by William Bateson to describe the outright replacement of a discrete body part with another body part, e.g. antennapedia—replacement of the antenna on the head of a fruit fly with legs.[6] The homeo- prefix in the words homeobox and homeodomain stems from this mutational phenotype, which is observed when some of these genes are mutated in animals. The homeobox domain was first identified in a number of Drosophila homeotic and segmentation proteins, but is now known to be well-conserved in many other animals, including vertebrates.[3][7][8] The existence of homeobox genes was first discovered in Drosophila by isolating the gene responsible for a homeotic transformation where legs grow from the head instead of the expected antennae. Walter Gehring identified a gene called antennapedia that caused this homeotic phenotype.[9] Analysis of antennapedia revealed that this gene contained a 180 base pair sequence that encoded a DNA binding domain, which William McGinnis termed the homeobox.[10] The existence of additional Drosophila genes containing the antennapedia homeobox sequence was independently reported by Ernst Hafen, Michael Levine, William McGinnis, and Walter Jakob Gehring of the University of Basel in Switzerland and Matthew P. Scott and Amy Weiner of Indiana University in Bloomington in 1984.[11][12] Isolation of homologous genes by Edward de Robertis and William McGinnis revealed that numerous genes from a variety of species contained the homeobox.[13][14] Subsequent phylogenetic studies detailing the evolutionary relationship between homeobox-containing genes showed that these genes are present in all bilaterian animals.
Tohoku University. Tohoku University (東北大学, Tōhoku daigaku) is a public research university in Sendai, Miyagi, Japan. It is colloquially referred to as Tohokudai (東北大, Tōhokudai) or Tonpei (トンペイ, Tompei). Established in 1907 as the third of the Imperial Universities, after the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University, it initially focused on science and medicine, later expanding to include humanities studies as well. In 2016, Tohoku University had 10 faculties, 16 graduate schools and 6 research institutes, with a total enrollment of 17,885 students.[2] The universitys three core values are Research First (研究第一主義), Open-Doors (門戸開放), and Practice-Oriented Research and Education (実学尊重). On 22 June 1907 (Mēji 40), Tohoku Imperial University (東北帝國大學, Tōhoku teikoku daigaku) was established by the Meiji government as the third Imperial University of Japan, after Tokyo Imperial University (1877) and Kyoto Imperial University (1897). From its inception, it advocated Open-door policies, becoming the first university in Japan to accept both female students in 1913, and foreign students.[3] It was not until 1911 that teaching and research activities started in Sendai. When the university was founded in 1907 it only had one faculty (college), the College of Agriculture, in Sapporo, Hokkaido. This college, originally founded in 1875 as the Sapporo Agricultural College (札幌農學校, Sapporo nō gakkō), precedes the establishment of the university, and in 1918, it became independent to form another imperial university, Hokkaido Imperial University, in its own right. The School of Science was established in Sendai in 1911, followed by the School of Medicine (formerly Sendai Medical College) in 1915, the Faculty of Engineering in 1919, and the Faculty of Law and Literature in 1922.[4]
Nagoya Airfield. Nagoya Airfield (名古屋飛行場, Nagoya Hikōjō) (IATA: NKM, ICAO: RJNA), also known as Komaki Airport or Nagoya Airport, is an airport within the local government areas of Toyoyama, Komaki, Kasugai and Nagoya in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. Prior to 2005 it was an international airport, but is now a domestic secondary airport serving Nagoya while the current primary civil airport for Nagoya is Chūbu Centrair International Airport in Tokoname. It is the main operating base for FDA (Fuji Dream Airlines), the only airline that offers scheduled air service from the airfield. It is also used for general aviation and, by Japan Self-Defense Forces, as an airbase. Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation is headquartered in the airports terminal building, and its parent company Mitsubishi Heavy Industries produced the Mitsubishi Regional Jet aircraft at a factory adjacent to the airport.[2] Nagoya Airport served as the main airport for Nagoya until the opening of Chubu Centrair International Airport on February 17, 2005. This airport IATA Airport Code used to be NGO (now overtaken by the new Centrair airport), and its ICAO Airport Code used to be RJNN when it was classified as a second class airport; the new designations are NKM for regional flights and RJNA designation for general aviation flights. Aichi Prefecture manages the facilities and regularly handles international business flights. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Nagoya Airport was a busy international airport because of overflow from Japans other international airports, New Tokyo International Airport (now Narita International Airport) near Tokyo and Osaka International Airport (Itami Airport) near Osaka.
Kabushiki gaisha.  A kabushiki gaisha (Japanese: 株式会社; pronounced [kabɯɕi̥ki ɡaꜜiɕa] ⓘ; lit. share company) or kabushiki kaisha, commonly abbreviated K.K. or KK, is a type of company (会社, kaisha) defined under the Companies Act of Japan. The term is often translated as stock company, joint-stock company or stock corporation. The term kabushiki gaisha in Japan refers to any joint-stock company regardless of country of origin or incorporation; however, outside Japan the term refers specifically to joint-stock companies incorporated in Japan. In Latin script, kabushiki kaisha, with a ⟨k⟩, is often used, but the original Japanese pronunciation is kabushiki gaisha, with a ⟨g⟩, owing to rendaku. A kabushiki gaisha must include 株式会社 in its name (Article 6, paragraph 2 of the Companies Act). In a company name, 株式会社 can be used as a prefix (e.g. 株式会社電通, kabushiki gaisha Dentsū, a style called 前株, mae-kabu) or as a suffix (e.g. トヨタ自動車株式会社, Toyota Jidōsha kabushiki gaisha, a style called 後株, ato-kabu). Many Japanese companies translate the phrase 株式会社 in their name as Company, Limited—this is very often abbreviated as Co., Ltd.—but others use the more Americanized translations Corporation or Incorporated. Texts in England often refer to kabushiki kaisha as joint stock companies. While that is close to a literal translation of the term, the two are not precisely the same. The Japanese government once endorsed business corporation as an official translation[1] but now uses the more literal translation stock company.[2]
Viz Media.  Viz Media, LLC is an American entertainment company headquartered in San Francisco, California, focused on publishing manga, and distribution and licensing Japanese anime, films, and television series. The company was founded in 1986 as Viz, LLC. In 2005, Viz and ShoPro Entertainment merged to form the current Viz Media, which is owned by Japanese publishing conglomerates Shueisha and Shogakukan, as well as Japanese production company Shogakukan-Shueisha Productions (ShoPro).[1] In 2017, Viz Media was the largest publisher of graphic novels in the United States in the bookstore market, with a 23% share of the market.[2] Seiji Horibuchi, originally from Tokushima Prefecture in Shikoku, Japan, moved to California, United States in 1975. After living in the suburbs for almost two years, he moved to San Francisco, where he started a business exporting American cultural items to Japan, and became a writer of cultural information. He also became interested in publishing Japanese manga in the United States, though he himself was not a fan of Japanese comics until a visit to Japan in 1985 exposed him to Katsuhiro Otomos single-volume title Domu: A Childs Dream.  His idea came to fruition after he met Masahiro Ohga, then managing director of Shogakukan, in 1985 and shared his vision. Shogakukan provided Horibuchi with $200,000 in startup capital, which Horibuichi used in 1986 to found Viz Communications.[3] Viz Communications released its first titles in 1987, which included Legend of Kamui; however, sales were mediocre due to the specialist comic market being averse to venturing into new territory.  To counteract this problem, Viz expanded into the general publishing business and began publishing various art related books in 1992.  Into these titles, Horibuchi began publishing manga, calling them graphic novels so they would be carried by mainstream bookstores. The plan worked, and after several years, leading booksellers began to have dedicated shelves for manga titles. Sales also picked up when Viz Communications acquired the license for the comedy series Ranma ½, which became an instant hit.[3]
Mitsuhiro Ichiki. Mitsuhiro Ichiki (市来 光弘, Ichiki Mitsuhiro; born January 10, 1982) is a Japanese voice actor from Kagoshima Prefecture. He is affiliated with Mausu Promotion.[1] As of March 9, 2015 he is officially married with voice actress, Nana Inoue. He is also a veteran player of The King of Fighters and Granblue Fantasy series under alias Yukichi as well as Blue Archive.
Shinya Fukumatsu. Shinya Fukumatsu (ふくまつ進紗, Fukumatsu Shinya; born November 30, 1958) is a Japanese voice actor from Tokyo Prefecture.[1] He is affiliated with Mausu Promotion.
List of fishes of Canada.  International Associated acts The following is a list of common fish species known to occur in the lakes and rivers of Canada. Family Petromyzontidae (northern lampreys)
Science fiction.  Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or abbreviated SF) is the genre of speculative fiction that imagines advanced and futuristic scientific progress and typically includes elements like information technology and robotics, biological manipulations, space exploration, time travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. The genre often specifically explores human responses to the consequences of these types of projected or imagined scientific advances. Containing many subgenres, science fictions precise definition has long been disputed among authors, critics, scholars, and readers. Major subgenres include hard science fiction, which emphasizes scientific accuracy, and soft science fiction, which focuses on social sciences. Other notable subgenres are cyberpunk, which explores the interface between technology and society, climate fiction, which addresses environmental issues, and space opera, which emphasizes pure adventure in a universe in which space travel is common. Precedents for science fiction are claimed to exist as far back as antiquity. Some books written in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Age were considered early science-fantasy stories. The modern genre arose primarily in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when popular writers began looking to technological progress for inspiration and speculation. Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, written in 1818, is often credited as the first true science fiction novel. Jules Verne and H. G. Wells are pivotal figures in the genres development. In the 20th century, the genre grew during the Golden Age of Science Fiction; it expanded with the introduction of space operas, dystopian literature, and pulp magazines. Science fiction has come to influence not only literature, but also film, television, and culture at large. Science fiction can criticize present-day society and explore alternatives, as well as provide entertainment and inspire a sense of wonder.
Shinjuku.  Shinjuku (Japanese: 新宿区, Hepburn: Shinjuku-ku; IPA: [ɕiɲdʑɯkɯ] ⓘ), officially called Shinjuku City, is a special ward of Tokyo, Japan. It is a major commercial and administrative center, housing the northern half of the busiest railway station in the world (Shinjuku Station) as well as the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building, the administrative center of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. As of 2018[update], the ward has an estimated population of 346,235 and a population density of 18,232 people per km2. The total area is 18.23 km2.[4] Since the end of World War II, Shinjuku has become a major secondary center of Tokyo (fukutoshin), rivaling the original city center in Marunouchi. Shinjuku is also commonly used to refer to the entire area surrounding [ja] Shinjuku Station. The southern half of this area and majority of the station are in fact located in the neighboring Shibuya ward. In 1634, during the Edo period, as the outer moat of the Edo Castle was built, a number of temples and shrines moved to the Yotsuya area on the western edge of Shinjuku. In 1698, Naitō-Shinjuku had developed as a new (shin) station (shuku or juku) on the Kōshū Kaidō, one of the major highways of that era. Naitō was the family name of a daimyō whose mansion stood in the area; his land is now a public park, the Shinjuku Gyoen. In 1898, the Yodobashi Water Purification Plant, the citys first modern water treatment facility, was built in the area that is now between the park and the train station.[5] In 1920, the town of Naitō-Shinjuku, which comprised large parts of present-day Shinjuku (the neighborhood, not the municipality), parts of Nishi-Shinjuku and Kabukichō were integrated into Tokyo City. Shinjuku began to develop into its current form after the Great Kantō Earthquake in 1923, since the seismically stable area largely escaped the devastation. Consequently, West Shinjuku is one of the few areas in Tokyo with many skyscrapers.
Happy families.  Happy families is a traditional British card game usually with a specially made set of picture cards, featuring illustrations of fictional families of four, most often based on occupation types. The object of the game, which is similar to Go Fish and Quartets, is to collect complete families.[2] In Germany and Austria, the game is known as Quartett or Ablegspiel (in Upper Austria and Styria) and is not restricted to sets of four people, but covers other topics such as farm animals or tractors. The game can also be adapted for use with an ordinary set of playing cards. The player whose turn it is asks another player for a specific card: the asking player must hold a card of the same family.[3] If the asked player has the card, they must give it to the requester, and the requester then takes another turn. If the asked player does not have the card, they say not at home and it becomes the asked players turn. When a player completes a family they place it face-down in front of them. Play continues in this way until no families are separated among different players. The player with the most completed families wins.
Japan Time (TV series).  Japan Time (Chinese: Go! Japan TV 日本大放送), previously titled JP Time TV when it aired on ATV, is a Hong Kong television travel programme which started airing on 2 October 2005. The show focuses on introducing various Japanese tourist attractions to the audience and it is presented by Jam Yau, who is from Hong Kong, and Rie, who is from Japan.[1][2] According to Ming Pao, Japan Time is the longest-running travel program in Hong Kongs history.[3] The programme was first shown on ATV World on 2 October 2005. Its episodes are 25 minutes long.[4] By 2014, the programme had aired over 400 episodes.[1] In 2016, it moved to ViuTV after Asia Television ceased broadcast due to nonrenewal of television licence. Since then, the show added Cantonese dubbing. On 28 January 2016, the show aired an episode that showed Kosaka, Akita, Kakunodate Station, and Akita Dog Fureai-Dokoro at Senshū Park [ja].[5] That year, it aired an episode that discussed a Japanese railroad.[6]
Iran.  Iran,[b] officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI)[c] and also known as Persia,[d] is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a population of 92 million,[8] Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population and is the sixth-largest country in Asia. Iran is divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the nations capital, largest city, and financial center. Iran was inhabited by various groups before the arrival of the Iranian peoples. A large part of Iran was first unified as a political entity by the Medes under Cyaxares in the 7th century BCE and reached its territorial height in the 6th century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the 4th century BCE. An Iranian rebellion in the 3rd century BCE established the Parthian Empire, which later liberated the country. In the 3rd century CE, the Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, who oversaw a golden age in the history of Iranian civilization. During this period, ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanization, religion, and administration. Once a center for Zoroastrianism, the 7th century CE Muslim conquest brought about the Islamization of Iran. Innovations in literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art were renewed during the Islamic Golden Age and Iranian Intermezzo, a period during which Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule and revived the Persian language. This era was followed by Seljuk and Khwarazmian rule, Mongol conquests and the Timurid Renaissance from the 11th to 14th centuries. In the 16th century, the native Safavid dynasty re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shia Islam as the official religion, laying the framework for the modern state of Iran. During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was a leading world power, but it lost this status after the Qajars took power in the 1790s. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty by Reza Shah, who ousted the last Qajar Shah in 1925. Following the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941, his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi has rise to power. Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the oil industry led to the Anglo-American coup in 1953. The Iranian Revolution in 1979 overthrew the monarchy, and the Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini, the countrys first supreme leader. In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War, which ended in a stalemate. Iran has since been involved in proxy wars with Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey; in 2025, Israeli strikes on Iran escalated tensions into the Iran–Israel war. Iran is an Islamic theocracy[e] governed by elected and unelected institutions, with ultimate authority vested in the supreme leader. While Iran holds elections, key offices—including the head of state and military—are not subject to public vote. The Iranian government is authoritarian and has been widely criticized for its poor human rights record, including restrictions on freedom of assembly, expression, and the press, as well as its treatment of women, ethnic minorities, and political dissidents. International observers have raised concerns over the fairness of its electoral processes, especially the vetting of candidates by unelected bodies such as the Guardian Council. Iran maintains a centrally planned economy with significant state ownership in key sectors, though private enterprise exists alongside this. Iran is a middle power, due to its large reserves of fossil fuels (including the worlds second largest natural gas supply and third largest proven oil reserves), its geopolitically significant location, and its role as the worlds focal point of Shia Islam. Iran is a threshold state with one of the most scrutinized nuclear programs, which it claims is solely for civilian purposes; this claim has been disputed by Israel and the Western world. Iran is a founding member of the United Nations, OIC, OPEC, and ECO as well as a current member of the NAM, SCO, and BRICS. Iran has 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the 10th-highest in the world) and ranks 5th in intangible cultural heritage or human treasures.
French-suited playing cards. French-suited playing cards or French-suited cards are cards that use the French suits of trèfles (clovers or clubs ♣), carreaux (tiles or diamonds ♦), cœurs (hearts ♥), and piques (pikes or spades ♠). Each suit contains three or four face/court cards. In a standard 52-card deck these are the valet (knave or jack), the dame (lady or queen), and the roi (king). In addition, in Tarot packs, there is a cavalier (knight) ranking between the queen and the jack. Aside from these aspects, decks can include a wide variety of regional and national patterns, which often have different deck sizes. In comparison to Spanish, Italian, German, and Swiss playing cards, French cards are the most widespread due to the geopolitical, commercial, and cultural influence of France, the United Kingdom, and the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. Other reasons for their popularity were the simplicity of the suit insignia, which simplifies mass production, and the popularity of whist and contract bridge. The English pattern of French-suited cards is so widespread that it is also known as the International or Anglo-American pattern. Playing cards arrived in Europe from Mamluk Egypt around 1370 and were already reported in France in 1377. The French suit insignia was derived from German suits around 1480. Between the transition from the suit of bells to tiles there was a suit of crescents.[1] One of the most distinguishing features of the French cards is the queen. Mamluk cards and their derivatives, the Latin-suited and German-suited cards, all have three male face cards. Queens began appearing in Italian tarot decks in the mid-15th century and some German decks replaced two kings with queens. While other decks abandoned the queen in non-tarot decks, the French kept them and dropped the knight as the middle face card. Face card design was heavily influenced by Spanish cards that used to circulate in France. One of the most obvious traits inherited from Spain are the standing kings; kings from Italian, Portuguese, or Germanic cards are seated. Spanish-suited cards are still used in France, mostly in Northern Catalonia, and Brittany and the Vendée with the latter two using the archaic Aluette cards. In the 19th century, corner indices and rounded corners were added and cards became reversible, relieving players from having to flip face cards right-side up. The index for aces and face cards usually follow the local language but most decks of the Paris pattern use the numeral 1 for aces. The French suited pack has spawned many regional variations known as standard patterns based on their artwork and deck size. The Paris pattern was heavily exported throughout continental Europe which is why most French-suited patterns share a similar appearance. The English pattern, based on the extinct Rouennais pattern, is the most well known pattern in the world. It is also called the International or Anglo-American pattern.
Kana.   Kana (仮名; Japanese pronunciation: [ka.na]) are syllabaries used to write Japanese phonological units, morae. In current usage, kana most commonly refers to hiragana[1] and katakana. It can also refer to their ancestor magana (真仮名; lit. true kana),[2] which were Chinese characters used phonetically to transcribe Japanese (e.g. manyōgana); and hentaigana, which are historical variants of the now-standard hiragana. Katakana, with a few additions, are also used to write Ainu. A number of systems exist to write the Ryūkyūan languages, in particular Okinawan, in hiragana. Taiwanese kana were used in Taiwanese Hokkien as ruby text for Chinese characters in Taiwan when it was under Japanese rule. Each kana character corresponds to one phoneme or syllable, unlike kanji, which generally each corresponds to a morpheme. Apart from the five vowels, it is always CV (consonant onset with vowel nucleus), such as ka, ki, sa, shi, etc., with the sole exception of the C grapheme for nasal codas usually romanised as n. The structure has led some scholars to label the system moraic, instead of syllabic, because it requires the combination of two syllabograms to represent a CVC syllable with coda (e.g. CVn, CVm, CVng), a CVV syllable with complex nucleus (i.e. multiple or expressively long vowels), or a CCV syllable with complex onset (i.e. including a glide, CyV, CwV).
Card game.  A card game is any game that uses playing cards as the primary device with which the game is played, whether the cards are of a traditional design or specifically created for the game (proprietary). Countless card games exist, including families of related games (such as poker). A small number of card games played with traditional decks have formally standardized rules with international tournaments being held, but most are folk games whose rules may vary by region, culture, location or from circle to circle. Traditional card games are played with a deck or pack of playing cards which are identical in size and shape. Each card has two sides, the face and the back. Normally the backs of the cards are indistinguishable. The faces of the cards may all be unique, or there can be duplicates. The composition of a deck is known to each player. In some cases several decks are shuffled together to form a single pack or shoe. Modern card games usually have bespoke decks, often with a vast amount of cards, and can include number or action cards. This type of game is generally regarded as part of the board game hobby. Games using playing cards exploit the fact that cards are individually identifiable from one side only, so that each player knows only the cards they hold and not those held by anyone else. For this reason card games are often characterized as games of imperfect information—as distinct from games of perfect information, where the current position is fully visible to all players throughout the game.[1] Many games that are not generally placed in the family of card games do in fact use cards for some aspect of their play. Some games that are placed in the card game genre involve a board. The distinction is that the play in a card game chiefly depends on the use of the cards by players (the board is a guide for scorekeeping or for card placement), while board games (the principal non-card game genre to use cards) generally focus on the players positions on the board, and use the cards for some secondary purpose.
Sado Island.  Sado Island (佐渡島, Sado(ga)shima; Japanese pronunciation: [sa.do.ɡaꜜ.ɕi.ma, -do.ŋaꜜ-][2]) is an island located in the eastern part of the Sea of Japan, under the jurisdiction of Sado City, Niigata Prefecture, Japan, with a coastline of 262.7 kilometres (163.2 mi). In October 2017, Sado Island had a population of 55,212 people. Sado Island covers an area of 854.76 km2 (330.02 sq mi), and is the second largest island after Okinawa Island outside of the four main islands of Japan, excluding the disputed Southern Kurils.[1] The shortest distance between Sado Island and Honshu is 32 km (20 mi).[3] The highest peak on Sado Island is Mount Kinpoku, with an elevation of 1,172 m (3,845 ft).[4] The shape of Sado Island resembles the kanji character for ‘work’ (工) in Japanese or the letter ‘S’. The topography of the island can be roughly divided into three parts, the Ōsado range in the north, the Kosado range in the south, and the Kakakura plain with flat terrain in between. The Ōsado range area is higher in altitude, and the highest peak of Sado Island, Mount Kinpoku (1,172 m (3,845 ft) above sea level), is also located in this area. The coastline on the north side of Mount Sado is steep, and is a famous tourist spot, among which the Senkaku Bay is the most famous.[5] The Kosado range has a relatively flatter terrain with Satsuma orange and tea trees growing there. Its highest peak is Mount Ōjiyama, with an elevation of 646 m (2,119 ft).[6] The Nakakura Plain is a large plain in Japans outlying islands and is also the agricultural area of Sado Island. On the west side of the Kuninaka Plain is Mano Bay, and on the east side is Ryōtsu Bay. The Kokufugawa River (also reads Konogawa River) flows through the Kuninaka Plain, with a total length of 19 km (12 mi), and flows into Mano Bay. Its watershed area accounts for 20% of Sado Island.[7] Lake Kamo, the largest lake in Niigata Prefecture, is located at the eastern end of the Kuninaka Plain. Lake Kamo was originally a freshwater lake, and later turned into a lagoon after an opening built to the Sea of Japan. Oyster breeding flourishes in the lake.[8] Part of Sado Island belongs to the Sado-Yahiko-Yoneyama Quasi-National Park.[9] Affected by the warm Black Current that passes through the Sado waters, the winter in Sado Island is warmer than that in Niigata Prefecture and with less snow. In summer, due to the influence of ocean, the temperature difference between day and night is smaller than that of Niigata Prefecture, and is cooler than that of Niigata Prefecture. However, the Aikawa area on the northwestern side of the Ōsado range are affected by the monsoon blowing from the northwest and the temperature is higher. Precipitation on Sado Island is mainly concentrated in the end of the East Asian rainy season and early winter, and there is less precipitation than in Niigata Prefecture. When the low air pressure and typhoons pass through the Sea of Japan, Sado Island often suffers from Foehn wind, raising the temperature sharply. Located at the junction of the warm and cold current, Sado City enjoys diverse plants and rich aquatic resources. Because it is located at the junction of warm and cold currents, it is extremely rich in vegetation, making it an extremely rare vegetation area on the island where plants unique to both Hokkaido and Okinawa coexist. It is also blessed with a variety of marine products, such as dolphinfish, bonito, and bigfin squid that appear in warm currents, and yellowtail that appears in cold currents.
Kiyotsu Gorge. Kiyotsu Gorge (清津峡, Kiyotsu-kyō) is a nationally designated Place of Scenic Beauty and Natural Monument  on the border between Yuzawa and Tōkamachi, Niigata Prefecture, Japan.[1] Kiyotsu-kyō is a canyon located on the Kiyotsu River with a total length is 12.5 kilometers within the Jōshinetsu-kōgen National Park. The canyon is regarded as one of the three major canyons in Japan, along with the Kurobe Gorge and the Osugidani Gorge. A hot spring resort, the Kiyotsukyō Onsen, is located at the entry to the gorge and attracts a large number of visitors especially during autumn foliage season. There is a pedestrian tunnel with a total length of 750 meters along the wall of the gorge for sightseers. Formerly, there was a climbing path along the side of the river, but it was closed after a rockfall in 1988. This Niigata Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Yahiko Shrine. Yahiko jinja (弥彦神社), also known as Iyahiko-jinja is a Shinto shrine in the Yahiko neighborhood of the village of Yahiko, Nishikanbara District, Niigata Prefecture, Japan. It is one of the three shrines which claim the title of ichinomiya of former Echigo Province.[1] The shrines annual festival is held on February 2.[2] This shrine standing at the foot of a mountain is popularly and traditionally known as a power spot for love and good fortune.[3] The shrine is located within Sado-Yahiko-Yoneyama Quasi-National Park and is on the eastern base of Mount Yahiko,[4] a 634-meter sacred mountain which forms the shintai of the shrine. The kami enshrined at Yahiko Jinja is: The foundation date of Yahiko Shrine is unknown, but the shrine dates to prehistoric times as it is referred to as ancient in a poem even in the Nara period Manyōshū. Per the shrines legend, Ame-no-Kaguyama-no-mikoto landed from the heavens at Nozumihama (in what is now the city of Nagaoka) and taught local people about industries such as fishing, salt production, rice cultivation, and sericulture.[3][5]  He was later enshrined on Mount Yahiko as the kami who founded Echigo. He also was recorded in the Kojiki as having performed a bugaku dance at the coronation of Emperor Jimmu. Ame-no-Kaguyama-no-mikoto is also claimed to be the ancestor of the Owari Kuni no miyatsuko and it is more than likely that the shrine legend and tradition confuses this kami with Prince Ohiko (大彦命), the ancestor of the Hokuriku Kuni no miyatsuko.[6] The shrine is mentioned in and entry for 833 AD in Shoku Nihon Kōki and per the same source, the shrine was awarded the rank of Junior 5th Rank, Lower Grade (従五位下) in 842 AD. Per the Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, it was promoted to Junior 4th Rank, Lower Grade in 861 AD and its name appears in the Engishiki records compiled in 927 AD. The subsequent history of the shrine is uncertain and often contradictory, as most old records have been lost in fires and other disasters over the years. The shrine was well patronised by the military samurai class, and the shrine treasury has a Muromachi period Ōdachi Japanese sword which is an Important Cultural Property of Japan as well as amor and swords donated by Minamoto no Yoriie, Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Uesugi Kenshin.[7]
Time in South Korea.  South Korea has one time zone, Korea Standard Time (UTC+9), which is abbreviated KST.[1][2] South Korea currently does not observe daylight saving time.[3] From May 8 to October 9 in 1988, daylight saving time was tested to better accommodate the calendar of competitions held during the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.[4][5] In 1434, inventor Chang Yŏngsil developed Koreas first automatic water clock, which King Sejong adapted as Koreas standard timekeeper. It is likely that Koreans used water clocks to keep time prior to this invention, but no concrete records of them exist.[6] In 1437, Chang Yŏngsil, with Chŏng Cho, created a bowl-shaped sundial called the angbu ilgu (앙부일구), which King Sejong had placed in public so anyone could use it.[7] In 1908, the Korean Empire adopted a standard time, GMT+08:30. In 1912, during the Japanese occupation of Korea, the Governor-General of Korea changed standard time to GMT+09:00 to align with Japan Standard Time. However, in 1954, the South Korean government under President Syngman Rhee reverted the standard time to GMT+08:30. Then in 1961, under the military government of President Park Chung-hee, the standard time was changed back to GMT+09:00 once again.[8]
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.  On 11 March 2011, at 14:46:24 JST (05:46:24 UTC), a Mw 9.0–9.1 undersea megathrust earthquake occurred in the Pacific Ocean, 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of the Tōhoku region. It lasted approximately six minutes and caused a tsunami. It is sometimes known in Japan as the Great East Japan Earthquake (東日本大震災, Higashi Nihon Daishinsai), among other names.[en 1] The disaster is often referred to by its numerical date, 3.11 (read San ten Ichi-ichi in Japanese).[30][31][32] It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake recorded in the world since modern seismography began in 1900.[33][34][35] The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves that may have reached heights of up to 40.5 meters (133 ft) in Miyako in Tōhokus Iwate Prefecture,[36][37] and which, in the Sendai area, traveled at 700 km/h (435 mph)[38] and up to 10 km (6 mi) inland.[39] Residents of Sendai had only eight to ten minutes of warning, and more than a hundred evacuation sites were washed away.[38] The snowfall which accompanied the tsunami[40] and the freezing temperature hindered rescue works greatly;[41] for instance, Ishinomaki, the city with the most deaths,[42] was 0 °C (32 °F) as the tsunami hit.[43] The official figures released in 2021 reported 19,759 deaths,[44] 6,242 injured,[45] and 2,553 people missing,[46] and a report from 2015 indicated 228,863 people were still living away from their home in either temporary housing or due to permanent relocation.[47] The tsunami caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, primarily the meltdowns of three of its reactors, the discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.[48][49] Many electrical generators ran out of fuel. The loss of electrical power halted cooling systems, causing heat to build up. The heat build-up caused the generation of hydrogen gas. Without ventilation, gas accumulated within the upper refueling hall and eventually exploded, causing the refueling halls blast panels to be forcefully ejected from the structure. Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius of the Fukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[50] The Bank of Japan offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March 2011 in an effort to normalize market conditions.[51] The estimated economic damage amounted to over $300 billion, making it the costliest natural disaster in history.[52][53] According to a 2020 study, the earthquake and its aftermaths resulted in a 0.47 percentage point decline in Japans real GDP growth in the year following the disaster.[54]
Lady Oscar (film). Lady Oscar[a] is a 1979 romantic historical drama film, adapted from the 1972 Japanese manga The Rose of Versailles by Riyoko Ikeda. It was directed by Jacques Demy and written by Demy and Patricia Louisianna Knop, with music from Demys frequent collaborator Michel Legrand. The film stars Catriona MacColl as Oscar François de Jarjayes, a woman who serves as commander of the Royal Guards at the Palace of Versailles under Marie Antoinette. The film was an international co-production between Kitty Films, Shiseido, Nippon Television, Toho, and Ciné-Tamaris, and was filmed on location in France.[2] Lady Oscar was released in Japan on March 3, 1979 by Toho and in France on April 26, 1980 by Ciné-Tamaris. It performed poorly at the box office, and received mixed reviews from critics. General Jarjayes wife dies while giving birth to a baby girl. Frustrated by this and refusing to believe his wife would die without giving him a male heir, the General names the girl Oscar François de Jarjayes and decides to raise her as a boy. He tells his housekeeper that her son, André, will grow up with Oscar and become her best friend, as the General believes the girl should be around men. As the years go by, the two children grow up to be inseparable friends, while Oscar learns to sword-fight and behaves like a boy. Despite belonging to a different social strata from Oscar, André starts developing romantic feelings for her. However, she does not feel the same way about him and only loves him as a brother. The Queen of France, Marie Antoinette, like many within the aristocracy, is fascinated by Oscar and eventually decides to give her an honored position as a personal guard. The Queen, a vain ruler who does not care about the terrible conditions in which the commoners of France live, is unsatisfied with her arranged marriage to the King and does not love him. She decides to have a lover, aristocrat Hans Axel Von Fersen. This secret eventually becomes public knowledge and becomes further proof of the Crowns hypocrisy. The people of France get angrier and their hunger for Revolution gets even stronger. André, now a common stable boy in Paris, lives away from Versailles and the aristocracy and thus is more aware of the plight of the poor. He believes a revolution is needed for all citizens to live as equals and tries to show Oscar, who lives a more secluded and ostentatious life, his point of view. Despite recognizing the difficult situation outside of the castles walls, Oscar remains loyal to the Crown and starts developing feelings for Fersen.
Echigo Plain. Echigo Plain (Japanese: 越後平野) or Niigata Plain (Japanese: 新潟平野) is an alluvial plain that extends from central to northern Niigata Prefecture in Japan.[1] The area of the plain is approximately 2000km2.[2] It is the largest rice-growing area in Japan.[3] The plain was formed by the Agano and Shinano rivers.[4][5] This Niigata Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. 
Daylight saving time.  Daylight saving time (DST), also referred to as daylight savings time, daylight time (United States and Canada), or summer time (United Kingdom, European Union, and others), is the practice of advancing clocks to make better use of the longer daylight available during summer so that darkness falls at a later clock time. The standard implementation of DST is to set clocks forward by one hour in spring or late winter, and to set clocks back by one hour to standard time in the autumn (or fall in North American English, hence the mnemonic: spring forward and fall back). In several countries, the number of weeks when DST is observed is much longer than the number devoted to standard time. As of 2023, around 34 percent of the worlds countries use DST, primarily in Europe and North America.[1] Some countries observe it only in some regions. In Canada, all of Yukon, most of Saskatchewan, and parts of Nunavut, Ontario, British Columbia and Quebec do not change clocks, and use permanent DST. It is observed by four Australian states and one territory. In the United States, it is observed by all states except Hawaii and Arizona (within the latter, however, the Navajo Nation does observe it).[2] Historically, several ancient societies adopted seasonal changes to their timekeeping to make better use of daylight; Roman timekeeping even included changes to water clocks to accommodate this.  However, these were changes to the time divisions of the day rather than setting the whole clock forward.[3] In a satirical letter to the editor of the Journal de Paris in 1784, Benjamin Franklin suggested that if Parisians could only wake up earlier in the summer they would economize on candle and oil usage, but he did not propose changing the clocks.[4][5] In 1895, New Zealand entomologist and astronomer George Hudson made the first realistic proposal to change clocks by two hours every spring to the Wellington Philosophical Society, but this was not implemented until 1928 and in another form.[6] In 1907, William Willett proposed the adoption of British Summer Time as a way to save energy; although seriously considered by Parliament, it was not implemented until 1916.[7]
Niigata (city). Niigata (新潟市, Niigata-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [niː.ɡa.ta, -taꜜ.ɕi, niː.ŋa-][2]) is a city located in the northern part of Niigata Prefecture (Kaetsu area [ja]). It is the capital and the most populous city of Niigata Prefecture, and one of the cities designated by government ordinance of Japan, located in the Chūbu region of Japan. It is the most populous city on the west coast of Honshu, and the second most populous city in the Chūbu region after Nagoya. It faces the Sea of Japan and Sado Island. As of 1 September 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 779,049, and a population density of 1,072 persons per km2. The total area is 726.45 square kilometres (280.48 sq mi). Greater Niigata, the Niigata Metropolitan Employment Area, has a GDP of US$43.3 billion as of 2010.[3][4] It is the only government-designated city on the west coast of Honshu. It has the greatest habitable area of cities in Japan (list of Japanese cities by area [ja]). It is designated as a reform base for the large scale agriculture under  (National Strategic Special Zones of Japan [ja]) initiatives. Niigata was one of the cities incorporated by the legislation effective on April 1, 1889 (Meiji 22). With a long history as a port town, Niigata served the function of the network junction between the maritime traffic and those of Shinano and Agano river systems. It was designated as one of the five free treaty ports under the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan, signed in 1858, just before the Meiji Restoration, and later started operations in 1869. Its importance in land and water transportation is still current. Niigatas city government was established in 1889. Mergers with nearby municipalities in 2005 allowed the citys population to jump to 810,000. The annexation of the surrounding area has also given the city the greatest rice paddy field acreage in Japan. On April 1, 2007, it became the first government-designated city on the coast of the Sea of Japan of Honshu. There are eight wards (described later) in the city. Until the 1950s, a system of canals were lined along by the willow trees in the downtown area of Niigata. Therefore, the city is sometimes called the City of Water or City of Willows as detailed later. Niigata produced many manga artists (see: Artists and writers). It is also known to have an extensive network of bypass roads. Bandai bridge, NEXT21, Toki Messe, Denka Big Swan Stadium, Niigata Nippo Media Ship are considered to be the key symbol landmarks in the city (see: Local attractions).
Memory.  Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action.[1] If past events could not be remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal identity to develop.[2] Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Memory is often understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term (or working) memory, and long-term memory.[9] This can be related to the neuron. The sensory processor allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to various levels of focus and intent. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor. Information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material. Finally, the function of long-term memory is to store through various categorical models or systems.[9] Declarative, or explicit memory, is the conscious storage and recollection of data.[10] Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning.[2] Meanwhile, episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane.[11][12][13] Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory.[2] Non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information.[14] An example of a non-declarative process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory, or a priming phenomenon.[2][14][15] Priming is the process of subliminally arousing specific responses from memory and shows that not all memory is consciously activated,[15] whereas procedural memory is the slow and gradual learning of skills that often occurs without conscious attention to learning.[2][14] Memory is not a perfect processor and is affected by many factors. The ways by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted. Pain, for example, has been identified as a physical condition that impairs memory, and has been noted in animal models as well as chronic pain patients.[16][17][18][19] The amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage.[2] Also, the storage process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage, such as the hippocampus.[20][21] Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory.[2] Normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of the memory.[22][23]
The Rose of Versailles (film).  The Rose of Versailles[a] is a 2025 Japanese animated musical romance film produced by MAPPA and distributed by Toho Next and Avex Pictures, based on the 1972 manga by Riyoko Ikeda. Directed by Ai Yoshimura and written by Tomoko Konparu, the film stars the voices of Miyuki Sawashiro, Aya Hirano, Toshiyuki Toyonaga and Kazuki Kato. It was released in Japan on January 31, 2025.[2] Netflix licensed the film, and began streaming it on its platform on April 30, 2025.[3] In the late 18th century, four people: Oscar François de Jarjayes, a general who is a woman raised as a son, Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Austrian empress that is destined to become queen, André Grandier, Oscars childhood friend, and Hans Axel von Fersen, a Swedish aristocrat, meet in Versailles, France and live their respective destinies while being tossed by the tides of the era. In September 2022, plans for an animated adaptation of The Rose of Versailles were announced in celebration of the series 50th anniversary.[17] In July 2024, it was announced that MAPPA would produce the film, with Ai Yoshimura directing and Tomoko Konparu serving as screenwriter. Additionally, Miyuki Sawashiro was confirmed to voice Oscar, with Aya Hirano, Toshiyuki Toyonaga, and Kazuki Kato cast as Marie Antoinette, André Grandier, and Hans Axel von Fersen, respectively.[18][19][4] By October,  Shunsuke Takeuchi, Takuya Eguchi, and Miyu Irino joined the cast as Alain de Soissons, Florian de Gerodelle and Bernard Châtelet.[5] One month later, the casting of Fukushi Ochiai as Louis XVI, Banjō Ginga as General Jarjayes, and Mayumi Tanaka as Maron Glacé Mont Blan was announced.[6] Additional casting was announced shortly before the films release.[7][8]
Oscar François de Jarjayes.  Oscar François de Jarjayes (オスカル・フランソワ・ド・ジャルジェ, Osukaru Furansowa do Jaruje) (25 December 1755 – 14 July 1789) is a fictional character created by Japanese manga artist Riyoko Ikeda. She is the protagonist of the 1972 manga series The Rose of Versailles, and its various adaptations and spin-offs. Born December 25, 1755,  the last of six daughters to the Commander of the Royal Guards, General François Augustin Regnier de Jarjayes [fr] (a real historical personage[1]), she is raised by her father as if she were a boy in order to succeed him as the commander of the Royal Guard at the Palace of Versailles. Upon the completion of her military training at the age of fourteen, Oscar is tasked with protecting the Dauphine Marie Antoinette when she arrives at Versailles. Despite being raised as if she were a boy and dressing in males clothes, Oscar is open about being female.[2] Even as she embraces her womanhood, she uses her male position to gain freedoms that she could never have as a lady of the court.[3] She is the love interest of André Grandier, her servant at the Jarjayes mansion and afterwards a soldier in her regiment.[4] She also earns the admiration and love of Rosalie Lamorlière,[5] and in turn calls Rosalie her spring breeze.[3] Other women are infatuated with Oscar, even after she tells them she is female.[6] She dislikes the court intrigues, but remains there out of loyalty to her father and her friend, Marie Antoinette. At one point, Oscar becomes infatuated with the Swedish aristocrat Hans Axel von Fersen, who has a forbidden love for Marie Antoinette.[7]
Sports manga.  Sports manga (Japanese: スポーツ漫画) is a genre of Japanese manga and anime that focuses on stories involving sports and other athletic and competitive pursuits. Though Japanese animated works depicting sports were released as early as the 1920s, sports manga did not emerge as a discrete category until the early 1950s. The genre achieved prominence in the context of the post-war occupation of Japan, and gained significant visibility during and subsequent to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Noted as among the most popular genres of manga and anime, sports manga is credited with introducing new sports to Japan, and popularizing existing sports. The core element of a sports manga series is a depiction of a specific sport. The genre is inclusive of a breadth of sports that are both Japanese and non-Japanese in origin,[1] including sports with mainstream popularity (e.g. baseball, association football, boxing, cycling), comparably niche and esoteric sports (e.g. street racing, rhythmic gymnastics, table tennis, wheelchair basketball), and other broadly competitive activities and pursuits (e.g. billiards, shogi, mahjong, go).[2] A popular formula for sports manga stories is spo-kon (ja:スポ根), a portmanteau of sports and konjō (根性; lit. guts or determination).[3] In these stories, a hero from an often tragic background resolves as a child to become the best in the world at a sport, and trains themselves to increase their aptitude.[3][4] The hero often seeks to emulate his or her father, or achieve a goal that his or her father was unable to accomplish.[4] Often, the hero trains under the tutelage of a coach or father figure who is harsh and unforgiving in his training methods; the oni coach or devil coach is a common stock character in such stories.[3] Other common story formulas include underdog characters who achieve success in the face of staggering odds,[5][6] and amateurs who unexpectedly discover that they are naturally gifted at a sport.[5] Sports manga is a popular genre among young readers, particularly readers of shōnen manga (boys comics). The typical structure of a sports manga story is one that is readily understood by younger audiences: conflict is sublimated into a sporting event, a climax is generated through the action of the sport, and the conflict ends with a literal or metaphorical finish line.[6][7] Writer Paul Gravett notes that in the end, a sports manga hero is bound to win, or lose well, so the thrill comes from reading how he overcomes all challenges with determination and honesty.[5]
Tadatoshi Fujimaki.  Tadatoshi Fujimaki (藤巻 忠俊, Fujimaki Tadatoshi; born June 9, 1982) is a Japanese manga artist, best known as the creator of sports manga Kurokos Basketball and Robot × LaserBeam, as well as Kill Blue, all of which have been serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump. Fujimaki attended Tokyo Metropolitan Toyama High School and enrolled in Sophia University.[1] In 2011, on Nikkei Entertainments list of most successful manga artists he ranked 25th.[2] On October 16, 2013, threatening letters were sent to Fujimaki and high schools and colleges affiliated with him. The letters carried the message If you do not stop the parody manga, you will get hydrogen sulfide, accompanying unknown powder substances.[1] After the arrival of many other threat letters, Fujimaki eventually stated that he will continue the manga no matter what.[3] On December 16, 2013, the suspect was finally arrested. Not an acquaintance of Fujimaki, he told the police that he was jealous of [authors] success.[4][5][6]
Marie Antoinette.  Marie Antoinette (/ˌæntwəˈnɛt, ˌɒ̃t-/;[1] French: [maʁi ɑ̃twanɛt] ⓘ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the wife of King Louis XVI. Born Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria, she was the penultimate child and youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I. She married Louis Auguste, Dauphin of France, in May 1770 at age 14, becoming the Dauphine of France. On 10 May 1774, her husband ascended the throne as king, and she became queen. As queen, Marie Antoinette became increasingly a target of criticism by opponents of the domestic and foreign policies of Louis XVI and those opposed to the monarchy in general. The French libelles accused her of being profligate,[2] promiscuous, having illegitimate children, and harboring sympathies for Frances perceived enemies, including her native Austria. She was falsely accused of defrauding the Crowns jewelers in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, but the accusations damaged her reputation further. During the French Revolution, she became known as Madame Déficit because the countrys financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending and her opposition to social and financial reforms proposed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker. Several events were linked to Marie Antoinette during the Revolution after the government placed the royal family under house arrest in the Tuileries Palace in October 1789. The June 1791 attempted flight to Varennes and her role in the War of the First Coalition were immensely damaging to her image among French citizens. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the royal family to take refuge at the Legislative Assembly, and they were imprisoned in the Temple Prison on 13 August 1792. On 21 September 1792, France was declared a republic and the monarchy was abolished. Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. Marie Antoinettes trial began on 14 October 1793; two days later, she was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason and executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793 at the Place de la Révolution. Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna was born on 2 November 1755 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Archduchy of Austria.[3] She was the youngest daughter and 15th child of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg monarchy, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor.[4] Maria Theresa gave birth to all of her previous children without any problems. During the birth of her last daughter serious complications arose, and doctors feared for the life of the mother. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, king and queen of Portugal; Archduke Joseph and Archduchess Maria Anna acted as proxies for their newborn sister.[5][6]
7th arrondissement of Paris.  The 7th arrondissement of Paris (VIIe arrondissement) is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. It is known for being, along with the 16th arrondissement and the commune of Neuilly-sur-Seine, the richest neighbourhood in France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as le septième. The arrondissement, called Palais-Bourbon in a reference to the seat of the National Assembly, includes some of the major and well-known tourist attractions of Paris, such as the Eiffel Tower, the Hôtel des Invalides (Napoleons resting place), the Chapel of Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal,[2] as well as a concentration of museums such as the Musée dOrsay, Musée Rodin and the Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac. Situated on the Rive Gauche—the Left bank of the River Seine—this central arrondissement, which includes the historical aristocratic neighbourhood of Faubourg Saint-Germain, contains a number of French national institutions, among them the National Assembly and numerous government ministries. It is also home to many foreign diplomatic embassies, some of them occupying outstanding hôtels particuliers. The arrondissement has been home to the French upper class since the 17th century, when it became the new residence of Frances highest nobility. The district has been so fashionable within the French aristocracy that the phrase le Faubourg—referring to the ancient name of the current 7th arrondissement—has been used to describe French nobility ever since.[3] The 7th arrondissement of Paris and Neuilly-sur-Seine form the most affluent and prestigious residential area in France.[4]
Hokuriku region. The Hokuriku region (北陸地方, Hokuriku chihō) is located in the northwestern part of Honshu, the main island of Japan. It lies along the Sea of Japan and is part of the larger Chūbu region.[1] It is almost equivalent to the former Koshi Province and Hokurikudō area in pre-modern Japan. From the Heian period until the Edo period, the region was a core recipient of population, and grew to be proportionately much larger than it is today, despite the rural character; in modern times, its population has remained consistent, with most urban growth in the 20th century instead taking place in Kanto, Chūkyō, and Kansai. The Hokuriku region is also known for traditional culture that originated from elsewhere that has been long lost along the Taiheiyō Belt. The Hokuriku region includes the four prefectures of Ishikawa, Fukui, Niigata and Toyama,[2] although Niigata is sometimes included as an addition rather than being one of the core prefectures. It is similar to the following region definitions: The major population centers of Hokuriku are: Of these, Niigata is the largest with a population of over 800,000.
Maya the Bee (TV series). Maya the Bee is an animated childrens television series produced by Studio 100 Animation in association with ZDF for Germany and TF1 for France.[1] It is based on the character Maya the Bee introduced in 1912. This is the second animated adaptation focused on the character, after the anime Maya the Honey Bee that aired in the 1970s. Note: season one only In September 2017, parents spotted a drawing of a penis in the series 35th episode. After the clip went viral on Facebook, Netflix temporarily removed the episode from the website. The episode subsequently returned with the offensive drawing edited out.[2] The production company apologized to many fans and stated it was a very bad joke from one of the 150 artists working on the production.[3]
Tetsuya Chiba.  Tetsuya Chiba (千葉 徹彌 or ちばてつや, Chiba Tetsuya; born January 11, 1939) is a Japanese manga artist. Considered a major figure in the history of manga,[1][2] many of his early titles are still in print due to continued popularity. He is most famous for his sports stories, having been described as the biggest contributor to the rise of sports manga,[3] in particular for works such as Ashita no Joe, his best known work, and Notari Matsutarō. He was born in Chuo, Tokyo, Japan, but lived most of his early childhood in Shenyang, Liaoning when northeast China was colonized by Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War.[4] His father was working in a paper factory when they lived in China. At the end of the Sino-Japanese War, Chibas family lived in the attic of a work-acquaintance of his father until they could find a way to get back to Japan.[4] Two of his younger brothers are manga artists: Akio Chiba, and Shigeyuki Chiba who is almost completely unknown outside Japan, despite writing many popular sports manga in Japan. Shigeyuki Chiba works under the pen name Taro Nami. He also had another brother name Ken.
Waldemar Bonsels. Waldemar Bonsels (21 February 1880 – 31 July 1952) was a German writer and creator of Maya the Bee. Waldemar Bonsels was born in Ahrensburg on 21 February 1880. Bonselss most famous work is the childrens book The Adventures of Maya the Bee (Die Biene Maja und ihre Abenteuer) from 1912. This work served the basis for a Japanese animated television series Maya the Honey Bee in the mid-1970s, as well as well as multiple other works for screen or stage. Heaven Folk from 1915 is a sequel with a more philosophical focus, describing in mystical terms the unity of all creation and its relationship to God. Bonsels wrote a number of novels and shorter stories dealing with love as Eros and the higher level of divine love in the spirit of romanticism (Eros und die Evangelien, Menschenwege, Narren und Helden, etc.), and about the relationship between man and nature in a simple life unchanged by modern civilisation (Anjekind, etc.). Bonsels also wrote a historical novel about the time of Jesus (Der Grieche Dositos). He travelled extensively in Europe and Asia, which resulted in the book Indienfahrt (Voyage in India).
Zuiyo.  Zuiyo Co., Ltd. (瑞鷹株式会社, Kabushiki-gaisha Zuiyō) is a Japanese animation company founded in 1988 and headquartered in Kamakura. The studio is a successor to the original Zuiyo Enterprise company that existed from 1969 to 1975 when it was reorganized into Nippon Animation with the current entity establishing in 1988 to split the original Zuiyo Enterprise into two due to debt losses. The studio was responsible for the planning and production of a variety of series based on Western literature such as Moomin, Heidi, Girl of the Alps, Maja The Bee and Vicky the Viking. The company was founded as Zuiyo Enterprise (瑞鷹エンタープライズ, Zuiyō Entāpuraizu) in April 1969, by TCJ former manager Shigeto Takahashi.[1] The company was involved in the production of animated series for the TV anime staple Calpis Comic Theater (Karupisu manga gekijō), later known as World Masterpiece Theater, broadcast on Fuji TV. These series were based on childrens literature such as Moomin and Andersen Stories. Animation for these shows were commissioned to two other studios: Mushi Production and Tokyo Movie, while Zuiyo was mainly involved in the planning. Between 1972 and 1973, Zuiyo Enterprise formed an animation studio known as Zuiyo Eizo (ズイヨー映像, Zuiyō Eizō) after changing its headquarters. During this time Zuiyo was working on its first independent television production based on Johanna Spyris Heidi, an ambitious project on which Isao Takahata and Hayao Miyazaki also worked on. In 1967 ,Takahashi had already produced a short pilot for a Heidi series with TCJ, but the project was shelved. In the meantime Zuiyo also worked on Vicky the Viking, a German co-production with ZDF and ORF, based on Runer Jonssons eponymous book series. In 1974 Heidi, Girl of the Alps and Vicky the Viking were broadcast in Japan, soon gaining a huge success also in Europe. Nevertheless, Zuiyo Eizo found itself in financial difficulties due to the high production costs of its series, not enough repaid by the selling of its properties to European market. In 1975, Koichi Motohashi took over Zuiyo Eizo and established Nippon Animation, which was essentially Zuiyo Eizos production staff (including Miyazaki and Takahata), which would continue to produce the World Masterpiece Theater series, retaining the rights of other series on which the studio was working on, such as A Dog of Flanders and Maya the Honey Bee. As a result, Zuiyo Enterprise absorbed the debt and the rights to the Heidi anime and other previous series.
World War II.  Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups
Erythronium japonicum.  Erythronium japonicum, known as Asian fawn lily,[2] Oriental fawn lily, Japanese fawn lily is a pink-flowered species trout lily, belonging to the Lily family and native to Japan, Korea, the Russian Far East (Sakhalin Island, Kuril Islands) and northeastern China (Jilin and Liaoning).[3][4] It is a spring ephemeral, blooming April–June in woodlands. It is known as zhūyáhuā (猪牙花) in Chinese, eolleji (얼레지) in Korean, and katakuri (片栗) in Japanese. Erythronium japonicum has a stem up to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) long, although as much as 30% of the stem may be underground. Bulb is elongated, up to 6 cm (2.4 in) long but rarely more than 1 cm wide (0.39 in). Leaves are broadly elliptical to lanceolate, the blade up to 12 cm (4.7 in) long and 7 cm (2.8 in) wide. Flowers are solitary, rose-colored.[3][5][6][7][8][9] Applying the generic common name trout lily may be somewhat of a misnomer, because in the Japanese species, the individual plant may or may not exhibit the flecked dark markings on the leaves, which is emblematic of that common name (see gallery below). Reporting is mixed on whether it should be regarded as endangered in Japan.  One source adds it to a list of wildflowers that should be included as endangered,[10] but the so-called Eco kentei [ja] or environmental specialist certification, run by the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce and Industry (TCCI), has had an exam question in the past, where the correct answer to Is katakuri endangered was no.[11] The Japanese ministry (MOE)s version of the Red Data Book has not handed down an assessment of the whole species,[12] even though in the Red Data Book compiled by individual prefectures, its status is evaluated at near threatened (jun-zetsumetsu kigu shu) in Hyōgo and Mie,[12] and rated vulnerable-endangered in Shikoku and southern Kanto.[12]
Ikki Kajiwara. Asaki Takamori (高森 朝樹, Takamori Asaki; September 4, 1936 – January 21, 1987), known by the pen names Ikki Kajiwara (梶原 一騎, Kajiwara Ikki) and Asao Takamori (高森 朝, Takamori Asao), was a Japanese author, manga writer, and film producer. He is known for the work about sports and martial arts, with images of heroic young men with the occasional fine details as he moves from one topic to another. He considered Tiger Mask and Star of the Giants to be his lifes work.[1] The son of an illustrator and editor, Takamori was a notorious juvenile delinquent with an interest in fighting. After World War II, his family moved to Tokyo, where he jumped schools until landing a job as a novelist at 17. He adopted the pen names Ikki Kajiwara and Asao Takamori, since he was writing for rival magazines at the time.[2] He was married to Atsuko Takamori two times and had three sons and two daughters with her. In 1978, while they were divorced the first time, he married Taiwanese singer Pai Bing-bing and in 1980 fathered a daughter, Pai Hsiao-yen, who was murdered in 1997. Their marriage was dissolved the next year after he engaged in an extramarital affair and committed domestic violence. Pai Bing-bing had to return to Taiwan and raised Hsiao-yen as a single mother. On May 25, 1983, Kajiwara was arrested for injuring Toshikazu Ishima, deputy director of the Monthly Shonen Magazine. He was released on bail after two months in detention. On March 14, 1985, Kajiwara was sentenced to two years in prison with a three-year reprieve. On January 21, 1987, Kajiwara died at the age of 50.
Magnolia kobus.  Magnolia kobus, known as mokryeon,[3] kobus magnolia,[3] or kobushi magnolia,[2] is a species of Magnolia native to Japan (Kyushu, Honshu, and Hokkaido) and Korea[4] and occasionally cultivated in temperate areas.[5] It is a deciduous, small to tall tree which has a slow rate of growth but can reach 8–15 m (25–50 ft) in height and up to 10 m (35 ft) in spread. Two varieties of Magnolia kobus are recognized by some sources, such as Hortus Third,[5] with var. borealis being a tree to 25 m (75 ft) high, with leaves to 15 cm (6 in) long, and var. kobus, a tree to 10 m (30 ft) high, with leaves to 10 cm (4 in) long. Magnolia kobus is classified within Magnolia subgenus Yulania. The kobus magnolia is closely related to the star magnolia (Magnolia stellata), and some authorities consider the star magnolia to be a variety of M. kobus, M. kobus var. stellata.
Rue de lUniversité, Paris. The Rue de lUniversité (French pronunciation: [ʁy d(ə) lynivɛʁsite]) is a street located in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France. The official address of the Palais Bourbon, the seat of the National Assembly, is at 126 Rue de lUniversité. The 2,785 m long street (the tenth longest in the French capital, see List of Parisian routes by length [fr]) of variable width, between 10.5 m and 15 m, is flat and parallel to the Seine from which it is only a few hundred metres away. It begins, in the east, at the crossroads with the Rue des Saints-Pères [fr] and goes west-northwest, crosses the Boulevard Saint-Germain and then resumes due west at the level of the Palais Bourbon, crosses the Esplanade des Invalides, the Boulevard de la Tour-Maubourg [fr] then the Avenue Bosquet [fr] and the Avenue Rapp [fr]; it then turns a little to the south, crosses the Avenue de La Bourdonnais [fr] before ending in a dead end on the Allée Paul-Deschanel [fr] on the northeast square of the Eiffel Tower. In the 12th century, the former university of Paris [fr] acquired a territory located along the Seine, west of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés to which it previously belonged. This territory was called Pré-aux-Clercs [fr] (first mentioned in 960): either because students (formerly called clerics) came to relax during their rest periods, or because the watch or review of the subjects of the king of the Basoche took place there every year (this association was only recognized in 1303). Le Pré-aux-Clercs was also the scene of many duels.
Joe Yabuki.  Joe Yabuki (Japanese: 矢吹 丈, Hepburn: Yabuki Jō) nicknamed just Joe (ジョー, Jō) is the protagonist of the manga series Ashita no Joe by Asao Takamori and Tetsuya Chiba. Joe Yabuki, is a wandering orphan who discovers a passion for boxing in a juvenile prison, and his rise through Japans and the global boxing scene. He is coached by Danpei Tange to become skilled and face his prison cell partner Tōru Rikiishi. The character has also appeared in video games based on Ashita no Joe and has been portrayed in two live-action works by and Shōji Ishibashi and Tomohisa Yamashita. The character was based on multiple boxers Asao Takamori researched. The main idea behind Joes characterization was that he was passionate about his love of boxing and thus would live to his full extent until his death. Critical response to the character was positive due to his characterization and rivalry with Tōru Rikiishi. Joe went on to become iconic in manga history, influencing real boxers and other fictional characters, most notably Kyo Kusanagi and Gearless Joe. The characters final fate has been ambiguous which was a major hit in manga history but Chiba often saying he did not give him a particular fate as he had no idea how to close the manga. Joe Yabuki was initially based on Sawada Jiro, who was the Oriental Lightweight Champion in his youth. Two other notable influences include Aoki Shori and Ebiwara Hiroyuki. There were several scrapped ideas for Joes character as the mangaka was influenced by other fighters during the series production. Joes desire to fight was based on the authors own desires of living to the fullest until his death. Joe and Rikiishis rivalry was something that the author found painful to write due to the latters death. The manga influenced several fans who began boxing. The mangaka also wanted to portray those who did not succeed, as there are many characters in Ashita no Joe who have given up on their dreams.[1] Chiba was more optimistic about how he handled Joe and Norikos relationship when writing a chapter about the two going on a date.[2] Ikki Kajiwara is knowledgeable about martial arts, and his manuscripts are very masculine. Initially, the author did not understand how Joe and Rikiishis friendship was cultivated through their battles. But as he drew, Chiba came to understand that fighting to the point of depleting your life means that you both respect each other. It was also difficult for him to draw the scene where Joe vomits in the ring after Rikiishis death due to the shock. One of the final scenes, in which Joe says, I want to burn out... to pure white ash, sparked a debate over whether Joe should live or die. At the time the ending was written, Chiba was not thinking about Joes fate and only wanted to draw a picture that would convey someone who has given all of their effort and burned out.[3]
Nippon Animation.  Nippon Animation Co., Ltd.[c] is a Japanese animation studio founded on June 3, 1975.[2] The company is headquartered in Tokyo, with its headquarters in their Tama City studio and an administrative head office in the Ginza district of Chūō. Nippon Animation is known for producing numerous anime series adapted from works of Western literature as well as original works and manga adaptations such as the World Masterpiece Theater series with entries such as Rascal the Raccoon, Anne of Green Gables, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Tales of Little Women, Romeos Blue Skies among others as well as Maya the Bee, Papuwa, Uchūsen Sagittarius and Chibi Maruko-chan which has become a major hit for the studio in Japan and globally. Amongst many of its past and present staffers include Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata, co-founders of Studio Ghibli. Aside from animation production, the company also handles character licensing. The titular protagonist from Rascal the Raccoon serves as the studios mascot. What is now Nippon Animation is descended from Zuiyo Eizo (or Zuiyo Enterprise), an animation studio and planning and production company founded in April 1969 by TCJ former manager Shigeto Takahashi. [3]
Louise Françoise, Princess of Condé.  Louise Françoise, Duchess of Bourbon (French pronunciation: [lwiz fʁɑ̃swaz]; 1 June 1673 – 16 June 1743) was the eldest surviving legitimised[1] daughter of Louis XIV of France and his maîtresse-en-titre Françoise-Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan. She was said to have been named after her godmother, Louise de La Vallière,[2] the woman her mother had replaced as the Kings mistress. Before her marriage, she was known at court as Mademoiselle de Nantes. Married at the age of 11, Louise Françoise became known as Madame la Duchesse, a style she kept as a widow. She was Duchess of Bourbon[3] and Princess of Condé by marriage. She was later a leading member of the cabale de Meudon,[4] a group centered on her half-brother Louis, Grand Dauphin. While her son Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, was Prime Minister of France, she tried to further her political influence, but to little avail. Considered attractive, Louise Françoise had a turbulent love life and was frequently part of scandals during her fathers reign. Later in life, she built the Palais Bourbon in Paris, the present seat of the National Assembly, with the fortune she amassed having invested greatly with John Law. Louise Françoise was born in Tournai on 1 June 1673 while her parents, King Louis XIV of France and Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart were on a military tour; her maternal aunt, the Marquise de Thianges, was there also. After returning from Tournai, her parents placed her and her older siblings in the care of one of her mothers acquaintances, the widowed Madame Scarron.
Population.  A population of organisms is a group of individuals of the same species, defined by a discontinuity or disjunction from other groups of individuals in certain characteristics, such as living area, genetic attributes, demographic structure.[1] Among biologists, the term definition varies, in some cases significantly, and sometimes those variations can be confusing.[1] Also, there are other terms to describe groups of individuals. Particularly, if individuals of a group are semi-isolated from other groups, then the term deme can be used. And spatially separated populations of the same species can be called a metapopulation.[1] Governments conduct a census to quantify the resident population size within a given jurisdiction. The term is also applied to non-human animals, microorganisms, and plants, and has specific uses within such fields as ecology and genetics. The word population is derived from the Late Latin populatio (a people, a multitude), which itself is derived from the Latin word populus (a people).[2] In sociology and population geography, population refers to a group of human beings with some predefined feature in common, such as location, race, ethnicity, nationality, or religion.[citation needed]
The Adventures of Maya the Bee.  The Adventures of Maya the Bee (German: Die Biene Maja und ihre Abenteuer) is a childrens book by the German writer Waldemar Bonsels published in 1912. The stories revolve around a little bee named Maya and her friends among bees, other insects and other creatures. The book depicts Mayas development from an adventurous youngster to a responsible adult member of bee society. The book has been published in many other languages and adapted into different media. Bonsels wrote a sequel, Heaven Folk, which was published in 1915. Maya is a bee born in a bee hive during internal unrest: the hive is dividing itself into two new colonies. Maya is raised by her teacher, Miss Cassandra. Despite Miss Cassandras warnings, Maya wants to explore the wide world and commits the unforgivable crime of leaving the hive. During her adventures, Maya, now in exile, befriends other insects and braves dangers with them. In the climax of the book, Maya is taken prisoner by hornets, the bees sworn enemies. Prisoner of the hornets, Maya learns of a hornet plan to attack her native hive. Maya is faced with the decision to either return to hive and suffer her due punishment, saving the hive, or leaving the plan unannounced, saving herself but destroying the hive. After severe pondering, she makes the decision to return. In the hive, she announces the coming attack and is unexpectedly pardoned. The forewarned bees triumph over the hornet attack force. Maya, now a heroine of the hive, becomes a teacher like Miss Cassandra and shares her experiences and wisdom with the future generation.
Miyagi Prefecture. Miyagi Prefecture (宮城県, Miyagi-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [mʲiꜜ.ja.ɡʲi, -ŋʲi, mʲi.ja.ɡʲiꜜ.keɴ, -ŋʲiꜜ-][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu.[3] Miyagi Prefecture has a population of 2,265,724 (1 August 2023) and has a geographic area of 7,282 km2 (2,812 sq mi). Miyagi Prefecture borders Iwate Prefecture to the north, Akita Prefecture to the northwest, Yamagata Prefecture to the west, and Fukushima Prefecture to the south. Sendai is the capital and largest city of Miyagi Prefecture, and the largest city in the Tōhoku region, with other major cities including Ishinomaki, Ōsaki, and Tome.[4] Miyagi Prefecture is located on Japans eastern Pacific coast  and bounded to the west by the Ōu Mountains, the longest mountain range in Japan, with 24% of its total land area being designated as Natural Parks. Miyagi Prefecture is home to Matsushima Islands, a group of islands ranked as one of the Three Views of Japan, near the town of Matsushima. Miyagi Prefecture was formerly part of the province of Mutsu.[5] On March 11, 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and a subsequent major tsunami hit Miyagi Prefecture, causing major damage to the area.[6] The tsunami was estimated to be approximately 10 metres (33 ft) high in Miyagi Prefecture.[7] On April 7, 2011, a magnitude 7.4 earthquake struck off the coast of Miyagi, Japan. Workers were then evacuated from the nearby troubled Fukushima Daiichi nuclear facility once again, as a tsunami warning was issued for the coastline. Residents were told to flee for inner land at that time.
National Assembly (France).  Opposition (364) The National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale, [asɑ̃ble nɑsjɔnal] ⓘ) is the lower house of the bicameral French Parliament under the Fifth Republic, the upper house being the Senate (Sénat). The National Assemblys legislators are known as députés ([depyte]) or deputies. There are 577 députés, each elected by a single-member constituency (at least one per department) through a two-round system; thus, 289 seats are required for a majority. The president of the National Assembly, currently Yaël Braun-Pivet, presides over the body. The officeholder is usually a member of the largest party represented, assisted by vice presidents from across the represented political spectrum. The National Assemblys term is five years; however, the president of France may dissolve the assembly, thereby calling for early elections, unless it has been dissolved in the preceding twelve months. This measure has become rarer since the 2000 French constitutional referendum reduced the presidential term from seven to five years; in the four elections between 2002 and 2017, the president of the Republic had always had a coattail effect delivering a majority in the assembly election two months after the presidential election, and it was accordingly of little benefit to dissolve it. In 2024, it was dissolved following the announcement of the results of the European Parliament election. Due to the separation of powers, the president of the Republic may not take part in parliamentary debates. They can address the Congress of the French Parliament, which meets at the Palace of Versailles, or have the address read by the presidents of both chambers of Parliament, with no subsequent debate. Following a tradition started by the first National Assembly during the French Revolution, the left-wing parties sit to the left as seen from the presidents seat and the right-wing parties to the right; the seating arrangement thus directly indicates the left–right political spectrum as represented in the assembly. The official seat of the National Assembly is the Palais Bourbon on the Rive Gauche of the Seine in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. The Assembly also uses other neighbouring buildings, including the Immeuble Chaban-Delmas on the Rue de lUniversité, Paris. Like most institutions of importance in Paris, it is guarded by Republican Guards.
Satsumasendai, Kagoshima. Satsumasendai (薩摩川内市, Satsumasendai-shi) is a city located in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 July 2024[update], the city had an estimated population of 90,918 in 46610 households, and a  population density of 130 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 682.92 km2 (263.68 sq mi). Satsumasendai is part of ancient Satsuma Province and is the location of the Nara period Satsuma Kokubun-ji and the provincial capital of Satsuma Province. It was part of the holdings of Satsuma Domain in the Edo period. Satsumasendai is located in northwest Kagoshima Prefecture, about 40 kilometers northwest of Kagoshima City, and covers almost the entire area of the Sendai Plain, facing the East China Sea to the west. The urban center is located in the western part of the city about 10 kilometers inland from the coast. The Sendai River, which flows east to west through the city area, has the second largest drainage area in Kyushu. In the eastern part of the city area is Imuta Pond, which was designated designated a Ramsar site on November 8, 2005. The entire area of the Koshikijima Islands, in the East China Sea about 40 kilometers  west of the mainland, is also included in the boundaries of Satsumasendai. The islands are also part of the Koshikijima Quasi-National Park. Kagoshima Prefecture
Tanabata.   Tanabata (Japanese: たなばた or 七夕; meaning Evening of the Seventh), also known as the Star Festival (星祭り, Hoshimatsuri), is a Japanese festival originating from the Chinese Qixi Festival.[1][a][b] It celebrates the meeting of the deities Orihime and Hikoboshi (represented by the stars Vega and Altair respectively). According to legend, the Milky Way separates these lovers, and they are allowed to meet only once a year on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month of the lunisolar calendar. The date of Tanabata varies by region of the country, but the first festivities begin on 7 July of the Gregorian calendar. The celebration is held at various days between July and August. The festival was introduced to Japan by the Empress Kōken in 755.[4] It originated from The Festival to Plead for Skills (乞巧奠, Kikkōden), an alternative name for Qixi[5]: 9  which is celebrated in China and also was adopted in the Kyoto Imperial Palace from the Heian period. The festival gained widespread popularity amongst the general public by the early Edo period,[5]: 19  when it became mixed with various Obon or Bon traditions (because Bon was held on 15th of the seventh month then), and developed into the modern Tanabata festival. Popular customs relating to the festival varied by region of the country,[5]: 20  but generally, girls wished for better sewing and craftsmanship, and boys wished for better handwriting by writing wishes on strips of paper. At this time, the custom was to use dew left on taro leaves to create the ink used to write wishes. Incidentally, Bon is now held on 15 August on the solar calendar, close to its original date on the lunar calendar, making Tanabata and Bon separate events.
Aoba Castle.  Aoba Castle (青葉城, Aoba-jō) is a Japanese castle located in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture. Throughout the Edo period, Aoba Castle was home to the Date clan, daimyō of Sendai Domain. The castle was also known as Sendai-jō (仙台城) or as Gojō-rō (五城楼). In 2003, the castle ruins were designated a National Historic Site.[1] Aoba Castle is located on a plateau overlooking the city of Sendai, on the opposing bank of the Hirose river. The site is protected by cliffs to the south and east and by a forest to the west. This forest was strictly guarded in the Edo period and is a rare survivor of the original virgin forests of Honshū. The area is now managed as a botanical garden by Tohoku University. The castle hill is partially surrounded by the Hirose river to the north and east, and a steep slope protects the south. The honmaru (inner bailey) is about 115 meters high and is a roughly square-shaped area 250 meters long surrounded by stone walls, in some places 15 meters high. It contained the foundation for the tenshu, (equivalent to the main keep of European castles); however, only the foundation base was ever built. Instead, the honmaru was protected by four three-story yagura. The daimyō residence within the honmaru was built in the flamboyant Momoyama style, and contemporaries compared it with Toyotomi Hideyoshis legendary Jurakudai Palace in Kyoto. North of the honmaru was the ni-no-maru (second bailey) and the san-no-maru (third bailey), followed by an area containing the residences of the highest samurai officials of the domain. The ni-no-maru was used for both governmental functions and was the location of the main residence of the daimyō. The honmaru was reserved only for certain ceremonial functions. A bridge across the Hirose river led to the higashi-no-maru (east bailey), which also had the ōte-mon (main gate) of the castle. The location of Aoba Castle, a small hill called Mount Aoba, was the site of a fortified residence of a branch of the Shimazu clan, the nominal kokushi of Mutsu Province from the early Kamakura period. In the Muromachi period, it was controlled by the jizamurai Kokubun clan, which was in turn destroyed by the Date clan.
Sendai (disambiguation). Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. Sendai may also refer to:
Paris.   Paris[a] is the capital and largest city of France, with an estimated population of 2,048,472 in January 2025[update][3] in an area of more than 105 km2 (41 sq mi). It is located in the centre of the Île-de-France region. Paris is the fourth-most populous city in the European Union. Nicknamed the City of Light, Paris has been one of the worlds major centres of finance, diplomacy, commerce, culture, fashion, and gastronomy since the 17th century. Paris is a major railway, highway, and air-transport hub served by three international airports: Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly Airport, and Beauvais–Tillé Airport. Paris has one of the most sustainable transportation systems[4] and is one of only two cities in the world that received the Sustainable Transport Award twice. Paris is known for its museums and architectural landmarks: the Musée dOrsay, Musée Marmottan Monet, and Musée de lOrangerie are noted for their collections of French Impressionist art. The Pompidou Centre, Musée National dArt Moderne, Musée Rodin and Musée Picasso are noted for their collections of modern and contemporary art.[citation needed] Part of the city along the Seine has been classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1991[update]. Paris is home to several United Nations organisations, including UNESCO, as well as other international organisations such as the OECD, the OECD Development Centre, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the International Energy Agency, the International Federation for Human Rights, along with European bodies such as the European Space Agency, the European Banking Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. The city hosts different sporting events, such as the French Open, and is the home of the association football club Paris St-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français; it hosted the Summer Olympics three times.
Land of the Rising Sun (disambiguation). Land of the Rising Sun is a popular Western name for Japan. Land of the Rising Sun may also refer to:
List of Norwegian royal consorts. This is a list of queens consort of Norway. This list covers a large time span and the role of a queen has changed much over the centuries, with some individual queens also shaping their own roles. Many have ruled the country side by side with their husband and some have become sole regents. The marriage of an heir or a king was most often affected by politics and alliances were often affirmed by marriages in the royal families. It was also not permitted for a long period for royalty to marry non-royalty. Thus the choice of wife would be narrow in ones own country and most of the queens in this list are not native to their husbands country. Due to unions with Denmark and Sweden the queens listed for 1450–1814 were also queens of Denmark and the queens listed for 1814–1905 were also queens of Sweden.
Coronation.  A coronation ceremony marks the formal investiture of a monarch with regal power using a crown. In addition to the crowning, this ceremony may include the presentation of other items of regalia, and other rituals such as the taking of special vows by the new monarch, the investing and presentation of regalia to them, and acts of homage by the new monarchs subjects. In certain Christian denominations, such as Lutheranism and Anglicanism, coronation is a religious rite.[1][2] As such, Western-style coronations have often included anointing the monarch with holy oil, or chrism as it is often called; the anointing rituals religious significance follows examples found in the Bible. The monarchs consort may also be crowned, either simultaneously with the monarch or as a separate event. Once a vital ritual, coronations have changed over time for a variety of socio-political and religious reasons; most modern monarchies have dispensed with them altogether, preferring simpler ceremonies to mark a monarchs accession. Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom, Tonga, Thailand, Malaysia (federal and state), and Eswatini. The most recent coronation in the world was that of King Charles III and Queen Camilla in London in 2023. In Europe, most monarchs are required to take a simple oath in the presence of the countrys legislature. Besides a coronation, a monarchs accession may be marked in many ways: some nations may retain a religious dimension to their accession rituals, while others have adopted simpler inauguration ceremonies, or even no ceremony at all. Some cultures use bathing or cleansing rites, the drinking of a sacred beverage, or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect. Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual-religious paradigm of the country. Coronation in common parlance today may also, in a broader sense, refer to any formal ceremony in relation to the accession of a monarch, whether or not an actual crown is bestowed,[according to whom?] such ceremonies may otherwise be referred to as investitures, inaugurations, or enthronements. The monarchs accession usually precedes the coronation ceremony. For example, the Coronation of Charles III took place in May 2023, several months after his accession to the throne on the death of his mother Elizabeth II. The coronation ceremonies in medieval Christendom, both Western and Eastern, are influenced by the practice of the Roman Emperors as it developed during Late Antiquity and by Biblical accounts of kings being crowned and anointed.[3] The European coronation ceremonies, perhaps best known in the form they have taken in Great Britain (the most recent of which occurred in 2023), descend from rites initially created in Byzantium, Visigothic Spain, Carolingian France and the Holy Roman Empire and brought to their apogee during the Medieval era.
Church of Sweden.  1164, establishment of the Archdiocese of Uppsala 1536, separation from Rome through the abolition of Canon Law The Church of Sweden (Swedish: Svenska kyrkan) is an Evangelical Lutheran national church in Sweden.[7] A former state church, headquartered in Uppsala, with around 5.4 million members at year end 2024, it is the largest Christian denomination in Sweden. A member of the Porvoo Communion, the church professes Lutheranism. It is composed of thirteen dioceses, divided into parishes.[8] It is a national church which covers the whole nation. The Primate of the Church of Sweden, as well as the Metropolitan of all Sweden, is the Archbishop of Uppsala.
Last Name (disambiguation). Last Name may refer to:
Family Name. Family Name or Family name may refer to:
Riddarholmen. Top: View from Södermalm. Above: Panoramic view from the City Hall Left: The Wrangel and Stenbock Palaces. Below: The Hessenstein Palace. Bottom: Tower of Birger Jarl and the Riddarholm Church. Riddarholmen (Swedish: [ˈrɪ̂dːarˌhɔlːmɛn], The Knights Islet) is a small islet in central Stockholm, Sweden. The island forms part of Gamla Stan, the old town, and houses a number of private palaces dating back to the 17th century. The main landmark is the church Riddarholmskyrkan, used as Swedens royal burial church from the 17th century to 1950, and where a number of earlier Swedish monarchs also lie buried. The western end of the island gives a magnificent panoramic and photogenic view of the bay Riddarfjärden, often used by TV journalists with Stockholm City Hall in the background. A statue of Birger Jarl, traditionally considered the founder of Stockholm, stands on a pillar in front of the Bonde Palace, north of Riddarholm Church. Other notable buildings include the Old Parliament Building in the south-eastern corner, the Old National Archive on the eastern shore, and the Norstedt Building, the old printing house of the publisher Norstedts, the tower roof of which is a well-known silhouette on the citys skyline. While the Riddarholm Church dates back to the Middle Ages, and is one of Stockholms oldest buildings, most of the present structures on Riddarholmen were built during the 17th century when the island was an aristocratic setting that gave the islet its present name. Three of the palaces are gathered around the central public square, Birger Jarls Torg centred on the 19th-century statue of Birger Jarl: The Wrangel Palace on the west side, the most impressive, incorporates a medieval defensive tower and a portal designed by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder; the Stenbock and Hessenstein Palaces on the east side are less elaborate. North of the square, the two 19th-century wings of the Palace of Schering Rosenhane reach the rustic main building, which dates from the 17th century.[1]
Old Book of Tang.  The Old Book of Tang, or simply the Book of Tang, is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (10th century AD), it was superseded by the New Book of Tang, which was compiled in the Song dynasty, but later regained acceptance. The credited editor was chief minister Liu Xu, but the bulk (if not all) of the editing work was actually completed by his predecessor Zhao Ying. The authors include Zhang Zhao, Jia Wei (賈緯), and Zhao Xi (趙熙).[1] The Old Book of Tang comprises 200 volumes.[2] Volumes 1–20 contain the annals of the Tang emperors. Twitchett notes that coverage over time in the annals is most dense during the early and middle Tang, including only very sparse information in the late Tang after 847.[3] Volumes 21–50 contain treatises, including rites, music, calendar, astronomy, five elements, geography, officials, carriages and clothes, literature, food and commodities, and law. The section on rites (volumes 21–27) is the longest and most detailed, showing the relative importance placed on ceremonial matters.[4] This section includes descriptions of temple design, sacrifices, and festivals. The section on geography (volumes 38–41) contains a description of the regional administration of the Tang empire around the year 752.[5] The section on officials (volumes 42–44) contains a description of the Tang administrative system.[6] The section on the five elements (五行) contains a description of earthquakes, floods, and other natural events.
List of Swedish royal consorts. This is a list of Swedish queens consort and spouses of Swedish monarchs and regents. The list covers a large time span and the role of a consort has changed much over the centuries. The first Swedish consorts are spoken of in legends. Consorts until c. 1000 are often semi-legendary, as are monarchs. Due to unions with Denmark and Norway, many of the Swedish consorts were also consorts of monarchs of those countries. Consorts listed during the period of 1380–1520 were in fact also consorts to monarchs of Denmark. The consorts listed during the period of 1814-1905 were also consorts to monarchs of Norway. Finland was from the Middle Ages a part of Sweden, and although there was no official title, such as Queen Consort of Finland, from the 16th century until the year of 1809; the queen consort of Sweden also held the title Grand Princess of Finland.[citation needed] Sweden has had three female monarchs. One of the consorts listed below is male. This is a list of Swedish queens of legend.
Endonym and exonym. An endonym /ˈɛndənɪm/ (also known as autonym /ˈɔːtənɪm/) is a common, native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate themselves, their place of origin, or their language.[1] An exonym /ˈɛɡzənɪm/ (also known as xenonym /ˈzɛnənɪm/) is an established, non-native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place,[1] language, or dialect, meaning that it is used primarily outside the particular place inhabited by the group or linguistic community. Exonyms exist not only for historico-geographical reasons but also in consideration of difficulties when pronouncing foreign words,[1] or from non-systematic attempts at transcribing into a different writing system.[2] For instance, Deutschland is the endonym for the country that is also known by the exonyms Germany and Germania in English and Italian, respectively, Alemania and Allemagne in Spanish and French, respectively, Niemcy in Polish, and Saksa and Saksamaa in Finnish and Estonian, respectively. The terms autonym, endonym, exonym and xenonym are formed by adding specific prefixes to the Greek root word ὄνομα (ónoma) name, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃nómn̥. The prefixes added to these terms are also derived from Greek:
Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese. Some historical Chinese characters for non-Han peoples were graphically pejorative ethnic slurs, where the racial insult derived not from the Chinese word but from the character used to write it. For instance, written Chinese first transcribed the name Yáo the Yao people (in southwest China and Vietnam) with the character for yáo 猺 jackal. Most of those terms were replaced in the early 20th-century language reforms; for example, the character for the term yáo was changed, replaced this graphic pejorative meaning jackal with another one – a homophone meaning yáo 瑤 precious jade. Graphic pejoratives are a unique aspect of Chinese characters. In alphabetically written languages such as English, orthography does not change ethnic slurs – but in logographically written languages like Chinese, it makes a difference whether one writes Yáo as 猺 jackal or with its homophone 瑤 jade. Over 80% of Chinese characters are phono-semantic compounds, consisting of a radical or determinative giving the logographic character a semantic meaning and a rebus or phonetic component guiding the pronunciation.[1] The American linguist James A. Matisoff coined the term graphic pejoratives in 1986, describing autonym and exonym usages in East Asian languages. Human nature being what it is, exonyms are liable to be pejorative rather than complimentary, especially where there is a real or fancied difference in cultural level between the ingroup and outgroup. Sometimes the same pejorative exonym is applied to different peoples, providing clues to the inter-ethnic pecking-order in a certain region. ... the former Chinese name for the Jinghpaw, [Yěrén] 野人 lit. wild men, was used by both the Jinghpaw and the Burmese to refer to the Lisu. ... The Chinese writing system provided unique opportunities for graphic pejoratives. The beast-radical 犭 used to appear in the characters for the names of lesser peoples (e.g., 猺 Yao), though now the person-radical 亻 has been substituted (傜).[2] Disparaging characters for certain ethnic groups depend upon a subtle semantic aspect of transcription into Chinese characters. The Chinese language writes exonyms, like other foreign loanwords, in characters chosen to approximate the foreign pronunciation – but the characters themselves represent meaningful Chinese words. The sinologist Endymion Wilkinson says, At the same time as finding characters to fit the sounds of a foreign word or name it is also possible to choose ones with a particular meaning, in the case of non-Han peoples and foreigners, usually a pejorative meaning. It was the practice, for example, to choose characters with an animal or reptile signific for southern non-Han peoples, and many northern peoples were given characters for their names with the dog or leather hides signific. In origin this practice may have derived from the animal totems or tribal emblems typical of these peoples. This is not to deny that in later Chinese history such graphic pejoratives fitted neatly with Han convictions of the superiority of their own culture as compared to the uncultivated, hence animal-like, savages and barbarians. Characters with animal hides, or other such significs were generally not used in formal correspondence. On and off they were banned by non-Han rulers in China culminating with the Qing. Many were systematically altered during the script reforms of the 1950s (Dádá 韃靼, Tatar, is one of the few, to have survived).[3]
Christian denomination. A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity that comprises all church congregations of the same kind, identifiable by traits such as a name, particular history, organization, leadership, theological doctrine, worship style and, sometimes, a founder. It is a secular and neutral term, generally used to denote any established Christian church. Unlike a cult or sect, a denomination is usually seen as part of the Christian religious mainstream. Most Christian denominations refer to themselves as churches, whereas some newer ones tend to interchangeably use the terms churches, assemblies, fellowships, etc. Divisions between one group and another are defined by authority and doctrine; issues such as the nature of Jesus, the authority of apostolic succession, biblical hermeneutics, theology, ecclesiology, eschatology, and papal primacy may separate one denomination from another. Groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity. These branches differ in many ways, especially through differences in practices and belief.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] Individual denominations vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another. Several groups say they are the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, to avoid implying equivalence with other churches or denominations. The Catholic Church, which has over 1.3 billion members or 50.1% of all Christians worldwide,[8][9] does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational Church.[10] The total Protestant population has reached around 1.047 billion in 2024, accounting for about 39.8% of all Christians.[11][8][12] Sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church as a result of the Reformation, a movement against doctrines and practices which the Reformers perceived to be in violation of the Bible.[13][14][15] Together, Catholicism and Protestantism (with major traditions including Adventism, Anabaptism, Anglicanism, Baptists, Lutheranism, Methodism, Moravianism, Pentecostalism, Plymouth Brethren, Quakerism, Reformed, and Waldensianism) compose Western Christianity.[16][17] Western Christian denominations prevail in Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe (excluding Eastern Europe), North America, Oceania and South America.[18] The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 230 million adherents,[19][12][20] is the second-largest Christian body in the world and also considers itself the original pre-denominational Church. Orthodox Christians, 80% of whom are Eastern Orthodox and 20% Oriental Orthodox, make up about 11.9% of the global Christian population.[19] The Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches (or jurisdictions) that recognize each other, for the most part. Similarly, the Catholic Church is a communion of sui iuris churches, including 23 Eastern ones. The Eastern Orthodox Church, the 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, the Oriental Orthodox communion, the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, and the Eastern Lutheran Churches constitute Eastern Christianity. There are certain Eastern Protestant Christians that have adopted Protestant theology but have cultural and historical ties with other Eastern Christians. Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East, Northeast Africa, and India. Christians have various doctrines about the Church (the body of the faithful that they believe Jesus Christ established) and about how the divine church corresponds to Christian denominations. The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East and Lutheran denominations, each hold that only their own specific organization faithfully represents the one holy catholic and apostolic Church, to the exclusion of all others. Certain denominational traditions teach that they were divinely instituted to propagate a certain doctrine or spiritual experience, for example the raising up of Methodism by God to propagate entire sanctification (the second blessing),[21] or the launch of Pentecostalism to bestow a supernatural empowerment evidenced by speaking in tongues on humanity.[22]
Stockholm Palace.  Stockholm Palace, or the Royal Palace, (Swedish: Stockholms slott or Kungliga slottet) is the official residence and major royal palace of the Swedish monarch (King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia use Drottningholm Palace as their usual residence). Stockholm Palace is in Stadsholmen, in Gamla stan in the capital, Stockholm. It neighbours the Riksdag building. The offices of the King, the other members of the Swedish royal family, and the Royal Court of Sweden are here. The palace is used for representative purposes by the King whilst performing his duties as the head of state. This royal residence has been in the same location by Norrström in the northern part of Gamla stan in Stockholm since the middle of the 13th century when Tre Kronor Castle was built. In modern times the name relates to the building called Kungliga Slottet. The palace was designed by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger and erected on the same place as the medieval Tre Kronor Castle which was destroyed in a fire on 7 May 1697. Due to the costly Great Northern War which started in 1700, construction of the palace was halted in 1709, and not recommenced until 1727—six years after the end of the war. When Tessin the Younger died in 1728, the palace was completed by Carl Hårleman who also designed a large part of its Rococo interior. The palace was not ready to use until 1754, when King Adolf Frederick and Queen Louisa Ulrika moved in, but some interior work proceeded until the 1770s. No major conversions have been done in the palace since its completion, only some adjustments, new interiors, modernization and redecorating for different regents and their families, coloration of the façades and addition of the palace museums. The palace is surrounded by the Lejonbacken and the Norrbro to the north, the Logården (known as the Shot Yard in English)[3] and Skeppsbron in the east, the Slottsbacken and the Storkyrkan in the south, and the outer courtyard and Högvaktsterrassen in the northwest. The interior of the palace consists of 1,430 rooms of which 660 have windows. The palace contains apartments for the Royal families, representation and festivities such as the State Apartments, the Guest Apartments and the Bernadotte Apartments. More features are the Hall of State, the Royal Chapel, the Treasury with the Regalia of Sweden, Livrustkammaren and the Tre Kronor Museum in the remaining cellar vaults from the former castle. The National Library of Sweden was housed in the northeast wing, the Biblioteksflygeln (the Library Wing), until 1878.  It also houses the Bernadotte Library. The Slottsarkivet is housed in the Chancery Wing. In the palace are the offices of the Royal Court of Sweden, a place of work for approximately 200 employees. The Royal Guards have guarded the palace and the royal family since 1523. A comprehensive renovation of the façade began in 2011, to repair weather damaged parts made from sandstone. The repairs are estimated to cost approximately 500 million crowns (about US$77 million) over a period of 22 years. The Royal Palace is owned by the Swedish State through the National Property Board of Sweden which is responsible for running and maintaining the palace, while the Ståthållarämbetet (the Office of the Governor of the Royal Palaces) manages the royal right of disposition of the palace. The palace belongs to the Crown palaces in Sweden which are at the disposition of the King and the Royal court of Sweden.[4]
Personal name.  A personal name, full name or prosoponym (from Ancient Greek prósōpon – person, and onoma –name)[1] is the set of names by which an individual person or animal is known. When taken together as a phrase, they all relate to that one individual.[2] In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual. In linguistic classification, personal names are studied within a specific onomastic discipline, called anthroponymy.[3] In Western culture, nearly all individuals possess at least one given name (also known as a first name, forename, or Christian name), together with a surname (also known as a last name or family name). In the name James Smith, for example, James is the first name and Smith is the surname. Surnames in the West generally indicate that the individual belongs to a family, a tribe, or a clan, although the exact relationships vary: they may be given at birth, taken upon adoption, changed upon marriage, and so on. Where there are two or more given names, typically only one (in English-speaking cultures usually the first) is used in normal speech. Another naming convention that is used mainly in the Arabic culture and in different other areas across Africa and Asia is connecting the persons given name with a chain of names, starting with the name of the persons father and then the fathers father and so on, usually ending with the family name (tribe or clan name). However, the legal full name of a person usually contains the first three names (given name, fathers name, fathers fathers name) and the family name at the end, to limit the name in government-issued ID. Mens names and womens names are constructed using the same convention, and a persons name is not altered if they are married.[4] Some cultures, including Western ones, also add (or once added) patronymics or matronymics, for instance as a middle name as with Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (whose fathers given name was Ilya), or as a last name as with Björk Guðmundsdóttir (whose father is named Guðmundur) or Heiðar Helguson (whose mother was named Helga). Similar concepts are present in Eastern cultures. However, in some areas of the world, many people are known by a single name, and so are said to be mononymous. Still other cultures lack the concept of specific, fixed names designating people, either individually or collectively. Certain isolated tribes, such as the Machiguenga of the Amazon, do not use personal names.[i]
Suriname.  Suriname,[a]  officially the Republic of Suriname,[b] is a country in northern South America, also considered as part of the Caribbean and the West Indies. Situated slightly north of the equator, over 90% of its territory is covered by rainforest, the highest proportion of forest cover in the world. Suriname is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, and Brazil to the south. It is the smallest country in South America by both population and territory,[c] with around 612,985 inhabitants in 2021 in an area of approximately 163,820 square kilometers (63,251 square miles).[11][15][16][17] The capital and largest city is Paramaribo, which is home to roughly half the population. Suriname was inhabited as early as the fourth millennium BC by various indigenous peoples, including the Arawaks, Caribs, and Wayana. Europeans arrived and contested the area in the 16th century, with the Dutch controlling much of the countrys current territory by the late 17th century. Under Dutch rule, Suriname was a lucrative plantation colony focused mostly on sugar; its economy was driven by African slave labour until the abolition of slavery in 1863. Approximately 300,000 enslaved Africans were taken to Suriname during the transatlantic slave trade, from the mid-1600s to the early 1800s. After 1863 indentured servants were recruited mostly from British India and the Dutch East Indies. In 1954, Suriname became a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. On 25 November 1975, it became independent following negotiations with the Dutch government. Suriname continues to maintain close diplomatic, economic, and cultural ties with the Netherlands. Surinamese culture and society strongly reflect the legacy of Dutch colonial rule. It is the only independent state outside Europe where Dutch is the official and prevailing language of government, business, media, and education;[18] an estimated 60% of the population speaks Dutch as a native language.[19] Sranan Tongo, an English-based creole language, is a widely used lingua franca. Most Surinamese are descendants of slaves brought from Africa by Europeans, and indentured labourers brought from Asia by the Dutch. Suriname is highly diverse, with no ethnic group forming a majority; proportionally, its Muslim and Hindu populations are some of the largest in the Americas. Most people live along the northern coast, centred on Paramaribo, making Suriname one of the least densely populated countries on Earth. It is a developing country with a high level of human development; its economy is heavily dependent on its abundant natural resources, namely bauxite, gold, petroleum, and agricultural products. Suriname is a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization of American States.
Jiro (given name). Jirō or Jiro (じろう, ジロウ) is a stand-alone Japanese given name along with Tarō, and a common name suffix for males. Jirō can be written using different kanji characters and can mean: The name can also be written in hiragana or katakana.
Saburō. Saburō or Saburo (さぶろう, サブロウ) is a masculine Japanese given name. Saburō can be written using different kanji characters and can mean: The name can also be written in hiragana or katakana.
Tarō Asō.  Tarō Asō (麻生 太郎, Asō Tarō; born 20 September 1940) is a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 2008 to 2009. A member of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), he also served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance from 2012 to 2021. He was the longest-serving Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance in Japanese history, having previously served as Minister for Foreign Affairs from 2005 to 2007 and as Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications from 2003 to 2005. He leads the Shikōkai faction within the LDP.[1] Asō was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1979. He served in numerous ministerial roles before becoming Secretary-General of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) in 2008, having also held that role temporarily in 2007.[2] He was later elected LDP President in September 2008, becoming prime minister the same month.[2] He led the LDP to the worst election result in its history a year later, marking only the second time in post-war Japan that a governing party had lost re-election, and resigned as the President of the party immediately afterwards. After the LDP returned to government following the 2012 election under Shinzo Abe, Asō was appointed to the Cabinet as Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister, retaining those roles when Yoshihide Suga replaced Abe in 2020.[3] After leaving cabinet, hes served as vice president of the LDP under Fumio Kishida and as senior advisor to the LDP under Shigeru Ishiba. He is a noted power broker inside the party, leading the Shikōkai. Asō has been attached to a number of controversies in his career. He conceded in 2008 that his family had benefitted from forced labor during World War II, although he has refused to apologize for it. Asō also had a reputation for political gaffes and controversial remarks.[4] Taro Asō was born in Iizuka in Fukuoka Prefecture on 20 September 1940, as the eldest son of Takakichi Asō and his wife Kazuko. The Asō family was one of the leading business families in Kyushu, going back to Asōs great grandfather Takichi Asō, who established himself as a coal mining magnate in the Meiji era. Takakichi Asō had taken over the family company after Takichi as a young man in the 1930s. Kazuko was the daughter of the diplomat Shigeru Yoshida, who after the war served as Prime Minister from 1946 to 1947 and 1948 to 1954. He is also by marriage related to Sato Eisaku, who served as prime minister from 1964 to 1974.[5] Through his maternal grandmother, Aso is also a descendant of the Meiji statesman Toshimichi Okubo, considered one of the founders of modern Japan.[6][7]
Personal name.  A personal name, full name or prosoponym (from Ancient Greek prósōpon – person, and onoma –name)[1] is the set of names by which an individual person or animal is known. When taken together as a phrase, they all relate to that one individual.[2] In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual. In linguistic classification, personal names are studied within a specific onomastic discipline, called anthroponymy.[3] In Western culture, nearly all individuals possess at least one given name (also known as a first name, forename, or Christian name), together with a surname (also known as a last name or family name). In the name James Smith, for example, James is the first name and Smith is the surname. Surnames in the West generally indicate that the individual belongs to a family, a tribe, or a clan, although the exact relationships vary: they may be given at birth, taken upon adoption, changed upon marriage, and so on. Where there are two or more given names, typically only one (in English-speaking cultures usually the first) is used in normal speech. Another naming convention that is used mainly in the Arabic culture and in different other areas across Africa and Asia is connecting the persons given name with a chain of names, starting with the name of the persons father and then the fathers father and so on, usually ending with the family name (tribe or clan name). However, the legal full name of a person usually contains the first three names (given name, fathers name, fathers fathers name) and the family name at the end, to limit the name in government-issued ID. Mens names and womens names are constructed using the same convention, and a persons name is not altered if they are married.[4] Some cultures, including Western ones, also add (or once added) patronymics or matronymics, for instance as a middle name as with Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (whose fathers given name was Ilya), or as a last name as with Björk Guðmundsdóttir (whose father is named Guðmundur) or Heiðar Helguson (whose mother was named Helga). Similar concepts are present in Eastern cultures. However, in some areas of the world, many people are known by a single name, and so are said to be mononymous. Still other cultures lack the concept of specific, fixed names designating people, either individually or collectively. Certain isolated tribes, such as the Machiguenga of the Amazon, do not use personal names.[i]
Yamada (disambiguation). Yamada is a Japanese surname. Yamada may also refer to:
Prime Minister of Japan.  Naruhito  Fumihito 
Kanji.  Kanji (/ˈkændʒi, ˈkɑːn-/;[1] Japanese: 漢字, pronounced [kaɲ.dʑi] ⓘ) are logographic Chinese characters, adapted from Chinese script, used in the writing of Japanese.[2] They comprised a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese and are still used, along with the subsequently derived syllabic scripts of hiragana and katakana.[3][4] The characters have Japanese pronunciations; most have two, with one based on the Chinese sound. A few characters were invented in Japan by constructing character components derived from other Chinese characters. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan made its own efforts to simplify the characters, now known as shinjitai, by a process similar to Chinas simplification efforts, with the intention to increase literacy among the general public. Since the 1920s, the Japanese government has published character lists periodically to help direct the education of its citizenry through the myriad Chinese characters that exist. There are nearly 3,000 kanji used in Japanese names and in common communication. The term kanji in Japanese literally means Han characters.[5] Japanese kanji and Chinese hanzi (traditional Chinese: 漢字; simplified Chinese: 汉字; pinyin: hànzì; lit. Han characters) share a common foundation.[6] The significant use of Chinese characters in Japan first began to take hold around the 5th century AD and has since had a profound influence in shaping Japanese culture, language, literature, history, and records.[7] Inkstone artifacts at archaeological sites dating back to the earlier Yayoi period were also found to contain Chinese characters.[8] Although some characters, as used in Japanese and Chinese, have similar meanings and pronunciations, others have meanings or pronunciations that are unique to one language or the other. For example, 誠 means honest in both languages but is pronounced makoto or sei in Japanese, and chéng in Standard Mandarin Chinese. Individual kanji characters and multi-kanji words invented in Japan from Chinese morphemes have been borrowed into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese in recent times. These are known as Wasei-kango, or Japanese-made Chinese words. For example, the word for telephone, 電話 denwa in Japanese, was derived from the Chinese words for electric and conversation. It was then calqued as diànhuà in Mandarin Chinese, điện thoại in Vietnamese and 전화 jeonhwa in Korean.[9] Chinese characters first came to Japan on official seals, letters, swords, coins, mirrors, and other decorative items imported from China.[10] The earliest known instance of such an import was the King of Na gold seal given by Emperor Guangwu of Han to a Wa emissary in 57 AD.[11] Chinese coins as well as inkstones from the first century AD have also been found in Yayoi period archaeological sites.[7][8] However, the Japanese people of that era probably had little to no comprehension of the script, and they would remain relatively illiterate until the fifth century AD, when writing in Japan became more widespread.[7] According to the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki, a semi-legendary scholar called Wani was dispatched to Japan by the Kingdom of Baekje during the reign of Emperor Ōjin in the early fifth century, bringing with him knowledge of Confucianism and Chinese characters.[12]
Inukai Tsuyoshi. Inukai Tsuyoshi (Japanese: 犬養 毅, 4 June 1855 – 15 May 1932) was a Japanese statesman who was prime minister of Japan from 1931 to his assassination in 1932. At the age of 76, Inukai was Japans second oldest serving prime minister, after Kantarō Suzuki whose term ended at the age of 77.[1] Inukai was born 4 June 1855, in Kawairi, Kaya, Bitchū Province (in present-day Okayama, Okayama Prefecture), the second son of Inukai Genzaemon, a samurai, district magistrate and local official (ōjōya). His family was a branch of the Itakura clan, and were originally given a status that allowed them to wear a katana by the Niwase Domain.[2] In 1876, Inukai travelled to Tokyo and subsequently graduated from the Keio Gijuku (now Keio University) where he specialized in Chinese studies. In his early career, Inukai worked as a journalist for the Yūbin Hōchi Shimbun (now a sports newspaper subsidiary of the Yomiuri Shimbun) and Akita Sakigake Shimpō.  He went with the Imperial Japanese Army to the front during the Satsuma Rebellion as a reporter.[1] Ōkuma Shigenobu invited Inukai to help form the Rikken Kaishintō political party in 1882, which supported liberal political causes, strongly opposed the domination of the government by members of the former Chōshū and Satsuma domains, and called for a British-style constitutional monarchy within the framework of a parliamentary democracy. Inukai was first elected to the Lower House of the Imperial Diet in 1890, and was reelected 17 times, holding the same seat for 42 years until his death.
Aki Yamada. Aki Yamada (山田 明季, Yamada Aki; born 24 November 1992) is a Japanese field hockey player for the Japanese national team.[1] She participated at the [[2018 Womens Hockey World Cup 2020Tokyo Olympics]].[2][3] This biographical article relating to a Japanese field hockey figure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Prince. A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarchs or former monarchs family. Prince is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. The female equivalent is a princess. The English word derives, via the French word prince, from the Latin noun prīnceps, from primus (first) and caput (head), meaning the first, foremost, the chief, most distinguished, noble ruler, prince.[1] In a related sense, now not commonly used, all more or less sovereign rulers over a state, including kings, were princes in the language of international politics. They normally had another title, for example king or duke. Many of these were Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The Latin word prīnceps (older Latin *prīsmo-kaps, lit. the one who takes the first [place/position]), became the usual title of the informal leader of the Roman senate some centuries before the transition to empire, the princeps senatus. Emperor Augustus established the formal position of monarch on the basis of principate, not dominion. He also tasked his grandsons as summer rulers of the city when most of the government were on holiday in the country or attending religious rituals, and, for that task, granted them the title of princeps. The title has generic and substantive meanings:
Marseille.  Marseille[a] (French: Marseille; Provençal Occitan: Marselha; see below) is a city in southern France, the prefecture of the department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region. Situated in the Provence region, it is located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, near the mouth of the Rhône river. Marseille is the second-most populous city proper in France, after Paris, with 877,215 inhabitants in 2022 (Jan. census)[7] over a municipal territory of 241 km2 (93 sq mi). Together with its suburbs and exurbs, the Marseille metropolitan area, which extends over 3,972 km2 (1,534 sq mi), had a population of 1,900,957 at the Jan. 2022 census,[6] the third most populated in France after those of Paris and Lyon. The cities of Marseille, Aix-en-Provence, and 90 suburban municipalities have formed since 2016 the Aix-Marseille-Provence Metropolis, an indirectly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of wider metropolitan issues, with a population of 1,922,626 at the Jan. 2022 census.[8] Founded c. 600 BC by Greek settlers from Phocaea, Marseille is the oldest city in France, as well as one of Europes oldest continuously inhabited settlements.[9] It was known to the ancient Greeks as Massalia and to Romans as Massilia.[9][10] Marseille has been a trading port since ancient times. In particular, it experienced a considerable commercial boom during the colonial period and especially during the 19th century, becoming a prosperous industrial and trading city. Nowadays the Old Port still lies at the heart of the city, where the manufacture of Marseille soap began some six centuries ago. Overlooking the port is the Basilica of Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde or Bonne-mère for the people of Marseille, a Romano-Byzantine church and the symbol of the city. Inherited from this past, the Grand Port Maritime de Marseille (GPMM) and the maritime economy are major poles of regional and national activity and Marseille remains the first French port, the second Mediterranean port and the fifth European port.[11] Since its origins, Marseilles openness to the Mediterranean Sea has made it a cosmopolitan city marked by cultural and economic exchanges with Southern Europe, the Middle East, North Africa and Asia. In Europe, the city has the third largest Jewish community after London and Paris.[12] In the 1990s, the Euroméditerranée project for economic development and urban renewal was launched. New infrastructure projects and renovations were carried out in the 2000s and 2010s: the tramway, the renovation of the Hôtel-Dieu into a luxury hotel, the expansion of the Velodrome Stadium, the CMA CGM Tower, as well as other quayside museums such as the Museum of Civilisations of Europe and the Mediterranean (MuCEM). As a result, Marseille now has the most museums in France after Paris. The city was named European Capital of Culture in 2013 and European Capital of Sport in 2017. Home of the association football club Olympique de Marseille, one of the most successful and widely supported clubs in France, Marseille has also hosted matches at the 1998 World Cup and Euro 2016. It is also home to several higher education institutions in the region, including the University of Aix-Marseille. A resident of Marseille is a Marseillais. The name Marseille most likely comes from the name Massalia given to the ancient city initially founded by Greeks. Variations of the name include:
Saitō Makoto. Viscount Saitō Makoto, GCB GCSOC (斎藤 実) (27 October 1858 – 26 February 1936) was a Japanese naval officer and politician.[1] Upon distinguishing himself during his command of two cruisers in the First Sino-Japanese War, Saitō rose rapidly to the rank of rear admiral by 1900. He was promoted to vice admiral during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. After serving as Minister of the Navy from 1906 to 1914, Saitō held the position of Governor-General of Korea from 1919 to 1927 and again from 1929 to 1931. When Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated in May 1932, he took his place as prime minister and served one term in office. Saitō returned to public service as Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal in February 1935 but was assassinated only a year later during the February 26 Incident. Saitō along with Takahashi Korekiyo were the last former prime ministers of Japan to be assassinated until 2022, with the assassination of Shinzo Abe. Saitō was born in Mizusawa Domain, Mutsu Province (part of present-day Ōshū City Iwate Prefecture), as the son of a samurai of the Mizusawa Clan. In 1879, he graduated from the 6th class Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, ranking third out of a class of 17 cadets.[2] He was commissioned an ensign on September 8, 1882, and promoted to sub-lieutenant on February 25, 1884. In 1884, Saitō went to the United States for four years to study as a military attaché. Promoted to lieutenant on 14 July 1886; in 1888, after returning to Japan, he served as a member of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff. After his promotion to lieutenant commander on 20 December 1893, he served as executive officer on the cruiser Izumi and battleship Fuji. During the First Sino-Japanese War, Saitō served as captain of the cruisers Akitsushima and Itsukushima. He received rapid promotions to commander on 1 December 1897 and to captain on 27 December. On 10 November 1898, he became Vice Minister of the Navy, and was promoted to rear admiral on 20 May 1900.[3]
Keisuke Okada. Keisuke Okada (岡田 啓介, Okada Keisuke; 20 January 1868 – 7 October 1952) was a Japanese admiral and statesman who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1934 to 1936. Born to a samurai family in the Fukui Domain, Okada became an officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy and served during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War. After reaching the rank of Admiral, he served as minister of the navy under Prime Minister Tanaka Giichi from 1927 to 1929 and under Prime Minister Saitō Makoto from 1932 to 1933. Okada was appointed prime minister to succeed Saito in 1934. A moderate who attempted to restrain the rise of militarism, Okada was among those targeted by a group of rebel officers in the February 26 incident of 1936. Okada narrowly survived, but resigned in the aftermath of the incident. As a senior statesman during the Pacific War, Okada was a central figure in efforts to oust Prime Minister Hideki Tojo and seek peace with the allies. Okada was born on 20 January 1868, in Fukui Prefecture, the son of a samurai of the Fukui Domain.[1] He attended the 15th class of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, graduating 7th out of a class of 80 cadets in 1889.
Tarō (given name). Tarō (太郎) (alternatively romanized Taro, Tarô, Talo, Taroh or Tarou), is a stand-alone masculine Japanese given name or a common name second half of such a name (literally meaning eldest son). Tarō can also be used as a surname, but the etymology and kanji are different. The name Tarō can have many different meanings depending on the kanji characters used to write it. It can also be written using hiragana or katakana. Possible variations of the name Taro include:
The Man with the Golden Gun (film).  The Man with the Golden Gun is a 1974 spy film, the ninth in the James Bond series produced by Eon Productions and the second to star Roger Moore as the fictional  MI6 agent James Bond. A loose adaptation of Ian Flemings posthumously published 1965 novel of the same name, the film has Bond sent after the Solex Agitator, a breakthrough technological solution to contemporary energy shortages, while in a game of cat and mouse facing the assassin Francisco Scaramanga, the Man with the Golden Gun. The action culminates in a duel between them that settles the fate of the Solex. The Man with the Golden Gun was the fourth and final film in the series directed by Guy Hamilton. The script was written by Richard Maibaum and Tom Mankiewicz. The film was set in the face of the 1973 energy crisis, a dominant theme in the script; Britain had still not yet fully overcome the crisis when the film was released in December 1974. The film also reflects the then-popular martial arts film craze, with several kung fu scenes and a predominantly Asian location, being set and shot in Thailand, Hong Kong, and Macau. Part of the film is also set in Beirut, Lebanon, but it was not shot there. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who described it as the lowest point in the canon up to that time. Christopher Lees portrayal of Scaramanga as a villain of similar skill and ability to Bond was praised, but reviewers criticised the film as a whole, particularly its comedic approach and Britt Eklands performance. Whilst profitable, the film is the fourth lowest-grossing in the series, and its relatively modest returns by comparison with those of Live and Let Die (1973) reportedly placed the continuation of the franchise in jeopardy.[3] The Man with the Golden Gun was the last Bond film to be co-produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, with Saltzman selling his 50% stake in Danjaq, LLC, the parent company of Eon Productions, after the release of the film. The series would go on a hiatus until The Spy Who Loved Me in 1977.
Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office.  The Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (参謀本部, Sanbō Honbu), also called the Army General Staff, was one of the two principal agencies charged with overseeing the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA). The Army Ministry (陸軍省, Rikugunshō) was created in April 1872, along with the Navy Ministry, to replace the Ministry of Military Affairs (Hyōbushō) of the early Meiji government. Initially, the Army Ministry was in charge of both administration and operational command of the Imperial Japanese Army however, from December 1878, the Imperial Army General Staff Office took over all operational control of the Army, leaving the Army Ministry only with administrative functions. The Imperial Army General Staff was thus responsible for the preparation of war plans; the military training and employment of combined arms military intelligence; the direction of troop maneuvers; troop deployments; and the compilation of field service military regulations, military histories, and cartography. The Chief of the Army General Staff was the senior ranking uniformed officer in the Imperial Japanese Army and enjoyed, along with the Army Minister, the Navy Minister, and the Chief of the Navy General Staff, direct access to the Emperor. In wartime, the Imperial Army General Staff formed part of the army section of the Imperial General Headquarters, an ad hoc body under the supervision of the emperor created to assist in coordinating overall command. Following the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867 and the restoration of direct imperial rule, the leaders of the new Meiji government sought to reduce Japans vulnerability to Western imperialism by systematically emulating the technological, governing, social, and military practices of the Western European great powers. Initially, under Ōmura Masujirō and his newly created Ministry of the Military Affairs (Hyōbu-shō), the Japanese military was patterned after that of France. However, the stunning victory of Prussia and the other members of the North German Confederation in the 1870/71 Franco-Prussian War convinced the Meiji oligarchs of the superiority of the Prussian military model and in February 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and Oyama Iwao proposed that the Japanese military be remodeled along Prussian lines. In December 1878, at the urging of Katsura Taro, who had formerly served as a military attaché to Prussia, the Meiji government fully adopted the Prussian/German general staff system (Großer Generalstab) which included the independence of the military from civilian organs of government, thus ensuring that the military would stay above political party maneuvering, and would be loyal directly to the emperor rather than to a Prime Minister who might attempt to usurp the emperors authority.
Akari Yamada. Akari Yamada (山田 朱莉, Yamada Akari; born 25 May 1996,[5] in Osaka Prefecture) is a Japanese fashion model, actress, and model. She is represented with Tambourine Artists. In 2009, Yamada won the grand prize at the 17th Pichimo Audition from the fashion magazine Pichi Lemon (Gakken Publishing), and later in the same year she became a Pichi Lemon exclusive model. She appeared in the 2010 FIVB Volleyball Mens World Championships Sekai Volleyball Ōen Fashion-bu. In June 2012, Yamada became a member of the idol music group Yumemiru Adolescence. She graduated from Pichi Lemon from its April 2013 issue.
List of terms referring to an average person. The following is a list of terms referring to an average person. Many are used as placeholder names. Fulān (male: ‏فلان‎), Fulāna (female: فلانة),[2] also (male with family name: Fulān al-Fulani)[3] See also fr:wikt:Tartempion#Synonymes Fulano,[43] mengano,[44] zutano,[45] and perengano[46] are words that are used to refer to someone when their name is not known or is not wanted to be said. Common placeholder first names in Russia are Ivan and Pyotr, due to their ubiquity. Their placeholder function may be seen in old Russian textbooks: in arithmetical problems or sentences to illustrate grammar.[59]
Hiragana. Hiragana (平仮名, ひらがな; IPA: [çiɾaɡaꜜna, çiɾaɡana(ꜜ)]) is a Japanese syllabary, part of the Japanese writing system, along with katakana as well as kanji. It is a phonetic lettering system. The word hiragana means common or plain kana (originally also easy, as contrasted with kanji).[1][2][3] Hiragana and katakana are both kana systems. With few exceptions, each mora in the Japanese language is represented by one character (or one digraph) in each system. This may be a vowel such as /a/ (hiragana あ); a consonant followed by a vowel such as /ka/ (か); or /N/ (ん), a nasal sonorant which, depending on the context and dialect, sounds either like English m, n or ng ([ŋ]) when syllable-final or like the nasal vowels of French, Portuguese or Polish.[citation needed] Because the characters of the kana do not represent single consonants (except in the case of the aforementioned ん), the kana are referred to as syllabic symbols and not alphabetic letters.[4] Hiragana is used to write okurigana (kana suffixes following a kanji root, for example to inflect verbs and adjectives), various grammatical and function words including particles, and miscellaneous other native words for which there are no kanji or whose kanji form is obscure or too formal for the writing purpose.[5] Words that do have common kanji renditions may also sometimes be written instead in hiragana, according to an individual authors preference, for example to impart an informal feel. Hiragana is also used to write furigana, a reading aid that shows the pronunciation of kanji characters. There are two main systems of ordering hiragana: the old-fashioned iroha ordering and the more prevalent gojūon ordering.
Placeholder word. In linguistics, a placeholder word or a placeholder is a word that is used in place of an exact word. In some cases they are used in speech to replace a forgotten word or a word about which the speaker is unsure.[1] For example the writer may be unsure whether the technical word  would be familiar to the readers[2] or the speaker themselves is unsure which word to use.[3] These words, such as thingummyjig are not part of standard written language and are not captured well by text corpora.[1][2] These may replace both names of objects (thingummabob) and the personal names (placeholder names, e.g., Mr. Whatshisname).[4] Placeholder words are often used to convey vagueness. Other means to introduce vagueness are the use of taxonomic nouns with adaptors (kind of tree), generic words (thing, stuff), etc.[5] Some authors, e.g., Neil Grave, include generic words (thing, stuff) in the category of placeholder words as well. At the same time, Neil Grave notes that the generic words may perform a large number other functions, e.g., to be a vague category marker (as in shorts and T-shirts, and stuff).[3] A thorough treatment of vague language, including placeholder words was provided by Joanna Channell.[4] In particular, she demonstrates that dictionaries often provide inadequate definitions and explanations of vague lexical items.[6] Some earlier studies that did not yet adopt the term placeholder use the terms filler, dummy.[7]: 1480  The terms lexical filler, oblitive noun/verb are used to denote what Vera Podlesskaya calls hesitation markers, used when a speaker is temporarily unable to recall the exact name of the object.[8] Some functions of vague language include: J. Channell grouped placeholder nouns into three categories: those which replace  names, these which replace object names,  those which can replace both.[4]: 157
ThingamaBob.  ThingamaBob is science entertainment television series. The series premiered in the United States on the H2 on January 18, 2014.[2][3] The show follows inventor Bob Partington around as he attempts to build various contraptions for local businesses in Brooklyn.[1][3]  Ten episodes have been scheduled to be produced by TGroup Productions in association with 1stAveMachine.[1] Bob Partington is an inventor from Brooklyn, New York. In each episode, Bob receives a new box of items which are related to American history in a way. Bob is required to use these items to reinvent three unique inventions. The show follows Bob around as he comes up with ideas to use the items for and eventually constructs fully functioning contraptions.[1][3] The show is accommodated with historical facts regarding the items Bob has to use. This article related to an American television documentary is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Cadigan (surname). Cadigan is an Irish surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Lord Voldemort.  Lord Voldemort (/ˈvoʊldəmɔːr/ VOHL-də-mor, /-mɔːrt/ -⁠mort in the films)[j] is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the Harry Potter series of novels by J. K. Rowling. He first appears in Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone (1997) and returns either in person or in flashbacks in each novel in the series except the third, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, in which he is only mentioned. Voldemort, an anagrammatic sobriquet for his birth name Tom Marvolo Riddle, is the archenemy of Harry Potter, who according to a prophecy has the power to vanquish the Dark Lord. After killing Harrys parents, Lily and James Potter, he attempts to murder the boy, but instead leaves him with a scar on his forehead in the shape of a lightning bolt. Nearly every witch or wizard dares not utter his name and refers to him instead with such monikers as You-Know-Who, He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named, or The Dark Lord. Voldemorts obsession with blood purity signifies his aim to rid the wizarding world of Muggle (non-magical) heritage and to conquer both worlds, Muggle and wizarding, to achieve pure-blood dominance. Through his mothers family, he is the last descendant of the wizard Salazar Slytherin,[6][7] one of the four founders of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. He is the leader of the Death Eaters, a group of wizards and witches dedicated to ridding the Wizarding World of Muggles and establishing Voldemort as its supreme ruler. In a 1999 interview, Rowling claimed Voldemort was invented as a nemesis for Harry Potter, and she intentionally did not flesh out Voldemorts backstory at first. The basic idea [was that Harry] didnt know he was a wizard ... And so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be, that he wouldnt know what he was. ... When he was one year old, the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years attempted to kill him. He killed Harrys parents, and then he tried to kill Harry—he tried to curse him. ... Harry has to find out, before we find out. And—so—but for some mysterious reason the curse didnt work on Harry. So hes left with this lightning bolt-shaped scar on his forehead and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard, who has been in hiding ever since.[8] In the second book, Rowling establishes that Voldemort hates non-pure-blood wizards, despite being a half-blood himself. In a 2000 interview with the BBC, Rowling described Voldemort as a self-hating bully: Well I think it is often the case that the biggest bullies take what they know to be their own defects, as they see it, and they put them right on someone else and then they try and destroy the other and thats what Voldemort does.[9] In the same year, Rowling became more precise about Voldemort. She began to link him to real-life tyrants, describing him as a raging psychopath, devoid of the normal human responses to other peoples suffering.[10] In 2004, though, Rowling said that she did not base Voldemort on any real person.[11] In 2006, Rowling told an interviewer that Voldemort at his core has a human fear: the fear of death. She said: Voldemorts fear is death, ignominious death. I mean, he regards death itself as ignominious. He thinks that its a shameful human weakness, as you know. His worst fear is death.[12]
Cadet branch. A cadet branch consists of the male-line descendants of a monarchs, rulers or patriarchs younger sons (cadets). In the ruling dynasties and noble families of much of Europe and Asia, the familys major assets (realm, titles, fiefs, properties, lands and income) have historically been passed from the father to his firstborn son in what is known as primogeniture; younger sons, the cadets, generally inherited less wealth and authority (such as a small appanage) to pass on to future generations of their descendants. In families and cultures in which that was not the custom or law, such as the feudal Holy Roman Empire, the equal distribution of the familys holdings among male members was eventually apt to so fragment the inheritance as to render it too small to sustain the descendants at the socio-economic level of their forefather—and indeed, too small to efficiently manage or effectively defend. Moreover, brothers and their descendants sometimes quarreled over their allocations, or even became estranged. While agnatic primogeniture became a common way of keeping the familys wealth intact and reducing familial disputes, it did so at the expense of younger sons and their descendants. Both before and after a state legal default of inheritance by primogeniture, younger brothers sometimes vied with older brothers to be chosen as their fathers heir or, after the choice was made, sought to usurp the elders birthright. In such cases, primary responsibility for promoting the familys prestige, aggrandizement, and fortune, fell upon the senior branch for future generations. A cadet, having less means, was not expected to produce a family. If a cadet chose to raise a family, its members were expected to maintain the familys social status by avoiding derogation (embarrassment), but could more easily pursue endeavors considered too demeaning or too risky for the senior branch—for example, emigration to another sovereigns realm, or to a colony; engagement in commerce, or in a profession such as law, religion, academia, military service or government office. Some cadet branches came, eventually, to inherit crown of the senior line.  For example, the Bourbon Counts of Vendôme mounted the throne of France (after civil war) in 1593; the House of Savoy-Carignan succeeded to the kingdoms of Sardinia (1831) and Italy (1861); the Counts Palatine of Zweibrücken obtained the Palatine Electorate of the Rhine (1799) and the Kingdom of Bavaria (1806); and a deposed Duke of Nassau was restored to sovereignty in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (1890). In other cases, a junior branch came to eclipse more senior lines in rank and power, e.g. the Electors and Kings of Saxony who were a younger branch of the House of Wettin than the Grand Dukes of Saxe-Weimar.
Imperial Seal of Japan.  The Imperial Seal of Japan or National Seal of Japan, also called the Chrysanthemum Seal (菊紋, kikumon), Chrysanthemum Flower Seal (菊花紋, 菊花紋章, kikukamon, kikukamonshō) or Imperial chrysanthemum emblem (菊の御紋, kikunogomon), is the mon used by the Emperor of Japan and members of the Imperial Family. It is one of the national seals of Japan and is used in a manner similar to a national coat of arms of Japan, e.g., on Japanese passports. The Japanese government uses a different emblem, the Paulownia seal. During the Meiji period (1868–1912), no one was permitted to use the Imperial Seal except the Emperor of Japan, who used a 16-petalled chrysanthemum with sixteen tips of another row of petals showing behind the first row. Therefore, each member of the Imperial family used a slightly modified version of the seal. Shinto shrines either displayed the imperial seal or incorporated elements of the seal into their own tag. Earlier in Japanese history, when Emperor Go-Daigo, who tried to break the power of the shogunate in 1333, was exiled, he adopted the seventeen-petalled chrysanthemum in order to differentiate himself from the Northern Courts Emperor Kōgon, who kept the imperial 16-petalled mon.[citation needed]
Shennong. Shennong (Chinese: 神農; pinyin: Shénnóng), variously translated as Divine Farmer[1] or Divine Husbandman, born Jiang Shinian (姜石年), was a mythological Chinese ruler known as the first Yan Emperor who has become a deity in Chinese folk religion. He is venerated as a culture hero in China.[2] Shennong has at times been counted amongst the Three Sovereigns (also known as Three Kings or Three Patrons), a group of ancient deities or deified kings of prehistoric China. Shennong has been thought to have taught the ancient Chinese not only their practices of agriculture,[1] but also the use of herbal medicine.[3] Shennong was credited with various inventions: these include the hoe,[1] plow[1] (both leisi (耒耜) style and the plowshare), axe, digging wells, agricultural irrigation, preserving stored seeds by using boiled horse urine (to ward off the borers), trade,[1] commerce,[1] money, the weekly farmers market, the Chinese calendar (especially the division into the 24 jieqi or solar terms), and to have refined the therapeutic understanding of taking pulse measurements, acupuncture, and moxibustion, and to have instituted the harvest thanksgiving ceremony (zhaji (蜡祭) sacrificial rite, later known as the laji (腊祭) rite).[4] Shennong can also be taken to refer to his people, the Shennong-shi (神農氏; Shénnóngshì; Shennong Clan). According to legend, Shennongs mother swallowed the vapor of a dragon and nine days later, her son was born on the banks of the river Jiang. He had a bull (or oxs) head with a mans body. He developed rapidly and began speaking after three days, eventually growing to over eight feet tall.[5] In Chinese mythology, he obtained a mystical book of herbs from a Taoist master and later journeyed across China to record 365 medicinal herbs and fungi that became essential in traditional Chinese medicine.[6] Shennong also taught humans the use of the plow, aspects of basic agriculture, and the use of cannabis. Possibly influenced by the Yan Emperor mythos or the use of slash-and-burn agriculture,[7] Shennong was a god of burning wind. He was also sometimes said to be a progenitor to, or to have had as one of his ministers, Chiyou (and like him, was ox-headed, sharp-horned, bronze-foreheaded, and iron-skulled).[7]
Chrysanthemum Throne. The Chrysanthemum Throne (Japanese: 皇位, Hepburn: kōi; imperial seat) is the throne of the Emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the Takamikura (高御座) throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace.[1] Various other thrones or seats that are used by the Emperor during official functions, such as those used in the Tokyo Imperial Palace or the throne used in the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the National Diet, are, however, not known as the Chrysanthemum Throne.[2] Chrysanthemum Throne is also a metonym for the head of state[3] and the institution of the Japanese monarchy itself.[4][5][6][7][8][9] In much the same sense as the British Crown, the Chrysanthemum Throne is an abstract metonymic concept that represents the monarch and the legal authority for the existence of the government.[10]  Unlike its British counterpart, the concepts of Japanese monarchy evolved differently before 1947 when there was, for example, no perceived separation of the property of the nation-state from the person and personal holdings of the Emperor. According to legend, the Japanese monarchy is said to have been founded in 660 BCE by Emperor Jimmu; Emperor Naruhito is the 126th monarch to occupy the Chrysanthemum Throne. The extant historical records only reach back to Emperor Ōjin, regarded as the 15th emperor, and who is considered to have reigned into the early 4th century.[11][12]
CAS Registry Number.  A CAS Registry Number[1] (also referred to as CAS RN[2] or informally CAS Number) is a unique identification number, assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) in the US to every chemical substance described in the open scientific literature, in order to index the substance in the CAS Registry. This registry includes all substances described since 1957, plus some substances from as far back as the early 1800s.[3] It is a chemical database that includes organic and inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys, mixtures, and nonstructurable materials (UVCBs - substances of unknown or variable composition, complex reaction products, or biological origin).[4] CAS RNs are generally serial numbers (with a check digit), so they do not contain any information about the structures themselves the way SMILES and InChI strings do. The CAS Registry is an authoritative collection of disclosed chemical substance information. It identifies more than 204 million unique organic and inorganic substances and 69 million protein and DNA sequences,[3] plus additional information about each substance. It is updated with around 15,000 additional new substances daily.[5] A collection of almost 500 thousand CAS registry numbers is made available under a CC BY-NC license at ACS Commons Chemistry.[6] Historically, chemicals have been identified by a wide variety of synonyms and propeties. One of the biggest challenges in the early development of substance indexing, a task undertaken by the Chemical Abstracts Service, was in identifying if a substance in literature was new or if it had been previously discovered. Well-known chemicals may be known via multiple generic, historical, commercial, and/or (black)-market names, and even systematic nomenclature based on structure alone was not universally useful. An algorithm was developed to translate the structural formula of a chemical into a computer-searchable table, which provided a basis for the service that listed each chemical with its CAS Registry Number, the CAS Chemical Registry System, which became operational in 1965.[7] CAS Registry Numbers (CAS RN) are simple and regular, convenient for database searches. They offer a reliable, common and international link to every specific substance across the various nomenclatures and disciplines used by branches of science, industry, and regulatory bodies. Almost all molecule databases today allow searching by CAS Registry Number, and it is used as a global standard.[8]
Bibliotheca Alexandrina.  The Bibliotheca Alexandrina (Latin, Library of Alexandria;[1] Arabic: مكتبة الإسكندرية, romanized: Maktabat al-’Iskandariyya, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mækˈtæb(e)t eskendeˈɾejjæ]) (BA) is a major library and cultural center on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea in Alexandria, Egypt. It is a commemoration of the Library of Alexandria, once one of the largest libraries worldwide, which was lost in antiquity. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina contains books in classical Arabic, English, and French. The idea of reviving the old library dates back to 1974 when a committee set up by Alexandria University selected a plot of land for its new library. Construction work began in 1995, and after some US$220 million had been spent, the complex was officially inaugurated on 16 October 2002. In 2009, the library received a donation of 500,000 books from the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF). The gift makes the Bibliotheca Alexandrina the sixth-largest Francophone library in the world.[2] The library offers shelf space for eight million books, and its main reading room spans 20,000 square meters (220,000 sq ft). The complex also houses a conference center; specialized libraries for maps, multimedia, the blind and visually impaired, and for children; four museums; four art galleries for temporary exhibitions; 15 permanent exhibitions; a planetarium; and a manuscript restoration laboratory. The idea of reviving the Library of Alexandria dates back to 1974, when a committee set up by Alexandria University selected a plot of land for its new library between the campus and the seafront, close to where the ancient library once stood. One leading supporter of the project was former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, along with a partnership with UNESCO.
ChemSpider. ChemSpider is a freely accessible online database of chemicals owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry.[3][4][5][6][7] It contains information on more than 100 million molecules from over 270 data sources, each of them receiving a unique identifier called ChemSpider Identifier. The database sources include:[8] The ChemSpider database can be updated with user contributions including chemical structure deposition, spectra deposition and user curation. This is a crowdsourcing approach to develop an online chemistry database. Crowdsourced based curation of the data has produced a dictionary of chemical names associated with chemical structures that has been used in text-mining applications of the biomedical and chemical literature.[10] However, database rights are not waived and a data dump is not available; in fact, the FAQ even states that only limited downloads are allowed:[11] therefore the right to fork is not guaranteed and the project can not be considered free/open. A number of available search modules are provided:
Naohito, Prince Kanin.  Naohito, Prince Kanin[a] (7 October 1704 – 3 July 1753), was the founder of the Kanin-no-miya, a cadet branch of the Imperial House of Japan. He was the sixth son of Emperor Higashiyama, as well as the younger brother of Emperor Nakamikado and grandfather of Emperor Kōkaku. Naohito, originally named Hide-no-miya (秀宮) in his childhood, was an younger son of Emperor Higashiyama by his concubine Kushige Yoshiko, mother of the future Emperor Nakamikado.[1][2] In the early Edo period, minor members from the Imperial family and Japanese nobles that were unlikely to succeed a title would become Buddhist monks and be excluded from succession; however, after the early death of Emperor Go-Kōmyō, the Scholar-official Arai Hakuseki found it imminent to create a new shinnōke for one of the imperial princes to retain the succession right, in case of main line of the Imperial family should extinct. Emperor Higashiyama abdicated in 1709, succeeded by his son Emperor Nakamikado, and it was decided that a shinnōke would be granted to Hide-no-miya as of 1710;[3][4] the title Kanin-no-miya with fief of 1,000 koku was given by retired Emperor Reigen, and Naohito resided in southwest of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, later known as the Kan-in no Miya Residence.[5][6] Prince Naohito married his third cousin Konoe Shūsi (近衛脩子), younger daughter of former regent Konoe Motohiro, in 1715; she had two daughters, and the elder married to Tannyo (湛如) of the Ōtani family while the other died young. Shūsi died young in 1727, and the rest of Prince Naohitos children were born to different concubines.[7][8] After the premature death of Takatsukasa Mototeru, Naohitos younger son was chosen to succeed Takatsukasa family in 1743 and was later known as Takatsukasa Sukehira.[9][10] Kanin-no-miya was succeeded by Prince Naohitos third son Sukehito, whose mother was concubine Sanuki (讃岐) of the Itō clan.[11]
International Chemical Identifier. The International Chemical Identifier (InChI, pronounced /ˈɪntʃiː/ IN-chee)[3] is a textual identifier for chemical substances, designed to provide a standard way to encode molecular information and to facilitate the search for such information in databases and on the web. Initially developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) from 2000 to 2005, the format and algorithms are non-proprietary. Since May 2009, it has been developed by the InChI Trust, a nonprofit charity from the United Kingdom which works to implement and promote the use of InChI.[4] The identifiers describe chemical substances in terms of layers of information — the atoms and their bond connectivity, tautomeric information, isotope information, stereochemistry, and electronic charge information.[5] Not all layers have to be provided; for instance, the tautomer layer can be omitted if that type of information is not relevant to the particular application. The InChI algorithm converts input structural information into a unique InChI identifier in a three-step process: normalization (to remove redundant information), canonicalization (to generate a unique number label for each atom), and serialization (to give a string of characters). InChIs differ from the widely used CAS registry numbers in three respects: firstly, they are freely usable and non-proprietary; secondly, they can be computed from structural information and do not have to be assigned by some organization; and thirdly, most of the information in an InChI is human readable (with practice). InChIs can thus be seen as akin to a general and extremely formalized version of IUPAC names. They can express more information than the simpler SMILES notation and, in contrast to SMILES strings, every structure has a unique InChI string, which is important in database applications. Information about the 3-dimensional coordinates of atoms is not represented in InChI; for this purpose a format such as PDB can be used. The InChIKey, sometimes referred to as a hashed InChI, is a fixed length (27 character) condensed digital representation of the InChI that is not human-understandable. The InChIKey specification was released in September 2007 in order to facilitate web searches for chemical compounds, since these were problematic with the full-length InChI.[6] Unlike the InChI, the InChIKey is not unique: though collisions are expected to be extremely rare, there are known collisions.[7] In January 2009 the 1.02 version of the InChI software was released. This provided a means to generate so called standard InChI, which does not allow for user selectable options in dealing with the stereochemistry and tautomeric layers of the InChI string. The standard InChIKey is then the hashed version of the standard InChI string. The standard InChI will simplify comparison of InChI strings and keys generated by different groups, and subsequently accessed via diverse sources such as databases and web resources.
PubChem. PubChem is a database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), a component of the National Library of Medicine, which is part of the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH). PubChem can be accessed for free through a web user interface. Millions of compound structures and descriptive datasets can be freely downloaded via FTP. PubChem contains multiple substance descriptions and small molecules with fewer than 100 atoms and 1,000 bonds. More than 80 database vendors contribute to the growing PubChem database.[2] PubChem was released in 2004 as a component of the Molecular Libraries Program (MLP) of the NIH. As of November 2015, PubChem contains more than 150 million depositor-provided substance descriptions, 60 million unique chemical structures, and 225 million biological activity test results (from over 1 million assay experiments performed on more than 2 million small-molecules covering almost 10,000 unique protein target sequences that correspond to more than 5,000 genes). It also contains RNA interference (RNAi) screening assays that target over 15,000 genes.[3] As of August 2018, PubChem contains 247.3 million substance descriptions, 96.5 million unique chemical structures, contributed by 629 data sources from 40 countries. It also contains 237 million bioactivity test results from 1.25 million biological assays, covering >10,000 target protein sequences.[4] As of 2020, with data integration from over 100 new sources, PubChem contains more than 293 million depositor-provided substance descriptions, 111 million unique chemical structures, and 271 million bioactivity data points from 1.2 million biological assays experiments.[5] PubChem consists of three dynamically growing primary databases. As of 5 November 2020 (number of BioAssays is unchanged):
Jmol. Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling of chemical structures in 3 dimensions.[2]  It is an open-source Java viewer for chemical structures in 3D.[3] The name originated from [J]ava (the programming language) + [mol]ecules, and also the mol file format. JSmol is an implementation in JavaScript of the functionality of Jmol.[4] It can hence be embedded in web pages to display interactive 3D models of molecules and other structures without the need for any software apart from the web browser (it does not use Java). Both Jmol and JSmol render an interactive 3D representation of a molecule or other structure that may be used as a teaching tool,[5]  or for research, in several fields, e.g. chemistry, biochemistry, materials science, crystallography,[6] symmetry or nanotechnology. Jmol is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on different operating systems: Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, as long as they have Java installed. It is free and open-source software released under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 2.0. The interface is translated into more than 20 languages. There are several products implemented:
Booksellers Association of the UK and Ireland. The Booksellers Association of the UK and Ireland (BA) is a trade body founded to promote retail bookselling in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It operates the National Book Token scheme in the UK and sponsors the Whitbread Award[1] The BA represents 95% of British retail booksellers.[2] The BA operates the Batch payments system, an electronic purchasing interface for independent bookshops. The BA has made calls for increased government support for retail bookselling, in the light of many bookshop closures in recent years.[3] The Associations annual conference is an important event in the UK bookselling calendar.[4] As well as speeches by key industry figures, it also sees the presentation of the Nibbies, awards for trade bookselling and booksellers.[5]  This article about a business, industry, or trade-related organization is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Imperial House of Japan. The Imperial House (皇室, Kōshitsu) is the reigning dynasty of Japan, consisting of those members of the extended family of the reigning emperor of Japan who undertake official and public duties. Under the present constitution of Japan, the emperor is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Other members of the imperial family perform ceremonial and social duties, but have no role in the affairs of government. The duties as an emperor are passed down the line to their male children. The Japanese monarchy is the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world.[6]  The imperial dynasty does not have a name, therefore its direct members do not have a family name. The imperial house recognizes 126 monarchs, beginning with Emperor Jimmu (traditionally dated to 11 February 660 BCE), and continuing up to the current emperor, Naruhito. However, scholars have agreed that there is no evidence of Jimmus existence,[3][7] that the traditional narrative of the imperial familys founding is mythical, and that Jimmu is a mythical figure.[8] Historical evidence for the first 25 emperors is scant, and they are considered mythical, but there is sufficient evidence of an unbroken agnatic line since the early 6th century.[9] Historically, verifiable emperors of Japan start from 539 CE with Emperor Kinmei, the 29th tennō.[3][4][5] The earliest historic written mentions of Japan were in Chinese records, where it was referred to as Wa (倭 later 和), which later evolved into the Japanese name of Wakoku. Suishō (ca. 107 CE) was a king of Wa, the earliest Japanese monarch mentioned in Volume 85 of the Book of the Later Han from 445 CE. Further records mention the five kings of Wa, of which the last one Bu of Wa is generally considered to be Emperor Yūryaku (417/18 – 479 CE). The existence of his reign has been established through modern archaeological research. While the main line of the dynasty does not have a name and is referred to as Kōshitsu (皇室, imperial house), there are agnatic cadet branches which split during the course of centuries who received their own family names in order to distinguish them from the main line. They were considered a part of the imperial family (皇族 Kōzoku), with members carrying the title Imperial Highness, until the laws changed in 1947. The most important branches were the Shinnōke of which the most senior branch Fushimi-no-miya is first in the order of succession. Out of the Fushimi branch the Ōke branches split, which are the Kuni, Kaya, Asaka, Higashikuni  and Takeda families as of 2024. Furthermore there are branches created from sons of the emperor who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the court (kuge) or sword (buke) nobility. Such families are the Minamoto (源 also known as Genji), Taira (平 also known as Heishi), as well as through in-laws the Tachibana for example. Out of these families further branches split through male descent who were also considered noble Japanese clans. The line of legitimate direct male descendants of emperors is therefore numerous. Other terms used for the dynasty are also Kōka (皇家, Imperial House). Formerly the term Kyūshitsu (宮室, Palace Household) was also used under the old Imperial Constitution and the Imperial Household Law, as well as Teishitsu (帝室, Imperial Household).
Boeing.  The Boeing Company (/ˈboʊɪŋ/ BO-ing) is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, and missiles worldwide.[5] The company also provides leasing and product support services. Boeing is among the largest global aerospace manufacturers; it is the fourth-largest defense contractor in the world based on 2022 revenue[6] and is the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value.[7] Boeing was founded by William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington, on July 15, 1916.[8] The present corporation is the result of the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas on August 1, 1997. As of 2023, the Boeing Companys corporate headquarters is located in the Crystal City neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia.[9] The company is organized into three primary divisions: Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA), Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS), and Boeing Global Services (BGS). In 2021, Boeing recorded $62.3 billion in sales.[10] Boeing is ranked 54th on the Fortune 500 list (2020),[11] and ranked 121st on the Fortune Global 500 list (2020).[12] The Boeing Company started in 1916, when American lumber industrialist William E. Boeing founded Pacific Aero Products Company in Seattle, Washington. Shortly before doing so, he and Conrad Westervelt created the B&W seaplane.[13] In 1917, the organization was renamed Boeing Airplane Company, with William Boeing forming Boeing Airplane & Transport Corporation in 1928.[14] In 1929, the company was renamed United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, followed by the acquisition of several aircraft makers such as Avion, Chance Vought, Sikorsky Aviation, Stearman Aircraft, Pratt & Whitney, and Hamilton Metalplane.[2] In 1931, the group merged its four smaller airlines into United Airlines. In 1934, aircraft manufacturing was required to be separate from air transportation.[15] Therefore, Boeing Airplane Company became one of three major groups to arise from the dissolution of United Aircraft and Transport; the other two entities were United Aircraft (later United Technologies) and United Airlines.[2][15]
National Foundation Day (Japan).  National Foundation Day (建国記念の日, Kenkoku Kinen no Hi) is a public holiday of Japan observed annually on the 11th February. The holiday has been celebrated since 1967, following the proclamation of it as a public holiday by a Cabinet Order the previous year.[1][2] 11 February is the accession date of the legendary first Emperor of Japan, Emperor Jimmu at Kashihara-gū, converted into Gregorian calendar of 660 BC[3] which is written in Kojiki and chapter 3 of Nihon Shoki.[4] Coincidentally, 11 February 1889 is the day of the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution.[5][6][4] The origin of National Foundation Day is New Years Day in the traditional lunisolar calendar. On that day, the foundation of Japan by the legendary Emperor Jimmu was celebrated based on the Nihon Shoki, which states that Emperor Jimmu ascended to the throne on the first day of the first month.[7] There is, however, no compelling historical evidence that the legendary Emperor Jimmu actually existed.[8] Emperor Kinmei (539–571) is the earliest generally agreed upon historical ruler of Japan.[9] During the Kofun period (300–538), Yamato was the first central government of the unified state in the Kinai region of central Japan.[10] The first historical records did not appear until the 8th century, with the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki.[11][12] In the Meiji era, the government of Meiji Japan designated the day as a national holiday as part of the modernization of Japan under the Meiji Restoration. Under the bakufu, people in Japan worshiped the emperors as living gods, but regional loyalties were just as strong as national loyalties, with most people feeling an equal or a stronger loyalty to the daimyō (lord) ruling their province as they did to the shōgun who ruled from distant Edo, let alone the emperor who reigned in the equally distant city of Kyoto. Moreover, Shintoism has a number of deities, and until the Meiji Restoration, the emperors were just one of many Shinto gods, and usually not the most important. During the Meiji era, the government went out of its way to promote the imperial cult of emperor-worship as a way of ensuring that loyalty to the national government in Tokyo would outweigh regional loyalties. Moreover, the process of modernization in Meiji era Japan was intended to ensure that Japan adopted Western technology, science and models of social organization, not the values of the West; it was a fear of the government that the Japanese people might embrace Western values like democracy and individualism. This led the government to insist that all Japanese should hold the same values, with any heterodoxy viewed as a threat to the kokutai.[13] The American historian Carol Gluck noted that for the Japanese state in the Meiji era, social conformity was the highest value, with dissent considered a major threat to the kokutai.[13] Up to 1871, Japanese society was divided into four castes: the samurai, the merchants, the artisans and the peasants. The samurai were the dominant caste, but the aggressive militarism of the samurai was not embraced by the other castes, who could not legally own weapons. One of the Meiji era reforms was the introduction of conscription of all able-bodied men at age 18, to serve in either the Army or the Navy. This required the ideology of Bushido (the way of the warrior) from people who historically had been encouraged to see war as the exclusive concern of the samurai.[14] The imperial cult of emperor-worship was promoted both to ensure that everyone would be a part of the kokutai and to ensure that all men embraced Bushido, and would willingly serve in the military.[14] After conscription was introduced in 1873, a group of teenage rickshaw drivers and shop clerks were ordered to attend a lecture where they were informed that Now that all men are samurai, they were to show manly obedience by enlisting in the Army at once, and many objected on the grounds that they did not come from samurai families.[14]
Kyoto.  Kyoto (/ki.ˈoʊ.toʊ/[3] or /ˈkjoʊ.toʊ/;[4] Japanese: 京都, Kyōto [kʲoꜜː.to] ⓘ), officially Kyoto City (京都市, Kyōto-shi; [kʲoː.toꜜ.ɕi] ⓘ), is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japans largest and most populous island of Honshu. As of 2020[update], the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it the ninth-most populous city in Japan. More than half (56.8%) of Kyoto Prefectures population resides in the city. The city is the cultural anchor of the substantially larger Greater Kyoto, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) home to a census-estimated 3.8 million people. It is also part of the even larger Keihanshin metropolitan area, along with Osaka and Kobe. Kyoto is one of the oldest municipalities in Japan, having been chosen in 794 as the new seat of Japans imperial court by Emperor Kanmu. The original city, named Heian-kyō, was arranged in accordance with traditional Chinese feng shui following the model of the ancient Chinese capitals of Changan and Luoyang. The emperors of Japan ruled from Kyoto in the following eleven centuries until 1869. It was the scene of several key events of the Muromachi period, Sengoku period, and the Boshin War, such as the Ōnin War, the Honnō-ji Incident, the Kinmon incident, and the Battle of Toba–Fushimi. The capital was relocated from Kyoto to Tokyo after the Meiji Restoration. The modern municipality of Kyoto was established in 1889. The city was spared from large-scale destruction during World War II and, as a result, its prewar cultural heritage has mostly been preserved. Kyoto is considered the cultural capital of Japan and is a major tourist destination. The agency for cultural affairs of the national government is headquartered in the city. It is home to numerous Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, palaces and gardens, some of which have been designated collectively as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Prominent landmarks include the Kyoto Imperial Palace, Kiyomizu-dera, Kinkaku-ji, Ginkaku-ji, and Kyoto Tower. The internationally renowned video game company Nintendo is based in Kyoto. Kyoto is also a center of higher learning in the country, and its institutions include Kyoto University, the second-oldest university in Japan. In Japanese, Kyoto was previously called Kyō (京), Miyako (都), Kyō no Miyako (京の都), and Keishi (京師). After becoming the capital of Japan at the start of the Heian period (794–1185), the city was often referred to as Heian-kyō (平安京, Heian capital), and late in the Heian period the city came to be widely referred to simply as Kyōto (京都, capital city). After the seat of the emperor was moved to the city of Edo and that city was renamed Tōkyō (東京, meaning eastern capital), Kyoto was briefly known as Saikyō (西京, meaning western capital). As the capital of Japan from 794 to 1868, Kyoto is sometimes called the thousand-year capital (千年の都).
British Academy.  The British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, Philosophical and Philological Studies is the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and the social sciences. It was established in 1902[1][2] and received its royal charter in the same year. It is now a fellowship of more than 1,000 leading scholars spanning all disciplines across the humanities and social sciences and a funding body for research projects across the United Kingdom. The academy is a self-governing and independent registered charity, based at 10–11 Carlton House Terrace in London. The British Academy is primarily funded with annual government grants. In 2022, £49.3m of its £51.7m of charitable income came from the Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy – in the same year it took in around £2.0m in trading income and £0.56m in other income.  This funding is expected to continue under the new Department for Business and Trade.[3] The academy states that it has five fundamental purposes: The creation of a British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, Philosophical and Philological Studies was first proposed in 1899 in order that Britain could be represented at meetings of European and American academies. The organisation, which has since become simply the British Academy, was initiated as an unincorporated society on 17 December 1901, and received its Royal Charter from King Edward VII on 8 August 1902.[5]
Lamar Trotti.  Lamar Jefferson Trotti (October 18, 1900 – August 28, 1952) was an American screenwriter, producer, and motion picture executive. Trotti was born in Atlanta, US.[1] He became the first graduate of the Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia (UGA) in Athens, Georgia, when he received a Bachelor of Arts in Journalism (ABJ) in 1921.[2] While at UGA, he was the editor of the independent student newspaper The Red and Black.[1] In the silent film era, he was a reporter for the daily Atlanta Georgian, where he interviewed many show business people, such as Viola Dana. Later, Trotti became an executive at Fox Film Corporation in 1933 and after its 1935 merger with Twentieth Century Pictures to become 20th Century Fox, he remained with the company until his death. He wrote about fifty films for the studio, producing many of them.  He only wrote one screenplay for another studio, You Cant Buy Everything (1934) for MGM. He won an Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay in 1944 for Wilson and was nominated for Young Mr. Lincoln (1939) and Theres No Business Like Show Business (1952). He received the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement, the lifetime achievement award of the WGA, in 1983.
Dewey Decimal Classification. The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) (pronounced /ˈduː.iː/ DOO-ee) colloquially known as the Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system which allows new books to be added to a library in their appropriate location based on subject.[Note 1]  It was first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876.[1] Originally described in a 44-page pamphlet, it has been expanded to multiple volumes and revised through 23 major editions, the latest printed in 2011. It is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. OCLC, a non-profit cooperative that serves libraries, currently maintains the system and licenses online access to WebDewey, a continuously updated version for catalogers.[2] The decimal number classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic. The classifications notation makes use of three-digit numbers for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Numbers are flexible to the degree that they can be expanded in linear fashion to cover special aspects of general subjects.[3] A library assigns a classification number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library, on the basis of its subject. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its proper place on the library shelves.[Note 2] The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries.[4][5] Melvil Dewey (1851–1931) was an American librarian and self-declared reformer.[6] He was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business.[7] He developed the ideas for his library classification system in 1873 while working at the Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in that library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library.[8] He used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known how many copies were distributed but Amherst College, where Dewey worked at the time, had authorized 50 copies for the first version.[9] His classification system was mentioned in an article in the first issue of the Library Journal and in an article by Dewey in the Department of Education publication Public Libraries in America in 1876.[10] In March 1876, he applied for, and received, copyright on the first edition of the index.[11] The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, and was printed in 200 copies.[12] The second edition of the Dewey Decimal system, published in 1885  with the title Decimal Classification and Relativ Index for arranging, cataloging, and indexing public and private libraries and for pamflets, clippings, notes, scrap books, index rerums, etc.,[Note 3] comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Five hundred copies were produced.[12] Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title.[13] Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav[Note 4] contributed criticisms and suggestions.[14] One of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics. When the system was first introduced, most libraries in the US used fixed positioning: each book was assigned a permanent shelf position based on the books height and date of acquisition.[15] Library stacks were generally closed to all but the most privileged patrons, so shelf browsing was not considered of importance. The use of the Dewey Decimal system increased during the early 20th century as librarians were convinced of the advantages of relative positioning and of open shelf access for patrons.[15]
John Erskine (educator). John Erskine (October 5, 1879 – June 2, 1951) was an American educator and author, pianist and composer. He was an English professor at Amherst College from 1903 to 1909, followed by Columbia University from 1909 to 1937. He was the first president of the Juilliard School of Music.  During his tenure at Columbia University he formulated the General Honors Course—responsible for inspiring the influential Great Books movement. He published over 100 books, novels, criticism, and essays including the essay The Moral Obligation to Be Intelligent (1915). Erskine was born in New York City, New York, the son of Eliza Jane (née Hollingsworth) and James Morrison Erskine.[1][2] and raised in Weehawken, New Jersey.[3] He graduated from Columbia University, B.A., 1900, M.A. 1901 and Ph.D., 1903 and D.Litt. 1929, besides D.Litt. degree from Amherst in 1923.[2] Erskine was English professor at Amherst College from 1903 to 1909, and subsequently taught at Columbia University from 1909 to 1937. In 1910, he led foundation of the Boars Head Society for literature.[4]  In 1920, he instituted Columbia Colleges General Honors Course, a two-year undergraduate seminar that would later help inspire Masterworks of Western Literature, now known commonly as Literature Humanities, the second component of Columbia Colleges Core Curriculum. This course taught the classics in translation instead of the original Latin or Greek, a concept he elaborated in his noted essay  The Moral Obligation to Be Intelligent. He found little support for the course from the senior faculty, and junior faculty members like Mark Van Doren and later after 1923, Mortimer Adler took up sections of the course. This course would later go on to inspire the Great Books movement, centered on the Great Books of the Western World. The course was discontinued in 1928, though later reconstituted. In 1929, Adler left Columbia to join University of Chicago, where he continued to work on the theme with Robert Hutchins, president of the university. Together they subsequently went on to found the Great Books of the Western World program and the Great Books Foundation.[5][6] Erskine co-wrote the 1900 Varsity Show at Columbia, writing the musical score for The Governors Vrouw (1900), a two-act comic opera by Henry Sydnor Harrison and poet Melville Cane, who also wrote the lyrics.[7][8] He won the Butler Medal in 1919. During his career Erskine published over 100 books,[1] though as a writer he first received acclaim with his novel The Private Life of Helen of Troy (1925).[6] This novel was made into a silent film by the same the name in 1927, directed by Alexander Korda. Other films based on his works included A Lady Surrenders (1930) by John M. Stahl, Bachelor of Arts (1934) by Louis King and The Presidents Mystery (1936) directed by Phil Rosen. The 1956 biopic of French noblewoman Diane de Poitiers entitled Diane was based on his story with a screenplay by Christopher Isherwood.[9] He was also the author of numerous publications, including several humorous novels retelling myths and legends, besides essays, criticism, and two volumes of autobiography. These included Penelopes Man and Adam and Eve, Though He Knew Better.[10] Erskine was also an accomplished composer, pianist[2] and musician. He wrote several books of music and the libretto for George Antheils opera Helen Retires (1931), which was based on The Private Life of Helen of Troy. He was the first president of the Juilliard School of Music from 1928 to 1937. He was also director of the Metropolitan Opera Association, which runs the Metropolitan Opera, a noted opera company based in New York City.[6]
Tom Brown (actor).  Tom Brown (né Thomas Edward Brown; January 6, 1915 – June 3, 1990) was an American actor and model. Brown was born in New York City, the son of William Harold Harry Brown and Marie Frances (Dunn) Brown. As a child model from the age of two years, Brown posed as Buster Brown, the Arrow Collar Boy and the Buick boy.[4] He was educated at the New York Professional Childrens School. He was carried on stage in his mothers arms when he was only six months old.[citation needed] As an actor, he is probably best remembered for playing the title role in The Adventures of Smilin Jack and as Gilbert Blythe in Anne of Green Gables (1934). Later, he appeared on the television shows Gunsmoke, Mr. Adams and Eve, General Hospital and Days of Our Lives. He had a recurring role as Lt. Rovacs in Mr. Lucky. [citation needed] He enlisted in the United States Army in World War II where in three years he rose from private to lieutenant serving in France as a paratrooper where he was awarded a French Croix de Guerre and a Bronze Star Medal.[5] He was promoted to captain with the 40th Infantry Division.[6] He served during the Korean War with the 40th Infantry Division where he reached the rank of lieutenant colonel.[citation needed]
Louis King. Louis King (June 28, 1898 – September 7, 1962) was an American actor and film director of westerns and adventure movies in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.[1][2] King was born in 1898 in Christiansburg, Virginia.[3] His name was also written as L.H. King and Lewis King.[4]  A brother of director Henry King, he grew up on a tobacco farm. Their parents died in 1918, after which he moved to California, where his brother was already working in films.[5] King first worked for his brother, who was acting and directing for the Balboa Film Company. Then he became a general handy man for American Film Company.[5] He entered the film business in 1919 as a character actor. He specialized in villains and blusterers. He began his career as a director of a series of Westerns in the 1920s as Lewis King: The Bantam Cowboy (1928), The Fightin Redhead (1928), The Pinto Kid (1928), The Little Buckaroo (1928), The Slingshot Kid (1927), The Boy Rider (1927), Montana Bill (1921), Pirates of the West (1921) and The Gun Runners (1921). He directed Hollywood action adventures and Westerns in the 1930s and 1940s and 20th Century-Fox wartime film Chetniks! The Fighting Guerrillas in 1943. In the 1950s, he directed Westerns on television, including episodes of Gunsmoke in 1957, the Zane Grey Theater in 1958, The Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok and The Deputy in 1960–61.[citation needed]
OCLC.  OCLC, Inc.[4] is an American nonprofit cooperative organization that provides shared technology services, original research, and community programs for its membership and the library community at large.[3] It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, then became the Online Computer Library Center as it expanded. In 2017, the name was formally changed to OCLC, Inc.[4] OCLC and thousands of its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world.[5] OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries pay (around $217.8 million annually in total as of 2021[update]) for the many different services it offers.[2] OCLC also maintains the Dewey Decimal Classification system. OCLC began in 1967, as the Ohio College Library Center, through a collaboration of university presidents, vice presidents, and library directors who wanted to create a cooperative, computerized network for libraries in the state of Ohio. The group first met on July 5, 1967, on the campus of Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization[6] and hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, as first executive director.[7][8] Kilgour and Ralph H. Parker, who was the head of libraries at the University of Missouri, had proposed the shared cataloging system in a 1965 report as consultants to the Committee of Librarians of the Ohio College Association.[8] Kilgour and Parker wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library.[8] They were inspired in part by the earlier Columbia–Harvard–Yale Medical Libraries Computerization Project, an attempt at shared automated printing of catalog cards.[8] The plan was to merge the catalogs of Ohio libraries electronically through a computer network and database to streamline operations, control costs, and increase efficiency in library management, bringing libraries together cooperatively to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26, 1971. This was the first online cataloging by any library worldwide.[6] Between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. With this expansion, the name changed to the Online Computer Library Center in 1977.[9] In 2002, the governance structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States.[10]
Anita Louise.  Anita Louise (born Anita Louise Fremault; January 9, 1915 – April 25, 1970) was an American film and television actress best known for her performances in A Midsummer Nights Dream (1935), The Story of Louis Pasteur (1935),  Anthony Adverse (1936),  Marie Antoinette (1938), and The Little Princess (1939). She was named as a WAMPAS Baby Star. Louise was born on January 9, 1915, in New York City,[1] the daughter of Louis and Ann Fremault.[2] She attended the Professional Childrens School.[3] She made her acting debut on Broadway at the age of seven, in Peter Ibbetson.[4] Louise appeared in the 1922 film Down to the Sea in Ships.[5] She made her first credited screen debut at the age of nine in the film The Sixth Commandment (1924). In 1929, Louise dropped her surname, billing herself only by first and second names. In the same 1937 St. Louis Star-Times interview referenced above, she is quoted as saying: When I was nine...Mother and I walked out of the  Bristol Hotel in Vienna and I was lifted off my feet by a man, who ran a few steps and threw me, bodily, into a waiting automobile...two hotel attaches came to the rescue...The hotel manager warned my mother that thirty children had been seized and hurried across the Italian frontier where they were sold...later to become white slaves when old enough. As her stature in Hollywood grew, she was named a WAMPAS Baby Star. Her reputation was enhanced by her role as Hollywood society hostess, with her parties attended by the elite of Hollywood and widely and regularly reported in the news media.[citation needed]
ISBN.  The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier that is intended to be unique.[a][b] Publishers purchase or receive ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.[2] A different ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation of a publication, but not to a simple reprinting of an existing item. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book must each have a different ISBN, but an unchanged reprint of the hardcover edition keeps the same ISBN. The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007.[c] The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The first version of the ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (any 9-digit SBN can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero). Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns ISBNs to such books on its own initiative.[4]
Emperor Jimmu.  Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇, Jinmu Tennō; Japanese pronunciation: [dʑiꜜm.mɯ (ten.noː), dʑim.mɯ ten.noꜜː][6]) was the legendary first emperor of Japan according to the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki.[2] His ascension is traditionally dated as 660 BC.[7][8] In Japanese mythology, he was a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, through her grandson Ninigi, as well as a descendant of the storm god Susanoo. He launched a military expedition from Hyūga near the Seto Inland Sea, captured Yamato, and established this as his center of power. In modern Japan, Emperor Jimmus legendary ascension is marked as National Foundation Day on February 11.[9] There is no evidence to suggest that Jimmu existed, and he is regarded by most modern scholars as a legendary figure. Jimmu is recorded as Japans first ruler in two early chronicles, Nihon Shoki (721) and Kojiki (712).[2] Nihon Shoki gives the dates of his reign as 660–585 BC.[2] In the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806),[4] the eighth-century scholar Ōmi no Mifune retroactively designated rulers before Emperor Ōjin as tennō (天皇; heavenly sovereign), a Japanese pendant to the Chinese imperial title Tiān-dì (天帝), and gave several of them including Jimmu their posthumous names. Prior to this time, these rulers had been known as Sumera no mikoto (皇尊, divine highness) or Ōkimi (大君, great lord). This practice had begun under Empress Suiko, and took root after the Taika Reforms with the ascendancy of the Nakatomi clan.[10] Both the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki give Jimmus name as Kamu-yamato Iware-biko no Mikoto (神倭伊波礼琵古命) or Kamu-yamato Iware-biko no Sumeramikoto (神日本磐余彦天皇).[11] Iware indicates a toponym (an old place name in the Nara region) whose precise purport is unclear.[12] -no-Mikoto is an honorific, indicating divinity, nobility, or royalty.
Time in Russia. There are 11 time zones in Russia, which currently observe times ranging from UTC+02:00 to UTC+12:00. Daylight saving time (DST) has not been used in Russia since 26 October 2014. From 27 March 2011 to 26 October 2014, permanent DST was used. Since 27 December 2020, the time zones are as follows:[1][2][3] Prior to 2011, Russia moved its clocks backward and forward on the same annual cycle as Europe. On 27 March 2011, clocks were advanced as usual, but they did not go back on 30 October 2011, effectively making Moscow Time UTC+04:00 permanently.[5] On 26 October 2014, following another change in the law, the clocks in most of the country were moved back one hour, but summer daylight saving time was not reintroduced; Moscow Time returned to UTC+03:00 permanently.[6] In the Russian Empire, most of the nation observed solar time. Until Saturday, 7 October [19 October, N.S.] 1867 at 3:30 p.m. GMT+14:59 in the capital of New Archangel (Sitka) (00:31 GMT), Alaska belonged to Russia (Russian America) which used the Julian calendar, which was 11 or 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar (as used by the rest of Russia) and had local times up to GMT+15:10. The westernmost area of Russia was Congress Poland, with local times down to GMT+01:10. During the late 19th century, Moscow Mean Time was introduced on 1 January [13 January, N.S.] 1880, originally at GMT+02:30:17.[7] 2:30:17 corresponds to 37.6166667°, the longitude of Moscow. Other parts of Russia kept solar time for several years.
R. K. Narayan.   Rasipuram Krishnaswami Narayanaswami (10 October 1906 – 13 May 2001),[1] better known as R. K. Narayan, was an Indian writer and novelist known for his work set in the fictional South Indian town of Malgudi. He was a leading author of early Indian literature in English along with Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao. In 1980, he was awarded the AC Benson Medal by the Royal Society of Literature, and in 1981 he was made Honorary Member of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. Narayan is the author of more than 200 novels, as well as short stories and plays. His work highlights the social context and everyday life of his characters, often in between traditional life and modernity. He has been compared to William Faulkner who created a similar fictional town and likewise explored with humor and compassion the energy of ordinary life. Narayans short stories have been compared with those of Guy de Maupassant because of his ability to compress a narrative. In a career that spanned over sixty years Narayan received many awards and honours including the AC Benson Medal from the Royal Society of Literature, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan, Indias second and third highest civilian awards,[2] and in 1994 the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship, the highest honour of Indias National Academy of Letters.[3] He was also nominated to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament.
S.A. (corporation). The abbreviation S.A. or SA[a] designates a type of public limited company in certain countries, most of which have a Romance language as their official language and operate a derivative of the 1804, Napoleonic, civil law.[1] Originally, shareholders could be anonymous and collect dividends by surrendering coupons attached to their share certificates. Dividends were paid to whomever held the certificate. Since share certificates could be transferred privately, corporate management would not necessarily know who owned its shares – nor did anyone but the holders. As with bearer bonds, anonymous unregistered share ownership and dividend collection enabled money laundering, tax evasion, and concealed business transactions in general, so governments passed laws to audit the practice. Nowadays, shareholders of S.A.s are not anonymous, though shares can still be held by a holding company to obscure the beneficiary. S.A. can be an abbreviation of: SA has been incorporated into the names of some companies derived from acronyms,such as Cepsa, originally Compañía Española de Petróleos, Sociedad Anónima, Spanish petroleum company, S.A.,[4] and Sabena, originally Societé anonyme belge dExploitation de la Navigation aérienne, Belgian S.A. of exploitation of air navigation. It is equivalent in literal meaning and function to:
Date-time group. In communications messages, a date-time group (DTG) is a set of characters, usually in a prescribed format, used to express the year, the month, the day of the month, the hour of the day, the minute of the hour, and the time zone, if different from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).[citation needed] The order in which these elements are presented may vary. The DTG is usually placed in the header of the message. One example is 13:11 Sep 07, 2025 (UTC); while another example is 13:11 07 Sep 2025. The DTG may indicate either the date and time a message was dispatched by a transmitting station or the date and time it was handed into a transmission facility by a user or originator for dispatch. The DTG may be used as a message identifier if it is unique for each message. A form of DTG is used in the US militarys Defense Message System (a form of Automated Message Handling System). In US military messages and communications (e.g., on maps showing troop movements) the format is DD HHMM (SS) Z MON YY. Although occasionally seen with spaces, it can also be written as a single string of characters. Three different formats can be found: Z references the military identifier of time zone:
Meridian (geography). In geography and geodesy, a meridian is the locus connecting points of equal longitude, which is the angle (in degrees or other units) east or west of a given prime meridian (currently, the IERS Reference Meridian).[1] In other words, it is a coordinate line for longitudes, a line of longitude. The position of a point along the meridian at a given longitude is given by its latitude, measured in angular degrees north or south of the Equator. On a Mercator projection or on a Gall-Peters projection, each meridian is perpendicular to all circles of latitude. Assuming a spherical Earth, a meridian is a great semicircle on Earths surface. Adopting instead a spheroidal or ellipsoid model of Earth, the meridian is half of a north-south great ellipse. The length of a meridian is twice the length of an Earth quadrant, equal to 20,003.93144 km (12,429.86673 mi) on a modern ellipsoid (WGS 84).[2] The first prime meridian was set by Eratosthenes in 200 BC. This prime meridian was used to provide measurement of the earth, but had many problems because of the lack of latitude measurement.[1] Many years later around the 19th century there were still concerns of the prime meridian. Multiple locations for the geographical meridian meant that there was inconsistency, because each country had their own guidelines for where the prime meridian was located. The term meridian comes from the Latin meridies, meaning midday; the subsolar point passes through a given meridian at solar noon, midway between the times of sunrise and sunset on that meridian.[3] Likewise, the Sun crosses the celestial meridian at the same time. The same Latin stem gives rise to the terms a.m. (ante meridiem) and p.m. (post meridiem) used to disambiguate hours of the day when utilizing the 12-hour clock. Because of a growing international economy, there was a demand for a set international prime meridian to make it easier for worldwide traveling which would, in turn, enhance international trading across countries. As a result, a Conference was held in 1884, in Washington, D.C. Twenty-six countries were present at the International Meridian Conference to vote on an international prime meridian. Ultimately the outcome was as follows: there would be only one prime meridian, the prime meridian was to cross and pass at Greenwich (which was the 0°), there would be two longitude directions up to 180° (east being plus and west being minus), there will be a universal day, and the day begins at the mean midnight of the initial meridian.[4] There were two main reasons for this. The first was that the USA had already chosen Greenwich as the basis for its own national time zone system. The second was that in the late 19th century, 72% of the worlds commerce depended on sea-charts which used Greenwich as the Prime Meridian. The recommendation was based on the argument that naming Greenwich as Longitude 0º would be of advantage to the largest number of people.[5]
Ancienne Belgique.  The Ancienne Belgique (French for Old Belgium) (AB) is a concert hall for contemporary music in Brussels, Belgium. Located in the historic heart of Brussels, it is one of the leading concert venues in Belgium, hosting a wide variety of international and local acts. Some 300,000 people attend a concert at the AB every year. The venue consists of three concert halls: the Main Hall, the ABBox, and the ABClub. The Main Hall is, logically, the Ancienne Belgiques main hall, and has a capacity of 2,000 people. It is said to be one of the best concert halls in Belgium, with perfect acoustics.[citation needed] The ABBox is the latest addition to the Ancienne Belgique. It is the same space as the Main Hall, but rearranged for greater intimacy: the seats in the back and the balconies at the sides of the hall are covered, limiting its capacity to 800 people. The ABBox is the Ancienne Belgiques response to the need for a smaller concert hall to host less well-known acts, helping them gain a new and larger audience. The ABClub has a capacity of approximately 250 people, and hosts smaller, up-and-coming acts.
135th meridian east. Download coordinates as: The meridian 135° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude[1] that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, Australasia, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole. The 135th meridian east forms a great ellipse with the 45th meridian west, meaning it is a quarter away from the 180th meridian and 3 quarters from the 0th meridian. Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 135th meridian east passes through: 
American Bandstand.   American Bandstand is an American music and dance television program that aired in various versions from 1952 to 1989.[1] It was hosted and produced by Dick Clark,[2][3][4] who served as the show’s primary presenter for over three decades. The program featured teenagers dancing to popular songs from the Top 40 charts.[5] It was originally broadcast from Philadelphia,[5] where it remained from its debut in 1952 until relocating to Los Angeles in 1963.[6] During its run, a wide range of musical acts appeared on the show, generally lip-syncing to one of their latest singles.[7] Artists performed for a studio audience while the original recordings played for viewers at home. Freddy Cannon holds the record for the most appearances, with 110.[8]
Aktiebolag.  Aktiebolag (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈâktsɪɛbʊˌlɑːɡ], stock company) is the Swedish term for limited company or corporation. When used in company names, it is abbreviated as AB (in Sweden), Ab (in Finland), or, rarely, A/B (dated), roughly equivalent to the abbreviations Corp., Ltd., and PLC. The state authority responsible for registration of aktiebolag in Sweden is called the Swedish Companies Registration Office. All aktiebolag are divided into two categories: private limited companies and public limited companies.  The name of a private limited company may not contain the word publikt (public) and the name of a public limited company may not contain the word privat or pvt. (private).[1] A public limited company (publikt aktiebolag) is legally denoted as AB (publ.) in Sweden or Abp in Finland. A Swedish public limited company must have a minimum share capital of 500,000 Swedish kronor and its shares can be offered to the public on the stock market.[1] The suffix (publ.) is sometimes omitted in texts of an informal nature, but according to the Swedish Companies Registration Office, the name of a public limited company must be mentioned with the term (publ.) after the business name in the articles of association and elsewhere, unless it is clearly understood from the company’s business name that the company is a public limited company.[1] For a private limited company in Sweden (privat aktiebolag), the minimum share capital is 25,000 Swedish kronor.  The main Swedish statutes regulating limited companies are The Companies Act (Aktiebolagslagen (ABL) 2005:551) and The Limited Companies Ordinance (Aktiebolagsförordningen 2005:559). The law provisions in ABL stipulate that parent companies and subsidiaries are separate legal persons and legal entities.[2]
Bollandist. The Society of Bollandists (Latin: Societas Bollandistarum; French: Société des Bollandistes) is an association of scholars, philologists, and historians (originally all Jesuits, but now including non-Jesuits) who since the early seventeenth century have studied hagiography and the cult of the saints in Christianity. Their most important publication has been the Acta Sanctorum (The Acts of the Saints).[1] They are named after the Flemish Jesuit Jean Bolland (1596–1665).[2] The idea of the Acta Sanctorum was first conceived by the Dutch Jesuit Heribert Rosweyde (1569–1629), who was a lecturer at the Jesuit college of Douai. Rosweyde used his leisure time to collect information about the lives of the saints.[3] His principal work, the 1615 Vitae Patrum, became the foundation of the Acta Sanctorum. Rosweyde contracted a contagious disease while ministering to a dying man, and died himself on October 5, 1629, at the age of sixty.[4][page needed] Father Jean Bolland was prefect of studies in the Jesuit college of Mechelen. Upon the death of Rosweyde, Bolland was asked to review Rosweydes papers. Bolland then continued the work from Antwerp.[3] The task was to search out and classify materials, to print what seemed to be the most reliable sources of information concerning the saints venerated by the Church and to illustrate points of difficulty.[5] Underestimating the magnitude of the undertaking, Bolland initially thought he could finish the work on his own, but after a few years he had to admit that the undertaking was beyond his individual strength. He was then assigned an assistant, Godfrey Henschenius (1601–81). The first two volumes of the Acta, by Bolland and Henschenius, were published in Antwerp in 1643.[6] Unlike Rosweyde and Bolland, Henschenius was allowed to devote himself exclusively to the writing of the Acta. He solved many problems relating to chronology, geography and the philological interpretation of the sources. February, March, and April (that is, the collected hagiographies of saints whose feast days occur in each month) took up three volumes each, May covered eight, and June seven volumes. By the time of his death, 24 volumes had appeared; moreover, Henschenius left many notes and commentaries for the following volumes. It can therefore be said that the Acta owe their final form to Henschenius.[6]
International Designator. The International Designator, also known as COSPAR ID, is an international identifier assigned to artificial objects in space.[1] It consists of the launch year, a three-digit incrementing launch number of that year[n 1] and up to a three-letter code representing the sequential identifier of a piece in a launch. In TLE format the first two digits of the year and the dash are dropped.[2] For example, 1990-037A is the Space Shuttle Discovery on mission STS-31, which carried the Hubble Space Telescope (1990-037B) into space. This launch was the 37th known successful launch worldwide in 1990. The designation system has been generally known as the COSPAR system, named for the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International Council for Science.[3] COSPAR subsumed the first designation system, devised at Harvard University. That system used letters of the Greek alphabet to designate artificial satellites. This was based on the scientific naming convention for natural satellites. For example, Sputnik 1 was designated 1957 Alpha 2. The launch vehicle, which was brighter in orbit, was designated 1957 Alpha 1. Brighter objects in the same launch were given the lower integer number, and Alpha was given since it was the first launch of the year.[4] The Harvard designation system continued to be used for satellites launched up to the end of 1962, when it was replaced with the modern system. The first satellite to receive a new-format designator was Luna E-6 No.2, 1963-001B, although some sources, including the NSSDC website, retroactively apply the new-format designators to older satellites, even those no longer in orbit at the time of its introduction. Designators are assigned to objects by the United States Space Command along with  satellite catalog numbers as they are discovered in space.[1] The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC), part of NASA, maintain two catalogs that provide additional information on the launchers and payloads associated with the designators. While UNOOSA uses COSPAR ID, many NSSDC Master Catalog (NMC) entries are created before launches so they are not always bound to a COSPAR ID. Below are examples:
Kaliningrad Time. Kaliningrad Time (KALT; Russian: калининградское время, romanized: kaliningradskoye vremya) is the time zone two hours ahead of UTC (UTC+02:00) and one hour behind Moscow Time (MSK−1). It is used in Kaliningrad Oblast. Until 2011, Kaliningrad Time was identical to Eastern European Time (UTC+02:00; UTC+03:00 with daylight saving time). On 27 March 2011, Russia moved to permanent DST, switching Kaliningrad time permanently to UTC+03:00. On 26 October 2014, this law was reversed but daylight saving time was not reintroduced, so Kaliningrad is now permanently set to UTC+02:00.[1] Main cities:  This Russia-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Terra. Terra may often refer to: Terra may also refer to:
Satellite Catalog Number. The Satellite Catalog Number (SATCAT), also known as NORAD Catalog Number, NORAD ID, USSPACECOM object number, is a sequential five-digit number assigned by the United States Space Command (USSPACECOM), and previously the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), in the order of launch or discovery to all artificial objects in the orbits of Earth and those that left Earths orbit.[1] For example, catalog number 1 is the Sputnik 1 launch vehicle, with the Sputnik 1 satellite having been assigned catalog number 2.[2] Objects that fail to orbit or orbit for a short time are not catalogued.[3] The minimum object size in the catalog is 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in diameter.[4] As of October 21, 2023[update], the catalog listed 58,010 objects, including 16,645 satellites that had been launched into orbit since 1957 of which 8,936 were still active.[5] 25,717 of the objects were well tracked while 2,055 were lost.[6] In addition USSPACECOM was also tracking 16,600 analyst objects.[7] Analyst objects are variably tracked and in constant flux, so their catalog and element set data are not published. As of September 12, 2023[update] ESA estimated there were about 36,500 pieces of orbiting debris that are large enough for USSPACECOM to track.[8] Space Command shares the catalog via space-track.org,[10] which is maintained by the 18th Space Defense Squadron (18 SDS). Initially, the catalog was maintained by NORAD. From 1985 onwards, USSPACECOM was tasked to detect, track, identify, and maintain a catalog of all human-made objects in Earth orbit.[11] In 2002, USSPACECOM was disestablished and merged with the United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM). However, USSPACECOM was reestablished in 2019.[12] Before 2020, the catalog number was limited to five digits due to the TLE format limitation. In 2020, Space-Track started to provide data in CCSDS OMM (Orbit Mean-Elements Message) format, which increased the maximum catalog number to 999,999,999.[13]
ISO 639-3. ISO 639-3:2007, Codes for the representation of names of languages – Part 3: Alpha-3 code for comprehensive coverage of languages, is an international standard for language codes in the ISO 639 series. It defines three-letter codes for identifying languages. The standard was published by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) on 1 February 2007. [1] As of 2023, this edition of the standard has been officially withdrawn and replaced by ISO 639:2023.[1] ISO 639-3 extends the ISO 639-2 alpha-3 codes with an aim to cover all known natural languages. The extended language coverage was based primarily on the language codes used in the Ethnologue (volumes 10–14) published by SIL International, which is now the registration authority for ISO 639-3.[2] It provides an enumeration of languages as complete as possible, including living and extinct, ancient and constructed, major and minor, written and unwritten.[1] However, it does not include reconstructed languages such as Proto-Indo-European.[3] ISO 639-3 is intended for use as metadata codes in a wide range of applications. It is widely used in computer and information systems, such as the Internet, in which many languages need to be supported. In archives and other information storage, it is used in cataloging systems, indicating what language a resource is in or about. The codes are also frequently used in the linguistic literature and elsewhere to compensate for the fact that language names may be obscure or ambiguous. ISO 639-3 includes all languages in ISO 639-1 and all individual languages in ISO 639-2. ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 focused on major languages, most frequently represented in the total body of the worlds literature. Since ISO 639-2 also includes language collections and Part 3 does not, ISO 639-3 is not a superset of ISO 639-2. Where B and T codes exist in ISO 639-2, ISO 639-3 uses the T-codes.
Japonic languages. Japonic or Japanese–Ryukyuan (Japanese: 日琉語族, romanized: Nichiryū gozoku) is a language family comprising Japanese, spoken in the main islands of Japan, and the Ryukyuan languages, spoken in the Ryukyu Islands. The family is universally accepted by linguists, and significant progress has been made in reconstructing the proto-language, Proto-Japonic.[1] The reconstruction implies a split between all dialects of Japanese and all Ryukyuan varieties, probably before the 7th century. The Hachijō language, spoken on the Izu Islands, is also included, but its position within the family is unclear. Most scholars believe that Japonic was brought to the Japanese archipelago from the Korean peninsula with the Yayoi culture during the 1st millennium BC. There is some fragmentary evidence suggesting that Japonic languages may still have been spoken in central and southern parts of the Korean peninsula (see Peninsular Japonic) in the early centuries AD. Possible genetic relationships with many other language families have been proposed, most systematically with Koreanic, but no genetic relationship has been conclusively demonstrated. The extant Japonic languages belong to two well-defined branches: Japanese and Ryukyuan.[2] Most scholars believe that Japonic was brought to northern Kyushu from the Korean peninsula around 700 to 300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the Yayoi culture and spread throughout the Japanese archipelago, replacing indigenous languages.[3][4][a] The former wider distribution of Ainu languages is confirmed by placenames in northern Honshu ending in -betsu (from Ainu pet river) and -nai (from Ainu nai stream).[7][8][9] Somewhat later, Japonic languages also spread southward to the Ryukyu Islands.[3] There is fragmentary placename evidence that now-extinct Japonic languages were still spoken in central and southern parts of the Korean peninsula several centuries later.[10][11] Japanese is the de facto national language of Japan, where it is spoken by about 126 million people. The oldest attestation is Old Japanese, which was recorded using Chinese characters in the 7th and 8th centuries.[12] It differed from Modern Japanese in having a simple (C)V syllable structure and avoiding vowel sequences.[13] The script also distinguished eight vowels (or diphthongs), with two each corresponding to modern i, e and o.[14] Most of the texts reflect the speech of the area around Nara, the eighth-century Japanese capital, but over 300 poems were written in eastern dialects of Old Japanese.[15][16]
John Kennedy (disambiguation). John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) was the 35th president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. John Kennedy may also refer to:
International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. The International Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (IATAS) is an American nonprofit membership organization, based in New York City, composed of leading media and entertainment executives  across all sectors of the television industry, from over fifty countries.[1] Founded in 1969, the International Academy recognize excellence in television production produced outside the United States and it presents the International Emmy Awards in seventeen categories.[2] In addition to the International Emmys, the Academys annual schedule includes the prestigious International Emmy Awards Current Affairs & News[3] and the International Emmy Kids Awards,[4] and a series of events such as International Academy Day, the International World Emmy Festival and Panels on substantive industry topics. IATAS was originally founded in 1969 as the International Council of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS) by TV executives Ralph Baruch and Ted Cott. While the NATAS and sister organization Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS) primarily focus on U.S. domestic television programming, including the specific Emmy Award ceremonies those two bodies present, the IATAS was established to expose the importance of television as a global concept.[5] Bruce Paisner is IATAS current president and CEO. Early in its history, the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences was part of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences; however, operating with its own board with a global focus.[6] Founded in 1969, IATAS is an organization of leading media and entertainment figures from over 500 companies from 60 countries across all television sectors, including internet, mobile and technology. Its mission is to recognize the excellence of content produced exclusively for TV outside the United States, as well as non-English language primetime programming made for American TV.[7] The awards are presented at the International Emmy Awards Gala, held each year in November at the Hilton Hotel and Resort in Midtown Manhattan, attracting over 1,200 television professionals annually. The first International Emmy Awards, as we know them today, were carried out in 1973. As well as the Gala, the International Academy also produces the International Emmy World Television Festival. The Television Festival screens the current years International Emmy-nominated programs and features producers and directors who speak about their work. In 1999, the Academy went on to recognize excellence in international news coverage with the Emmy Awards for Current Affairs & News. The International Emmy Kids Awards were launched in 2013 and is held annually in February in New York City.
JFK (disambiguation). JFK is an abbreviation for John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), who was the 35th president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. JFK may also refer to:
John F. Kennedy (disambiguation). John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) was the 35th president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. John F. Kennedy may also refer to:
Natas. Natas may refer to:
Glottolog.  Glottolog is an open-access online bibliographic database of the worlds languages. In addition to listing linguistic materials (grammars, articles, dictionaries) describing individual languages, the database also contains the most up-to-date language affiliations based on the work of expert linguists. Glottolog was first developed and maintained at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, and between 2015 and 2020 at the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology in Jena, Germany. Its main curators include Harald Hammarström and Martin Haspelmath. Sebastian Nordhoff and Harald Hammarström established the Glottolog/Langdoc project in 2011.[1][2] The creation of Glottolog was partly motivated by the lack of a comprehensive language bibliography, especially in Ethnologue.[3] Glottolog provides a catalogue of the worlds languages and language families and a bibliography on individual languages. It differs from Ethnologue in several respects:
Sports Emmy Awards. The Sports Emmy Awards, or Sports Emmys, are part of the extensive range of Emmy Awards for artistic and technical merit for the American television industry. Bestowed by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS), the Sports Emmys are presented in recognition of excellence in American sports television programming, including sports-related series, live coverage of sporting events, and best sports announcers. The awards ceremony, presenting Emmys from the previous calendar year, is usually held on a Spring Monday night, sometime in the last two weeks in April or the first week in May. The Sports Emmy Awards are all given away at one ceremony, unlike the Primetime Emmy Awards and the Daytime Emmy Awards, which hold a Creative Arts ceremony in which Emmys are given to behind-the-scenes personnel. The first Emmy for Best Sports Coverage was handed out at the second annual Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony in 1950, where KTLA, a local television station in Los Angeles, won the award for coverage of wrestling. The following year, another Los Angeles-based station, KNBH, won an Emmy for their coverage of the Los Angeles Rams American football team. At the seventh Primetime Emmys in 1955, NBC became the first major network to win a Sports Emmy Award for its series, the Gillette Cavalcade of Sports. In 1979, an Emmys exclusively for sports coverage was held for the first time at the Rainbow Room in New York City. Winners included golf announcer Jack Whitaker, and CBSs The NFL Today. The ninth annual Sports Emmy Awards, hosted by actors Alan Thicke and Joan Van Ark and held on July 13, 1988, became the first Sports Emmys ceremony to be televised; the live telecast was syndicated nationwide by Raycom Sports. Dennis Miller hosted in the 12th Sports Emmys in 1991, which was broadcast on ESPN. Among the Sports Emmy rules, a show must originally air on American television during the eligibility period between January 1 and December 31, and to at least 50 percent of the country.[1] A show that enters into the Sports Emmys cannot also be entered into any other national Emmy competition. Certain shows and segments that air on sports networks that are more entertainment or news, including award shows, the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympics, and the Super Bowl halftime show, are ineligible for the Sports Emmys. Entries must be submitted by mid-January. Most award categories also require entries to include DVDs or tape masters of the show. For most program categories, the submitted DVDs should feature up to five excerpts. For most personality categories, there is no limit in the number of segments submitted, but the DVD should not run over a total of 12 minutes.[1]
India.  India, officially the Republic of India,[j][20] is a country in South Asia.  It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country since 2023;[21] and, since its independence in 1947, the worlds most populous democracy.[22][23][24] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[k] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is near Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia. Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.[26][27][28] Their long occupation, predominantly in isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse.[29] Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[30] By 1200 BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest.[31][32] Its hymns recorded the early dawnings of Hinduism in India.[33] Indias pre-existing Dravidian languages were supplanted in the northern regions.[34] By 400 BCE, caste had emerged within Hinduism,[35] and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity.[36] Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires.[37] Widespread creativity suffused this era,[38] but the status of women declined,[39] and untouchability became an organised belief.[l][40] In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian language scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.[41] In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established on Indias southern and western coasts.[42] Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran Indias northern plains in the second millennium.[43] The resulting Delhi Sultanate drew northern India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.[44] In south India, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture.[45] In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.[46] The Mughal Empire ushered in two centuries of economic expansion and relative peace,[47] leaving a rich architectural legacy.[48][49] Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company turned India into a colonial economy but consolidated its sovereignty.[50] British Crown rule began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,[51][52] but technological changes were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.[53] A nationalist movement emerged in India, the first in the non-European British empire and an influence on other nationalist movements.[54][55] Noted for nonviolent resistance after 1920,[56] it became the primary factor in ending British rule.[57] In 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions,[58][59][60][61] a Hindu-majority dominion of India and a Muslim-majority dominion of Pakistan. A large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration accompanied the partition.[62] India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society. Indias population grew from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.[63] During this time, its nominal per capita income increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. A comparatively destitute country in 1951,[64] India has become a fast-growing major economy and a hub for information technology services, with an expanding middle class.[65] Indian movies and music increasingly influence global culture.[66] India has reduced its poverty rate, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.[67] It is a nuclear-weapon state that ranks high in military expenditure. It has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.[68] Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition,[69] and rising levels of air pollution.[70] Indias land is megadiverse with four biodiversity hotspots.[71] Indias wildlife, which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in its culture,[72] is supported in protected habitats.
Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS), also colloquially known as the Television Academy, is a professional honorary organization dedicated to the advancement of the television industry in the United States. A 501(c)(6) non-profit organization founded in 1946, the organization presents the Primetime Emmy Awards, an annual ceremony honoring achievement in U.S. primetime television. The ATAS is a sister organization to the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences and the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, the other two bodies that present Emmy Awards to other sectors of television programming. Syd Cassyd considered television a tool for education and envisioned an organization that would act outside the flash and glamor of the industry and become an outlet for serious discussion and award the industrys finest achievements.[2] Envisioning a television counterpart of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Cassyd founded the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1946 in conjunction with leaders of the early television industry who had gathered at a meeting he organized.[3] Cassyds academy in Los Angeles merged with a New York academy founded by Ed Sullivan in 1955 to form the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. The Los Angeles chapter broke away from NATAS in 1977, keeping the Primetime and Los Angeles Emmys.[4] In 2014, alongside its Hall of Fame induction ceremony and announced plans to expand its headquarters, the organization announced that it had changed its public brand to the Television Academy, with a new logo designed by Siegel + Gale. The new branding was intended to downplay the organizations antiquated formal name in favor of a more straightforward identity, and features a separating line (typically used to separate the organizations wordmark from a simplified image of the Emmy Award statuette) used to symbolize a screen, and also portrayed as a portal.[5][6] In 2016, producer Hayma Washington was elected chairman and CEO of the Academy of Arts and Sciences, becoming the first African-American to hold the position.[7]
Jack Kennedy (disambiguation). John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) was the 35th president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. Jack Kennedy may also refer to:
Japanese dialects. The dialects (方言, hōgen) of the Japanese language fall into two primary clades, Eastern (including modern capital Tokyo) and Western (including old capital Kyoto), with the dialects of Kyushu and Hachijō Island often distinguished as additional branches, the latter perhaps the most divergent of all.[1] The Ryukyuan languages of Okinawa Prefecture and the southern islands of Kagoshima Prefecture form a separate branch of the Japonic family, and are not Japanese dialects, although they are sometimes referred to as such. The setting of Japan with its numerous islands and mountains has the ideal setting for developing many dialects.[2] Regional variants of Japanese have been confirmed since the Old Japanese era. The Manyōshū, the oldest existing collection of Japanese poetry, includes poems written in dialects of the capital (Nara) and eastern Japan, but other dialects were not recorded. The compiler included azuma uta (eastern songs) that show that eastern dialect traits were distinct from the western dialect of Nara.[2] It is not clear if the capital of Nara entertained the idea of a standard dialect, however, they had an understanding which dialect should be regarded as the standard one, the dialect of the capital.[2] The recorded features of eastern dialects were rarely inherited by modern dialects, except for a few language islands such as Hachijo Island. In the Early Middle Japanese era, there were only vague records such as rural dialects are crude. However, since the Late Middle Japanese era, features of regional dialects had been recorded in some books, for example Arte da Lingoa de Iapam, and the recorded features were fairly similar to modern dialects. In these works, recorded by the Christian missionaries in Japan, they regard the true colloquial Japanese as the one used by the court nobles in Kyōto. Other indications for the Kyōto dialect to be considered the standard dialect at that time are glossaries of local dialects that list the Kyōto equivalent for local expressions.[2] The variety of Japanese dialects developed markedly during the Early Modern Japanese era (Edo period) because many feudal lords restricted the movement of people to and from other fiefs. Some isoglosses agree with old borders of han, especially in Tohoku and Kyushu. Nevertheless, even with the political capital being moved to Edo (i.e. Tōkyō) the status of the Kyōto dialect was not threatened immediately as it was still the cultural and economic center that dominated Japan. This dominance waned as Edo began to assert more political and economic force and made investments in its cultural development. At the end of the eighteenth century the Japanese that was spoken in Edo was regarded as standard as all glossaries from this period use the Edo dialect for local expressions.[3]
OSiR Stadium (Gorzów Wielkopolski). Stadion OSiR (full name in Polish: Stadion Ośrodka Sportu i Rekreacji w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim) is a football stadium in Gorzów Wielkopolski, Poland.[1] 52°43′54″N 15°12′27″E / 52.73167°N 15.20750°E / 52.73167; 15.20750  This article about a Polish stadium or sports venue is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Oval Office.  The Oval Office is the formal working space of the president of the United States. Part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, it is in the West Wing of the White House, in Washington, D.C. The oval room has three large windows facing the South Lawn, in front of which the presidents desk traditionally stands, and a fireplace at the north end. Two built-in bookcases are recessed in the western wall. There are four doors: the east door opens to the Rose Garden; the west door leads to a private study and dining room; the northwest door opens onto the main corridor of the West Wing; and the northeast door opens to the office of the presidents secretary. The room takes inspiration from the bow oval rooms in the main residence of the White House.  The west wing oval office was created when the wing was expanded in the early 1900s, a few years after the wing was built. Presidents generally decorate the office to suit their own personal tastes, choosing furniture and drapery and often commissioning oval carpets. Artwork is selected from the White House collection, or borrowed from museums for the presidents term. The Oval Office has become associated in Americans minds with the presidency itself through memorable images, such as a young John F. Kennedy Jr. peering through the front panel of his fathers desk, President Richard Nixon speaking by telephone with the Apollo 11 astronauts during their moonwalk, and Amy Carter bringing her Siamese cat Misty Malarky Ying Yang to brighten her father President Jimmy Carters day. Several presidents have addressed the nation from the Oval Office on occasion. Examples include Kennedy presenting news of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), Lyndon B. Johnson announcing that he will not run for reelection (1968),[1] Nixon announcing his resignation from office (1974),[2] Ronald Reagan following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (1986),[3], George W. Bush in the wake of the September 11 attacks (2001),[4] and Donald Trump addressing the nation after the assassination of Charlie Kirk (2025).[5]
Stadion OSiR Skałka.  Stadion Skałka im. Pawła Waloszka, Paweł Waloszek Skałka Stadium is a motorcycle speedway and association football stadium located in the centre of Świętochłowice off the Bytomska 40 road.[1] It is part of the Skałka Sports and Recreation Center. The Polish sports club Śląsk Świętochłowice uses the stadium. This consists of a football team and speedway club.[2] The stadium was built in the second half of the 1970s on a waste dump. It was officially opened on 1 June 1979 and on 22 June 1979, a record attendance of 27,000 people.[3] In April 2005, during a mass for John Paul II, nearly 20,000 people gathered at the stadium. In October 2014, the stadium was renamed to the Paweł Waloszek Stadium.[4]
OSiR Stadium (Olsztyn). Stadion OSiR w Olsztynie (OSiR Stadium in Olsztyn) is a multi-use stadium in Olsztyn, Poland. It is currently used mostly for football matches and is the home ground of OKS 1945 Olsztyn. The stadium has a capacity of 16,800 people.[1] The stadium was built in the 1970s. In 1994–2002, Stomil Olsztyn played its games in Polish First League there. On 24 June 1989 the final of the Polish Cup between Jagiellonia Białystok and Legia Warszawa (2:5) was played on the stadium. The match was watched by 20,000 fans. On 24 September 1997 venue also hosted friendly football match between Poland and Lithuania (2:0).[1] 53°46′22.89″N 20°30′33.88″E / 53.7730250°N 20.5094111°E / 53.7730250; 20.5094111  This article about a Polish stadium or sports venue is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Kinki Expressway. Kinki Expressway (近畿自動車道, Kinki Jidōshadō) is a national expressway in Osaka Prefecture, Japan. It is owned and operated by West Nippon Expressway Company. In conjunction with the Chūgoku Expressway and the Osaka Chūō Kanjōsen of Osaka Prefectural Road 2, it will form a full outer ring road of Osaka. The expressway is designated with the number E26 under the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourisms 2016 Proposal for Realization of Expressway Numbering.[1] The route originates from its junction with the Meishin Expressway and Chūgoku Expressway and extends east shortly, then southward. At its southern terminus it connects to the Nishi-Meihan Expressway and Hanwa Expressway. Tolls are charged at a flat rate (currently 510 yen for a regular passenger car). The speed limit is 60 km/h on the section between Suita Junction and Ibaraki Toll Gate and 80 km/h on all other sections. The first section of the expressway was opened to traffic in 1970 to coincide with the opening of Expo 70 in Osaka. The final section of the expressway (4.8 km between Yao Interchange and Matsubara Junction) was opened on 17 March 1988. The entire expressway is in Osaka Prefecture. 
Kinki Sharyo. Kinki Sharyo Co., Ltd. (近畿車輛株式会社, Kinki Sharyō kabushiki gaisha) is a Japanese manufacturer of railroad vehicles based in Osaka. It is an affiliate company of Kintetsu Corporation. In business since 1920 as Tanaka Rolling Stock Works, and renamed The Kinki Sharyo Co., Ltd in 1945, they produce rolling stock for numerous transportation agencies, ranging from Shinkansen high-speed trains to light rail vehicles. Kinki Sharyo is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange as TYO: 7122. Kinki Sharyo also produces steel doors, known as the KJ series, for public housing in Japan.
Kindai University. Kindai University (Japanese: 近畿大学, Hepburn: Kinki daigaku) is a private non-sectarian and coeducational university based in Higashiosaka, Osaka, Japan with campuses in five other locations: Nara, Nara; Ōsakasayama, Osaka; Uchita, Wakayama; Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima; and Iizuka, Fukuoka. The English name of the university had been Kinki University since its establishment in 1949 to refer to the surrounding area of the capital city (Kyoto). On May 20, 2014, the university announced that its English name would officially change to Kindai (近大), to avoid the implications of the word kinky, as the university was planning to globalize with the establishment of a new Foreign Language school.[2] The name change took effect on April 1, 2016.[3] The university dates its foundation to the establishment of Osaka Technical College (大阪専門学校, Ōsaka semmon gakkō) in 1925. Kindai University started in 1949 when the founder college merged with Osaka Science and Engineering University (大阪理工科大学, Ōsaka rikōka daigaku), established in 1943. The first president was Koichi Seko. Initially there were two schools: the School of Engineering and the School of Commerce (now the School of Business and Economics). After the war, when food was in short supply, the university opened its Marine Research Center in 1948 in Shirahama-cho, Wakayama Prefecture. Today it is the Fisheries Laboratory. This was the first time that marine fish farming research was carried out in Japan. Other pioneering projects include, along with the opening of the Atomic Energy Research Institute, establishing the first private nuclear reactor facilities in 1960.
Red kuri squash. Red kuri squash (katakana: ウチキクリ) is a thin skinned orange colored winter squash, a cultivated variety of the species Cucurbita maxima. It looks like a small pumpkin without the ridges. It belongs to the Hubbard squash group. Inside the hard outer skin there is a firm flesh that provides a very delicate and mellow chestnut-like flavor. Other varieties of this subspecies include Hokkaido, Red Hokkaido and Sweet Meat squashes.[1] It is generally understood that all squash originated in Mesoamerica,[2][3]  but may have been independently cultivated elsewhere, albeit later.[4] Red kuri squash is commonly called Japanese squash, orange Hokkaido squash,[5] baby red hubbard squash, or Uchiki kuri squash. In Japan, the word kuri may refer to either the squash discussed in this article or to Japanese chestnuts. In France, it is called potimarron, and in the United Kingdom, it is commonly called onion squash. Primarily grown in Japan, California, Florida, Southwestern Colorado, Mexico, Tasmania, Tonga, New Zealand, Chile, Provence, and South Africa, red kuri is widely adapted for climates that provide a growing season of 100 days or more. Most of the California, Colorado, Tonga and New Zealand crops are exported to Japan.
Danny Jacob. Danny Jacob is an American composer, songwriter and guitarist.[1] His credits include composing the score for the television series Phineas and Ferb,[1] and co-producing the music for the series Sofia The First. He is a three-time Emmy-nominated composer. He also wrote the theme songs for Lilo & Stitch: The Series, The Emperors New School, Kim Possible, Sonny With A Chance, and Jackie Chan Adventures. As a featured guitarist, Jacob has performed on Shrek, the Bette Midler HBO concert Diva Las Vegas, and on Ray Charles and Aretha Franklins Heaven Help Us. Jacob started playing guitar at 13 years old, honing his skills in acoustic, electric, R&B, and jazz playing styles.[2] At 16 years old he formed his own bands, performing in local bars and clubs in Los Angeles.[2] Jacob has played and toured with recording artists: Bette Midler, George Michael, and Tower of Power,[3] and said he has been inspired by Hans Zimmer, John Powell, and Harry Gregson-Williams.[1] During DreamWorks founding years, Zimmer and Jacob worked together on the soundtracks for The Road to El Dorado and Antz. This led to his work as a featured guitarist with score composers Harry Gregson-Williams and John Powell on Shrek. Jacob arranged and co-produced the musical DVD sequence Shrek in the Swamp Karaoke Dance Party along with Eddie Murphys cover of Im a Believer from the soundtrack album. He also composed the instrumental score for Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus presents Zing Zang Zoom in 2009. He began working on various Disney TV Animation series, producing and writing theme songs for Lilo & Stitch: The Series and The Emperors New School. Ultimately, he was brought on to revamp the theme song for Phineas and Ferb before being hired as the shows composer and song producer. He continued to work with creators Dan Povenmire and Jeff Swampy Marsh on their next series, Milo Murphys Law, two Phineas and Ferb feature films (Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension and Phineas and Ferb: Candace Against the Universe) and various specials, and again with Povenmire on the new series Hamster & Gretel. He co-composed the score for the Amazon Kids+ series ARPO: Robot Babysitter with his son, Aaron. He was married to Grammy-nominated film music producer Marylata Elton.[4] They have one child: composer, musician, and filmmaker Aaron Daniel Jacob. In 2011, Jacob and Marylata established an endowment for the Teenage Drama Workshop at California State University, Northridge.[4]  He is a native of San Fernando Valley, California.
NASA.  The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the United Statess civil space program, aeronautics research and space research. Established in 1958, it succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to give the American space development effort a distinct civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. It has since led most of Americas space exploration programs, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo program missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA supports the International Space Station (ISS) along with the Commercial Crew Program and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the lunar Artemis program. NASAs science division is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System; advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorates Heliophysics Research Program; exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft such as New Horizons and planetary rovers such as Perseverance; and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the James Webb Space Telescope, the four Great Observatories, and associated programs. The Launch Services Program oversees launch operations for its uncrewed launches. NASA traces its roots to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Despite Dayton, Ohio being the birth place of aviation, by 1914 the United States recognized that it was far behind Europe in aviation capability. Determined to regain American leadership in aviation, the United States Congress created the Aviation Section of the US Army Signal Corps in 1914 and established NACA in 1915 to foster aeronautical research and development. Over the next forty years, NACA would conduct aeronautical research in support of the US Air Force, US Army, US Navy, and the civil aviation sector. After the end of World War II, NACA became interested in the possibilities of guided missiles and supersonic aircraft, developing and testing the Bell X-1 in a joint program with the US Air Force. NACAs interest in space grew out of its rocketry program at the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division.[5] The Soviet Unions launch of Sputnik 1 ushered in the Space Age and kicked off the Space Race. Despite NACAs early rocketry program, the responsibility for launching the first American satellite fell to the Naval Research Laboratorys Project Vanguard, whose operational issues ensured the Army Ballistic Missile Agency would launch Explorer 1, Americas first satellite, on February 1, 1958.
Dosanko.  The Dosanko (道産子)[a] is a Japanese breed of small horse. It is one of eight extant indigenous  horse breeds of Japan, and the only one of them not critically endangered.[2]: 8  It originated on the island of Hokkaido, in the far north of the country, and is found particularly along the Pacific (eastern) coast of the island.[3] The people of Hokkaido may be nicknamed Dosanko after the horses.[4]: 37 Japanese horses are thought to derive from stock brought at several different times from various parts of the Asian mainland; the first such importations took place by the sixth century at the latest.[5] Horses were used for farming – as pack-animals although not for draught power; until the advent of firearms in the later sixteenth century, they were much used for warfare.[2]: 67  The horses were not large: remains of some 130 horses have been excavated from battlefields dating to the Kamakura period (1185–1333 AD); they ranged from 110 to 140 cm in height at the withers.[2]: 67 The Dosanko is thought to derive from horses brought to the island from the Tōhoku region of north-eastern Honshu in the late Tokugawa period (1603–1868), and abandoned there.[4]: 37 Total numbers of the breed grew from 1180 in 1973 to almost 3000 head in the early 1990s, but by the year 2000 had fallen to 1950 horses.[2]: table 10  A herd-book was established in 1979.[6]: 12 [3] Hokkaido University receives a grant to study conservation measures for the breed.[2]: 11
Kintetsu Railway. Kintetsu Railway Co., Ltd. (近畿日本鉄道株式会社, Kinki-nippon Tetsudō Kabushiki-gaisha), referred to as Kintetsu (近鉄) and officially Kinki-Nippon Railway, is a Japanese passenger railway company, managing infrastructure and operating passenger train service. Its railway system is the largest in Japan, excluding Japan Railways Group.[1] The railway network connects Osaka, Nara, Kyoto, Nagoya, Tsu, Ise, and Yoshino. Kintetsu Railway Co., Ltd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Kintetsu Group Holdings Co., Ltd. On September 16, 1910, Nara Tramway Co., Ltd. (奈良軌道株式会社, Nara Kidō) was founded and renamed Osaka Electric Tramway Co., Ltd. (大阪電気軌道株式会社, Ōsaka Denki Kidō; Daiki (大軌)) a month after. Osaka Electric Tramway completed Ikoma Tunnel and started operating a line between Osaka and Nara (present-day Nara Line) on April 30, 1914.[1] The modern Kashihara, Osaka, and Shigi lines were completed in the 1920s, followed by the Kyoto Line (a cooperative venture with Keihan Electric Railway). Daiki founded Sangu Electric Railway Co., Ltd. (参宮急行電鉄株式会社, Sangū Kyūkō  Dentetsu; Sankyū (参急)) in 1927, which consolidated Ise Electric Railway Co., Ltd. (伊勢電気鉄道株式会社, Ise Denki Tetsudō; Iseden (伊勢電)) on September 15, 1936. In 1938, Daiki teamed up with its subsidiary Kansai Express Electric Railway Co., Ltd. (関西急行電鉄株式会社, Kansai Kyūkō  Dentetsu) to operate the first private railway service from Osaka to Nagoya. Another subsidiary Sankyū bought Kansai Express Electric Railway on January 1, 1940 and continued the service on its own. Then, Sankyū consolidated Yoro Railway Co., Ltd. (養老鉄道株式会社, Yōrō Tetsudō; not the present Yoro Railway Co., Ltd.) on August 1. Daiki consolidated its largest subsidiary Sankyū on March 15, 1941 and was renamed Kansai Express Railway Co., Ltd. (関西急行鉄道, Kansai Kyūko Tetsudō; Kankyū (関急)). Kankyū consolidated Osaka Railway Co., Ltd. (大阪鉄道株式会社, Ōsaka Tetsudō; Daitetsu (大鉄), owner of the present Minami Osaka Line) on February 1, 1943 and moved its headquarters from Uehommachi to Osaka Abenobashi. Kankyū was renamed Kinki Nippon Railway Co., Ltd. (近畿日本鉄道株式会社, Kinki Nippon Tetsudō; Kinki Nippon (近畿日本) or Kin-nichi (近日)) after it consolidated Nankai Railway in June 1944: it maintained the name when Nankai regained its independence in 1947. After World War II, Kintetsu branched out and became one of the worlds largest travel agencies, Kinki Nippon Tourist Co., Ltd., opening offices in the United States of America (Kintetsu International Express, Inc.) and other countries.
North, South Carolina.  North is a town in Orangeburg County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 696 at the 2020 census. North is located at 33°36′58″N 81°6′13″W / 33.61611°N 81.10361°W / 33.61611; -81.10361 (33.615983, -81.103588).[5] According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.9 square miles (2.3 km2), all land. In 1891, the South Bound Railway Company came through the area with the assistance of John F. North. In 1892, John North, along with George W. Pou and Sampson A. Livingston, donated 100 acres (40.5 ha) for the railway depot and townsite. A U.S. Post Office branch was also later established. The next year John North, a Confederate veteran and businessman, was elected the first mayor of his namesake town of North, South Carolina.[6][7] The town has been noted for its unusual place name.[8]
Hokkaido (dog breed). The Hokkaido (北海道犬, Hokkaidō Inu,[1][2] Hokkaidō-ken[2][3]; Japanese pronunciation: [hok.kai.doꜜː i.nɯ][1]) is a breed of dog originating from Japan. Other names for the breed include Ainu-ken, Seta, Ainu dog, and (in Japan) its name is sometimes shortened to Dō-ken (道犬). The Hokkaido is native to the prefecture of the same name in Japan. The dog is medium in size, with small, triangular, upright ears. The small black eyes have a rising triangular outline. The Hokkaido has a coat of long, stiff fur, and a second, shorter coat of soft fur. Colors include red, white, black, brindle, sesame, black and tan, and wolf-gray. Males are typically 50 cm (20 in) tall at the withers, females slightly shorter, with body masses in the 20 kg (44 lb) range. Dogs bred on continents outside of their native Japan may be smaller. The Hokkaido dog has a very high rate of Collie eye anomaly (CEA). About 1/3 of Hokkaidos are affected by CEA while 2/3 are carriers.[4][5] All native Japanese dogs, including the Hokkaido, are believed to originate from dogs brought to Japan during the Jomon period.[6] The Hokkaido is believed to originate from the medium-sized dogs brought by immigrants from the main island of Honshu in the 1140s.[7][8] In 1869, the English zoologist Thomas W. Blakiston gave the breed the name Hokkaido. The breed was useful in the search for survivors of an Imperial Japanese Army regiment that was caught in heavy snow crossing the Hakkōda Mountains of Aomori Prefecture in 1902. In 1937, the Ainu dog was designated in Japan as a Living natural Monument[9] and a rare species protected by law by the Ministry of Education and it was decided that the official name of the breed would be Hokkaido-Inu. However, the dogs are almost always called Hokkaido-Ken among the Japanese people.
European Union.  in Europe (dark grey) The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe.[8][9] The union has a total area of 4,233,255 km2 (1,634,469 sq mi) and an estimated population of over 450 million as of 2025. The EU is often described as a sui generis political entity combining characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.[10][11] Containing 5.5% of the world population in 2023,[12] EU member states generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around €17.935 trillion in 2024, accounting for approximately one sixth of global economic output.[13] Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market;[14] enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade,[15] agriculture,[16] fisheries and regional development.[17] Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area.[18] The eurozone is a group composed of the 20 EU member states that have fully implemented the EUs economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. The EU was established, along with its citizenship, when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was incorporated as an international legal juridical person[clarification needed] upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009.[19] Its beginnings can be traced to the Inner Six states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern European integration in 1948, and to the Western Union, the International Authority for the Ruhr, the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community, which were established by treaties. These increasingly amalgamated bodies grew, with their legal successor the EU, both in size through the accessions of a further 22 states from 1973 to 2013, and in power through acquisitions of policy areas.
Hokkaido (Hitman). Hokkaido is a level from IO Interactives Hitman video game franchise. It takes place in the fictional GAMA Private Hospital in a remote location of Hokkaido, Japan. Hokkaido was created by lead level designer Torbjørn Christensen. Christensen and lead game designer Jesper Hylling describe it as an absurd location due to how remote and inconvenient it is for people to get to it, but Christensen regarded that as a strength, owing to its fantastical nature that allows them to take more liberties than if it was set in Tokyo.[1] The developers had been looking for an opportunity to include a hospital in the Hitman series for a while, brainstorming on what could go wrong in a hospital setting.[2] Initially, the setting was just going to be a hospital, but the team elected to add the resort and morgue in order to make it more surprising for players. They also sought to make the different parts of the level feel visually and thematically distinct. They went to lengths to ensure that the different areas felt like they made sense to be connected to one another, justifying the presence of a resort being that a rich patient would want to recuperate or the staff room having a dance mat game because its set in Japan. When describing the level archetype Hokkaido fits into, Christensen called it a spiral, due to how they wrap around and interconnect with stairs and slopes.[1] They set the location in Japan as part of their effort to have a hospital where the technology borders on science fiction. They also chose it because they wanted to have a controlled climate setting located in a setting thats otherwise harsh. They also aimed to make the spa area inviting from a tourist point of view.[2] The level is designed to be more restrictive than normal, requiring Agent 47 to be wearing certain disguises to get into certain areas. This is done by having an AI control the facility, and it only allows doors to open if Agent 47 is wearing a disguise that it deems fit to enter that area of the facility. The idea was that clothes were fitted with RFID chips that the AI would identify. This was a difficult thing to get working well, creating a number of issues for the team.[1] They wanted to experiment with the idea of emphasizing the disguises after they experimented with a more military-focused level in Colorado.[2] They had to avoid potentially confusing players, which they accomplished by having an early area require them to learn the gimmick, as well as through signposting the access levels on the doors and the clothing.[1] Hokkaido is a more dense level, which affects how the 300 non-playable character limit manifests. In other levels, areas that should be more densely populated than they are, have justifications for why they arent. Meanwhile, because the level is smaller, no such justification is necessary, and the level is busier as a result.[1] Art director Jonathan Rowe worked on the level, and found that Hokkaido being clean, stark, and austere made it more difficult to make the level look good. He felt that more details make something look more realistic, but due to how sterile the level was, it was difficult to make it not seem unfinished. Rowe accomplished this by focusing on micro details and surface details to complete the package.[3] A surgical robot resembling a spider was featured in the level, and was based on car manufacturing robots. Rowe wanted something that was both industrial and clunky yet moved unnaturally fluidly, finding those two themes working in concert very disturbing.[3]
The Penguins of Madagascar.  The Penguins of Madagascar is an American animated television series produced by DreamWorks Animation in collaboration with Nickelodeon Animation Studio.[4] It stars nine characters from DreamWorks animated film Madagascar: the penguins Skipper (Tom McGrath), Rico (John DiMaggio), Kowalski (Jeff Bennett), and Private (James Patrick Stuart); the lemurs King Julien (Danny Jacobs), Maurice (Kevin Michael Richardson), and Mort (Andy Richter); and the chimpanzees Mason (Conrad Vernon) and Phil. Characters new to the series include the otter Marlene (Nicole Sullivan) and a zookeeper named Alice (Mary Scheer). It is the first Nicktoon co-produced with DreamWorks Animation. The series was executive-produced by Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle, who were the creators of the animated series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command (a spin-off of Pixars Toy Story franchise) and Disney Channels Kim Possible. The pilot episode, Gone in a Flash, aired as part of Superstuffed Nicktoons Weekend on Friday, November 28,[5] 2008, and The Penguins of Madagascar became a regular series on March 28, 2009. The series premiere drew 6.1 million viewers, setting a new record as the most-watched premiere.[6][7] The Penguins of Madagascar aired after Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa was released, but it does not take place at a precise time within the franchise as it is unknown as to how the penguins and lemurs arrived at the zoo without the other characters from the Madagascar movies, although the series does occasionally allude to the rest of it.[8] The show started production before an ending to Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa had been established. McGrath, who is also the co-creator of the film characters and voice of Skipper, has said that the series takes place not specifically before or after the movie, I just wanted them all back at the zoo. I think of it as taking place in a parallel universe.[8] At the end of 2010, the show was the number two animated program on television among kids age 2–11 and in basic cable total viewers.[9] The show received praise for its animation quality, regarded as very good for the time.[10]
Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks. The Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks (福岡ソフトバンクホークス, Fukuoka Sofutobanku Hōkusu) are a Japanese professional baseball team based in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture. They compete in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) as a member of the Pacific League. Founded on February 22, 1938, as the Nankai Club, being the first Kansai team to play in Osaka proper, the team went through a few name changes before settling on Nankai Hawks in 1947, eventually changing ownership in 1988 and moving to Fukuoka in 1989. The team subsequently became known as the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks until 2005, when they were purchased by SoftBank Group, becoming the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks. Since 1993, the Hawks have played at Mizuho PayPay Dome Fukuoka, which has gone under several name changes and seats 40,142 people.[4] The Hawks are often regarded as one of the most successful franchises in Pacific League and the richest in all of baseball under the ownership of SoftBank Group,[5] with the second most wins in all of Japanese sports, only trailing the Yomiuri Giants. The Hawks have played in the Japan Series 21 different times. The club also won two Japanese Baseball League championships in 1946 and 1948 while the team was based in Osaka. The Hawks 11 Japan Series championships, including seven championships between 2011 and 2020, and 20 Pacific League pennants, with the most recent pennant coming in 2024 and most recent Japan Series in 2020, are second-most in Pacific League and third-most in all of NPB, only trailing the Saitama Seibu Lions and Yomiuri Giants. For various reasons, the Hawks experienced a 35 year title drought between 1964 and 1999 including a period of 26 years from 1973 to 1999 without a single Japan Series appearance, despite the relocation to Fukuoka. The drought finally ended in 1999, with gradual additions over the previous five years under new manager and home run king Sadaharu Oh. Under Oh (as manager and later executive), Daiei, and later SoftBank, the Hawks embraced internal development and sabremetrics as they eventually formed a baseball dynasty off of a core led by slugger Yuki Yanagita and aces Kodai Senga and Tsuyoshi Wada, capturing Japan Series titles in 2003, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020, making the Hawks the first team since the 1965–1973 Yomiuri Giants to win more than three consecutive championships.[6] Through 2024, the franchises all-time record is 5,707–5,049–405 (.531).[7] The teams manager is Hiroki Kokubo and the organizations acting CEO is Yoshimitsu Goto [ja]. The franchise that eventually became the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks was founded on February 22, 1938, by Nankai Electric Railway president Jinkichi Terada as Nankai Club, based in central Osaka. The organization was said to be created as a result of rival railway companies Hanshin Electric Railway and Hankyu convincing Nankai to create a baseball club of their own. While initially met with resistance, the club was admitted to the Japanese Baseball League (JPBL) in the fall of 1938, playing their first games at Sakai Ohama Stadium, but moved into Nakamozu Stadium in 1939. The teams name was changed to Kinki Nippon in mid-1944 as wartime austerity measures forced Nankai to temporarily merge with Kinki Nippon Railway. After the 1945 hiatus in the JBL due to the Greater East Asia War, in 1946 the teams name was changed to Kinki Great Ring and the team won the JBL championship. The name was chosen as a translation of Japans ancient name, Yamato, in a similar way to the Montreal Canadiens or the New York Yankees.
Full Blast (film). Full Blast is a 1999 film by Canadian director Rodrigue Jean, his first long feature.[1] Filmed in Bathurst, New Brunswick, the film was written by Nathalie Loubeyre as an adaptation of Martin Pitres novel LEnnemi que je connais.[2] It was the first French-language feature film funded by Film New Brunswick, the provincial film development agency.[2] The film had its theatrical premiere at the 1999 Toronto International Film Festival, before going into general theatrical release in early 2000.[1] A strike at a sawmill in a small fictional community in New Brunswick puts Steph (David La Haye) and Piston (Martin Desgagné) out of work. They want to resurrect their band Lost Tribe, but Marie-Lou (Marie-Jo Thério), Pistons ex-wife and the bands former lead singer, is not enthusiastic about the idea.[3] Meanwhile, the bisexual Steph is having relationship trouble with Rose (Louise Portal), an older woman that hes been seeing and drifts first to Marie-Lou and then to Charles (Patrice Godin), who once left town but is now back.[4] At the Toronto International Film Festival, the film received an honorable mention from the Best Canadian First Feature Film jury.[5]
Vocal jazz. Vocal jazz or jazz singing is a genre within jazz music where the voice is used as an instrument. Vocal jazz began in the early twentieth century. Jazz music has its roots in blues and ragtime and can also traced back to the New Orleans jazz tradition.[1] Jazz music is characterized by syncopated rhythms, improvisation, and unique tonality and pitch deviation.[1] In vocal jazz, this includes vocal improvisations called scat singing where vocalists imitate the instrumentalists tone and rhythm. Jazz singing originates from African-American enslaved people who sang field hollers and work songs.[2] Work songs and field hollers provided a mode of expression for enslaved people to challenge the oppressive structures of white power.[3] They allowed emotional expression, helped pass the time, and coordinated labor movements.[3] The musical elements of these songs involved a call-and-response structure and included repetitive phrasing and improvisation which are foundational elements of jazz music.[3] Spirituals in churches, minstrels, and vaudeville also were the basis for jazz music.[2] Jazz grew into popularity in the early twentieth century, with its roots in blues.[2] Louis Armstrong is often cited as being a large contributor to the rise in popularity of vocal jazz music, beginning in the late 1920s.[2] His 1926 recording of Heebie Jeebies is often cited as the first modern song to employ scatting, a vocal improvisation technique.[4]
Weston, Connecticut.  Weston (/ˈwɛstən/ WES-tən) is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 10,354 at the 2020 census and had the highest median income in the state of Connecticut.[1] The town is part of the Western Connecticut Planning Region. The town is served by Route 57 and Route 53, both of which run through the town center. Approximately 19% of the towns workforce commutes to New York City, about 45 miles (72 km) to the southwest.[3] In 2017, SafeWise ranked Weston the safest town in Connecticut and the sixth safest town in the country.[4] Weston is the closest Connecticut town to New York City without a train station. Aside from a handful of stores that form the towns center, Weston has little commercial development and residential development is limited by two-acre zoning.[5] Most of Devils Den Preserve, a 1,746-acre (707 ha) nature reserve, which gets 40,000 visits a year, is located in the town. In the 17th century, Westons first English settlers were mostly farmers living in the town of Fairfield, Connecticut, the boundaries of which extended to Weston until the late 18th century.[6] The Norfield Parish was created in the area now occupied by the towns of Weston and Easton. In 1787, the area was formally incorporated as the Town of Weston. It is believed to be named after Weston-super-Mare, which was a small fishing village surrounded by countryside farmland, which many of the early British farming settlers originated from.[7] In 1845, the Town of Easton was split off from Weston.
Cabaret. Cabaret is a form of theatrical entertainment featuring music song, dance, recitation, or drama. The performance venue might be a pub, casino, hotel, restaurant, or nightclub[1] with a stage for performances. The audience, often dining or drinking, does not typically dance but usually sits at tables. Performances are usually introduced by a master of ceremonies (M.C.). The entertainment, as performed by an ensemble of actors and according to its European origins, is often (but not always) oriented towards adult audiences and of a clearly underground nature. In the United States, striptease, burlesque, drag shows, or a solo vocalist with a pianist, as well as the venues which offer this entertainment, are often advertised as cabarets. The term originally came from Picard language or Walloon language words camberete or cambret for a small room (12th century). The first printed use of the word kaberet is found in a document from 1275 in Tournai. The term was used from the 13th century in Middle Dutch to mean an inexpensive inn or restaurant (caberet, cabret).[2] The word cambret is itself probably derived from an earlier form of chambrette or little room, or from the Norman French chamber meaning tavern, itself derived from the Late Latin word camera meaning an arched roof.[3] Cabarets had appeared in Paris by at least the late 15th century. They were distinguished from taverns because they served food as well as wine, the table was covered with a cloth, and the price was charged by the plate, not the mug.[4] They were not particularly associated with entertainment even if musicians sometimes performed in both.[5] Early on, cabarets were considered better than taverns; by the end of the sixteenth century, they were the preferred place to dine out. In the 17th century, a clearer distinction emerged when taverns were limited to selling wine, and later to serving roast meats. Cabarets were frequently used as meeting places for writers, actors, friends and artists. Writers such as La Fontaine, Moliere and Jean Racine were known to frequent a cabaret called the Mouton Blanc on rue du Vieux-Colombier, and later the Croix de Lorraine on the modern rue Bourg-Tibourg. In 1773, French poets, painters, musicians and writers began to meet in a cabaret called Le Caveau on rue de Buci, where they composed and sang songs. The Caveau continued until 1816, when it was forced to close because its clients wrote songs mocking the royal government.[4]
Dance music. Dance music is music composed specifically to facilitate or accompany dancing. It can be either a whole piece or part of a larger musical arrangement. In terms of performance, the major categories are live dance music and recorded dance music. While there exist attestations of the combination of dance and music in ancient history (for example Ancient Greek vases sometimes show dancers accompanied by musicians), the earliest Western dance music that we can still reproduce with a degree of certainty are old-fashioned dances. In the Baroque period, the major dance styles were noble court dances (see Baroque dance). In the classical music era, the minuet was frequently used as a third movement, although in this context it would not accompany any dancing. The waltz also arose later in the classical era. Both remained part of the romantic music period, which also saw the rise of various other nationalistic dance forms like the barcarolle, mazurka, ecossaise, ballade and polonaise. Modern popular dance music initially emerged from late 19th centurys Western ballroom and social dance music. During the early 20th century, ballroom dancing gained popularity among the working class who attended public dance halls. Dance music became enormously popular during the 1920s. In the 1930s, known as the Swing era, Swing music was the popular dance music in America. In the 1950s, rock and roll became the popular dance music. The late 1960s saw the rise of soul and R&B music. Dominican and Cuban New Yorkers created the popular salsa dance in the late 1960s which stemmed from the Latin music genre of salsa. The rise of disco in the early 1970s led to dance music becoming popular with the public. By the late 1970s, electronic dance music was developing. This music, made using electronics, is a style of popular music commonly played in nightclubs, radio stations, shows and raves. Many subgenres of electronic dance music  have evolved. Dancing to rhythmic music has long been a cherished tradition in civilizations around the world, where dynamic movements synchronized with percussion instruments such as drums, bells, and rattles serve as integral expressions of cultural identity, social cohesion, and spiritual significance. Folk dance music accompanies traditional dance and may be contrasted with historical/classical, and popular/commercial dance music. An example of folk dance music in the United States is the old-time music played at square dances and contra dances. While there exist attestations of the combination of dance and music in ancient times (for example Ancient Greek vases sometimes show dancers accompanied by musicians), the earliest Western dance music that we can still reproduce with a degree of certainty are the surviving medieval dances such as carols and the Estampie. The earliest of these surviving dances are almost as old as Western staff-based music notation.
Poland.  – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend] Poland,[c] officially the Republic of Poland,[d] is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, and borders Lithuania and Russia[e] to the northeast; Belarus and Ukraine to the east; Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south; and Germany to the west. The territory has a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, and a temperate climate. Poland is composed of sixteen voivodeships and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union (EU), with over 38 million people, and the fifth largest EU country by land area, covering 312,696 km2 (120,733 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Warsaw; other major cities include Kraków, Wrocław, Łódź, Poznań, and Gdańsk. Prehistoric human activity on Polish soil dates to the Lower Paleolithic, with continuous settlement since the end of the Last Glacial Period. Culturally diverse throughout late antiquity, in the early medieval period the region became inhabited by the West Slavic tribal Polans, who gave Poland its name. The process of establishing statehood coincided with the conversion of a pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity in 966 under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1025, the Kingdom of Poland emerged, and in 1569 it cemented its long-standing association with Lithuania, forming the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of Europes great powers, with an elective monarchy and a uniquely liberal political system. It adopted Europes first modern constitution in 1791. With the passing of the prosperous Polish Golden Age, the country was partitioned by neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century. At the end of World War I in 1918, Poland regained its independence with the founding of the Second Polish Republic, which emerged victorious in various conflicts of the interbellum period. In September 1939, the invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union marked the beginning of World War II, which resulted in the Holocaust and millions of Polish casualties. Forced into the Eastern Bloc in the global Cold War, the Polish Peoples Republic was a signatory of the Warsaw Pact. Through the 1980 emergence and contributions of the Solidarity movement, which initiated the fall of the Iron Curtain, the communist government was dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a liberal democracy in 1989, as the first of its neighbours.
Daytime television. Daytime is a block of television programming taking place during the late-morning and afternoon on weekdays. Daytime programming is typically scheduled to air between the hours of 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., following the early morning daypart typically dedicated to morning shows and preceding the evening dayparts that eventually lead into prime time. The majority of daytime programming is typically targeted towards women (and in particular, housewives). Historically, court shows, game shows, soap operas, & talk shows have been fixtures of daytime programming, although daytime soap operas have seen declines in North America due to changing audiences and viewing habits. This type of daytime programming is typically aired on weekdays; weekend daytime programming is often very different and more varied in nature, and usually focuses more on sports broadcasts. For most intents and purposes, the traditional target audience of daytime television programs in the United States has been demographically women 18–49, as the large majority of daytime viewership has historically consisted of housewives.[1]  As such, daytime programs are often hosted by women or personalities popular among women, and pertain to subjects such as womens issues (including health, lifestyles, and fashion), current events, and gossip. Due to demographic shifts and the decreasing number of people at home during the daytime, the daytime television audience has shrunk rapidly in recent years, and that which remains is largely over the age of 55 and thus considered undesirable for most advertisers.[2] Another popular audience in this timeframe is the college student; game shows such as the original Jeopardy! (1964–1975), Match Game (1973–1982; 1990), Family Feud (1976–1985; 1988–1993; 1994; 1999–present), Card Sharks (1978–1981; 1986–1989), Press Your Luck (1983–1986), and, since the 1990s and even more so under current host Drew Carey, The Price Is Right (1972–present), have targeted this audience.
Outline of linguistics. The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. Linguistics can be theoretical or applied. Sub-fields of structure-focused linguistics include: When were the basic concepts first described and by whom? What basic concepts / terms do I have to know to talk about linguistics?
Sacha Baron Cohen.  Sacha Noam Baron Cohen (/ˈsæʃə/ SA-shə;[1] born 13 October 1971) is an English actor and comedian. Known for his creation and portrayal of the fictional satirical characters Ali G, Borat Sagdiyev, Brüno Gehard and Admiral General Haffaz Aladeen, he has received various accolades throughout his career, including two BAFTA TV Awards, three Golden Globe Awards and a SAG Award, in addition to nominations for three Academy Awards and six Primetime Emmy Awards. Baron Cohen began his career in television late-night series The 11 OClock Show (1998–1999), winning the British Comedy Award for Best Male Newcomer, before creating and starring as his character Ali G in the satirical sketch comedy show Da Ali G Show (2000–2004), for which he received two British Academy Television Awards. He created and starred in the Showtime satirical mockumentary series Who Is America? (2018), for which he earned a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy. He portrayed Eli Cohen in the Netflix limited series The Spy (2019), earning a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film nomination, and acted in the Apple TV+ limited series Disclaimer (2024). He starred as Mephisto in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, beginning with the miniseries Ironheart (2025). Baron Cohen wrote and starred in Borat (2006) and Borat Subsequent Moviefilm (2020), which earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy as well as a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.[2] For his portrayal of Abbie Hoffman in the legal drama The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020) he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He also wrote, produced and starred in the comedy films Ali G Indahouse (2002), Brüno (2009), The Dictator (2012) and Grimsby (2016) and has acted in drama films such as Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007), Hugo (2011) and Les Misérables (2012). He voiced King Julien XIII in the Madagascar film series (2005–2012) and Uncle Ugo in Luca (2021). He has been a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in the Actors Branch since 2008.[3]
51st Daytime Emmy Awards. The 51st Daytime Emmy Awards, presented by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, honored the best in U.S. daytime television programming in 2023. The award ceremony was held on June 7, 2024, at the Westin Bonaventure Hotel in Los Angeles.[1] Kevin Frazier and Nischelle Turner, co-anchors of the syndicated entertainment news magazine Entertainment Tonight, hosted the ceremony for the third consecutive year.[2] The full list of nominations were announced on April 19, 2024,[3] with some of the top key categories being unveiled on April 18 on programs such as Access Hollywood, Entertainment Tonight, Extra and E! News.[3][4] CBS holds the U.S. rights to broadcast the ceremony and stream it on Paramount+ under the final year of two-year deal.[5] The award for Outstanding Younger Performer in a Drama Series was retired, and younger performers will now have to enter into the regular lead, supporting or guest acting categories.[4][6]
Linguistics.  Linguistics is the scientific study of language.[1][2][3] The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds and equivalent gestures in sign languages), phonology (the abstract sound system of a particular language, and analogous systems of sign languages), and pragmatics (how the context of use contributes to meaning).[4] Subdisciplines such as biolinguistics (the study of the biological variables and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) bridge many of these divisions.[5] Linguistics encompasses many branches and subfields that span both theoretical and practical applications.[6] Theoretical linguistics is concerned with understanding the universal and fundamental nature of language and developing a general theoretical framework for describing it. Applied linguistics seeks to utilize the scientific findings of the study of language for practical purposes, such as developing methods of improving language education and literacy. Linguistic features may be studied through a variety of perspectives: synchronically (by describing the structure of a language at a specific point in time) or diachronically (through the historical development of a language over a period of time), in monolinguals or in multilinguals, among children or among adults, in terms of how it is being learnt or how it was acquired, as abstract objects or as cognitive structures, through written texts or through oral elicitation, and finally through mechanical data collection or practical fieldwork.[7] Linguistics emerged from the field of philology, of which some branches are more qualitative and holistic in approach.[8] Today, philology and linguistics are variably described as related fields, subdisciplines, or separate fields of language study, but, by and large, linguistics can be seen as an umbrella term.[9] Linguistics is also related to the philosophy of language, stylistics, rhetoric, semiotics, lexicography, and translation.
Index of linguistics articles.  Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. See also the Outline of linguistics, the List of phonetics topics, the List of linguists, and the List of cognitive science topics. Articles related to linguistics include:  Abbreviation - Abessive case - Ablaut - Absolutive case - Abugida - Accusative case - Acute accent - Accent (phonetics) - Accent (sociolinguistics) - Acronym - Adessive case - Adjective - Adjunct - Adposition - Adpositional phrase - Adverb - Adverbial - Adverbial phrase - Affix - Affricate consonant - Agglutination - Agglutinative language - Allative case - Allomorph - Allophone - Alphabet - Analytic language - Anaphora - Animacy - Anthropological linguistics - Alveolar consonant - Antonym - Aorist - Applied linguistics - Approximant - Areal feature - Article - Articulatory gestures - Articulatory phonetics - Aspect - Asterisk - Attrition - Attraction - Augment (Bantu languages) - Augment (Indo-European) - Auxiliary verb Back-formation - Backronym - Bilabial consonant - Breathy voice - Breve
Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS), also colloquially known as the Television Academy, is a professional honorary organization dedicated to the advancement of the television industry in the United States. A 501(c)(6) non-profit organization founded in 1946, the organization presents the Primetime Emmy Awards, an annual ceremony honoring achievement in U.S. primetime television. The ATAS is a sister organization to the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences and the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, the other two bodies that present Emmy Awards to other sectors of television programming. Syd Cassyd considered television a tool for education and envisioned an organization that would act outside the flash and glamor of the industry and become an outlet for serious discussion and award the industrys finest achievements.[2] Envisioning a television counterpart of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Cassyd founded the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1946 in conjunction with leaders of the early television industry who had gathered at a meeting he organized.[3] Cassyds academy in Los Angeles merged with a New York academy founded by Ed Sullivan in 1955 to form the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. The Los Angeles chapter broke away from NATAS in 1977, keeping the Primetime and Los Angeles Emmys.[4] In 2014, alongside its Hall of Fame induction ceremony and announced plans to expand its headquarters, the organization announced that it had changed its public brand to the Television Academy, with a new logo designed by Siegel + Gale. The new branding was intended to downplay the organizations antiquated formal name in favor of a more straightforward identity, and features a separating line (typically used to separate the organizations wordmark from a simplified image of the Emmy Award statuette) used to symbolize a screen, and also portrayed as a portal.[5][6] In 2016, producer Hayma Washington was elected chairman and CEO of the Academy of Arts and Sciences, becoming the first African-American to hold the position.[7]
History of linguistics.  Linguistics is the scientific study of language,[1] involving analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context.[2] Language use was first systematically documented in Mesopotamia, with extant lexical lists of the 3rd to the 2nd Millennia BCE, offering glossaries on Sumerian cuneiform usage and meaning, and phonetical vocabularies of foreign languages.[3][4] Later, Sanskrit would be systematically analysed, and its rules described, by Pāṇini (fl. 6-4th century BCE), in the Indus Valley.[5][6] Beginning around the 4th century BCE, Warring States period China also developed its own grammatical traditions.[7][citation needed] Aristotle laid the foundation of Western linguistics as part of the study of rhetoric in his Poetics c. 335 BC.[8] Traditions of Arabic grammar and Hebrew grammar developed during the Middle Ages in a religious context like Pāninis Sanskrit grammar. Modern approaches began to develop in the 18th century, eventually being regarded in the 19th century as belonging to the disciplines of psychology or biology, with such views establishing the foundation of mainstream Anglo-American linguistics,[9] although in England philological approaches such as that of Henry Sweet tended to predominate. This was contested in the early 20th century by Ferdinand de Saussure, who established linguistics as an autonomous discipline within social sciences.[6] Following Saussures concept, general linguistics consists of the study of language as a semiotic system, which includes the subfields of phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Each of these subfields can be approached either synchronically or diachronicially. Today, linguistics encompasses a large number of scientific approaches and has developed still more subfields, including applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, sociolinguistics, and computational linguistics.
52nd Daytime Emmy Awards. The 52nd Daytime Emmy Awards, presented by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS), will honor the best in U.S. daytime television programming in 2024. The award ceremony will be held on October 17, 2025, moving from its traditional May/June scheduling.[1] Nominations were announced on July 10, 2025,[2][3] with some of the top key categories being unveiled on July 9 on programs such as Access Hollywood, Entertainment Tonight, Extra and E! News. [4] The ceremony will be streamed on the NATAS website watch.theemmys.tv.[5] On September 4, it was announced the 52nd Daytime Emmys and Creative Arts Emmys would be held at Pasadena Civic Auditorium.[6] In January 2025, NATAS president Adam Sharp revealed that the 52nd Daytime Emmy Awards would change its scheduling from its traditional May/June date to October, switching places with the 46th News and Documentary Emmy Awards to highlight the timely nature of news and documentary programming.[1] This year, the NATAS strictly enforced a longstanding rule that in any category where there are fewer than ten (10) submissions, no more than 50% of submitted entries may be nominated. This meant that only three daytime dramas qualified to earn nominations: Days of Our Lives, General Hospital, and The Young and the Restless. The newest daytime drama, Beyond the Gates, was also disqualified because it premiered on February 24, 2025, after the December 31, 2024, eligibility window deadline.[7]
Emmy Awards.  The Emmy Awards, or Emmys, are an extensive range of awards for artistic and technical merit for the television industry. A number of annual Emmy Award ceremonies are held throughout the year, each with their own set of rules and award categories. The two events that receive the most media coverage are the Primetime Emmy Awards and the Daytime Emmy Awards, which recognize outstanding work in American primetime and daytime entertainment programming, respectively. Other notable American national Emmy events include the Childrens & Family Emmy Awards for childrens and family-oriented television programming, the Sports Emmy Awards for sports programming, News & Documentary Emmy Awards for news and documentary shows, and the Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards and the Primetime Engineering Emmy Awards for technological and engineering achievements. Regional Emmy Awards are also presented throughout the country at various times through the year, recognizing excellence in local television. In addition, the International Emmy Awards honor excellence in TV programming produced and initially aired outside the United States. The Emmy statuette, depicting a winged woman holding an atom, is named after immy, an informal term for the image orthicon tube that was common in early television cameras.[1][2] It is considered one of the four major annual American entertainment awards, along with the Grammy for music, the Oscar (Academy Award) for film, and the Tony for Broadway theater.[3] The Emmys are presented by three related, but separate, organizations: the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS), the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (NATAS), and the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (IATAS).[4] Each of these three organizations is responsible for administering a particular set of Emmy Award ceremonies. The ATAS first awarded Emmys in 1949 to honor shows produced in the Los Angeles area before it became a national event in the 1950s to honor programs aired nationwide. Over the next two decades, the ATAS, the NATAS, and the IATAS expanded the award to honor other sectors of the TV industry.[1] The Los Angeles–based Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS) established the Emmy Award as part of an image-building and public relations opportunity.[1] The first Emmy ceremony took place on January 25, 1949, at the Hollywood Athletic Club, but solely to honor shows produced and aired locally in the Los Angeles area. Shirley Dinsdale has the distinction of receiving the first Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Television Personality, during that first awards ceremony.[1] The term Emmy derives from Immy, the television industry slang for a TV camera image orthicon tube.[5]
Historical linguistics. Historical linguistics, also known as diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of how languages change over time.[1] It seeks to understand the nature and causes of linguistic change and to trace the evolution of languages. Historical linguistics involves several key areas of study, including the reconstruction of ancestral languages, the classification of languages into families, (comparative linguistics) and the analysis of the cultural and social influences on language development.[2][3] This field is grounded in the uniformitarian principle, which posits that the processes of language change observed today were also at work in the past, unless there is clear evidence to suggest otherwise.[4][not verified in body] Historical linguists aim to describe and explain changes in individual languages, explore the history of speech communities, and study the origins and meanings of words (etymology).[4] Modern historical linguistics dates to the late 18th century, having originally grown out of the earlier discipline of philology,[5] the study of ancient texts and documents dating back to antiquity. Initially, historical linguistics served as the cornerstone of comparative linguistics, primarily as a tool for linguistic reconstruction.[6] Scholars were concerned chiefly with establishing language families and reconstructing unrecorded proto-languages, using the comparative method and internal reconstruction.[6] The focus was initially on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written histories; scholars also studied the Uralic languages, another Eurasian language-family for which less early written material exists. Since then, there has been significant comparative linguistic work expanding outside of European languages as well, such as on the Austronesian languages and on various families of Native American languages, among many others. Comparative linguistics became only a part of a more broadly-conceived discipline of historical linguistics. For the Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a highly specialized field. Some scholars have undertaken studies attempting to establish super-families, linking, for example, Indo-European, Uralic, and other families into Nostratic. These attempts have not met with wide acceptance. The information necessary to establish relatedness becomes less available as the time increases. The time-depth of linguistic methods is limited due to chance word resemblances and variations between language groups, but a limit of around 10,000 years is often assumed.[7] Several methods are used to date proto-languages, but the process is generally difficult and its results are inherently approximate. In linguistics, a synchronic analysis is one that views linguistic phenomena only at a given time, usually the present, but a synchronic analysis of a historical language form is also possible. It may be distinguished from diachronic, which regards a phenomenon in terms of developments through time. Diachronic analysis is the main concern of historical linguistics. However, most other branches of linguistics are concerned with some form of synchronic analysis. The study of language change offers a valuable insight into the state of linguistic representation, and because all synchronic forms are the result of historically evolving diachronic changes, the ability to explain linguistic constructions necessitates a focus on diachronic processes.[8]
Itami Airport. Osaka Itami Airport (大阪伊丹空港, Ōsaka Itami Kūkō) (IATA: ITM, ICAO: RJOO) is the primary domestic airport for the Kansai region of Japan, including its major cities of Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe. It is the airport closest to Osaka, being 11 km (6.8 mi) north of Osaka Station, as well as Kyoto, being 36 km (22 mi) southwest of Kyoto Station. Itami Airport has a small footprint, covering only 311 hectares (768 acres) of land.[3] Until January 2025, the airport was known as Osaka International Airport (大阪国際空港, Ōsaka Kokusai Kūkō), which remains the airports official Japanese name. Despite the international designation, the airport caters exclusively to domestic flights. Kansai International Airport (43 km (27 mi) away) took over the regions international traffic in 1994 and competes with Itami for domestic traffic. Itami also faces competition from Kobe Airport (26 km (16 mi) away), a smaller domestic airport opened in 2006. The airport was named after the city of Itami, Hyōgo Prefecture, because most of its land is located there.  A portion of the airport property is also located in Toyonaka and Ikeda cities of Osaka Prefecture. The terminal complex is located in all three of these cities, and the only access from the Itami side is via a long tunnel that passes below the runway and apron. In FY2006, Itami used to be Japans third busiest airport and the Kansai regions busiest. In 2015, it had 139,450 aircraft movements, serving 14,541,936 domestic passengers and carrying 140,668 metric tons of freight cargo.[4] In 2018, Itami was the seventh busiest in Japan, serving 16.3 million passengers. In the Kansai region, Kansai International Airport had far more passengers than Itami Airport. Itami Airport opened as No. 2 Osaka Airport (第二大阪飛行場, Dai-ni Ōsaka Hikōjō) in 1939. Prior to the opening of Itami, Kizugawa Airport was Osakas main civilian airport. It handled both seaplanes and conventional ones. The site of Kizugawa Airport is now a port area in Funamachi in south end of Taisho Ward with only a small marker[5] located in Funamachi Ryokuchi Park below the Shin-Kizugawa Bridge.
Kansai Airports. Kansai Airports (関西エアポート株式会社, Kansai Eapōto Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese corporation established in 2015. Kansai Airports is a member of the Kansai Airports Group, which includes eight companies. Kansai Airports is currently operating three airports in Japan, Kansai International Airport, Osaka International Airport and Kobe Airport. The operation rights of Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport were transferred to Kansai Airports from New Kansai International Airport Co., Ltd. (NKIAC) on the 1st of April 2016.[1] On the 1st of April 2018, Kansai Airports Kobe, a wholly owned subsidiary of Kansai Airports, took over the operation of Kobe Airport from Kobe City.[2][3] The companys mission according to its official website is: to be renowned as a pioneer in the aviation industry within the Asia Pacific region, and to become a world-class international airport operator by continuously raising performance standards for airports.[4] The shareholders percentage ownership of Kansai Airports are Orix 40%, Vinci Airports 40% and the rest 20% is shared among Asics; Iwatani Corporation; Osaka Gas; Obayashi Corporation; Omron; Kansai Electric Power Company; Kintetsu Group Holdings; Keihan Holdings Co., Ltd.; Suntory; JTB; Sekisui House; Daikin Industries, Ltd.; Daiwa House Industry Co., Ltd.; Takenaka Corporation; Nankai Electric Railway Co., Ltd.; Nippon Telegraph and Telephone West Corporation; Panasonic; Hankyu Hanshin Holdings, Inc.; Rengo Co., Ltd.; The Senshu Ikeda Bank, Ltd.; Kiyo Holdings, Inc.; The Bank of Kyoto, Ltd.; The Shiga Bank，Ltd.; The Nanto Bank, Ltd.; Nippon Life Insurance Company; Mizuho Bank, Ltd.; Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Bank, Ltd.; MUFG Bank, Ltd.; Resona Bank, Ltd.; and the Private Finance Initiative Promotion Corporation of Japan.[5]
Planetoid (disambiguation). Planetoid may refer to:
Island country. An island country, island state, or island nation is a country whose primary territory consists of one or more islands or parts of islands.[1] Approximately 25% of all independent countries are island countries.[2] Island countries are historically more stable[2] than many continental states but are vulnerable to conquest by naval superpowers. Indonesia is the largest and most populated island country in the world (and the fourth most populated country overall).[3][4] There are great variations between island country economies: they may rely mainly on extractive industries, such as mining, fishing and agriculture, and/or on services such as transit hubs, tourism, and financial services. Many islands have low-lying geographies and their economies and population centers develop along coast plains and ports; such states may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change, especially sea level rise. Remote or significant islands and archipelagos that are not themselves sovereign are often known as dependencies or overseas territories. Many island countries were first inhabited by indigenous peoples who mastered long-distance ocean navigation and maritime skills. The Polynesians are one of the most notable groups; they used advanced wayfinding techniques to colonize vast areas of the Pacific Ocean, including islands such as Samoa, Tonga, New Zealand, and Hawaii. These migrations occurred over centuries, showcasing remarkable seafaring capabilities in pre-modern times.[5] Similarly, Madagascar’s population is the result of early maritime migrations from both Southeast Asia and East Africa, resulting in a unique cultural and genetic blend that reflects the islands strategic location in the Indian Ocean trade routes.[6] The Age of Discovery in the 15th century brought European explorers to many island regions, including the Caribbean, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. European powers, primarily Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, established colonies to exploit resources and secure strategic naval positions. Islands in the Caribbean became key centers for sugar plantations, which relied heavily on enslaved labor, significantly altering local demographics and economies.[7] Colonization also introduced new crops, animals, and cultural influences, but frequently led to displacement and decline of indigenous populations.
Christmas.  Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25[a] as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A liturgical feast central to Christianity, Christmas preparation begins on the First Sunday of Advent and it is followed by Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries, is observed religiously by a majority of Christians, as well as celebrated culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the annual holiday season. The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies. When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word. There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesuss birth. In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire. It is nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, celebrating that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity is more important than knowing Jesuss exact birth date. The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular holiday traditions include gift giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and caroling; watching Christmas movies; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, poinsettias, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world.
Japan Coast Guard.  The Japan Coast Guard (Japanese: 海上保安庁, Hepburn: Kaijō Hoan-chō) is the coast guard responsible for the protection of the coastline of Japan under the oversight of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. It consists of about 13,700 personnel. The Japan Coast Guard was founded in 1948 as the Maritime Safety Agency and received its current English name in 2000. The motto of the Japan Coast Guard is Righteous Benevolence (正義仁愛, Seigi Jinai). Coast guard operations were performed by the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Empire of Japan, but the ability of maintaining maritime security declined significantly following the surrender of Japan in August 1945 and the resulting dissolution of the Imperial Japanese Navy.  Maritime trade and smuggling had increased dramatically, and even pirates had begun to appear. Consultations were undertaken between the Japanese government, which wanted to restore its public security capacity as soon as possible, and the Allied countries which wanted to maintain the disarmament of Japan.  However, in 1946, an Illegal Immigration Control Headquarters was established in the Ministry of Transport after cholera was transmitted to Kyushu by smugglers from the Korean Peninsula.  This resulted in an increase in severe infections.[3][4] Meanwhile, the GHQ/SCAP also recognized the deficiencies of the Japanese maritime security system and in March 1946 Captain Frank M. Meals of the United States Coast Guard (USCG) was tasked to consider the situation. Captain Meals suggested the establishment of a comprehensive coast guard organization based on the USCG. In response to this, the Maritime Safety Agency (MSA) was established as an external agency of the Ministry of Transportation in 1948.[4] Its English name was changed to the Japan Coast Guard in April 2000.[5] In 1952 the Coastal Safety Agency was created with ships supplied by the United States and spun off in 1954 as the Japan Maritime Self Defense Force.
List of island countries.  An island is a landmass (smaller than a continent) that is surrounded by water.[1] Many island countries are spread over an archipelago, as is the case with Indonesia, Japan, and the Philippines—these countries consist of thousands of islands. Others consist of a single island, such as Barbados, Dominica, and Nauru; a main island and some smaller islands, such as Cuba, Iceland, and Sri Lanka; a part of an island, such as Brunei, the Dominican Republic, East Timor, and the Republic of Ireland; or one main island but also sharing borders in other islands, such as the United Kingdom (Great Britain and a part of Ireland). The list also includes two states in free association with New Zealand, the Cook Islands and Niue, as well as two states with limited diplomatic recognition which have de facto control over territories entirely on the islands, Northern Cyprus and Taiwan.[2] In total, 50 island countries have been included in the lists. Australia is not included as it is considered a continental country, although it was historically referred to as an island country because of its lack of land borders.[3] Greenland is generally considered as the largest island on Earth and listed among the island territories. Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea is officially an unincorporated territory of the United States. Neither Greenland nor Puerto Rico are sovereign countries. Indonesia is the worlds largest island country by area (1,904,569 km2), and by total number of islands (17,504 islands).[4] It is also the worlds most populous island country, with a population of over 270 million (the fourth most populous country in the world, after India, China, and the United States).
China (disambiguation). China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a country in East Asia. China may also refer to:
PRC (disambiguation). The P.R.C. is the Peoples Republic of China. PRC may also refer to:
Dwarf planet.  A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit around the Sun, massive enough to be gravitationally rounded, but insufficient to achieve orbital dominance like the eight classical planets of the Solar System. The prototypical dwarf planet is Pluto, which for decades was regarded as a planet before the dwarf concept was adopted in 2006. Many planetary geologists consider dwarf planets and planetary-mass moons to be planets,[1] but since 2006 the IAU and many astronomers have excluded them from the roster of planets. Dwarf planets are capable of being geologically active, an expectation that was borne out in 2015 by the Dawn mission to Ceres and the New Horizons mission to Pluto. Planetary geologists are therefore particularly interested in them. Astronomers are in general agreement that at least the nine largest candidates are dwarf planets – in rough order of decreasing diameter, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Sedna, Ceres, and Orcus. A considerable uncertainty remains over the tenth largest candidate Salacia, which may thus be considered a borderline case. Of these ten, two have been visited by spacecraft (Pluto and Ceres) and seven others have at least one known moon (Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Salacia), which allows their masses and thus an estimate of their densities to be determined. Mass and density in turn can be fit into geophysical models in an attempt to determine the nature of these worlds. Only one, Sedna, has neither been visited nor has any known moons, making an accurate estimate of mass difficult. Some astronomers include many smaller bodies as well,[2] but there is no consensus that these are likely to be dwarf planets. Starting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter that for decades were considered to be planets. Between then and around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using the word asteroid (from Greek, meaning star-like or star-shaped) for the smaller bodies and began to distinguish them as minor planets rather than major planets.[4]
Non-commercial educational station. A non-commercial educational station (NCE station) is a radio station or television station that does not accept on-air advertisements (TV ads or radio ads), as defined in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and was originally intended to offer educational programming as part, or whole, of its programming. NCE stations do not pay broadcast license fees for their non-profit uses of the radio spectrum. Stations which are almost always operated as NCE include public broadcasting, community radio, and college radio, as well as many religious broadcasting stations.[1] Nearly all non-commercial radio stations derive their support from listener support, grants and endowments, such as the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) that distributes supporting funds provided by Congress to support public radio. On the FM broadcast band, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has reserved the lowest 20 channels, 201~220 (88.1~91.9 MHz) for NCE stations only.  This is known as the reserved band, sometimes known by the term left of the dial (taken from the Replacements song of the same name), which refers to the college and other non-commercial stations that broadcast from those frequencies.[2]  It also includes channel 200 (87.9 MHz), but only for class D NCE stations unable to find another frequency; the frequency has been unused for its intended purpose in the United States since KSFH shut down in 2021. Many of the reserved-band channels are used by stations bordering the United States, such as with broadcasting in the San Diego/Tijuana metropolitan area. Additionally, neither the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission nor Mexicos Federal Telecommunications Institute have such a reserved band. (In Mexico, individual stations belonging to state and federal governments, educational institutions, and non-profit groups are licensed under permits or permisos, which are non-commercial, non-profit licenses that do not permit advertising. Canada, in practice, generally keeps most of the U.S. NCE band as noncommercial or with limited advertising based on each individual licence, but there are exceptions, such as CIXL, a fully commercial station that operates on 91.7.) NCE stations may also operate on a non-reserved channel. However this was rare in the United States due to the high cost of buying a commercial broadcasting station, and because for years the FCC failed to maintain a process that would ensure that non-commercial applicants would have a chance against those who could afford to bid at spectrum auctions.  Two such stations are WGPB FM in Rome, Georgia and WNGH-FM in Chatsworth, Georgia, former commercial stations purchased in 2007 and 2008 and operated by Georgia Public Broadcasting (GPB), serving the mountains northwest of Atlanta which previously had no GPB radio service. In addition, there were at least four stations with commercial licenses that formerly operated as PBS member stations (WNYC-TV in New York City, WMHX in Albany, New York, KAUT-TV in Oklahoma City, and KCPQ-TV in Seattle are a few examples of this); most of those stations now broadcast as affiliates of commercially owned networks. This is also rare in Mexico, though XEIMT-TV, a cultural channel in Mexico City, and XEWH-TV, the main station of the state network of Sonora, operate under commercial concessions and not permits. A number of new low power FM (LPFM) NCE stations operating in the non-reserved part of the spectrum have been licensed by the FCC since the Local Community Radio Act was enacted in 2010. The FCC defines several different activities as being commercial in nature.  Sponsorship of NCE stations is called underwriting, and stations may make announcements of these grants on-air.  However, they may not accept money for such mentions, only goods and services, unless the sponsor itself is a non-profit, such as a charitable organization or public college.  Money can be accepted if there is no on-air mention of the sponsor.  NCE stations may also not mention prices or qualities of commercial products or services in any situation which would be construed as promoting or endorsing any company, regardless of whether it sponsors the station.[citation needed]
Instructional television. Instructional television (ITV) is the use of television programs for distance education.  Educational television programs on instructional television may be less than one half hour long (generally 15 minutes in length) to help their integration into the classroom setting.  These shows are often accompanied by teachers guides that include material to help use this program in lessons.  Instructional television programs in the United States have historically been shown during the daytime on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) stations.  However, in the 21st century fewer public television stations devote their airtime to ITV than in the past,  ITV programs are either seen on a digital subchannel of non-commercial educational public television station, or on a local educational-access television channel run by a public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable TV organization. Instructional television in the United States has been granted 20 microwave channels, administered by local educational institutions, through a service known as ITFS, or Instructional Television Fixed Service.  Instructional television may also be programmed on terrestrial television stations.  This television-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article relating to education is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
4 Vesta.  Vesta (minor-planet designation: 4 Vesta) is one of the largest objects in the asteroid belt, with a mean diameter of 525 kilometres (326 mi).[10] It was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers on 29 March 1807[6] and is named after Vesta, the virgin goddess of home and hearth from Roman mythology.[19] Vesta is thought to be the second-largest asteroid, both by mass and by volume, after the dwarf planet Ceres.[20][21][22] Measurements give it a nominal volume only slightly larger than that of Pallas (about 5% greater), but it is 25% to 30% more massive. It constitutes an estimated 9% of the mass of the asteroid belt.[23] Vesta is the only known remaining rocky protoplanet of the kind that formed the terrestrial planets.[24] Numerous fragments of Vesta were ejected by collisions one and two billion years ago that left two enormous craters occupying much of Vestas southern hemisphere.[25][26] Debris from these events has fallen to Earth as howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED) meteorites, which have been a rich source of information about Vesta.[27][28][29] Vesta is the brightest asteroid visible from Earth. It is regularly as bright as magnitude 5.1,[18] at which times it is faintly visible to the naked eye. Its maximum distance from the Sun is slightly greater than the minimum distance of Ceres from the Sun,[e] although its orbit lies entirely within that of Ceres.[30] NASAs Dawn spacecraft entered orbit around Vesta on 16 July 2011 for a one-year exploration and left the orbit of Vesta on 5 September 2012[31] en route to its final destination, Ceres. Researchers continue to examine data collected by Dawn for additional insights into the formation and history of Vesta.[32][33]
Educational television. Educational television or learning television is the use of television programs in the field of distance education. It may be in the form of individual television programs or dedicated specialty channels that are often associated with cable television in the United States as Public, educational, and government access (PEG) channel providers. There are also adult education programs for an older audience; many of these are instructional television or telecourse services that can be taken for college credit, such as the Open University programs on BBC television in the UK. Many childrens television series are educational, ranging from dedicated learning programs to those that indirectly teach the viewers. Some series are written to have a specific moral behind every episode, often explained at the end by the character that learned the lesson. In the social aspects of television, several studies have found that educational television has many advantages. The Media Awareness Network[1] explains in its article The Good Things about Television that television can be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely. The article states that television can help kids or teens discover where they fit into society, develop closer relationships with peers and family, and teach them to understand complex social aspects of communication.[2] Mexican TV producer Miguel Sabido pioneered in the 1970s the use of telenovela to disseminate the governments policy views to mass audiences.[3][4] The Sabido Method has been adopted by a number of countries, including India, Kenya, Peru, and China.[5] The television medium can and has been used for a multitude of educational purposes. Some television programs are explicitly educational, while others only incidentally so. Some formats blend the two in the attempt to amuse but also retain some educational value.
Ceres (dwarf planet).  Ceres (minor-planet designation: 1 Ceres) is a dwarf planet in the main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It was the first known asteroid, discovered on 1 January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory in Sicily, and announced as a new planet. Ceres was later classified as an asteroid and more recently as a dwarf planet, the only one not beyond the orbit of Neptune and the largest that does not have a moon. Ceress diameter is about a quarter that of the Moon. Its small size means that even at its brightest it is too dim to be seen by the naked eye, except under extremely dark skies. Its apparent magnitude ranges from 6.7 to 9.3, peaking at opposition (when it is closest to Earth) once every 15- to 16-month synodic period. As a result, its surface features are barely visible even with the most powerful telescopes, and little was known about it until the robotic NASA spacecraft Dawn approached Ceres for its orbital mission in 2015. Dawn found Ceress surface to be a mixture of water, ice, and hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clay. Gravity data suggest Ceres to be partially differentiated into a muddy (ice-rock) mantle/core and a less dense, but stronger crust that is at most thirty percent ice by volume. Although Ceres likely lacks an internal ocean of liquid water, brines still flow through the outer mantle and reach the surface, allowing cryovolcanoes such as Ahuna Mons to form roughly every fifty million years. This makes Ceres the closest known cryovolcanically active body to the Sun. Ceres has an extremely tenuous and transient atmosphere of water vapour, vented from localised sources on its surface. In the years between the acceptance of heliocentrism in the 18th century and the discovery of Neptune in 1846, several astronomers argued that mathematical laws predicted the existence of a hidden or missing planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. In 1596, theoretical astronomer Johannes Kepler believed that the ratios between planetary orbits would conform to Gods design only with the addition of two planets: one between Jupiter and Mars and one between Venus and Mercury.[19] Other theorists, such as Immanuel Kant, pondered whether the gap had been created by the gravity of Jupiter; in 1761, astronomer and mathematician Johann Heinrich Lambert asked: And who knows whether already planets are missing which have departed from the vast space between Mars and Jupiter? Does it then hold of celestial bodies as well as of the Earth, that the stronger chafe the weaker, and are Jupiter and Saturn destined to plunder forever?[19]
Madagascar.  Madagascar,[a] officially the Republic of Madagascar,[b] is an island country in the Indian Ocean that includes the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is the worlds fourth-largest island, the second-largest island country, and the 46th-largest country overall.[14] Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic period, around 180 million years ago, and separated from the Indian subcontinent approximately 90 million years ago.[15] This isolation allowed native plants and animals to evolve in relative seclusion; as a result, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, with over 90% of its wildlife being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD (roughly AD 500 to AD 700) by Austronesian peoples,[16] presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia.[17][18][19] These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa.[20] Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified peoples of Madagascar, the most numerous being the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009, Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. Christianity is the countrys predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths. Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN.[21] Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population.
IAU (disambiguation). IAU may refer to: Iau is:
Astrophysics. Astrophysics is a science that employs the methods and principles of physics and chemistry in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena.[1][2] As one of  the founders of the discipline, James Keeler, said, astrophysics seeks to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space—what they are, rather than where they are,[3] which is studied in celestial mechanics. Among the subjects studied are the Sun (solar physics), other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium, and the cosmic microwave background.[4][5] Emissions from these objects are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists apply concepts and methods from many disciplines of physics, including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. In practice, modern astronomical research often involves substantial work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include the properties of dark matter, dark energy, black holes, and other celestial bodies; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe.[4] Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity, special relativity, and quantum and physical cosmology (the physical study of the largest-scale structures of the universe), including string cosmology and astroparticle physics. Astronomy is an ancient science, long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the Aristotelian worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging spheres whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly world was the realm which underwent growth and decay and in which natural motion was in a straight line and ended when the moving object reached its goal.  Consequently, it was held that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found in the terrestrial sphere; either Fire as maintained by Plato, or Aether as maintained by Aristotle.[6][7] During the 17th century, natural philosophers such as Galileo,[8] Descartes,[9] and Newton[10] began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same natural laws.[11]  Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions.[12] For much of the nineteenth century, astronomical research was focused on the routine work of measuring the positions and computing the motions of astronomical objects.[13][14]  A new astronomy, soon to be called astrophysics, began to emerge when William Hyde Wollaston and Joseph von Fraunhofer independently discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of dark lines (regions where there was less or no light) were observed in the spectrum.[15] By 1860 the physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, and the chemist, Robert Bunsen, had demonstrated that the dark lines in the solar spectrum corresponded to bright lines in the spectra of known gases, specific lines corresponding to unique chemical elements.[16] Kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by absorption by chemical elements in the Solar atmosphere.[17] In this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun and stars were also found on Earth.
Sesame Workshop.  Sesame Workshop (SW), originally known as the Childrens Television Workshop (CTW), is an American nonprofit organization and television production company that has been responsible for the production of several educational childrens programs—including its first and best-known, Sesame Street—that have been televised internationally. Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett developed the idea to form an organization to produce the Sesame Street television series. They spent two years, from 1966 to 1968, researching, developing, and raising money for the new series. Cooney was named as the Workshops first executive director, which was termed one of the most important television developments of the decade.[4] Sesame Street premiered on National Educational Television (NET) as a series run in the United States on November 10, 1969, and moved to NETs successor, the Public Broadcasting Service, in late 1970. The Workshop was formally incorporated in 1970. Gerald S. Lesser and Edward L. Palmer were hired to perform research for the series; they were responsible for developing a system of planning, production, and evaluation, and the interaction between television producers and educators, later termed the CTW model. The CTW applied this system to its other television series, including The Electric Company and 3-2-1 Contact. The early 1980s were a challenging period for the Workshop; difficulty finding audiences for their other productions and a series of bad investments harmed the organization until licensing agreements stabilized its revenues by 1985. Following the success of Sesame Street, the CTW developed other activities, including unsuccessful ventures into adult programs, the publications of books and music, and international co-productions. In 1999 the CTW partnered with MTV Networks to create an educational channel called Noggin. They sold their stake in the channel to Viacom (owner of MTV Networks) in 2002. The Workshop produced a variety of original series for Noggin, including The Upside Down Show, Sponk! and Out There. In June 2000, the CTW changed its name to Sesame Workshop to better represent its activities beyond television. By 2005, income from the organizations international co-productions of the series was $96 million. By 2008, the Sesame Street Muppets accounted for $15–17 million per year in licensing and merchandising fees. Sherrie Westin is the president of the company, starting in 2021.
Outline of space science. The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to space science: Space science – field that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that involve space exploration and study natural phenomena and physical bodies occurring in outer space, such as space medicine and astrobiology.[1][2] See astronomical object for a list of specific types of entities which scientists study.  See Earths location in the universe for an orientation. The science and engineering of spacefaring and spaceflight, a subset of Aerospace engineering (which includes atmospheric flight)
Television show.  A television show, TV program (British English: programme), or simply a TV show, is the general reference to any content produced for viewing on a television set that is transmitted via over-the-air, satellite, and cable, or distributed digitally on streaming platforms.[1][2] This generally excludes breaking news or advertisements that are aired between shows or between segments of a show. A regularly recurring show is called a television series, and an individual segment of such a series is called an episode. Content is produced either in-house on a television stage with multiple cameras or produced by contract with film production companies. Episodes are usually broadcast in annual sets, which are called seasons in North America and series in other regions. A one-off television show may be called a television special, while a show with a limited number of episodes is a miniseries.[a]  A television film, or telefilm, is a feature film produced for broadcast by a terrestrial or cable network. Television shows by terrestrial and cable networks are most often scheduled for broadcast ahead of time and appear on electronic guides or other TV listings. The rise of streaming television, however, has made television schedules less relevant than in earlier decades. Some programming may be aired live—that is, events are broadcast at the time they happen rather than at a later time or date—but the vast majority of programming is produced ahead of time. Originally, viewers had no practical way to record a show for later viewing; this changed with the advent of home video, first in the form of videotape recorded on VCRs and later in the form of digital video recorders. Cable television providers began offering certain programming pay-per-view or on-demand, with viewers paying a one-time fee to watch a program at a time of their own choosing. Streaming television allows viewers to watch programming at any time with a subscription to the service. The first television shows were experimental, sporadic broadcasts viewable only within a very short range from the broadcast tower starting in the 1930s. Televised events such as the 1936 Summer Olympics in Germany, the 1937 coronation of King George VI in the United Kingdom, and David Sarnoffs famous introduction at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair in the United States spurred growth in the medium, but World War II put a halt to development until after the war. The 1947 World Series inspired many Americans to buy their first television set, and then in 1948, the popular radio show Texaco Star Theater made the move and became the first weekly televised variety show, earning host Milton Berle the name Mr. Television, and demonstrating that the medium was a stable, modern form of entertainment that could attract advertisers. The first national live television broadcast in the US took place on September 4, 1951, when President Harry Trumans speech at the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco was transmitted over AT&Ts transcontinental cable and microwave radio relay system to broadcast stations in local markets.[5][6][7] The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) in the US occurred on January 1, 1954. During the following ten years, most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. The color transition was announced for the fall of 1965, during which over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network shows converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.
Pluto.  Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has roughly one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. Originally considered a planet, its classification was changed when astronomers adopted a new definition of planet. Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometres; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Plutos eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding. Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. New Horizons was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations. Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet. However,[15]: 27  its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.
International Astronautical Federation.  The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) is an international space advocacy organization based in Paris, and founded in 1951 as a non-governmental organization to establish a dialogue between scientists around the world and to lay the information for international space cooperation.[1] It has over 390 members from 68 countries across the world. They are drawn from space agencies, companies, universities, professional associations, museums, government organizations and learned societies. The IAF organizes the annual International Astronautical Congress (IAC).[2] As of 2019,[update] Pascale Ehrenfreund has served as the president of the IAF. After World War II, Heinz Gartmann, Gunter Loeser, and Heinz-Hermann Koelle formed the German Rocket Society. They contacted the British Interplanetary Society (BIS) and Groupement Astronautique Français. The French groups leader, Alexandre Ananoff, organized the First International Congress for Astronautics in Paris, France, in September 1950. At the second congress in London, United Kingdom, in September 1951, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) was organized; at the third congress in Stuttgart, West Germany, in 1952, the IAF constitution was adopted and the organization registered under Swiss Law.[3] The IAC is a space event and the largest put on by the organization, with approximately 6,000 participants each year. A different member of IAF is selected by IAF each year to host the IAC. An annual event held in September or October, the congress includes networking events, talks, and a technical program on advances in science and exploration, applications and operations, technology, infrastructure, and space and society.[4] There are side events including the annual IAF Workshop with the support of the United Nations,[1] which takes place during the 2 days preceding the IAC.[5] The IAF Global Conferences are organized annually. Each year they have a specific space-related topic and theme, and are held in alternating or new locations.[6]
International non-governmental organization. An international non-governmental organization (INGO) is an organization which is independent of government involvement and extends the concept of a non-governmental organization (NGO) to an international scope. INGOs can admit members affiliated to government authorities as long as it does not interfere with their freedom to express themselves.[1] INGOs operate under the principles of neutrality, humanity, impartiality, and independence.[2] Around the world, there are about 75,000 international organizations and about 42,000 of them are active.[3] While INGOs conduct a variety of activities, the most common areas of focus are economic development, public health, education, human rights, culture, science, and humanitarian assistance.[4] NGOs are independent of governments and can be seen as two types: advocacy NGOs, which aim to influence governments with a specific goal, and operational NGOs, which provide services.[5] Examples of NGO mandates are environmental preservation, human rights promotions or the advancement of women. NGOs are typically not-for-profit, but receive funding from companies or membership fees.[6] Many large INGOs have components of operational projects and advocacy initiatives working together within individual countries. Intergovernmental organizations such as International Labour Organization (ILO) and United Nations are formed when sovereign states form treaties but INGOs are not bound by state treaties when operating internationally. INGOs can either be private philanthropic organizations such as Carnegie, Rockefeller, Gates, and Ford Foundations or as arms of existing international institutions like the Catholic Church. After World War II, INGOs began to increase due to the need for economic development or humanitarian needs. Such INGOs include SOS Childrens Villages, Oxfam, Catholic Relief Services, Care International, and Lutheran World Relief. However, the influence of INGOs started to extended heavily in the 1980s.[7] Except for incorporation under national laws, no current formal legal status exists for INGOs, which can lead to complications in international law.[dubious – discuss] INGOs have been trying to get a legal status under the international law. They have not legal personality and therefore, no formal rights.[8] INGOs must then operate under state laws even though they still have to follow the principles of independence and neutrality. China for instance, only allows foreign NGOs that have Chinese sponsor organizations and the government has the power to close and examine their offices and question their staff.[9]
Astronomy.  Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, meteoroids, asteroids, and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earths atmosphere. Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that studies the universe as a whole. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history made methodical observations of the night sky. These include the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Chinese, Maya, and many ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas. In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars. Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. This data is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain observational results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences in which amateurs play an active role. This is especially true for the discovery and observation of transient events. Amateur astronomers have helped with many important discoveries, such as finding new comets.
USS Honolulu. Several US Navy ships have been named USS Honolulu:
Honolulu (film).  Honolulu is a 1939 American musical comedy film directed by Edward Buzzell and starring dancer Eleanor Powell, Robert Young, George Burns and Gracie Allen. The picture was produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Also appearing in the film are Rita Johnson, Eddie Rochester Anderson, Sig Rumann and Ruth Hussey. Brooks Mason, a top movie star, is tired of being in the public eye. He discovers that Hawaii-based businessman George Smith looks enough like him to be his twin. He arranges to switch places with Smith temporarily. When Mason steps into Smiths life, he finds himself in a tug-of-war between Smiths fiancée, and a dancer named Dorothy March, with whom he has fallen in love. Meanwhile, Smith discovers that being a movie star is not all that it is made out to be. Joe Duffy, Masons garrulous manager, has not been informed of the switch. So when Smith gets fed up with  the impersonation and tries to go back to Hawaii;  Duffy has him put in a strait jacket for his own good. Luckily, the hotel doctor (Sig Ruman) suggests humoring him by taking him to Hawaii. Smith arrives minutes before Duffy is to marry Cecelia, and the switch is made without the bride knowing it.
Birth name.  The birth name is the name of the person given upon their birth. The term may be applied to the surname, the given name or to the entire name. Where births are required to be officially registered, the entire name entered onto a births register or birth certificate may by that fact alone become the persons legal name.[1] The assumption in the Western world is often that the name from birth (or perhaps from baptism or brit milah) will persist to adulthood in the normal course of affairs—either throughout life or until marriage. Some possible changes concern middle names, diminutive forms, changes relating to parental status (due to ones parents divorce or adoption by different parents), and changes related to gender transition. Matters are very different in some cultures in which a birth name is for childhood only, rather than for life.  The terms née (feminine) and né (masculine; both pronounced /neɪ/ ⓘ; from French  né[e] born), adopted into English from French, have been used to indicate a pre-marital or maiden name, or an original birth name that was later changed.[2] The term née, having feminine grammatical gender, can be used to denote a womans surname at birth that has been replaced or changed. In most English-speaking cultures, it is specifically applied to a womans maiden name after her surname has changed due to marriage.[3] The term né, having masculine grammatical gender, can be used to denote a mans surname at birth which has subsequently been replaced or changed.[4] The diacritic marks (the acute accent) are considered significant to its spelling, and ultimately its meaning, but are sometimes omitted.[4] According to Oxford Universitys Dictionary of Modern English Usage, the terms are typically placed after the current surname (e.g. Ann Smith, née Jones or Adam Smith, né Jones).[5][4] Because they are terms adopted into English from French, they do not have to be italicized, but often are.[5]
Honolulu.  Honolulu (/ˌhɒnəˈluːluː/ ⓘ HON-ə-LOO-loo;[8] Hawaiian: [honoˈlulu]) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, located in the Pacific Ocean. It is the county seat of the consolidated City and County of Honolulu, situated along the southeast coast of the island of Oʻahu. The population of Honolulu was 350,964 at the 2020 census,[a] while the Urban Honolulu metropolitan area has an estimated 1 million residents and is the 56th-largest metropolitan area in the nation.[5] Honolulu is Hawaiian for sheltered harbor[10] or calm port;[11] its old name, Kou, roughly encompasses the area from Nuʻuanu Avenue to Alakea Street and from Hotel Street to Queen Street, which is the heart of the present downtown district.[12] The citys desirability as a port accounts for its historical growth and importance in the Hawaiian archipelago and the broader Pacific region. Honolulu has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, firstly of the independent Hawaiian Kingdom, and since 1898 of the U.S. territory and state of Hawaii. The city gained worldwide recognition following the Empire of Japans attack on nearby Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which prompted the entry of the U.S. into World War II; the harbor remains a major U.S. Navy base, hosting the United States Pacific Fleet, the worlds largest naval command.[13] Honolulu is the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city as well as the westernmost and southernmost U.S. state capital. It is a major hub for business, finance, hospitality, and military defense in both the state and Oceania.[14][15] The city is characterized by a mix of various Asian, Western, and Pacific cultures, reflected in its diverse demography, cuisine, and traditions. Honolulus favorable tropical climate, rich natural scenery, and extensive beaches make it a popular global destination for tourists. With nearly 1.5 million visitors in 2024, Honolulu is among the ten most visited cities in the United States.[16] Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century.[17][unreliable source?] After Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikiki in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu. The capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812.
SS City of Honolulu. SS City of Honolulu may refer to one of these Los Angeles Steamship Company ships:
Honolulu (magazine).  Honolulu is a city magazine covering Honolulu and the Hawaii region. It dates back to 1888 when it was called Paradise of the Pacific. It is the oldest magazine in the state of Hawaii and is the longest published magazine west of the Mississippi.[1] Honolulu is a member of the City and Regional Magazine Association (CRMA).[2] In 1888, when Hawaii was still a monarchy, King Kalākaua commissioned a magazine[3] under royal charter to be Hawaiis ambassador to the world. That magazine was Paradise of the Pacific.[3] For nearly a century, Paradise of the Pacific promoted local business and tourism by assuring citizens of the United States that the Islands were civilized. Noted contributors to Paradise of the Pacific included Henry B. Christian, Helen Thomas Dranga, Arman Manookian, and Edwin North McClellan. In 1966, Paradise of the Pacific became Honolulu Magazine. In 1977, David Pelligrin acquired it through his Honolulu Publishing Company and raised the bar for journalists in the islands.[1] Honolulu shifted its focus to news and features aimed at an affluent residential audience. It covers dining, culture, arts, politics, entertainment in and around Honolulu and throughout Hawaii. Honolulu also has an annual dining awards called the Hale Aina Awards. Under Pelligrin in 1984, Honolulu established the awards as the islands’ first local restaurant awards. Before then, culinary awards in the Islands had only been given by mainland travel interests.[1]
Michael Young. Michael Young may refer to:
GalaxyCon. GalaxyCon, LLC, formerly known as Super Conventions or Supercon,[1] is a privately owned company based in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, that organizes comic book and anime conventions in the United States.[2][3] Events currently include: GalaxyCon Raleigh in Raleigh, North Carolina; Animate! Raleigh; GalaxyCon Richmond in Richmond, Virginia; GalaxyCon Columbus in Columbus, Ohio; GalaxyCon Austin in Austin, Texas; and GalaxyCon San Jose in San Jose, California.[2][4][5][6][7][8] In early 2019, the original Supercon trademark, along with the original Florida Supercon events, were sold to ReedPop,[9] at which time all other Supercon events were renamed GalaxyCon.[5][10] The first Supercon was organized by founder Mike Broder in late 2006 at the Ramada Hollywood Beach Resort in Hollywood, Florida, called Florida Supercon.[11][12] He was looking to bring a large scale convention to south Florida.[13] Another event, Anime Supercon, took place in Fort Lauderdale five months later.[14] Estimated attendances at each event averaged around 2,000 people.[11][12][14] As success grew, other conventions were added throughout the Fort Lauderdale and Miami metro areas. An attempt was made in November 2008 to hold a longstanding Supercon outside of Florida, in Atlanta, Georgia, but it was not as prosperous as the Florida events.[15] Another try did not take place until July 2017 with Raleigh Supercon in North Carolina, replacing the promotional Wizard World Raleigh Comic Con which eventually moved to nearby Winston-Salem after the 2015 event.[16] Raleigh Supercon 2017 drew in an estimated 30,000 people for the weekend.[2][4][17] Super Conventions later acquired the former Derby City Comic Con in Louisville, Kentucky, which was re-branded as Louisville Supercon.[18] The inaugural event took place in November 2018.[19] Two recent conventions, Animate! Florida (formerly known as Animate! Miami) and Paradise City Comic Con (formerly known as Magic City Comic Con[20]), were discontinued in 2018 so Super Conventions could concentrate on their three Supercon events.[2][3] Both of those had taken place in Miami.
Splash Entertainment.  Splash Entertainment, LLC. (formerly known as Mike Young Productions, Inc. and MoonScoop Entertainment, LLC.) is an American animation studio founded in 1990 by Mike Young, Liz Young and Bill Schultz that produces childrens TV series. Splash also controls the streaming service Kabillion.[1] The studio was originally owned and operated by three animation producers, husband and wife Mike and Liz Young,[1] and Bill Schultz (six seasons of The Simpsons, Garfield and Friends and Bobbys World).[2] The studio produces content in both traditional 2D and 3D computer animation. The company launched a self-distribution unit in 2002. On March 29, 2004, the company launched Taffy Entertainment, which would become the companys rights management and worldwide distribution subsidiary.[3] Taffy soon launched a licensing unit in August.[4] Taffy wasnt the same company as Mike Young Productions, both had similar instances.
SuperTed.  SuperTed is a British superhero animated television series about an anthropomorphic teddy bear with superpowers, created by writer and animator Mike Young. Originally created by him as a series of stories to help his son overcome his fear of the dark, SuperTed became a popular series of books and led to an animated series produced from 1982 to 1986.[2] An American-produced series, The Further Adventures of SuperTed, was produced by Hanna-Barbera in 1989. The series was the first British animation acquired by the American based Disney Channel.[3] The character was created by Mike Young in 1978 for his son to help him overcome his fear of the dark.[4] Later, Young decided to put the stories into book form, originally as a bear from the woods who was also afraid of the dark, until one day, Mother Nature gave him a magic word which gives him superpowers and transforms him into SuperTed. His early attempts were unsuccessful, until he made some adjustments with the help of a local printer and was finally able to get his stories published. This led Young to write and publish over 100 SuperTed books, with illustrations done by Philip Watkins, until 1990. Just after his first book was published, his wife suggested he should produce a stuffed toy version of SuperTed, which was done in 1980.[5]
Taiwan.  Taiwan,[II][i] officially the Republic of China (ROC),[I] is a country[27] in East Asia.[l] The main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, lies between the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. It has an area of 35,808 square kilometres (13,826 square miles), with mountain ranges dominating the eastern two-thirds and plains in the western third, where its highly urbanized population is concentrated. The combined territories under ROC control consist of 168 islands[m] in total covering 36,193 square kilometres (13,974 square miles).[17][39] The largest metropolitan area is formed by Taipei (the capital), New Taipei City, and Keelung. With around 23.9 million inhabitants, Taiwan is among the most densely populated countries. Taiwan has been settled for at least 25,000 years. Ancestors of Taiwanese indigenous peoples settled the island around 6,000 years ago. In the 17th century, large-scale Han Chinese immigration began under Dutch colonial rule and continued under the Kingdom of Tungning, the first predominantly Han Chinese state in Taiwanese history. The island was annexed in 1683 by the Qing dynasty and ceded to the Empire of Japan in 1895. The Republic of China, which had overthrown the Qing in 1912 under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, assumed control following the surrender of Japan in World War II. But with the loss of mainland China to the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, the government moved to Taiwan in 1949 under the Kuomintang (KMT). From the early 1960s, Taiwan saw rapid economic growth and industrialization known as the Taiwan Miracle.[40] In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ROC transitioned from a one-party state under martial law to a multi-party democracy, with democratically elected presidents beginning in 1996. Taiwans export-oriented economy is the 21st-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the 20th-largest by PPP measures, with a focus on steel, machinery, electronics, and chemicals manufacturing. Taiwan is a developed country.[41][42] It is ranked highly in terms of civil liberties,[43] healthcare,[44] and human development.[h][22] The political status of Taiwan is contentious. Despite being a founding member, the ROC no longer represents China as a member of the United Nations after UN members voted in 1971 to recognize the PRC instead. The ROC maintained its claim to be the sole legitimate representative of China and its territory until 1991, when it ceased to regard the Chinese Communist Party as a rebellious group and acknowledged its control over mainland China. Taiwan is claimed by the PRC, which refuses to establish diplomatic relations with countries that recognise the ROC. Taiwan maintains official diplomatic relations with 11 out of 193 UN member states and the Holy See. Many others maintain unofficial diplomatic ties through representative offices and institutions that function as de facto embassies and consulates. International organizations in which the PRC participates either refuse to grant membership to Taiwan or allow it to participate on a non-state basis. Domestically, the major political contention is between the Pan-Blue Coalition, who favors eventual Chinese unification under the ROC and promoting a pan-Chinese identity, contrasted with the Pan-Green Coalition, which favors eventual Taiwanese independence and promoting a Taiwanese identity; in the 21st century, both sides have moderated their positions to broaden their appeal.[49][50]
Cambridge, Massachusetts.  Cambridge (/ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ/[4] KAYM-brij) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a suburb in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, located directly across the Charles River from Boston. The citys population as of the 2020 U.S. census was 118,403, making it the most populous city in the county, the fourth-largest in Massachusetts behind Boston, Worcester, and Springfield, and ninth-most populous in New England.[5] The city was named in honor of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England, which was an important center of the Puritan theology that was embraced by the towns founders.[6]: 18 Founded in December 1630 during the colonial era, Cambridge was one among the first cities established in the Thirteen Colonies, and it went on to play a historic role during the American Revolution. In May 1775, approximately 16,000 American patriots assembled in Cambridge Common to begin organizing a military retaliation against British troops following the Battles of Lexington and Concord. On July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia formally established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington commander of it, Washington arrived at Cambridge Common to take command of the Patriot soldiers camped there. Many of these soldiers played a role in supporting Washingtons successful siege of Boston, which trapped garrisoned British troops from moving by land, forcing the British to ultimately abandon Boston. Cambridge Common is thus celebrated as the birthplace of the Continental Army.[7][8] Harvard University, an Ivy League university founded in Cambridge in 1636, is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Lesley University, and Hult International Business School also are based in Cambridge.[9] Radcliffe College, a womens liberal arts college, was based in Cambridge from its 1879 founding until its assimilation into Harvard in 1999. Kendall Square, near MIT in the eastern part of Cambridge, has been called the most innovative square mile on the planet due to the high concentration of startup companies that have emerged there since 2010.[10] In 2022, Cambridge was home to over 250 biotech companies, with more than 120 located within the Kendall Square zipcode.[11]
Belgium.  Belgium,[b] officially the Kingdom of Belgium,[c] is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the south, and the North Sea to the west. Belgium covers an area of 30,689 km2 (11,849 sq mi)[5] and has a population of more than 11.8 million;[8] its population density of 383/km2 (990/sq mi) ranks 22nd in the world and sixth in Europe. The capital and largest metropolitan region is Brussels;[d] other major cities are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges, Namur, and Leuven. Belgium is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a complex federal system structured on regional and linguistic grounds. The country is divided into three highly autonomous regions:[16] the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region in the middle.[17] Belgium is also home to two main linguistic communities: the Dutch-speaking Flemish Community, which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French-speaking French Community,[e] which constitutes about 40 percent of the population; a small German-speaking Community, comprising around one percent of the population, exists in the East Cantons. Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Belgium is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy. It is one of the six founding members of the European Union, with its capital of Brussels serving as the de facto capital of the EU, hosting the official seats of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, and one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg). Brussels also hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations, such as NATO.[f] In antiquity, present-day Belgium was dominated by the Belgae before being annexed into the Roman Empire in the mid first century BC. During the Middle Ages, Belgiums central location kept it relatively prosperous and connected both commercially and politically to its larger neighbours; it was part of the Carolingian Empire, the succeeding Holy Roman Empire, and subsequently the Burgundian Netherlands. Following rule by Habsburg Spain (1556–1714), the Austrian Habsburgs (1714–1794), and Revolutionary France (1794–1815), most of modern-day Belgium was incorporated into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Centuries of being contested and controlled by various European powers earned Belgium the moniker the Battlefield of Europe,[19] a reputation reinforced in the 20th century by both world wars. An independent Belgium was established in 1830 following the Belgian Revolution. In the 19th century it was one of the earliest participants of the Industrial Revolution,[20][21] and the first country in continental Europe to become industrialised.[22] By the early 20th century, it possessed several colonies, notably the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi,[23][g] which gained independence between 1960 and 1962.[25] The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speakers and French-speakers, fueled by differences in political culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This has resulted in several far-reaching state reforms, including the transition from a unitary to federal structure between 1970 and 1993. Tensions persist amid ongoing reforms; the country faces a strong separatist sentiment among the Flemish, controversial language laws,[26] and a fragmented political landscape that resulted in a record 589 days without a government formation following the 2010 federal election.[27]
Brussels.  Brussels,[a] officially the Brussels-Capital Region,[b][12][13] is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the capital of Belgium.[14] The Brussels-Capital Region is located in the central portion of the country. It is a part of both the French Community of Belgium[15] and the Flemish Community,[16] and is separate from the Flemish Region (Flanders), within which it forms an enclave, and the Walloon Region (Wallonia), located less than 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to the south.[17][18] Brussels grew from a small rural settlement on the river Senne to become an important city-region in Europe. Since the end of the Second World War, it has been a major centre for international politics and home to numerous international organisations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants.[19] Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union, as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, including its administrative-legislative, executive-political, and legislative branches (though the judicial branch is located in Luxembourg, and the European Parliament meets for a minority of the year in Strasbourg).[1][20][c] Because of this, its name is sometimes used metonymically to describe the EU and its institutions.[21][22] The secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of NATO are also located in Brussels.[23][24] Brussels is the most densely populated region in Belgium, and although it has the highest GDP per capita,[25] it has the lowest available income per household.[26] The Brussels Region covers 162 km2 (63 sq mi) and has a population of over 1.2 million.[27] Its five times larger metropolitan area comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it the largest in Belgium.[28][29][30] It is also part of a large conurbation extending towards the cities of Ghent, Antwerp, and Leuven, known as the Flemish Diamond, as well as the province of Walloon Brabant, in total home to over 5 million people.[31] As Belgiums economic capital and a top financial centre in Western Europe with Euronext Brussels, Brussels is classified as an Alpha global city.[32] It is also a national and international hub for rail, road and air traffic,[33] and is sometimes considered, together with Belgium, as Europes geographic, economic and cultural crossroads.[34][35][36] The Brussels Metro is the only rapid transit system in Belgium. In addition, both its airport and railway stations are the largest and busiest in the country.[37][38] Historically Dutch-speaking, Brussels saw a language shift to French from the late 19th century.[39] Since its creation in 1989, the Brussels-Capital Region has been officially bilingual in French and Dutch,[40][41] although French is the majority language and lingua franca.[42] Brussels is also increasingly becoming multilingual. English is spoken widely and many migrants and expatriates speak other languages as well.[42][43]
Barry, Vale of Glamorgan.  51°24′18″N 3°16′12″W / 51.405°N 3.270°W / 51.405; -3.270 Barry (/ˈbæri/;[2][3] Welsh: Y Barri; pronounced [ə ˈbari])[citation needed] is a town and community in the Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. It is on the north coast of the Bristol Channel approximately 9 miles (14 km) south-southwest of Cardiff. Barry is a seaside resort, with attractions including several beaches and the resurrected Barry Island Pleasure Park. According to Office for National Statistics 2021 estimate data, the population of Barry was 56,605.[4] The town of Barry has absorbed its larger neighbouring villages of Cadoxton and Barry Island. It grew significantly from the 1880s with the development of Barry Docks, which, in 1913, was the largest coal port in the world.[5] The origin of the towns name is disputed. It may derive from the sixth-century Saint Baruc who was buried on Barry Island where a ruined chapel was dedicated to him. Alternatively, the name may derive from Welsh bar, meaning hill, summit.[6][7] The name in Welsh Y Barri includes the definite article.
Central business district.  A central business district (CBD) is the commercial and business center of a city. It contains commercial space and offices, and in larger cities will often be described as a financial district. Geographically, it often coincides with the city centre or downtown. However, these concepts are not necessarily synonymous: many cities have a central business district located away from its traditional city center, and there may be multiple CBDs within a single urban area. The CBD will often be highly accessible and have a large variety and concentration of specialised goods and services compared to other parts of the city.[1] In Chicago, the Chicago Loop is the second-largest central business district in the United States. It is also referred to as the core of the citys downtown. Mexico City also has its own historic city center, the colonial era Centro Histórico, along with two CBDs: the mid-late 20th century Paseo de la Reforma in Polanco, and the new Santa Fe, respectively. Russias largest central business district is the Moscow International Business Center in Moscow. The shape and type of a central business district almost always closely reflect the citys history. Cities with strong preservation laws and maximum building height restrictions to retain the character of the historic and cultural core may have a CBD quite a distance from the city centre (and in some cases, outside the city limits itself). This distinction is quite common in European cities such as: London, Paris, Moscow, Vienna, Prague and Budapest. The New World grew quickly after the emergence of modern transport, therefore a single centre often included many of the regions tallest buildings and served as both a commercial and cultural city centre.
Emmy Awards.  The Emmy Awards, or Emmys, are an extensive range of awards for artistic and technical merit for the television industry. A number of annual Emmy Award ceremonies are held throughout the year, each with their own set of rules and award categories. The two events that receive the most media coverage are the Primetime Emmy Awards and the Daytime Emmy Awards, which recognize outstanding work in American primetime and daytime entertainment programming, respectively. Other notable American national Emmy events include the Childrens & Family Emmy Awards for childrens and family-oriented television programming, the Sports Emmy Awards for sports programming, News & Documentary Emmy Awards for news and documentary shows, and the Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards and the Primetime Engineering Emmy Awards for technological and engineering achievements. Regional Emmy Awards are also presented throughout the country at various times through the year, recognizing excellence in local television. In addition, the International Emmy Awards honor excellence in TV programming produced and initially aired outside the United States. The Emmy statuette, depicting a winged woman holding an atom, is named after immy, an informal term for the image orthicon tube that was common in early television cameras.[1][2] It is considered one of the four major annual American entertainment awards, along with the Grammy for music, the Oscar (Academy Award) for film, and the Tony for Broadway theater.[3] The Emmys are presented by three related, but separate, organizations: the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS), the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (NATAS), and the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (IATAS).[4] Each of these three organizations is responsible for administering a particular set of Emmy Award ceremonies. The ATAS first awarded Emmys in 1949 to honor shows produced in the Los Angeles area before it became a national event in the 1950s to honor programs aired nationwide. Over the next two decades, the ATAS, the NATAS, and the IATAS expanded the award to honor other sectors of the TV industry.[1] The Los Angeles–based Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (ATAS) established the Emmy Award as part of an image-building and public relations opportunity.[1] The first Emmy ceremony took place on January 25, 1949, at the Hollywood Athletic Club, but solely to honor shows produced and aired locally in the Los Angeles area. Shirley Dinsdale has the distinction of receiving the first Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Television Personality, during that first awards ceremony.[1] The term Emmy derives from Immy, the television industry slang for a TV camera image orthicon tube.[5]
Abbey Theatre School.  The Abbey Theatre School or the Abbey School of Acting, was a drama school associated with the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, Ireland. Established in 1911 by W. B. Yeats,[1]: 59  it was developed by Lady Gregory to continue performances in Dublin while the main cast of the theatre was overseas, usually in America.[2] The schools first director was the theatre director Nugent Monck, whom Yeats asked to begin the school.[1]: 59  The first play performed by the school was The Countess Cathleen, written by Yeats. The school was the primary place in Ireland where amateur actors could receive training for an acting career before breaking into paid work.[3] In the beginning, the schools plays were performed in the Abbey Theatre, but in 1927 the venue for them became the newly constructed Peacock Theatre, located on the first floor of the Abbey Theatres building.[4]: 138 Many well-known Irish actors and directors attended or taught at the school. Among them were Lennox Robinson,[5]: 513 [6]: 49  Stephen Rea,[7] and Frank Fay.[8]: 181
The Powerpuff Girls.  The Powerpuff Girls[b] is an American animated superhero television series created by animator Craig McCracken and produced by Cartoon Network Studios for Cartoon Network. The show centers on Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup, three kindergarten-aged girls with superpowers. They live in the fictional city of Townsville with their father and creator, a scientist named Professor Utonium, and are frequently called upon by the citys mayor to help fight nearby criminals and other enemies using their powers. While attending his second year at CalArts in 1992, McCracken created a short film, Whoopass Stew!, about a trio of child superheroes known as the Whoopass Girls, which was only shown at festivals. Following the name change to The Powerpuff Girls, McCracken submitted his student film to Cartoon Network, who aired the series refined pilot, Meat Fuzzy Lumpkins, in its animation showcase program World Premiere Toons on February 20, 1995, along with its follow-up, Crime 101, on January 28, 1996. Network executives gave McCracken the greenlight for a full series, which debuted as a Cartoon Cartoon on November 18, 1998. The Powerpuff Girls aired on Cartoon Network for six seasons, three specials, and a feature film, with the final episode airing on March 25, 2005. A total of 78 episodes were produced, in addition to the two pilots, a Christmas special, the film, a tenth anniversary special, and a special episode in computer animation. Various spin-off media include an anime, three CD soundtracks, a home video collection, comic books, a series of video games, a 2016 reboot series, and an upcoming reboot series, as well as various licensed merchandise. The series has been nominated for six Emmy Awards, nine Annie Awards, and a Kids Choice Award during its run. The show revolves around the adventures of three kindergarten-aged girls with an array of various superpowers: Blossom (pink), Bubbles (blue), and Buttercup (green). The plot of an episode is usually some humorous variation of standard superhero and tokusatsu shows, with the girls using their powers to defend their town from villains and giant monsters. In addition, the girls have to deal with the normal issues that young children face, such as sibling rivalries, loose teeth,[8] personal hygiene,[9] going to school, bed wetting,[10] or dependence on a security blanket.[11] Episodes often contain hidden references to older pop culture (especially noticeable in the episode Meet the Beat Alls,[12] which is a homage to the Beatles). The cartoon always tries to keep different ideas within each episode with some small tributes and parodies thrown in.[13]
Asteroid (disambiguation). An asteroid is a minor planet. Asteroid or Asteroids may also refer to:
Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog.  Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog is a fantasy-adventure television series set in a fantasy version of ancient Ireland, created by Saban Entertainment.[1] It was loosely based on actual Irish mythology. The name is derived from Tír na nÓg, one of the Otherworlds of Irish mythology. It was Sabans first fantasy series to involve knights, dragons, and wizards.[2] It aired on the Fox Kids Network from September 12, 1998 to May 7, 1999. The resulting series was an attempt in doing an original non-Japanese special-effects series rather than adapting from actual Japanese tokusatsu.[3][4][5][6] Ownership of the series passed to Disney in 2001 following Saban Entertainment’s closure. On an unnamed island, queen Maeve of Temra seeks to conquer the peaceful kingdom of Kells and enlists the evil fairy Mider, who gives her the mystical Rune Stone allowing Maeve to use sorcery. Queen Maeve mostly uses the Rune Stone to create or summon monsters whom she sends to wreak havoc. When king Conchobar of Kells seeks a way to protect his kingdom, protagonist Rohan—a druids apprentice—goes in search of the prophesied hero Draganta, with his friend the reformed thief Angus.
Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown.  Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown (Irish: Dún Laoghaire–Ráth an Dúin[3]) is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and the Eastern and Midland Region. It is one of three successor counties to County Dublin, which was disestablished in 1994. It is named after the former borough of Dún Laoghaire and the barony of Rathdown. Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county was 233,860 at the time of the 2022 census.[2] Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown is bordered to the east by the Irish Sea, to the north by the city of Dublin, to the west by the county of South Dublin, and to the south by County Wicklow. With the city of Dublin, Fingal and South Dublin, it is one of four local government areas in the old County Dublin. Located to the south-east of the capital city of Dublin, the county town of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown is Dún Laoghaire. Since 2015, the county is part of the Eastern and Midland Region. University College Dublin and Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology are located in the county. In 1986, the administrative county of Dublin was divided into three electoral counties: Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Dublin—Fingal, and Dublin—Belgard.[4] The city has been administered separately from County Dublin since 1548. An area committee for the electoral county was formed within Dublin County Council under the Local Government Act 1991,[5] On 1 January 1994, County Dublin and the Borough of Dún Laoghaire were abolished and the three electoral counties became the administrative counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin respectively.[6] Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown comprises the former Borough of Dún Laoghaire and the south-eastern part of the former County Dublin. Additionally, the powers of the former Deansgrange Joint Burial Board were subsumed into the new authority. From 2002, all administrative counties in Ireland were redesignated as counties.[7] The three counties together with Dublin city constitute the traditional County Dublin.
Astroid. In mathematics, an astroid is a particular type of roulette curve: a hypocycloid with four cusps. Specifically, it is the locus of a point on a circle as it rolls inside a fixed circle with four times the radius.[1] By double generation, it is also the locus of a point on a circle as it rolls inside a fixed circle with 4/3 times the radius. It can also be defined as the envelope of a line segment of fixed length that moves while keeping an end point on each of the axes. It is therefore the envelope of the moving bar in the Trammel of Archimedes. Its modern name comes from the Greek word for star. It was proposed, originally in the form of Astrois, by Joseph Johann von Littrow in 1838.[2][3] The curve had a variety of names, including tetracuspid (still used), cubocycloid, and paracycle. It is nearly identical in form to the evolute of an ellipse. If the radius of the fixed circle is a then the equation is given by[4]      x  2  /  3   +  y  2  /  3   =  a  2  /  3   .   {\displaystyle x^{2/3}+y^{2/3}=a^{2/3}.}   This implies that an astroid is also a superellipse. Parametric equations are         x = a  cos  3   ⁡ t    =   a 4    (  3 cos ⁡  ( t )  + cos ⁡  (  3 t  )   )  ,     y = a  sin  3   ⁡ t    =   a 4    (  3 sin ⁡  ( t )  − sin ⁡  (  3 t  )   )  .       {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x=a\cos ^{3}t&={\frac {a}{4}}\left(3\cos \left(t\right)+\cos \left(3t\right)\right),\\[2ex]y=a\sin ^{3}t&={\frac {a}{4}}\left(3\sin \left(t\right)-\sin \left(3t\right)\right).\end{aligned}}} The pedal equation with respect to the origin is       r  2   =  a  2   − 3  p  2   ,   {\displaystyle r^{2}=a^{2}-3p^{2},}
Ontario.  Ontario[a] is the southernmost province of Canada.[9] Located in Central Canada,[10][b] Ontario is the countrys most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it is home to 38.5% of the countrys population, and is the second-largest province by total area (after Quebec).[3][11] Ontario is Canadas fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area of all the Canadian provinces and territories.[11] It is home to the nations capital, Ottawa, and its most populous city, Toronto,[12] which is Ontarios provincial capital. Ontario is bordered by the province of Manitoba to the west, Hudson Bay and James Bay to the north, and Quebec to the east and northeast. To the south, it is bordered by the U.S. states of (from west to east) Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Almost all of Ontarios 2,700 km (1,700 mi) border with the United States follows rivers and lakes: from the westerly Lake of the Woods, eastward along the major rivers and lakes of the Great Lakes/Saint Lawrence River drainage system. There is only about 1 km (5⁄8 mi) of actual land border, made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border.[13] The great majority of  Ontarios population and arable land are in Southern Ontario, and while agriculture remains a significant industry, the regions economy depends highly on manufacturing. In contrast, Northern Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and heavy forestation,[14] with mining and forestry making up the regions major industries. Ontario is a term thought to have Indigenous origins, either Ontarí:io, a Huron (Wyandot) word meaning great lake,[15] or possibly skanadario, which means beautiful water or sparkling water in the Iroquoian languages.[16] Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes.[17] The first mention of the name Ontario was in 1641, when Ontario was used to describe the land on the north shore of the easternmost part of the Great Lakes.[18] It was adopted as the official name of the new province at Confederation in 1867.[18]
Toronto.  Toronto[b] is the most populous city in Canada and the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a population of 2,794,356 in 2021,[13] it is the fourth-most populous city in North America. The city is the anchor of the Golden Horseshoe, an urban agglomeration of 9,765,188 people (as of 2021) surrounding the western end of Lake Ontario,[14] while the Greater Toronto Area proper had a 2021 population of 6,712,341.[13] As of 2024, the Golden Horseshoe had an estimated population of 11,139,265 people[15] while the census metropolitan area had an estimated population of 7,106,379.[16] Toronto is an international centre of business, finance, arts, sports, and culture, and is recognized as one of the most multicultural and cosmopolitan cities in the world.[17][18][19][20] Indigenous peoples have travelled through and inhabited the Toronto area, located on a broad sloping plateau interspersed with rivers, deep ravines, and urban forest, for more than 10,000 years.[21] After the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase, when the Mississauga surrendered the area to the British Crown,[22] the British established the town of York in 1793 and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada.[23] During the War of 1812, the town was captured by the United States after they won the Battle of York in 1813, after which it was largely burned down and plundered by the American troops.[24] York was renamed and incorporated in 1834 as the City of Toronto. It was designated as the capital of the province of Ontario in 1867 during Canadian Confederation.[25] The city proper has since expanded past its original limits through both annexation and amalgamation to its current area of 630.2 km2 (243.3 sq mi). The diverse population of Toronto reflects its current and historical role as an important destination for immigrants to Canada.[26][27] About half of its residents were born outside of Canada and over 200 ethnic origins are represented among its inhabitants.[28] While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, over 160 languages are spoken in the city.[29] The city is governed by Toronto City Council, a unicameral body whose members are elected every four years. City council is composed of 25 councillors, who each represent a geographical ward, and the mayor of Toronto who serves as head of council and the chief executive officer of the municipal government.[30][31] Toronto is Canadas largest financial centre, and is home to the Toronto Stock Exchange, the headquarters of Canadas five largest banks,[32] and the headquarters of many large Canadian and multinational corporations.[33] Its economy is highly diversified with strengths in technology, design, financial services, life sciences, education, arts, fashion, aerospace, environmental innovation, food services, and tourism.[34][35][36]  In 2022, a New York Times columnist listed Toronto as the third largest tech hub in North America, after the San Francisco Bay Area and New York City.[37] Toronto is also a prominent centre for music,[38] theatre,[39] motion picture production,[40] and television production,[41] and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets.[42] Its varied cultural institutions,[43] which include numerous museums and galleries, festivals and public events, entertainment districts, national historic sites, and sports activities,[44] attract over 26 million visitors each year.[45][46]
433 Eros.  433 Eros is a stony asteroid of the Amor group, and the first discovered, and second-largest near-Earth object. It has an elongated shape and a volume-equivalent diameter of approximately 16.8 kilometers (10.4 miles). Visited by the NEAR Shoemaker space probe in 1998, it became the first asteroid ever studied from its own orbit. The asteroid was discovered by German astronomer C. G. Witt at the Berlin Observatory on 13 August 1898 in an eccentric orbit between Mars and Earth. It was later named after Eros, a god from Greek mythology, the son of Aphrodite. He is identified with the planet Venus.[3] Eros was discovered on 13 August 1898 by Carl Gustav Witt at Berlin Urania Observatory and Auguste Charlois at Nice Observatory[8] and temporarily labeled D.Q.[9] Witt was taking a two-hour exposure of beta Aquarii to secure astrometric positions of asteroid 185 Eunike.[10] Eros is named after the Greek god of love, Erōs. It was the first minor planet to be given a male name;[3] the break with earlier tradition was made because it was the first near-Earth asteroid discovered.
Wayne Allwine.  Wayne Anthony Allwine (February 7, 1947 – May 18, 2009)[1] was an American voice actor, sound effects editor and foley artist. He is best remembered as the third official voice of Mickey Mouse in English (following Walt Disney and Jimmy MacDonald) and the first official casting following the establishment of Disney Character Voices International in 1988.[2][3] To date, he holds the record for the longest-running voice actor to play Mickey Mouse, having performed the role for 32 years. He was notably married to Russi Taylor, who voiced Minnie Mouse.[2][3] Wayne Anthony Allwine was born in Glendale, California, on February 7, 1947.[2] He is a graduate of John Burroughs High School, where he was particularly active in the schools musical theater department.[2] His father was a barbershop quartet singer.[2] While in high school, he formed his own acoustic music group, The International Singers, which performed in clubs and colleges throughout the state.[2] After graduating, he briefly toured with the instrumental rock band Davie Allan & the Arrows. In addition to playing rhythm guitar, he can also be heard on harmonica and sax mouthpiece on the 1968 track Cycle-Delic.[4] He later became an accomplished Dixieland jazz drummer, occasionally sitting in with Firehouse Five Plus Two alumni George Proberts Monrovia Old Style Jazz Band.[5] In 1966, Allwine started work in the mailing room at the Disney studios, before working in the sound effects department with Jimmy MacDonald.[2]
Orbit (disambiguation). In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body. Orbit may also refer to:
Orbital eccentricity. In astrodynamics, the orbital eccentricity of an astronomical object is a dimensionless parameter that determines the amount by which its orbit around another body deviates from a perfect circle. A value of 0 is a circular orbit, values between 0 and 1 form an elliptic orbit, 1 is a parabolic (escape orbit or capture orbit), and greater than 1 is a hyperbola. The term derives its name from the parameters of conic sections, as every Kepler orbit is a conic section. It is normally used for the isolated two-body problem, but extensions exist for objects following a rosette orbit through the Galaxy. In a two-body problem with inverse-square-law force, every orbit is a Kepler orbit. The eccentricity of this Kepler orbit is a non-negative number that defines its shape. The eccentricity may take the following values: The eccentricity e is given by[1] e =   1 +      2   E    L  2          m  rdc      α  2            {\displaystyle e={\sqrt {1+{\frac {\ 2\ E\ L^{2}\ }{\ m_{\text{rdc}}\ \alpha ^{2}\ }}}}}
Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale).  Forest Lawn Memorial Park is a privately owned cemetery in Glendale, California, United States. It is the original and current flagship location of Forest Lawn Memorial-Parks & Mortuaries, a chain of six cemeteries and four additional mortuaries in Southern California. Forest Lawn Memorial Park was founded in 1906 as a not-for-profit cemetery by a group of businessmen from San Francisco. Hubert Eaton and C.B. Sims entered into a sales contract with the cemetery in 1912. Eaton took over its management in 1917. Although Eaton did not start Forest Lawn, he is credited as its Founder for his innovations of establishing the memorial-park plan. He eliminated upright grave markers and brought in works by established artists. He was the first to open a funeral home on dedicated cemetery grounds. He was a firm believer in a joyous life after death.[1] Convinced that most cemeteries were unsightly, depressing stoneyards, he pledged to create one that would reflect his optimistic Christian beliefs, as unlike other cemeteries as sunshine is unlike darkness. He envisioned Forest Lawn as a great park devoid of misshapen monuments and other signs of earthly death, but filled with towering trees, sweeping lawns, splashing fountains, beautiful statuary, and memorial architecture.[1] A number of plaques stating Eatons intentions are signed The Builder. Frederick Llewellyn, Eatons nephew, became CEO of Forest Lawn in 1966. In 1987, he was succeeded by his son, John Llewellyn, who died in April 2022.[2] Most of Forest Lawns burial sections have evocative names, including Eventide, Babyland (for infants, shaped like a heart), Graceland, Inspiration Slope, Slumberland (for children and adolescents), Sweet Memories, Whispering Pines, Vesperland, Borderland (on the edge of the cemetery), and Dawn of Tomorrow.
Galway.  Galway (/ˈɡɔːlweɪ/ GAWL-way; Irish: Gaillimh, pronounced [ˈɡal̠ʲɪvʲ] ⓘ) is a city in (and the county town of) County Galway. It lies on the River Corrib between Lough Corrib and Galway Bay. It is the most populous settlement in the province of Connacht, the fifth most populous city on the island of Ireland and the fourth most populous in the Republic of Ireland, with a population at the 2022 census of 85,910.[2] Located near an earlier settlement, Galway grew around a fortification built by the King of Connacht in 1124. A municipal charter in 1484 allowed citizens of the by then walled city to form a council and mayoralty. Controlled largely by a group of merchant families, the Tribes of Galway, the city grew into a trading port. Following a period of decline, as of the 21st century, Galway is a tourist destination known for festivals and events including the Galway International Arts Festival.[3] In 2018, Galway was named the European Region of Gastronomy.[4] The city was the European Capital of Culture for 2020, alongside Rijeka, Croatia. The citys name comes from the Irish name Gaillimh, which formed the western boundary of the earliest settlement, Dún Gaillimhe Fort Gaillimh.[5] (Mythical and alternative derivations of the name are given in History of Galway). Historically, the name was anglicised as Galliv or Gallive,[6] closer to the Irish pronunciation. The citys name in Latin is Galvia. Residents of the city are referred to as Galwegians.
List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft.  The following tables list all minor planets and comets that have been visited by robotic spacecraft. A total of 19 minor planets (asteroids, dwarf planets, and Kuiper belt objects) have been visited by space probes. Moons (not directly orbiting the Sun) and planets are not minor planets and thus are not included in the table below. In addition to the above listed objects, three asteroids have been imaged by spacecraft at distances too large to resolve features (over 100,000 km). Comet C/2013 A1 passed close by planet Mars in October 2014, closer than the Moon is to Earth.[19] As of early 2014 it was calculated to pass as close as 0.00087 AU (130,000 km; 81,000 mi).[19] This was so close that the event was deemed dangerous to spacecraft in orbit around Mars.[20] Spacecraft that were active at that time included 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MAVEN, Mars Orbiter Mission, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in Mars orbit – and two on the surface – Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity and the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity.
Voice acting. Voice acting is the art of performing a character or providing information to an audience with ones voice. Performers are often called voice actors/actresses in addition to other names.[a] Examples of voice work include animated, off-stage, off-screen, or non-visible characters in various works such as films, dubbed foreign films, anime, television shows, video games, cartoons, documentaries, commercials, audiobooks, radio dramas and comedies, amusement rides, theater productions, puppet shows, and audio games. The role of a voice actor may involve singing, most often when playing a fictional character, although a separate performer is sometimes enlisted as the characters singing voice. A voice actor may also simultaneously undertake motion-capture acting. Non-fictional voice acting is heard through pre-recorded and automated announcements that are a part of everyday modern life in areas such as stores, elevators, waiting rooms, and public transport. Voice acting is recognized as a specialized dramatic profession in the United Kingdom, primarily due to BBC Radios long and storied history of producing radio dramas.[1] The voices for animated characters are provided by voice actors. For live-action productions, voice acting often involves reading the parts of computer programs, radio dispatchers or other characters who never actually appear on screen. With an audio drama, there is more freedom because there is no need to match a dub to the original actor or animated character. Producers and agencies are often on the lookout for many styles of voices, such as booming voices for more dramatic productions or cute, young-sounding voices for trendier markets. Some voices sound like regular, natural, everyday people; all of these voices have their place in the voiceover world, provided they are used correctly and in the right context.[2] In the context of voice acting, narration is the use of spoken commentary to convey a story to an audience.[3] A narrator is a personal character or a non-personal voice that the creator of the story develops to deliver information about the plot to the audience. The voice actor who plays the narrator is responsible for performing the scripted lines assigned to them. In traditional literary narratives (such as novels, short stories, and memoirs) narration is a required story element; in other types of (chiefly non-literary) narratives (such as plays, television shows, video games, and films) narration is optional.[citation needed] One of the most common uses for voice acting is within commercial advertising. The voice actor is hired to voice a message associated with the advertisement. This has different sub-genres such as television, radio, film, and online advertising. The sub-genres are all different styles in their own right. For example, television commercials tend to be voiced with a narrow, flat inflection pattern (or prosody pattern) whereas radio commercials, especially local ones, tend to be voiced with a very wide inflection pattern in an almost over-the-top style. Marketers and advertisers use voice-overs in radio, TV, online adverts, and more; total advertising spend in the UK was forecast to be £21.8 billion in 2017.[citation needed] Voice-over used in commercial adverts had traditionally been the only area of voice acting where de-breathing was used.[4] This means artificially removing breaths from the recorded voice, and is done to stop the audience being distracted in any way from the commercial message that is being put across.[citation needed] However, removal of breaths has now become increasingly common in many other types of voice acting.[5]
243 Ida. 243 Ida is an asteroid in the Koronis family of the asteroid belt. It was discovered on 29 September 1884 by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at Vienna Observatory and named after a nymph from Greek mythology. Later telescopic observations categorized Ida as an S-type asteroid, the most numerous type in the inner asteroid belt. On 28 August 1993, Ida was visited by the uncrewed Galileo spacecraft while en route to Jupiter. It was the second asteroid visited by a spacecraft and the first found to have a natural satellite. Idas orbit lies between the planets Mars and Jupiter, like all main-belt asteroids. Its orbital period is 4.84 years, and its rotation period is 4.63 hours. Ida has an average diameter of 31.4 km (19.5 mi). It is irregularly shaped and elongated, apparently composed of two large objects connected together. Its surface is one of the most heavily cratered in the Solar System, featuring a wide variety of crater sizes and ages. Idas moon Dactyl was discovered by mission member Ann Harch in images returned from Galileo.[13] It was named after the Dactyls, creatures which inhabited Mount Ida in Greek mythology. Dactyl is only 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) in diameter, about 1/20 the size of Ida. Its orbit around Ida could not be determined with much accuracy, but the constraints of possible orbits allowed a rough determination of Idas density and revealed that it is depleted of metallic minerals. Dactyl and Ida share many characteristics, suggesting a common origin. The images returned from Galileo and the subsequent measurement of Idas mass provided new insights into the geology of S-type asteroids. Before the Galileo flyby, many different theories had been proposed to explain their mineral composition. Determining their composition permits a correlation between meteorites falling to the Earth and their origin in the asteroid belt. Data returned from the flyby pointed to S-type asteroids as the source for the ordinary chondrite meteorites, the most common type found on the Earths surface. Ida was discovered on 29 September 1884 by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at the Vienna Observatory.[14] It was his 45th asteroid discovery.[1] Ida was named by Moriz von Kuffner, a Viennese brewer and amateur astronomer.[15][16] In Greek mythology, Ida was a nymph of Crete who raised the god Zeus.[17] Ida was recognized as a member of the Koronis family by Kiyotsugu Hirayama, who proposed in 1918 that the group comprised the remnants of a destroyed precursor body.[18]
Celestial mechanics. Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions and gravitational interactions of objects in outer space. Historically, celestial mechanics applies principles of physics (classical mechanics) to astronomical objects, such as stars and planets, to produce ephemeris data. Modern analytic celestial mechanics started with Isaac Newtons Principia (1687). The name celestial mechanics is more recent than that. Newton wrote that the field should be called rational mechanics.[1] The term dynamics came in a little later with Gottfried Leibniz,[2] and over a century after Newton, Pierre-Simon Laplace introduced the term celestial mechanics.[3] Prior to Kepler, there was little connection between exact, quantitative prediction of planetary positions, using geometrical or numerical techniques, and contemporary discussions of the physical causes of the planets motion. Johannes Kepler was the first to closely integrate the predictive geometrical astronomy, which had been dominant from Ptolemy in the 2nd century to Copernicus, with physical concepts to produce a New Astronomy, Based upon Causes, or Celestial Physics in 1609. His work led to the laws of planetary orbits, which he developed using his physical principles and the planetary observations made by Tycho Brahe. Keplers elliptical model greatly improved the accuracy of predictions of planetary motion, years before Newton developed his law of gravitation in 1686.[4] Isaac Newton is credited with introducing the idea that the motion of objects in the heavens, such as planets, the Sun, and the Moon, and the motion of objects on the ground, like cannon balls and falling apples, could be described by the same set of physical laws. In this sense he unified celestial and terrestrial dynamics. Using his law of gravity, Newton confirmed Keplers laws for elliptical orbits by deriving them from the gravitational two-body problem, which Newton included in his epochal Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687.[5] Following Newton, mathematicians attempted to solve the more complex problem of predicting the future motion of three bodies interacting through gravity: the three-body problem. The first to provide a periodic solution was the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who in 1762 demonstrated three equilibrium points lie along a straight line passing through the two primary masses. If a body of infinitesimal mass occupied one of these points, it would remain there in a stable orbit. French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange attempted to solve this restricted three-body problem in 1772, and discovered two more stable orbits at the vertices of equilateral triangles with the two primary masses. Collectively, these solutions became known as the Lagrange points.[6]
Trajectory. A trajectory or flight path is the path that an object with mass in motion follows through space as a function of time. In classical mechanics, a trajectory is defined by Hamiltonian mechanics via canonical coordinates; hence, a complete trajectory is defined by position and momentum, simultaneously. The mass might be a projectile or a satellite.[1] For example, it can be an orbit — the path of a planet, asteroid, or comet as it travels around a central mass. In control theory, a trajectory is a time-ordered set of states of a dynamical system (see e.g. Poincaré map). In discrete mathematics, a trajectory is a sequence     (  f  k   ( x )  )  k ∈  N      {\displaystyle (f^{k}(x))_{k\in \mathbb {N} }}   of values calculated by the iterated application of a mapping     f   {\displaystyle f}   to an element     x   {\displaystyle x}   of its source. A familiar example of a trajectory is the path of a projectile, such as a thrown ball or rock. In a significantly simplified model, the object moves only under the influence of a uniform gravitational force field. This can be a good approximation for a rock that is thrown for short distances, for example at the surface of the Moon. In this simple approximation, the trajectory takes the shape of a parabola. Generally when determining trajectories, it may be necessary to account for nonuniform gravitational forces and air resistance (drag and aerodynamics). This is the focus of the discipline of ballistics. One of the remarkable achievements of Newtonian mechanics was the derivation of Keplers laws of planetary motion. In the gravitational field of a point mass or a spherically-symmetrical extended mass (such as the Sun), the trajectory of a moving object is a conic section, usually an ellipse or a hyperbola.[a] This agrees with the observed orbits of planets, comets, and artificial spacecraft to a reasonably good approximation, although if a comet passes close to the Sun, then it is also influenced by other forces such as the solar wind and radiation pressure, which modify the orbit and cause the comet to eject material into space.
Pearl Harbor (disambiguation). Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, west of Honolulu. Pearl Harbor may also refer to:  
Physical object. In natural language and physical science, a physical object or material object (or simply an object or body) is a contiguous collection of matter, within a defined boundary (or surface), that exists in space and time. Usually contrasted with abstract objects and mental objects.[1][2] Also in common usage, an object is not constrained to consist of the same collection of matter. Atoms or parts of an object may change over time. An object is usually meant to be defined by the simplest representation of the boundary consistent with the observations. However the laws of physics only apply directly to objects that consist of the same collection of matter. In physics, an object is an identifiable collection of matter, which may be constrained by an identifiable boundary, and may move as a unit by translation or rotation, in 3-dimensional space. Each object has a unique identity, independent of any other properties. Two objects may be identical, in all properties except position, but still remain distinguishable. In most cases the boundaries of two objects may not overlap at any point in time. The property of identity allows objects to be counted. Examples of models of physical bodies include, but are not limited to a particle, several interacting smaller bodies (particulate or otherwise). Discrete objects are in contrast to continuous media.
County Dublin.  County Dublin (Irish: Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath[2] or Contae Átha Cliath) is a county in Ireland, and holds its capital city, Dublin. It is located on the islands east coast, within the province of Leinster. Until 1994, County Dublin (excluding the city) was a single local government area; in that year, the county council was divided into three new administrative counties: Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. The three administrative counties together with Dublin City proper form a NUTS III statistical region of Ireland (coded IE061).[3] County Dublin remains a single administrative unit for the purposes of the courts (including the Dublin County Sheriff, but excluding the bailiwick of the Dublin City Sheriff) and Dublin County combined with Dublin City forms the Judicial County of Dublin, including Dublin Circuit Court, the Dublin County Registrar and the Dublin Metropolitan District Court. Dublin also sees law enforcement (the Garda Dublin metropolitan division) and fire services (Dublin Fire Brigade) administered county-wide. Dublin is Irelands most populous county, with a population of 1,458,154 as of 2022[update] – approximately 28% of the Republic of Irelands total population.[4] Dublin city is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Ireland, and the largest city on the island of Ireland. Roughly 9 out of every 10 people in County Dublin lives within Dublin city and its suburbs.[5] Several sizeable towns that are considered separate from the city, such as Rush, Donabate and Balbriggan, are located in the far north of the county. Swords, while separated from the city by a green belt around Dublin Airport, is considered a suburban commuter town and an emerging small city.[6] The third smallest county by land area, Dublin is bordered by Meath to the west and north, Kildare to the west, Wicklow to the south and the Irish Sea to the east. The southern part of the county is dominated by the Dublin Mountains, which rise to around 760 metres (2,500 ft) and contain numerous valleys, reservoirs and forests. The countys east coast is punctuated by several bays and inlets, including Rogerstown Estuary, Broadmeadow Estuary, Baldoyle Bay and most prominently, Dublin Bay. The northern section of the county, today known as Fingal, varies enormously in character, from densely populated suburban towns of the citys commuter belt to flat, fertile plains, which are some of the countrys largest horticultural and agricultural hubs. Dublin is the oldest county in Ireland, and was the first part of the island to be shired following the Norman invasion in the late 1100s. While it is no longer a local government area, Dublin retains a strong identity, and continues to be referred to as both a region and county interchangeably, including at government body level.[7][8]
Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam.  Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam (JBPHH) (IATA: HNL, ICAO: PHNL, FAA LID: HNL) is a United States military base on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. It is an amalgamation of the United States Air Forces Hickam Air Force Base and the United States Navys Naval Station Pearl Harbor, which were merged in 2010.[4] Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam is one of twelve Joint Bases the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission created.[5] It is part of Navy Region Hawaii and provides Navy and joint operations Base Operating Support that is capabilities-based and integrated. Pearl Harbor is 8 miles (13 km) from Honolulu. Naval Station Pearl Harbor provides berthing and shore side support to surface ships and submarines, as well as maintenance and training. Pearl Harbor can accommodate the largest ships in the fleet, to include dry dock services, and is now home to over 160 commands. Housing, personnel, and family support are also provided and are an integral part of the shore side activities, which encompasses both permanent and transient personnel.
Glendale, California.  Glendale is a city located primarily in the Verdugo Mountains region,[9] with a small portion in the San Fernando Valley,[10] of Los Angeles County, California, United States. It is located about 10 miles (16 km) north of downtown Los Angeles. As of 2025, Glendale had a Census-estimated population of 187,823[11] making it the 4th-most populous city in Los Angeles County and the 24th-most populous city in California. Glendale—along with neighboring Burbank and nearby Hollywood—has served as a major production center for the American film industry, and especially animation, and is home to Disneytoon Studios, Marvel Animation, and DreamWorks Animation. Native Americans lived along the Glendale Narrows of the Los Angeles River, known to the Tongva people as Paayme Paxaayt (West River),[12] for thousands of years before the arrival of European settlers.[13] Villages in the Glendale–La Crescenta-Montrose area included Ashwaangna, Hahamongna, Maungna, Tujunga and Wiqanga.[14][15]
Hawaii.  Hawaii (/həˈwaɪ.i/ ⓘ hə-WY-ee;[11] Hawaiian: Hawaiʻi [həˈvɐjʔi, həˈwɐjʔi]) is an island state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only state not on the North American mainland, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only state in the tropics. Hawaii consists of 137 volcanic islands that comprise almost the entire Hawaiian archipelago (the exception, which is outside the state, is Midway Atoll). Spanning 1,500 miles (2,400 km), the state is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania.[12] Hawaiis ocean coastline is consequently the fourth-longest in the U.S., at about 750 miles (1,210 km).[d] The eight main islands, from northwest to southeast, are Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and Hawaiʻi, after which the state is named; the last is often called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands make up most of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the largest protected area in the U.S. and the fourth-largest in the world. Of the 50 U.S. states, Hawaii is the fourth-smallest in land area and the 11th-least populous; but with 1.4 million residents, it ranks 13th in population density. Two-thirds of Hawaii residents live on Oʻahu, home to the states capital and largest city, Honolulu. Hawaii is one of the most demographically diverse U.S. states, owing to its central location in the Pacific and over two centuries of migration. As one of only seven majority-minority states, it has the only Asian American plurality, the largest Buddhist community,[13] and largest proportion of multiracial people in the U.S.[14] Consequently, Hawaii is a unique melting pot of North American and East Asian cultures, in addition to its indigenous Hawaiian heritage. Settled by Polynesians sometime between 1000 and 1200 CE, Hawaii was home to numerous independent chiefdoms.[15] In 1778, British explorer James Cook was the first known non-Polynesian to arrive at the archipelago; early British influence is reflected in the state flag, which bears a Union Jack. An influx of European and American explorers, traders, and whalers soon arrived, leading to the decimation of the once-isolated indigenous community through the introduction of diseases such as syphilis, tuberculosis, smallpox, and measles; the native Hawaiian population declined from between 300,000 and one million to less than 40,000 by 1890.[16][17][18] Hawaii became a unified, internationally recognized kingdom in 1810, remaining independent until American and European businessmen overthrew the monarchy in 1893; this led to annexation by the U.S. in 1898. As a strategically valuable U.S. territory, Hawaii was attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, which brought it global and historical significance, and contributed to Americas entry into World War II. Hawaii is the most recent state to join the union, on August 21, 1959.[19] In 1993, the U.S. government formally apologized for its role in the overthrow of Hawaiis government, which had spurred the Hawaiian sovereignty movement and has led to ongoing efforts to obtain redress for the indigenous population.
Ford Island.  Ford Island (Hawaiian: Poka ʻAilana) is an islet in the center of Pearl Harbor, Oahu, in the U.S. state of Hawaii.  It has been known as Rabbit Island, Maríns Island, and Little Goats Island; its native Hawaiian name is Mokuʻumeʻume. The island had an area of 334 acres (135 ha) when it was surveyed in 1825, which was increased during the 1930s to 441 acres (178 ha) with fill dredged out of Pearl Harbor by the United States Navy to deepen the harbor. The island was the site of an ancient Hawaiian fertility ritual, which was stopped by Christian missionaries during the 1830s. The island was given by Kamehameha I to Spanish deserter Francisco de Paula Marín, and later returned to the monarchy. After the island was bought at auction by James Isaac Dowsett and sold to Caroline Jackson, it became the property of Dr. Seth Porter Ford by marriage and was renamed Ford Island. After Fords death, his son sold the island to the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate and it was converted into a sugarcane plantation. In 1916, part of Ford Island was sold to the U.S. Army for use by an aviation division in Hawaii, and by 1939 the island was taken over by the U.S. Navy as a station for battleship and submarine maintenance. From the 1910s to the 1940s, the island continued to grow as a strategic center of operations for the U.S. Navy in the Pacific Ocean. Ford Island was at the center of the attack on Pearl Harbor and on the U.S. Pacific Fleet by the Imperial Japanese fleet on December 7, 1941. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, and the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed the island as one of the United States most-endangered historic sites.[2][3] By the late 1990s, hundreds of millions of dollars had been invested in real estate development and infrastructure on and around Ford Island, including a new bridge, the Admiral Clarey Bridge. The island continues to serve an active role in the Pacific, hosting military functions at the Pacific Warfighting Center and civilian functions at NOAAs Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. The island has been featured in films such as Tora! Tora! Tora! and Pearl Harbor and receives tourists from the U.S. and abroad at the USS Arizona memorial and the USS Missouri museum.
USS Arizona Memorial.  The USS Arizona Memorial, at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Hawaii, marks the resting place of 1,102 of the 1,177 sailors and Marines killed on USS Arizona during the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and commemorates the events of that day. The attack on Pearl Harbor led to the United States involvement in World War II. The memorial, built in 1962, is visited by more than two million people annually.[1] Accessible only by boat, it straddles the sunken hull of the battleship without touching it. Historical information about the attack, shuttle boats to and from the memorial, and general visitor services are available at the associated USS Arizona Memorial Visitor Center, which opened in 1980 and is operated by the National Park Service. The battleships sunken remains were declared a National Historic Landmark on May 5, 1989.[2] The USS Arizona Memorial is one of several sites in Hawaii that are part of the Pearl Harbor National Memorial. During and following the end of World War II, Arizonas wrecked superstructure was removed and efforts began to erect a memorial at the remaining submerged hull.
JPL (cyclecar). The JPL was a brass era cyclecar built in Detroit, Michigan by the J.P.L. Cyclecar Company, formed in 1913. Production started in December 1913 but ended in 1914.[1][2] The JPL was designed by J.P. La Vigne who was an early and ubiquitous engineer in the industry. The car was marketed both as the JPL and the La Vigne. The cyclecar was equipped with a four-cylinder air-cooled engine with a sliding-gear transmission. A bore and stroke of 2+3⁄4 and 4 in (69.9 and 101.6 mm) made for a displacement of 95.0 cu in (1,557 cc) and a claimed maximum power of 14 hp (10.4 kW). The underslung design made for a particularly low profile.[3] The vehicle was claimed to get 30–40 mpg‑US (7.8–5.9 L/100 km; 36–48 mpg‑imp) and have a top speed of 50 mph (80 km/h). The original model was available either as a roadster, a cabriolet, or a delivery wagon. A revised design, the Model F, was shown in mid-1914 with a promised introduction date of September 1914. The engine, while of the same size, was now water-cooled and produced 20 hp (14.9 kW), while the wheelbase was increased from 96 to 100 in (2,440 to 2,540 mm).[4] Production however ceased by the end of the year.[5]
Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page. The Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page (NEOCP) is a web service listing recently-submitted observations of objects that may be near-Earth objects (NEOs). It is a service of the Minor Planet Center (MPC), which is the official international archive for astrometric observations of minor planets.[1] The NEOCP was established by the MPC on the World Wide Web in March 1996.[2][3] Astrometric observations of new NEO candidates are submitted by observers either through email or cURL, after which they are placed in the NEOCP for a period of time until they are confirmed to be a new object, confirmed to be an already-known object, or not confirmed with sufficient follow-up observations.[4] If the object is confirmed as a new NEO, it is given a provisional designation and its observations will be immediately published in a Minor Planet Electronic Circular (MPEC). If the object is a recovery of an already-designated NEO on a new opposition, it will also be immediately published in an MPEC. Otherwise, if the object is confirmed as a minor planet that is not a NEO, it will be published in a Daily Orbit Update MPEC on the following day.[4] Any objects that are not confirmed due to an insufficient observation arc or a false-positive detection will have its observations archived in the MPCs Isolated Tracklet File of unconfirmed minor planet candidates.[5][6][7] This tool is updated throughout the day to facilitate follow-up observations as quickly as possible before an object is lost and no longer observable.[1] A number of other services make use of the NEOCP and further process the data to make independent predictions of the likelihood of an object being an NEO and also of the likely risk of Earth impact, some of these are listed below.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory.  The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) in La Cañada Flintridge, California, Crescenta Valley, United States.[1] Founded in 1936 by California Institute of Technology (Caltech) researchers, the laboratory is now owned and sponsored by NASA and administered and managed by Caltech.[2][3] The primary function of the laboratory is the construction and operation of planetary robotic spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN). Among the major active projects at the laboratory, some are the Mars 2020 mission, which includes the Perseverance rover; the Mars Science Laboratory mission, including the Curiosity rover; the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter; the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter; the SMAP satellite for Earth surface soil moisture monitoring; the NuSTAR X-ray telescope; and the Psyche asteroid orbiter. It is also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System bodies. JPLs Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks.[4]
Jacksonville Public Library.  The Jacksonville Public Library is the public library system of Jacksonville, Florida, United States. It primarily serves Jacksonville and Duval County merged areas, and is also used by the neighboring Baker, Nassau, Clay, and St. Johns counties. It is one of the largest library systems in Florida, with a collection of over three million items. A division of the city government, the library has the third largest group of city employees, after the citys fire department and sheriffs office. There are twenty-one branches and a main library in the system. Located downtown near City Hall and Hemming Plaza, the Main Library opened in November 2005, replacing the Haydon Burns Library.[2]  Designed by the firm of the 2011 Driehaus Prize winner, Robert A.M. Stern Architects, the new library is almost three times the size of the Haydon Burns building. Jacksonvilles Auchter Company was responsible for construction. The North Laura facility is 300,000 square feet (28,000 m2) with the capacity to hold one million books. A 600-space parking garage across from the library building on Duval Street makes the Main Library easily accessible. State-of-the-art technology offers 250 public computers, satellite, and video conferencing capabilities with infrastructure to support future technologies. On April 18, 2012, the AIA Florida Chapter named the Jacksonville Public Library – Main Library on its list of Florida Architecture: 100 Years. 100 Places.[3] In addition to the library and the conference center, the library building hosted a bookstore and a café. The BOOKtique bookstore, run by the Friends of the Library, opened concurrently with the library.[4] In 2013, the BOOKtique was closed to make way for The Lounge @ 303 North, an event space in the librarys lower Conference Center level.[5] After a year and a half of litigation and construction, on May 14, 2007, Shelbys Café opened inside the concession space in the Main Library.[6] The concession stand closed in 2011.[7] [8]
JPL (Integrated Communications, Inc.). JPL (JPL Integrated Communications, Inc.) is a company, based in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.[1][2]  The company offers services such as: branding,[1] marketing, meeting and event production and coordination,[1] web development,[3][4][1] video production, and internal communications.[5] JPL (formerly JPL Video Productions and then JPL Productions) was established in 1989 when co-founders Michael Horgan and Christian Masters purchased the Video Productions Department from J.P. Lilley in Harrisburg. They formed a new company called “JPL Video Productions.”[6] In 1995, JPL established the “Interactive Technologies Group.”[7] In 2000, they merged with York-based production company, Kennedy/Lee, and brought on board three experienced video professionals. When web development company MarginPoint joined JPL in 2002,[8][9] the company added web application development and e-Marketing to its list of services. That same year, JPL was named one of the Best Places to Work in Pennsylvania by the Central Penn Business Journal.[10][11][12] In 2004 JPL purchased an 88,000-square-foot (8,200 m2), two-story facility which, housed two video and photography studios.[13] The internal structure of JPL underwent some renovation as well when former JPL President Michael Horgan assumed the new position of Executive Chairman, and former Vice President Luke Kempski stepped up into the role of President.[14][15] The company also expanded its 3-D graphics, animation, and simulation technologies, and implemented HD video technology for several full-length videos and commercials. The following year(2005), the new building opened for business and the company was selected as one of the 50 Fastest Growing Companies in Pennsylvania by the Central Penn Business Journal.[16] In 2007, JPL was featured in CNN’s Business 2.0 magazine for encouraging employees to decorate the new building.[17]
National Historic Landmark.  A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Only some 2,500, or roughly three percent, of over 90,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) are recognized as National Historic Landmarks. A National Historic Landmark District may include many contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may also include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed as NHLs or on the NRHP. The origins of the first National Historic Landmark was a simple cedar post, placed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition on their 1804 outbound trek to the Pacific Ocean in commemoration of the death from natural causes of Sergeant Charles Floyd. The cedar plank was later replaced by a 100 ft (30 m) marble obelisk.[1] The Sergeant Floyd Monument in Sioux City, Iowa, was officially designated on June 30, 1960. Prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. In 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act, which authorized the interior secretary authority to formally record and organize historic properties, and to designate properties as having national historical significance, and gave the National Park Service authority to administer historically significant federally owned properties.[2]  Over the following decades, surveys such as the Historic American Buildings Survey amassed information about culturally and architecturally significant properties in a program known as the Historic Sites Survey.[3]
United States (disambiguation). The United States is a country located mainly in North America. United States  may also refer to:
Harvard College Observatory.  The Harvard College Observatory (HCO) is an institution managing a complex of buildings and multiple instruments used for astronomical research by the Harvard University Department of Astronomy. It is located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, and was founded in 1839. With the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, it forms part of the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian. HCO houses the Harvard Plate Stacks, a collection of approximately 600,000 astronomical plates taken between the mid-1880s and 1989 (with a gap from 1953–1968).[1] This 100-year coverage is a unique resource for studying temporal variations in the universe. The Digital Access to a Sky Century @ Harvard project scanned and 429,274 direct image plates, leaving nearly 200,000 spectra and other photographic plates yet to be digitized.[2] In 2024, a new database, StarGlass, was created to combine the scientific data from the plates with the Plate Stacks archival holdings. In 1839, the Harvard Corporation voted to appoint William Cranch Bond, a prominent Boston clockmaker, as Astronomical Observer to the University (at no salary). This marked the founding of the Harvard College Observatory. HCOs first telescope, the 15-inch Great Refractor, was installed in 1847.[3]  That telescope was the largest in the United States from installation until 1867.[4] Between 1847 and 1852, Bond and pioneer photographer John Adams Whipple used the Great Refractor telescope to produce images of the moon that are remarkable in their clarity of detail and aesthetic power. This was the largest telescope in North America at that time, and their images of the moon took the prize for technical excellence in photography at the 1851 Great Exhibition at The Crystal Palace in London. On the night of July 16–17, 1850, Whipple and Bond made the first daguerreotype of a star (Vega).
Jewish Public Library (Montreal). The Jewish Public Library or JPL (French: Bibliothèque publique juive, Yiddish: ייִדישע פֿאָלקס ביבליאָטעק) is a public library in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, founded in 1914. The library contains the largest circulating collection of Judaica in North America.[1] As of 2019, the JPL had about 5,200 members.[2] A constituent agency of Federation CJA, the Jewish Public Library is independent of the Montreal Public Libraries Network and instead receives its funding from the citys Jewish community, membership fees, donations and endowments. Founded in 1914, the librarys early history is grounded in the Yiddish-speaking immigrants who fled Europe at the turn of the 20th century. The early homes of the JPL were in rented cold water flats on St. Urbain Street and, for 20 years, on the corner of Esplanade Avenue and Mount-Royal.[3] In the early 1970s, the patterns of Jewish migration within the city had made it apparent that the library should move again, to be nearer to other Jewish agencies and organizations. The Segal Centre for Performing Arts, YM-YWHA Jewish community centre, Montreal Holocaust Memorial Centre, and all Federation CJA offices are now within a campus on the corner of Cote Ste. Catherine Road and Westbury Avenue in Montreals Côte-des-Neiges sector. The Jewish Public Librarys collection of over 150,000 items is accessible online, including specialist collections in five languages. The Childrens Library offers programs and activities with more than 30,000 items for children up to 14 years of age.[4] The JPL is a full service lending and research library. 75% of the collection is Judaica, 25% general interest and popular fiction. The collection itself is oriented towards both academic and popular readerships, the Judaica collection being akin to most university libraries Judaic collections.[5] Members of Montreals Orthodox Jewish community also use the library for religious works. The general collection attempts a diversity of popular and literary fiction, as well as an AV collection of first-run films on VHS and DVD, and audiobooks in Yiddish. The Yiddish Book Center has digitized many of these tapes and made them available on compact disc and free online in a joint project. The JPLs collections are primarily in English, French, Hebrew, Yiddish and Russian, with other languages comprising works in its special non-circulating collections. Special collections include:[6] The Library has an active program of cultural events and educational workshops throughout the year. During Jewish Book Month, Andrei Codrescu, Cynthia Ozick, and Salman Rushdie have all spoken at the library. It also stages dramatic readings in Hebrew, Yiddish musical evenings and Russian concerts and walking tours of Jewish Montreal are given throughout the year. First Fruits is an annual literary anthology of student writing from local high school students, and it awards the J. I. Segal Prizes bi-annually to published writers of Jewish content in various languages. Many programs represent collaborations with other organizations such as the Montreal Holocaust Museum, the Montreal Jewish Museum, and Bloomsday Montreal. The Archives offers exhibitions, tours, workshops and offers much of its content digitally.
Pasadena, California.  Pasadena (/ˌpæsəˈdiːnə/ ⓘ PAS-ə-DEE-nə) is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States, 11 miles (18 km) northeast of downtown Los Angeles. It is the most populous city and the primary cultural center of the San Gabriel Valley.[17] Old Pasadena is the citys original commercial district. Its population was 138,699 at the 2020 census,[14] making it the 45th-largest city in California[14] and the ninth-largest in Los Angeles County. Pasadena was incorporated on June 19, 1886, 36 years after the city of Los Angeles but still one of the first in what is now Los Angeles County.[18] Pasadena is home to many scientific, educational, and cultural institutions, including the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena City College, Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine, Fuller Theological Seminary, Theosophical Society, Parsons Corporation, Art Center College of Design, the Planetary Society, Pasadena Playhouse, the Ambassador Auditorium, the Norton Simon Museum, and the USC Pacific Asia Museum. Pasadena hosts the annual Rose Bowl football game and Tournament of Roses Parade each New Years Day.
Jefferson Parish Library.  Jefferson Parish Library (JPL) is the library system of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana. It has its headquarters in the East Bank Regional Library in Metairie, an unincorporated area in the parish.[1][2] Digested from a paper written by Cathy Gontar[who?] in 1998[citation needed] Jefferson Parish, a long, narrow strip of land in southeastern Louisiana, stretches from the southern shore of Lake Pontchartrain to Grand Isle on the Gulf of Mexico. Adjacent to Orleans and Plaquemines Parishes on the east and St. Charles and Lafourche Parishes on the west, it was named after President Thomas Jefferson, who was responsible for the Louisiana Purchase. The police jury of Jefferson Parish passed a resolution of library establishment in 1946, and the first public library was opened November 30, 1949.
Astrometry. Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and this galaxy, the Milky Way. The history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors Timocharis and Aristillus to discover Earths precession. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today.[1] Hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions.[2] Hipparchuss successor, Ptolemy, included a catalogue of 1,022 stars in his work the Almagest, giving their location, coordinates, and brightness.[3] In the 10th century, the Iranian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes and star color; furthermore, he provided drawings for each constellation, which are depicted in his Book of Fixed Stars. Egyptian mathematician Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Suns position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in Canadian–American astronomer Simon Newcombs investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations of the motions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn inspired French scholar Laplaces Obliquity of the Ecliptic and Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn.[4] In the 15th century, the Timurid astronomer Ulugh Beg compiled the Zij-i-Sultani, in which he catalogued 1,019 stars. Like the earlier catalogs of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Ulugh Begs catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 minutes of arc.[5] In the 16th century, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe used improved instruments, including large mural instruments, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15–35 arcsec.[6] Ottoman scholar Taqi al-Din measured the right ascension of the stars at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din using the observational clock he invented.[7] When telescopes became commonplace, setting circles sped measurements English astronomer James Bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope, but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the Earths axis. His cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by German astronomer Friedrich Bessel, the father of modern astrometry. He made the first measurement of stellar parallax: 0.3 arcsec for the binary star 61 Cygni. In 1872, British astronomer William Huggins used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of several prominent stars, including Sirius.[8]
Attack on Pearl Harbor.  Japanese victory 1941 1942 Second Sino-Japanese War
USA (disambiguation). USA is an abbreviation and country code for the United States of America. USA, U.S.A., or Usa may also refer to:
Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.  The Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian (CfA), previously known as the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, is an astrophysics research institute jointly operated by the Harvard College Observatory and Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Founded in 1973 and headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, the CfA leads a broad program of research in astronomy, astrophysics, Earth and space sciences, as well as science education. The CfA either leads or participates in the development and operations of more than fifteen ground- and space-based astronomical research observatories across the electromagnetic spectrum, including the forthcoming Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT) and the Chandra X-ray Observatory, one of NASAs Great Observatories. Hosting more than 850 scientists, engineers, and support staff, the CfA is among the largest astronomical research institutes in the world.[1] Its projects have included Nobel Prize-winning advances in cosmology and high energy astrophysics, the discovery of many exoplanets, and the first image of a black hole. The CfA also serves a major role in the global astrophysics research community: the CfAs Astrophysics Data System (ADS), for example, has been universally adopted[2] as the worlds online database of astronomy and physics papers.  Known for most of its history as the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the CfA rebranded in 2018 to its current name in an effort to reflect its unique status as a joint collaboration between Harvard University and the Smithsonian Institution. Lisa Kewley has served as the director of the CfA since 2022. The Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian is not formally an independent legal organization, but rather an institutional entity operated under a memorandum of understanding between Harvard University and the Smithsonian Institution. This collaboration was formalized on July 1, 1973, with the goal of coordinating the related research activities of the Harvard College Observatory (HCO) and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) under the leadership of a single director, and housed within the same complex of buildings on the Harvard campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The CfAs history is therefore also that of the two fully independent organizations that comprise it. With a combined history of more than 300 years, HCO and SAO have been host to major milestones in astronomical history that predate the CfAs founding. These are briefly summarized below. Samuel Pierpont Langley, the third Secretary of the Smithsonian, founded the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory on the south yard of the Smithsonian Castle (on the U.S. National Mall) on March 1, 1890. The Astrophysical Observatorys initial, primary purpose was to record the amount and character of the Suns heat.[3] Charles Greeley Abbot was named SAOs first director, and the observatory operated solar telescopes to take daily measurements of the Suns intensity in different regions of the optical electromagnetic spectrum. In doing so, the observatory enabled Abbot to make critical refinements to the Solar constant, as well as to serendipitously discover Solar variability. It is likely that SAOs early history as a solar observatory was part of the inspiration behind the Smithsonians sunburst logo, designed in 1965 by Crimilda Pontes.[4]
America (disambiguation).  America is, in common English usage, a short-form name for the United States of America. America or América may also refer to:
Us. US or Us most often refers to: US, U.S., Us, us, or u.s. may also refer to:
Synthetic-aperture radar.  Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar that is used to create two-dimensional images or three-dimensional reconstructions of objects, such as landscapes.[1] SAR uses the motion of the radar antenna over a target region to provide finer spatial resolution than conventional stationary beam-scanning radars. SAR is typically mounted on a moving platform, such as an aircraft or spacecraft, and has its origins in an advanced form of side looking airborne radar (SLAR). The distance the SAR device travels over a target during the period when the target scene is illuminated creates the large synthetic antenna aperture (the size of the antenna). Typically, the larger the aperture, the higher the image resolution will be, regardless of whether the aperture is physical (a large antenna) or synthetic (a moving antenna) – this allows SAR to create high-resolution images with comparatively small physical antennas.  For a fixed antenna size and orientation, objects which are further away remain illuminated longer – therefore SAR has the property of creating larger synthetic apertures for more distant objects, which results in a consistent spatial resolution over a range of viewing distances. To create a SAR image, successive pulses of radio waves are transmitted to illuminate a target scene, and the echo of each pulse is received and recorded. The pulses are transmitted and the echoes received using a single beam-forming antenna, with wavelengths of a meter down to several millimeters. As the SAR device on board the aircraft or spacecraft moves, the antenna location relative to the target changes with time. Signal processing of the successive recorded radar echoes allows the combining of the recordings from these multiple antenna positions. This process forms the synthetic antenna aperture and allows the creation of higher-resolution images than would otherwise be possible with a given physical antenna.[2] SAR is capable of high-resolution remote sensing, independent of flight altitude, and independent of weather[3], as SAR can select frequencies to avoid weather-caused signal attenuation. SAR has day and night imaging capability as illumination is provided by the SAR.[4][5][6] SAR images have wide applications in remote sensing and mapping of surfaces of the Earth and other planets. Applications of SAR are numerous. Examples include topography, oceanography, glaciology, geology (for example, terrain discrimination and subsurface imaging). SAR can also be used in forestry to determine forest height, biomass, and deforestation. Volcano and earthquake monitoring use differential interferometry. SAR can also be applied for monitoring civil infrastructure stability such as bridges.[7] SAR is useful in environment monitoring such as oil spills, flooding,[8][9] urban growth,[10] military surveillance: including strategic policy and tactical assessment.[6] SAR can be implemented as inverse SAR by observing a moving target over a substantial time with a stationary antenna.
Near-Earth object.  A near-Earth object (NEO) is any small Solar System body orbiting the Sun whose closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) is less than 1.3 times the Earth–Sun distance (astronomical unit, AU).[2] This definition applies to the objects orbit around the Sun, rather than its current position, thus an object with such an orbit is considered an NEO even at times when it is far from making a close approach of Earth. If an NEOs orbit crosses the Earths orbit, and the object is larger than 140 meters (460 ft) across, it is considered a potentially hazardous object (PHO).[3] Most known PHOs and NEOs are asteroids, but about a third of a percent are comets.[1] There are over 37,000 known near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) and over 120 known short-period near-Earth comets (NECs).[1] A number of solar-orbiting meteoroids were large enough to be tracked in space before striking Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of Earth.[4] Asteroids as small as 20 metres (66 ft) in diameter can cause significant damage to the local environment and human populations.[5] Larger asteroids penetrate the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth, producing craters if they impact a continent or tsunamis if they impact the sea. Interest in NEOs has increased since the 1980s because of greater awareness of this risk. Asteroid impact avoidance by deflection is possible in principle, and methods of mitigation are being researched.[6] Two scales, the simple Torino scale and the more complex Palermo scale, rate the risk presented by an identified NEO based on the probability of it impacting the Earth and on how severe the consequences of such an impact would be. Some NEOs have had temporarily positive Torino or Palermo scale ratings after their discovery. Since 1998, the United States, the European Union, and other nations have been scanning the sky for NEOs in an effort called Spaceguard.[7] The initial US Congress mandate to NASA to catalog at least 90% of NEOs that are at least 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) in diameter, sufficient to cause a global catastrophe, was met by 2011.[8] In later years, the survey effort was expanded[9] to include smaller objects[10] which have the potential for large-scale, though not global, damage. NEOs have low surface gravity, and many have Earth-like orbits that make them easy targets for spacecraft.[11][12] As of December 2024[update], five near-Earth comets[13][14][15] and six near-Earth asteroids,[16][17][18][19][20] one of them with a moon,[20] have been visited by spacecraft. Samples of three have been returned to Earth,[21][22] and one successful deflection test was conducted.[23] Similar missions are in progress. Preliminary plans for commercial asteroid mining have been drafted by private startup companies, but few of these plans were pursued.[24]
Astronomical object. An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe.[1] In astronomy, the terms object and body are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial object is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures. Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified as both a body and an object: It is a body when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an object when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail. According to NASA astrophysicists, early astronomical objects began to emerge plausibly 13.6 billion years ago, roughly 200 million years after the Big Bang formed the early universe. Over time, light was left from gravity to fuse into the first stars and galaxies.[2] Astronomical objects such as stars, planets, nebulae, asteroids and comets have been observed for thousands of years, although early cultures thought of these bodies as deities. These early cultures found the movements of the bodies very important as they used these objects to help navigate over long distances, tell between the seasons, and to determine when to plant crops. During the Middle Ages, cultures began to study the movements of these bodies more closely. Several astronomers of the Middle East began to make detailed descriptions of stars and nebulae, and would make more accurate calendars based on the movements of these stars and planets. In Europe, astronomers focused more on devices to help study the celestial objects and creating textbooks, guides, and universities to teach people more about astronomy. During the Scientific Revolution, in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicuss heliocentric model was published. This model described the Earth, along with all of the other planets as being astronomical bodies which orbited the Sun located in the center of the Solar System. Johannes Kepler discovered Keplers laws of planetary motion, which are properties of the orbits that the astronomical bodies shared; this was used to improve the heliocentric model. In 1584, Giordano Bruno proposed that all distant stars are their own suns, being the first in centuries to suggest this idea. Galileo Galilei was one of the first astronomers to use telescopes to observe the sky, in 1610 he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter, now named the Galilean moons. Galileo also made observations of the phases of Venus, craters on the Moon, and sunspots on the Sun. Astronomer Edmond Halley was able to successfully predict the return of Halleys Comet, which now bears his name, in 1758. In 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered the new planet Uranus, being the first discovered planet not visible by the naked eye.
Federal capital. A federal capital is a political entity, often a municipality or capital city, that serves as the seat of the federal government. A federal capital is typically a city that physically encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government, where its location and relationship to subnational states are fixed by law or federal constitution. Federal capitals may or may not be considered states in themselves, and either exercise significant political autonomy from the federation or are directly ruled by the national government located within their premises, as federal districts. Federal capitals are often new creations.  That is, they are not established in one of the existing state capitals (but they may well be a pre-existing city).  They have not grown organically as capitals tend to do in unitary states.  This is because the creation of a federation is a new political entity and it is usually necessary not to favour any one of the constituent state capitals by making it the federation capital.  This is also the motivation behind the creation of federal capital territories as districts governed apart from the constituent state governments.[1]  It is especially important that the choice of federal capital be neutral in multi-ethnic states such as Nigeria.[2] Examples of well-known federal capitals include Washington, D.C., which is not part of any U.S. state but borders Maryland and Virginia; Berlin, which is a state of Germany in its own right and forms an enclave within the much larger state of Brandenburg; and the Australian Capital Territory, a territory of Australia which includes the capital city of Australia, Canberra. Canada is the only federation in the world not to accord a special administrative subdivision to its capital.[citation needed] Rather, Ottawa is merely another municipality in the Province of Ontario. The Canadian government does designate the Ottawa area as the National Capital Region, although this term merely represents the jurisdictional area of the government agency that administers federally owned lands and buildings, and is not an actual political unit. The City of Ottawa is governed as any other city in Ontario would be. During and immediately after the American Revolution, eight cities served in turn as the capital of the new country:[3]
The United States of America (disambiguation). The United States of America is a country located mainly in North America. The United States of America may also refer to:
Interferometry.  Interferometry is a technique which uses the interference of superimposed waves  to extract information.[1] Interferometry typically uses electromagnetic waves and is an important investigative technique in the fields of astronomy, fiber optics, engineering metrology, optical metrology, oceanography, seismology, spectroscopy (and its applications to chemistry), quantum mechanics, nuclear and particle physics, plasma physics, biomolecular interactions, surface profiling, microfluidics, mechanical stress/strain measurement, velocimetry, optometry, and making holograms.[2]: 1–2 Interferometers are devices that extract information from interference. They are widely used in science and industry for the measurement of microscopic displacements, refractive index changes and surface irregularities. In the case with most interferometers, light from a single source is split into two beams that travel in different optical paths, which are then combined again to produce interference; two incoherent sources can also be made to interfere under some circumstances.[3] The resulting interference fringes give information about the difference in optical path lengths. In analytical science, interferometers are used to measure lengths and the shape of optical components with nanometer precision; they are the highest-precision length measuring instruments in existence.  In Fourier transform spectroscopy they are used to analyze light containing features of absorption or emission associated with a substance or mixture. An astronomical interferometer consists of two or more separate telescopes that combine their signals, offering a resolution equivalent to that of a telescope of diameter equal to the largest separation between its individual elements. Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic of the original state of the waves. This works because when two waves with the same frequency combine, the resulting intensity pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two waves—waves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference. Waves which are not completely in phase nor completely out of phase will have an intermediate intensity pattern, which can be used to determine their relative phase difference. Most interferometers use light or some other form of electromagnetic wave.[2]: 3–12 Typically (see Fig. 1, the well-known Michelson configuration) a single incoming beam of coherent light will be split into two identical beams by a beam splitter (a partially reflecting mirror).  Each of these beams travels a different route, called a path, and they are recombined before arriving at a detector. The path difference, the difference in the distance traveled by each beam, creates a phase difference between them. It is this introduced phase difference that creates the interference pattern between the initially identical waves.[2]: 14–17  If a single beam has been split along two paths, then the phase difference is diagnostic of anything that changes the phase along the paths. This could be a physical change in the path length itself or a change in the refractive index along the path.[2]: 93–103
List of state and territorial capitols in the United States.  (Alabama to Missouri, Montana to Wyoming) A capitol, or seat of government, is the building or complex of buildings from which a government such as that of a U.S. state, the District of Columbia, or the organized territories of the United States, exercises its authority. Although most states (39 of the 50) use the term capitol, Indiana and Ohio use the term Statehouse, and eight states use State House: Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Vermont. Delaware has a Legislative Hall.  The state of Alabama has a State Capitol, but since 1985 its legislature has met in the State House. A capitol typically contains the meeting place for its states legislature and offices for the states governor, though this is not true for every state. The legislatures of Alabama, Nevada, and North Carolina meet in other nearby buildings, but their governors offices remain in the capitol. The Arizona State Capitol is now strictly a museum and both the legislature and the governors office are in nearby buildings. Only Arizona does not have its governors office in the state capitol, though in Delaware, Ohio, Michigan, Vermont, and Virginia,[1] the offices there are for ceremonial use only. In ten states, the states highest court also routinely meets in the capitol: Indiana, Kentucky, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma (both civil and criminal courts), Pennsylvania (one of three sites), South Dakota, West Virginia, Minnesota and Wisconsin. The other 40 states have separate buildings for their supreme courts, though in Michigan, and Utah the high court also has ceremonial meetings at the capitol.[clarification needed]
Hawaiian architecture.  Hawaiian architecture is a distinctive architectural style developed and employed primarily in the Hawaiian Islands. Though based on imported Western styles, unique Hawaiian traits make Hawaiian architecture stand alone against other styles.  Hawaiian architecture reflects the history of the islands from antiquity through the kingdom era, from its territorial years to statehood and beyond. The various styles through the history of Hawaiʻi are telling of the attitudes and the spirit of its people.  Hawaiian architecture is said to tell the story of how indigenous native Hawaiians and their complex society in ancient times slowly evolved with the infusion of new styles from beyond its borders, from the early European traders, the visiting whalers and fur trappers from Canada, the missions of the New Englanders and French Catholics, the communes of the Latter-day Saints from Utah, the plantation labourer cultures from Asia to the modern international metropolis that Honolulu is today. Within the body of Hawaiian architecture are various subsets of styles; each are considered typical of particular historical periods.  The earliest form of Hawaiian architecture originates from what is called ancient Hawaiʻi—designs employed in the construction of village shelters from the simple shacks of outcasts and slaves, huts for the fishermen and canoe builders along the beachfronts, the shelters of the working class makaʻainana, the elaborate and sacred heiau of kahuna and the palatial thatched homes on raised basalt foundation of the aliʻi.  The way a simple grass shack was constructed in ancient Hawaiʻi was telling of who lived in a particular home.  The patterns in which dried plants and lumber were fashioned together could identify caste, skill and trade, profession and wealth.  Hawaiian architecture previous to the arrival of British explorer Captain James Cook used symbolism to identify religious value of the inhabitants of certain structures.  Feather standards called kahili and koa adorned with kapa cloth and crossed at the entrance of certain homes called puloʻuloʻu indicated places of aliʻi (nobility caste). Kiʻi enclosed within basalt walls indicated the homes of kahuna (priestly caste). A hale (Hawaiian: [həˈleː])[1] is a structure built using natural Hawaiian materials and designs that were prevalent during the 19th century in Hawaii.[2] Hales are constructed using rock or wood for the lower frame and grass/leaves for roof thatching.[2] Building codes prohibit plumbing and electrical wiring. Fire sprinklers are required if the hale is near another structure.[2]
Boston Baptist College. Boston Baptist College is a private Baptist college in Boston, Massachusetts.[1] Boston Baptist was founded in 1976 by A.V. Henderson and John Rawlings of Baptist Bible Fellowship International as Baptist Bible Institute East at Shrub Oak, New York. In 1981, the school moved to its present location in Boston. In 2002, the name was changed from Baptist Bible College East to Boston Baptist College. Boston Baptist College offers a bachelors degree, an associate degree, and a certificate, all in Biblical Studies.[2] The library collection holds over 75,000 volumes.[3] The college is accredited by the Transnational Association of Christian Schools (TRACS),[4] a member of the Association of Independent Colleges and Universities in Massachusetts (AICUM), and approved by the Massachusetts Department of Higher Education. Boston Baptist Colleges five-acre campus rests in a quiet suburban residential neighborhood accessible to downtown Boston. The tree-lined campus includes separate housing for men and women, lecture halls, library, dining hall, a gym, Charles River Coffeehouse, and other amenities. Convocation ceremonies are traditionally held in Bostons historic Faneuil Hall. Student Government and the Director of Student Life organize activities for students, including community service projects, activities on-campus and off-campus, concerts, intramural sports, and trips into Boston and the surrounding areas. Students take advantage of a number of service opportunities for personal and community growth, such as prayer groups, small groups, or accountability groups, weekly student-led worship events, and book discussions, and also actively serve in a number of churches in the greater Boston area.
Boston College (England).  Boston College is a predominantly further education college in Boston in Lincolnshire, England. It is a Centre of Vocational Excellence (CoVE) for Early Years Care.[1] In 1957 construction was planned to start in 1959-60,[2] to cost £208,967.[3] By 1960 it was to cost £249,650, with furniture to cost £70,000.[4] In early April 1962 a contract for £255,368 was given to J.T. Barber & Sons of Boston.[5] It opened on Monday 14 September 1964, built by JT Barber & Sons of Boston.[6][7][8] It provided A-level courses for those not attending the towns two grammar schools.
Boston College High School.  Boston College High School (also known as BC High) is an all-male, Jesuit, Catholic college-preparatory day school in the Columbia Point neighborhood of Dorchester, Boston, Massachusetts. It educates approximately 1,400 students in grades 7–12. Founded in 1863 as a constituent part of Boston College, the school separated from the college in 1927. In 1863, Jesuit priest John McElroy founded Boston College as a seven-year educational institution combining high school and college.[4] The school administration believed that a seven-year course of study would ensure moral influence and a uniform and homogeneous course of teaching and of training.[5] The high school and college shared a campus in Bostons South End until 1910 (when the college moved to Chestnut Hill), and legally separated in 1927.[4][6] Following the split, BC High initially remained in the South End, but moved to its current Dorchester campus in 1950.[7] During their years as a merged institution, BC High was much larger than the college. In 1913, it enrolled 1,300 students to the colleges 300.[8] In 1922, BC High enrolled 1,500 boys, making it the nations largest Catholic high school and by far the nations largest Catholic boys school (the next largest, in Philadelphia, educated 859).[9] Students who graduated from BC High in good standing were automatically admitted to Boston College without examination.[10] Today, only a minority of BC High students (102 out of 1445 graduates between 2017 and 2021) attend Boston College.[11] Although BC High and Boston College are now separate institutions, the two schools athletic programs share the Eagle mascot, and graduates of BC High and BC are known as Double Eagles.[8] (Graduates of BC High, BC, and BCs graduate schools (traditionally the law school) are called Triple Eagles.[8][12])
Mars sol.  Sol (borrowed from the Latin word for sun) is a solar day on Mars; that is, a Mars-day. A sol is the apparent interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the same meridian (sundial time) as seen by an observer on Mars. It is one of several units for timekeeping on Mars. A sol is slightly longer than an Earth day. It is approximately 24 hours, 39 minutes, 35 seconds long. A Martian year is approximately 668.6 sols, equivalent to approximately 687 Earth days[1] or 1.88 Earth years. The sol was adopted in 1976 during the Viking Lander missions and is a measure of time mainly used by NASA when, for example, scheduling the use of a Mars rover.[2][3] The average duration of the day-night cycle on Mars—i.e., a Martian day—is 24 hours, 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds,[3] equivalent to 1.02749125 Earth days.[4] The sidereal rotational period of Mars—its rotation compared to the fixed stars—is 24 hours, 37 minutes and 22.66 seconds.[4] The solar day lasts longer because Marss rotation is the same direction as its orbital motion.[5]
Urban College of Boston.  Urban College of Boston is a private community college in Boston, Massachusetts.[1] The college offers Associate of Arts degrees and certificate programs in 11 other areas. In 1967 Action for Boston Community Development (ABCD) started the Urban College Program to meet the educational, employment and career development needs for adults, in collaboration with major Boston area colleges and universities. The school enabled students to earn academic credits toward undergraduate and graduate school degrees while acquiring job-related skills. In 1993, the Higher Education Coordinating Council of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts chartered the Urban College of Boston as a private institution authorized to grant Associate of Arts degrees in three areas of study: Early Childhood Education, Human Services Administration and General Studies.[2] In January 1994, UCB enrolled its first degree candidates, both men and women.
Hawaiian architecture.  Hawaiian architecture is a distinctive architectural style developed and employed primarily in the Hawaiian Islands. Though based on imported Western styles, unique Hawaiian traits make Hawaiian architecture stand alone against other styles.  Hawaiian architecture reflects the history of the islands from antiquity through the kingdom era, from its territorial years to statehood and beyond. The various styles through the history of Hawaiʻi are telling of the attitudes and the spirit of its people.  Hawaiian architecture is said to tell the story of how indigenous native Hawaiians and their complex society in ancient times slowly evolved with the infusion of new styles from beyond its borders, from the early European traders, the visiting whalers and fur trappers from Canada, the missions of the New Englanders and French Catholics, the communes of the Latter-day Saints from Utah, the plantation labourer cultures from Asia to the modern international metropolis that Honolulu is today. Within the body of Hawaiian architecture are various subsets of styles; each are considered typical of particular historical periods.  The earliest form of Hawaiian architecture originates from what is called ancient Hawaiʻi—designs employed in the construction of village shelters from the simple shacks of outcasts and slaves, huts for the fishermen and canoe builders along the beachfronts, the shelters of the working class makaʻainana, the elaborate and sacred heiau of kahuna and the palatial thatched homes on raised basalt foundation of the aliʻi.  The way a simple grass shack was constructed in ancient Hawaiʻi was telling of who lived in a particular home.  The patterns in which dried plants and lumber were fashioned together could identify caste, skill and trade, profession and wealth.  Hawaiian architecture previous to the arrival of British explorer Captain James Cook used symbolism to identify religious value of the inhabitants of certain structures.  Feather standards called kahili and koa adorned with kapa cloth and crossed at the entrance of certain homes called puloʻuloʻu indicated places of aliʻi (nobility caste). Kiʻi enclosed within basalt walls indicated the homes of kahuna (priestly caste). A hale (Hawaiian: [həˈleː])[1] is a structure built using natural Hawaiian materials and designs that were prevalent during the 19th century in Hawaii.[2] Hales are constructed using rock or wood for the lower frame and grass/leaves for roof thatching.[2] Building codes prohibit plumbing and electrical wiring. Fire sprinklers are required if the hale is near another structure.[2]
Mars rover. A Mars rover is a remote-controlled motor vehicle designed to travel on the surface of Mars. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control. They serve a different purpose than orbital spacecraft like Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. A more recent development is the Mars helicopter. As of May 2021[update], there have been six successful robotically operated Mars rovers; the first five, managed by the American NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, were (by date of Mars landing): Sojourner (1997), Spirit (2004–2010), Opportunity (2004–2018), Curiosity (2012–present), and Perseverance (2021–present). The sixth, managed by the China National Space Administration, is Zhurong (2021–2022). On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that then current studies on Mars by Opportunity  and Curiosity would be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.[1][2][3][4][5] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[1][6] The Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity were on their own. As of 27 April 2025, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact. On February 18, 2021, Perseverance, the newest American Mars rover, successfully landed.  On May 14, 2021, Chinas Zhurong became the first non-American rover to successfully operate on Mars. Multiple rovers have been dispatched to Mars:
Kinematics. In physics, kinematics studies the geometrical aspects of motion of physical objects independent of forces that set them in motion. Constrained motion such as linked machine parts are also described as kinematics. Kinematics is concerned with systems of specification of objects positions and velocities and mathematical transformations between such systems. These systems may be rectangular like Cartesian, Curvilinear coordinates like polar coordinates or other systems. The object trajectories may be specified with respect to other objects which may themselves be in motion relative to a standard reference. Rotating systems may also be used. Numerous practical problems in kinematics involve constraints, such as mechanical linkages, ropes, or rolling disks. Kinematics is a subfield of physics and mathematics, developed in classical mechanics, that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the forces that cause them to move.[1][2][3]  Kinematics differs from dynamics (also known as kinetics) which studies the effect of forces on bodies. Kinematics, as a field of study, is often referred to as the geometry of motion and is occasionally seen as a branch of both applied and pure mathematics since it can be studied without considering the mass of a body or the forces acting upon it.[4][5][6] A kinematics problem begins by describing the geometry of the system and declaring the initial conditions of any known values of position, velocity and/or acceleration of points within the system. Then, using arguments from geometry, the position, velocity and acceleration of any unknown parts of the system can be determined. In his work Space and its Nature, the scholar Ibn al-Haytham is credited with being the first to treat geometry and kinematics as a unified concept. To quantify the properties of space, he compared the dimensions of a body when it was in motion versus when it was at rest.[7]
Boston Architectural College.  The Boston Architectural College (BAC) is a private college in Boston. It is New Englands largest private college of spatial design. The colleges main building is at 320 Newbury Street in Bostons Back Bay neighborhood. Boston Architectural Club was established on December 11, 1889. The certificate of incorporation explains that the club was formed for the purpose of associating those interested in the profession of architecture with a view to mutual encouragement and help in studies, and acquiring and maintaining suitable premises, property, etc., necessary to a social club... and...for public lectures, exhibitions, classes, and entertainment. Members of the Club provided evening instruction for drafters employed in their offices. From this interchange, an informal atelier developed in the tradition of Frances École des Beaux-Arts. The Club held annual public exhibitions and  published illustrated catalogs. Bertrand E. Taylor was a charter member. The BAC began its formal educational program under the joint leadership of Herbert Langford Warren and Clarence Blackall. The school was organized to offer an evening education in drawing, design, history, and structures. Like its informal predecessor, the BAC soon developed into an atelier affiliated with the Society of the École des Beaux-Arts in New York. The BACs design curriculum, teaching methods, and philosophy closely resembled those of the École des Beaux-Arts. In 1911, the club acquired a building at 16 Somerset Street on Beacon Hill. The BAC building contained a two-story Great Hall – designed by Ralph Adams Cram – as well as other spaces used for lectures, meetings and exhibitions, a library, and several studios. The newer facilities attracted more students, and the course of instruction became increasingly defined and formal.
Star.  A star is a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by self-gravity.[1] The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye at night; their immense distances from Earth make them appear as fixed points of light. The most prominent stars have been categorised into constellations and asterisms, and many of the brightest stars have proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. The observable universe contains an estimated 1022 to 1024 stars. Only about 4,000 of these stars are visible to the naked eye—all within the Milky Way galaxy.[2] A stars life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material largely comprising hydrogen, helium, and traces of heavier elements. Its total mass mainly determines its evolution and eventual fate. A star shines for most of its active life due to the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core. This process releases energy that traverses the stars interior and radiates into outer space. At the end of a stars lifetime, fusion ceases and its core becomes a stellar remnant: a white dwarf, a neutron star, or—if it is sufficiently massive—a black hole. Stellar nucleosynthesis in stars or their remnants creates almost all naturally occurring chemical elements heavier than lithium. Stellar mass loss or supernova explosions return chemically enriched material to the interstellar medium. These elements are then recycled into new stars. Astronomers can determine stellar properties—including mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition), variability, distance, and motion through space—by carrying out observations of a stars apparent brightness, spectrum, and changes in its position in the sky over time. Stars can form orbital systems with other astronomical objects, as in planetary systems and star systems with two or more stars. When two such stars orbit closely, their gravitational interaction can significantly impact their evolution. Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, such as a star cluster or a galaxy.
ISRO.  The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO /ˈɪsroʊ/)[a] is Indias national space agency, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister of India, with the Chairman of ISRO also serving as the chief executive of the DoS. It is primarily responsible for space-based operations, space exploration, international space cooperation and the development of related technologies.[3] The agency maintains a constellation of imaging, communications and remote sensing satellites. It operates the GAGAN and IRNSS satellite navigation systems. It has sent three missions to the Moon and one mission to Mars. Formerly, ISRO was known as the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), which was set up in 1962 by then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the recommendation of scientist Vikram Sarabhai. It was renamed as ISRO in 1969 and was subsumed into the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).[4] The establishment of ISRO institutionalised space research activities in India.[5][6] In 1972, the Government set up a Space Commission and the DoS bringing ISRO under its purview. It has since then been managed by the DoS, which also governs various other institutions in the domain of astronomy and space technology.[7] ISRO built Indias first satellite Aryabhata which was launched by the Soviet space agency Interkosmos in 1975.[8] In 1980, it launched the satellite RS-1 on board the indigenously built launch vehicle SLV-3, making India the seventh country to undertake orbital launches. It has subsequently developed various small-lift and medium-lift launch vehicles, enabling the agency to launch various satellites and deep space missions. It is one of the six government space agencies in the world that possess full launch capabilities with the ability to deploy cryogenic engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and artificial satellites.[9][10][b] It is also the only one of the four governmental space agencies to have demonstrated unmanned soft landing capabilities.[11][c] ISROs programmes have played a significant role in socio-economic development. It has supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects such as disaster management, telemedicine, navigation and reconnaissance. ISROs spin-off technologies have also aided in new innovations in engineering and other allied domains.[12]
Timeline of Mars 2020.  The Mars 2020 mission, consisting of the rover Perseverance and helicopter Ingenuity, was launched on July 30, 2020, and landed in Jezero crater on Mars on February 18, 2021.[1] As of September 13, 2025, Perseverance has been on the planet for 1624 sols (1668 total days; 4 years, 207 days). Ingenuity operated for 1042 sols (1071 total days; 1 year, 341 days) until its rotor blades, possibly all four, were damaged during the landing of flight 72 on January 18, 2024, causing NASA to retire the craft.[2][3] Current weather data on Mars is being monitored by the Curiosity rover and had previously been monitored by the Insight lander.[4][5] The Perseverance rover is also collecting weather data. (See the External links section) The Mars 2020 mission was announced by NASA on December 4, 2012. In 2017 the three sites (Jezero crater, Northeastern Syrtis Major Planum, and Columbia Hills) were chosen as potential landing locations, with Jezero crater selected as the landing location, and launched on July 30th, 2020, from Cape Canaveral. After arriving on February 18, Perseverance focused on validating its systems. During this phase, it used its science instruments for the first time,[6] generated oxygen on Mars with MOXIE,[7] and deployed Ingenuity. Ingenuity began the technology demonstration phase of its mission, completing five flights before transitioning to the operations demonstration phase of its mission.
Watt.  The watt (symbol: W) is the unit of power or radiant flux in the International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule per second or 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3.[1][2][3] It is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. The watt is named in honor of James Watt (1736–1819), an 18th-century Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved the Newcomen engine with his own steam engine in 1776, which became fundamental for the Industrial Revolution. When an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against a constant opposing force of one newton, the rate at which work is done is one watt.      1   W = 1   J   /   s = 1   N  ⋅  m   /   s = 1   k g  ⋅   m  2    ⋅   s  − 3    .   {\displaystyle \mathrm {1~W=1~J{/}s=1~N{\cdot }m{/}s=1~kg{\cdot }m^{2}{\cdot }s^{-3}} .} In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at which electrical work is performed when a current of one ampere (A) flows across an electrical potential difference of one volt (V), meaning the watt is equivalent to the volt-ampere (the latter unit, however, is used for a different quantity from the real power of an electrical circuit).      1   W = 1   V  ⋅  A  .   {\displaystyle \mathrm {1~W=1~V{\cdot }A} .} Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the above equation and Ohms law.      1   W = 1    V  2    /  Ω = 1    A  2    ⋅  Ω  ,   {\displaystyle \mathrm {1~W=1~V^{2}/\Omega =1~A^{2}{\cdot }\Omega } ,}   where ohm (    Ω   {\displaystyle \Omega }  ) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance.
Honolulu.  Honolulu (/ˌhɒnəˈluːluː/ ⓘ HON-ə-LOO-loo;[8] Hawaiian: [honoˈlulu]) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, located in the Pacific Ocean. It is the county seat of the consolidated City and County of Honolulu, situated along the southeast coast of the island of Oʻahu. The population of Honolulu was 350,964 at the 2020 census,[a] while the Urban Honolulu metropolitan area has an estimated 1 million residents and is the 56th-largest metropolitan area in the nation.[5] Honolulu is Hawaiian for sheltered harbor[10] or calm port;[11] its old name, Kou, roughly encompasses the area from Nuʻuanu Avenue to Alakea Street and from Hotel Street to Queen Street, which is the heart of the present downtown district.[12] The citys desirability as a port accounts for its historical growth and importance in the Hawaiian archipelago and the broader Pacific region. Honolulu has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, firstly of the independent Hawaiian Kingdom, and since 1898 of the U.S. territory and state of Hawaii. The city gained worldwide recognition following the Empire of Japans attack on nearby Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which prompted the entry of the U.S. into World War II; the harbor remains a major U.S. Navy base, hosting the United States Pacific Fleet, the worlds largest naval command.[13] Honolulu is the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city as well as the westernmost and southernmost U.S. state capital. It is a major hub for business, finance, hospitality, and military defense in both the state and Oceania.[14][15] The city is characterized by a mix of various Asian, Western, and Pacific cultures, reflected in its diverse demography, cuisine, and traditions. Honolulus favorable tropical climate, rich natural scenery, and extensive beaches make it a popular global destination for tourists. With nearly 1.5 million visitors in 2024, Honolulu is among the ten most visited cities in the United States.[16] Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century.[17][unreliable source?] After Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikiki in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu. The capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812.
Solar panel.  A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using multiple solar modules that consist of photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce excited electrons when exposed to light. These electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels can be known as solar cell panels, or solar electric panels.[1][2] Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called arrays or systems. A photovoltaic system consists of one or more solar panels, an inverter that converts DC electricity to alternating current (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as controllers, meters, and trackers. Most panels are in solar farms or rooftop solar panels which supply the electricity grid. Some advantages of solar panels are that they use a renewable and clean source of energy, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and lower electricity bills. Some disadvantages are that they depend on the availability and intensity of sunlight, require cleaning, and have high initial costs. Solar panels are widely used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes, as well as in space, often together with batteries. In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first observed by the French physicist Edmond Becquerel.[3] Though these initial solar cells were too inefficient for even simple electric devices, they were used as an instrument to measure light.[4] The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when the English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published The action of light on selenium in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smiths results.[3][5]
Self-portrait. Self-portraits are portraits artists make of themselves. Although self-portraits have been made since the earliest times, it is not until the mid-15th century that artists can be frequently identified depicting themselves, as either the main subject or important characters in their work. With better and cheaper mirrors, and the advent of the panel portrait, many painters, sculptors and printmakers tried some form of self-portraiture. Portrait of a Man in a Turban by Jan van Eyck of 1433 may well be the earliest known panel self-portrait.[2] He painted a separate portrait of his wife, and he belonged to the social group that had begun to commission portraits, already more common among wealthy Netherlanders than south of the Alps. The genre is venerable, but not until the Renaissance, with increased wealth and interest in the individual as a subject, did it become truly popular.[3] By the Baroque period, most artists with an established reputation at least left drawings of themselves. Printed portraits of artists had a market, and many were self-portraits. They were also sometimes given as gifts to family and friends. If nothing else, they avoided the need to arrange for a model, and for the many professional portrait-painters, a self-portrait kept in the studio acted as a demonstration of the artists skill for potential new clients. The unprecedented number of self-portraits by Rembrandt, both as paintings and prints, made clear the potential of the form, and must have further encouraged the trend. A self-portrait may be a portrait of the artist, or a portrait included in a larger work, including a group portrait.  Many painters are said to have included depictions of specific individuals, including themselves, in painting figures in religious or other types of composition. Such paintings were not intended publicly to depict the actual persons as themselves, but the facts would have been known at the time to artist and patron, creating a talking point as well as a public test of the artists skill.[4] In the earliest surviving examples of medieval and Renaissance self-portraiture, historical or mythical scenes (from the Bible or classical literature) were depicted using a number of actual persons as models, often including the artist, giving the work a multiple function as portraiture, self-portraiture and history/myth painting. In these works, the artist usually appears as a face in the crowd or group, often towards the edges or corner of the work and behind the main participants. Rubenss The Four Philosophers (1611–12)[6] is a good example. This culminated in the 17th century with the work of Jan de Bray. Many artistic media have been used; apart from paintings, drawings and prints have been especially important. In the famous Arnolfini Portrait (1434), Jan van Eyck is probably one of two figures glimpsed in a mirror – a surprisingly modern conceit. The Van Eyck painting may have inspired Diego Velázquez to depict himself in full view as the painter creating Las Meninas (1656), as the Van Eyck hung in the palace in Madrid where he worked. This was another modern flourish, given that he appears as the painter (previously unseen in official royal portraiture) and standing close to the Kings family group who were the supposed main subjects of the painting.[7]
Motto.  A motto (derived from the Latin muttum, mutter, by way of Italian motto, word or sentence)[1][2][3][4] is a sentence or phrase expressing a belief or purpose,[1] or the general motivation or intention of an individual, family, social group, or organization.[2][4] Mottos (or mottoes)[1] are usually found predominantly in written form (unlike slogans, which may also be expressed orally), and may stem from long traditions of social foundations, or from significant events, such as a civil war or a revolution. Ones motto may be in any language, but Latin has been widely used, especially in the Western world. Latin has been very common for mottos in the Western World, but for nation states, their official national language is generally chosen. Examples of using other historical languages in motto language include: A canting motto is one that contains word play.[10] For example, the motto of the Earl of Onslow is Festina lente (literally make haste slowly), punningly interpreting on slow.[11] Similarly, the motto of the Burgh of Tayport, Te oportet alte ferri (It is incumbent on you to carry yourself high), is a cant on Tayport at auld Tay Ferry, also alluding to the local lighthouse.[12] The motto of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity, is a backronym of the letters F.B.I. In heraldry, a motto is often found below the shield in a banderole in the compartment. This placement stems from the Middle Ages, in which the vast majority of nobles possessed a coat of arms complete with a motto. In the case of Scottish heraldry, it is mandated to appear above the crest[13] and is called slogan (see: Slogan (heraldry)). The word slogan is an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm (sluagh army, host + gairm cry).[14] There are several notable slogans which are thought to originate from a battle or war cries. In heraldic literature, the terms rallying cry respectively battle banner are also common.[citation needed] Spanish coats of arms may display a motto in the bordure of the shield.[15]
Peter Cook (architect).  Sir Peter Cook RA (born 22 October 1936) is an English architect, lecturer and writer on architectural subjects. He was a founder of Archigram,[1] and was knighted in 2007 by Elizabeth II for his services to architecture and teaching. He is also a Royal Academician and a Commandeur de lOrdre des Arts et des Lettres of the French Republic. His achievements with Archigram were recognised by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004, when the group was awarded the Royal Gold Medal. Cook was born in Southend-on-Sea, Essex and studied architecture at Bournemouth College of Art from 1953–58. He then entered the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London, graduating in 1960.[2] Cook was a director of Londons Institute of Contemporary Arts (1970–1972), chair of architecture at The Bartlett School of Architecture at University College London (1990–2006), and has been director of Art Net in London and curator of the British Pavilion at the Venice Architecture Biennale. He continues to curate, organise and exhibit around the world: in Seoul, LA, Cyprus, the Centre Georges Pompidou, Design Museum, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art,[3] as well as in castles, sheds and garages. He is a Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London. Cooks professorships include those of the Royal Academy, University College London and the Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste (Städelschule) in Frankfurt-Main, Germany.
List of Classical Greek phrases.  A hoplite could not escape the field of battle unless he tossed away the heavy and cumbersome shield. Therefore, losing ones shield meant desertion. (Plutarch, Moralia, 241) ψυχῆς ἰατρεῖον
Nanjing International Youth Cultural Centre. Nanjing International Youth Cultural Center (Chinese: 南京国际青年文化中心) are two skyscrapers in Nanjing, Jiangsu, China designed by Zaha Hadid Architects. Tower 1 is 314.5 meters (1,032 ft) tall and Tower 2 is 255 meters (837 ft). Construction began in 2012 and ended in 2015.[1][2][3] 31°59′30″N 118°42′29″E / 31.9916°N 118.7081°E / 31.9916; 118.7081 This article about a building or structure in China is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Cedric Price.  Cedric Price FRIBA (11 September 1934 – 10 August 2003) was an English architect and influential teacher and writer on architecture. The son of the architect A.G. Price, who worked with Harry Weedon,[1] Price was born in Stone, Staffordshire. He studied architecture at St Johns College, Cambridge, graduating in 1955, and the Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA) in London, where he encountered and was influenced by the modernist architect and urban planner Arthur Korn.[2] From 1958 to 1964 he taught part-time at the AA and at the Council of Industrial Design. He later founded Polyark, an architectural schools network. After graduating, Price worked briefly for Erno Goldfinger, Denys Lasdun, the partnership of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, and applied unsuccessfully for a post at London County Council, working briefly as a professional illustrator before starting his own practice in 1960.[1] He worked with The Earl of Snowdon and Frank Newby on the design of the Snowdon Aviary at London Zoo (1961).[3] He later also worked with Buckminster Fuller on the Claverton Dome. One of his more notable projects was the East London Fun Palace (1961),[4] developed in association with theatrical director Joan Littlewood and cybernetician Gordon Pask.[5] Although it was never built, its flexible space influenced other architects, notably Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano whose Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris extended many of Prices ideas – some of which Price used on a more modest scale in the Inter-Action Centre at Kentish Town, London (1971).[2]
Ingenuity (helicopter).  Data from NASA Mars Helicopter Flight Log Ingenuity, nicknamed Ginny, is an autonomous NASA helicopter that operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024 as part of the Mars 2020 mission. Ingenuity made its first flight on 19 April 2021, demonstrating that flight is possible in the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars, and becoming the first aircraft to conduct a powered and controlled extra-terrestrial flight.[a] It was designed by NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in collaboration with AeroVironment, NASAs Ames Research Center and Langley Research Center with some components supplied by Lockheed Martin Space, Qualcomm, and SolAero. Ingenuity was delivered to Mars on 18 February 2021, attached to the underside of the Perseverance rover, which landed at Octavia E. Butler Landing near the western rim of the 45 km-wide (28 mi) Jezero crater. Because radio signals take several minutes to travel between Earth and Mars, it could not be manually controlled in real time, and instead autonomously flew flight plans sent to it by JPL. Originally intended to make only five flights, Ingenuity completed 72 flights in nearly three years. The five planned flights were part of a 30-sol technology demonstration intended to prove its airworthiness with flights of up to 90 seconds at altitudes ranging from 3–5 m (10–16 ft). Following this demonstration, JPL designed a series of operational flights to explore how aerial scouts could help explore Mars and other worlds. In this operational role, Ingenuity scouted areas of interest for the Perseverance rover, improved navigational techniques, and explored the limits of its flight envelope. Ingenuitys performance and resilience in the harsh Martian environment greatly exceeded expectations, allowing it to perform far more flights than were initially planned. On 18 January 2024, the rotor blades were broken during landing on flight 72, permanently grounding the helicopter. NASA announced the end of the mission one week later. Engineers concluded that Ingenuitys navigation system was not effective over the featureless terrain on the final flight,  resulting in a crash landing. Ingenuity had flown for a total of two hours, eight minutes and 48 seconds over 1,004 days, covering more than 17 kilometres (11 mi).
Washington, D.C..  Washington, D.C., officially the District of Columbia and commonly known as simply Washington or D.C., is the capital city and federal district[a] of the United States. The city is on the Potomac River, across from Virginia, and shares land borders with Maryland to its north and east. It was named after George Washington, the first president of the United States. The district is named for Columbia, the female personification of the nation. The U.S. Constitution in 1789 called for the creation of a federal district under exclusive jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress. As such, Washington, D.C., is not part of any state, and is not one itself. The Residence Act, adopted on July 16, 1790, approved the creation of the capital district along the Potomac River. The city was founded in 1791, and the 6th Congress held the first session in the unfinished Capitol Building in 1800 after the capital moved from Philadelphia. In 1801, the District of Columbia, formerly part of Maryland and Virginia and including the existing settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria, was officially recognized as the federal district; initially, the city was a separate settlement within the larger district. In 1846, Congress reduced the size of the district when it returned the land originally ceded by Virginia, including the city of Alexandria. In 1871, it created a single municipality for the district. There have been several unsuccessful efforts to make the district into a state since the 1880s, including a statehood bill that passed the House of Representatives in 2021 but was not adopted by the U.S. Senate. Designed in 1791 by Pierre Charles LEnfant, the city is divided into quadrants, which are centered on the Capitol Building and include 131 neighborhoods. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 689,545.[3] Commuters from the citys Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the citys daytime population to more than one million during the workweek.[12] The Washington metropolitan area, which includes parts of Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia, is the countrys seventh-largest metropolitan area, with a 2023 population of 6.3 million residents.[6] A locally elected mayor and 13-member council have governed the district since 1973, though Congress retains the power to overturn local laws. Washington, D.C., residents do not have voting representation in Congress, but elect a single non-voting congressional delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives. The citys voters choose three presidential electors in accordance with the Twenty-third Amendment, passed in 1961. Washington, D.C., anchors the southern end of the Northeast megalopolis. As the seat of the U.S. federal government, the city is an important world political capital.[13] The city hosts buildings that house federal government headquarters, including the White House, U.S. Capitol, Supreme Court Building, and multiple federal departments and agencies. The city is home to many national monuments and museums, located most prominently on or around the National Mall, including the Jefferson Memorial, Lincoln Memorial, and Washington Monument. It hosts 177 foreign embassies and the global headquarters of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, and other international organizations. Home to many of the nations largest industry associations, non-profit organizations, and think tanks, the city is known as a lobbying hub, which is centered on and around K Street.[14] It is also among the countrys top tourist destinations; in 2022, it drew an estimated 20.7 million domestic[15] and 1.2 million international visitors, seventh-most among U.S. cities.[16]
Wikisource. Wikisource is an online wiki-based digital library of free-content textual sources operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole; it is also the name for each instance of that project, one for each language. The projects aim is to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, it has expanded to become a general-content library. The project officially began on November 24, 2003, under the name Project Sourceberg, a play on Project Gutenberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name. The project holds works that are either in the public domain or freely licensed: professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of other digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, which ensures the reliability and accuracy of the projects texts. Some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, from comics to film to audiobooks. Some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. The project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration.[3] As of September 2025, there are Wikisource subdomains active for 81 languages[1] comprising a total of 6,579,952 articles and 2,988 recently active editors.[4] The original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing primary evidence and original source texts, and as an archive in its own right. The collection was initially focused on important historical and cultural material, distinguishing it from other digital archives like Project Gutenberg.[2]
Perseverance (rover).  Perseverance[2] is a car-sized Mars rover designed to explore the Jezero crater on Mars as part of NASAs Mars 2020 mission. It was manufactured by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and launched on July 30, 2020, at 11:50 UTC.[3] Confirmation that the rover successfully landed on Mars was received on February 18, 2021, at 20:55 UTC.[4][5] As of 13 September 2025, Perseverance has been active on Mars for 1623 sols (1,668 Earth days, or 4 years, 6 months and 26 days) since its landing. Following the rovers arrival, NASA named the landing site Octavia E. Butler Landing.[6][7] Perseverance has a similar design to its predecessor rover, Curiosity, although it was moderately upgraded. It carries seven primary payload instruments, nineteen cameras, and two microphones.[8] The rover also carried the mini-helicopter Ingenuity to Mars, an experimental technology testbed that made the first powered aircraft flight on another planet on April 19, 2021.[9] On January 18, 2024 (UTC), it made its 72nd and final flight, suffering damage on landing to its rotor blades, possibly all four, causing NASA to retire it.[10][11] The rovers goals include identifying ancient Martian environments capable of supporting life, seeking out evidence of former microbial life existing in those environments, collecting rock and soil samples to store on the Martian surface, and testing oxygen production from the Martian atmosphere to prepare for future crewed missions.[12]
Geomatics. Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information.[1] Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data.[2] Surveying engineering was the widely used name for geomatic(s) engineering in the past. Geomatics was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography.[3][4] The term was proposed in French (géomatique) at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist.[5] The term was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum dated 1 June 1971 instituting a standing committee of geomatics in the government.[6] The term was popularised in English by French-Canadian surveyor Michel Paradis in his The little Geodesist that could article, in 1981 and in a keynote address at the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982. He claimed that at the end of the 20th century the needs for geographical information would reach a scope without precedent in history and that, in order to address these needs, it was necessary to integrate in a new discipline both the traditional disciplines of land surveying and the new tools and techniques of data capture, manipulation, storage and diffusion.[7] Geomatics includes the tools and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, cartography, geographic information systems (GIS), global navigation satellite systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou), photogrammetry, geophysics, geography, and related forms of earth mapping. The term was originally used in Canada but has since been adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, and many other international authorities, although some (especially in the United States) have shown a preference for the term geospatial technology,[8] which may be defined as synonym of geospatial information and communications technology.[9] Although many definitions of geomatics, such as the above, appear to encompass the entire discipline relating to geographic information – including geodesy, geographic information systems, remote sensing, satellite navigation, and cartography –, the term is almost exclusively restricted to the perspective of surveying and engineering toward geographic information.[citation needed] Geoinformatics and Geographic information science has been proposed as alternative comprehensive term; however, their popularity is, like geomatics, largely dependent on country.[10]
Spatial reference system. A spatial reference system (SRS) or coordinate reference system (CRS) is a framework used to precisely measure locations on the surface of Earth as coordinates. It is thus the application of the abstract mathematics of coordinate systems and analytic geometry to geographic space. A particular SRS specification (for example, Universal Transverse Mercator WGS 84 Zone 16N) comprises a choice of Earth ellipsoid, horizontal datum, map projection (except in the geographic coordinate system), origin point, and unit of measure. Thousands of coordinate systems have been specified for use around the world or in specific regions and for various purposes, necessitating transformations between different SRS. Although they date to the Hellenistic period, spatial reference systems are now a crucial basis for the sciences and technologies of Geoinformatics, including cartography, geographic information systems, surveying, remote sensing, and civil engineering. This has led to their standardization in international specifications such as the EPSG codes[1] and ISO 19111:2019 Geographic information—Spatial referencing by coordinates, prepared by ISO/TC 211, also published by the Open Geospatial Consortium as Abstract Specification, Topic 2: Spatial referencing by coordinate.[2]  The thousands of spatial reference systems used today are based on a few general strategies, which have been defined in the EPSG, ISO, and OGC standards:[1][2] These standards acknowledge that standard reference systems also exist for time (e.g. ISO 8601). These may be combined with a spatial reference system to form a compound coordinate system for representing three-dimensional and/or spatio-temporal locations. There are also internal systems for measuring location within the context of an object, such as the rows and columns of pixels in a raster image, Linear referencing measurements along linear features (e.g., highway mileposts), and systems for specifying location within moving objects such as ships. The latter two are often classified as subcategories of engineering coordinate systems.
Geodynamics. Geodynamics is a subfield of geophysics dealing with dynamics of the Earth. It applies physics, chemistry and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection leads to plate tectonics and geologic phenomena such as seafloor spreading, mountain building, volcanoes, earthquakes, or faulting. It also attempts to probe the internal activity  by measuring magnetic fields, gravity, and seismic waves, as well as the mineralogy of rocks and their isotopic composition. Methods of geodynamics are also applied to exploration of other planets.[1] Geodynamics is generally concerned with processes that move materials throughout the Earth. In the Earths interior, movement happens when rocks melt or deform and flow in response to a stress field.[2]  This deformation may be brittle, elastic, or plastic, depending on the magnitude of the stress and the materials physical properties, especially the stress relaxation time scale. Rocks are structurally and compositionally heterogeneous and are subjected to variable stresses, so it is common to see different types of deformation in close spatial and temporal proximity.[3] When working with geological timescales and lengths, it is convenient to use the continuous medium approximation and equilibrium stress fields to consider the average response to average stress.[4] Experts in geodynamics commonly use data from geodetic GPS, InSAR, and seismology, along with numerical models, to study the evolution of the Earths lithosphere, mantle and core. Work performed by geodynamicists may include: Rocks and other geological materials experience strain according to three distinct modes, elastic, plastic, and brittle depending on the properties of the material and the magnitude of the stress field. Stress is defined as the average force per unit area exerted on each part of the rock. Pressure is the part of stress that changes the volume of a solid; shear stress changes the shape. If there is no shear, the fluid is in hydrostatic equilibrium. Since, over long periods, rocks readily deform under pressure, the Earth is in hydrostatic equilibrium to a good approximation. The pressure on rock depends only on the weight of the rock above, and this depends on gravity and the density of the rock. In a body like the Moon, the density is almost constant, so a pressure profile is readily calculated. In the Earth, the compression of rocks with depth is significant, and an equation of state is needed to calculate changes in density of rock even when it is of uniform composition.[5]
Azalea. Azaleas (/əˈzeɪliə/ ə-ZAY-lee-ə) are flowering  shrubs in the genus Rhododendron, particularly the former  sections Tsutsusi (evergreen) and Pentanthera (deciduous). Azaleas bloom in the spring (April and May in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, and October and November in the Southern Hemisphere),[1] their flowers often lasting several weeks. Shade tolerant, they prefer living near or under trees. They are part of the family Ericaceae. Plant enthusiasts have selectively bred azaleas for hundreds of years. This human selection has produced thousands of different cultivars which are propagated by cuttings.[2] Azalea seeds can also be collected and germinated. Azaleas are generally slow-growing and do best in well-drained acidic soil (4.5–6.0 pH).[3] Fertilizer needs are low. Some species need regular pruning. Azaleas are native to several continents including Asia, Europe and North America.[4] They are planted abundantly as ornamentals in the southeastern US, southern Asia, and parts of southwest Europe.[citation needed] According to azalea historian Fred Galle, in the United States, Azalea indica (in this case, the group of plants called Southern indicas) was first introduced to the outdoor landscape in the 1830s at the rice plantation Magnolia-on-the-Ashley in Charleston, South Carolina. From Philadelphia, where they were grown only in greenhouses, John Grimke Drayton (Magnolias owner) imported the plants for use in his estate garden. With encouragement from Charles Sprague Sargent from Harvards Arnold Arboretum, Magnolia Plantation and Gardens was opened to the public in 1871[5], following the American Civil War. Magnolia is one of the oldest public gardens in America[6]. Since the late 19th century, in late March and early April, thousands visit to see the azaleas bloom in their full glory.[citation needed]
Richard Rogers.  Richard George Rogers, Baron Rogers of Riverside (23 July 1933 – 18 December 2021) was a British-Italian architect noted for his modernist and constructivist designs in high-tech architecture. He was the founder at Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, previously known as the Richard Rogers Partnership, until June 2020. After Rogers retirement and death, the firm rebranded to simply RSHP on 30 June 2022. Rogers was perhaps best known for his work on the Pompidou Centre in Paris, the Lloyds building and Millennium Dome, both in London, the Senedd building, in Cardiff, and the European Court of Human Rights building, in Strasbourg. He was awarded the RIBA Gold Medal, the Thomas Jefferson Medal, the RIBA Stirling Prize, the Minerva Medal, and the 2007 Pritzker Prize. Richard Rogers was born in Florence, Tuscany, in 1933 into an Anglo-Italian family. His father, William Nino Rogers (1906–1993), was Jewish, and was the cousin of Italian Jewish architect Ernesto Nathan Rogers. His Jewish ancestors moved from Sunderland to Venice in about 1800, later settling in Trieste, Milan and Florence. In October 1938, William Nino Rogers came back to England,[2] having fled Fascist Italy and anti-Jewish laws under Mussolini. Upon moving to England, Richard Rogers went to St Johns School, Leatherhead. Rogers did not excel academically, which made him believe that he was stupid because he could not read or memorise his school work[3] and as a consequence, he said, he became very depressed.[3] He could not read until he was 11,[4] and it was not until after he had his first child that Rogers realised he was dyslexic.[3] After leaving St Johns School, he undertook a foundation course at Epsom School of Art[5] (now the University for the Creative Arts) before going into National Service between 1951 and 1953.[2]
Renzo Piano.  Renzo Piano OMRI (Italian: [ˈrɛntso ˈpjaːno]; born 14 September 1937) is an Italian architect. His notable works include the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris (with Richard Rogers, 1977), The Shard in London (2012), Kansai International Airport in Osaka (1994), the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City (2015), Istanbul Museum of Modern Art in Istanbul (2022)[1] and Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center in Athens (2016). He was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1998. Piano has served as a senator for life in the Italian Senate since 2013. Piano was born and raised in Genoa, Italy,[2][3] into a family of builders. His grandfather had created a masonry enterprise, which had been expanded by his father, Carlo Piano, and his fathers three brothers, into the firm Fratelli Piano. The firm prospered after World War II, constructing houses and factories and selling construction materials. When his father retired, the enterprise was led by Renzos older brother, Ermanno, who studied engineering at the University of Genoa. Renzo studied architecture at the University of Florence and Polytechnic University of Milan. He graduated in 1964 with a dissertation about modular coordination (coordinazione modulare) supervised by Giuseppe Ciribini[4] and began working with experimental lightweight structures and basic shelters.[5] Piano taught at the Polytechnic University from 1965 until 1968, and expanded his horizons and technical skills by working in two large international firms, for the modernist architect Louis Kahn in Philadelphia and for the Polish engineer Zygmunt Stanisław Makowski in London. He completed his first building, the IPE factory in Genoa, in 1968, with a roof of steel and reinforced polyester, and created a continuous membrane for the covering of a pavilion at the Milan Triennale in the same year. In 1970, he received his first international commission, for the Pavilion of Italian Industry for Expo 70 in Osaka, Japan. He collaborated with his brother Ermanno and the family firm, which manufactured the structure. It was lightweight and original composed of steel and reinforced polyester, and it appeared to be simultaneously artistic and industrial.[6]
Asahi Breweries. The Asahi Group Holdings, Ltd. (アサヒグループホールディングス株式会社, Asahi Gurūpu Hōrudingusu kabushiki gaisha) is a Japanese beverage holding company headquartered in Sumida, Tokyo. In 2019, the group had revenue of JPY 2.1 trillion. Asahis business portfolio can be segmented as follows: alcoholic beverage business (40.5%), overseas business (32%), soft drinks business (17.2%), food business (5.4%) and other business (4.9%).[2] Asahi, with a 37% market share, is the largest of the four major beer brewers in Japan followed by Kirin Beer with 34% and Suntory with 16%.[3] Asahi has a 48.5% share of the Australian beer market.[4] In response to a maturing domestic Japanese beer market, Asahi broadened its geographic footprint and business portfolio through the acquisition of beer businesses in Western Europe and Central Eastern Europe.[5] This has resulted in Asahi having a large market share in many European countries, such as a beer market share of 44% in the Czech Republic, 32% in Poland, 36% in Romania, and 18% in Italy.[6] The predecessor of the company, Asahi Breweries (朝日麦酒株式会社), was established in 1889. In 1893, it was reorganized as Ōsaka Breweries (大阪麦酒株式会社). In 1906, Ōsaka Breweries merged with Nippon Breweries and Sapporo Breweries to form Dai-Nippon Breweries (大日本麦酒株式会社; lit. Great Japan Beer Company). During World War I, German prisoners worked in the brewery.[7] After World War II, the company was divided under the Elimination of Excessive Concentration of Economic Power Law by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. Asahi Breweries (朝日麦酒株式会社) was separated from Nippon Breweries, which is now Sapporo Breweries. In 1989, it was renamed to katakana (アサヒビール株式会社). In 2011, it changed its name to Asahi Group Holdings, a holding company, and established Asahi Breweries Ltd as a subsidiary.[8] In 1990, Asahi acquired a 19.9% stake in Australian brewery giant Elders IXL which has since become the Fosters Group, later sold to SABMiller.
Geodesy. Geodesy or geodetics[1] is the science of measuring and representing the geometry, gravity, and spatial orientation of the Earth in temporally varying 3D. It is called planetary geodesy when studying other astronomical bodies, such as planets or circumplanetary systems.[2] Geodynamical phenomena, including crustal motion, tides, and polar motion, can be studied by designing global and national control networks, applying space geodesy and terrestrial geodetic techniques, and relying on datums and coordinate systems. Geodetic job titles include geodesist and geodetic surveyor.[3] Geodesy began in pre-scientific antiquity, so the very word geodesy comes from the Ancient Greek word γεωδαισία or geodaisia (literally, division of Earth).[4] Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat and the heavens a physical dome spanning over it.[5] Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses appear to an observer as circular shadows and that  Polaris appears lower and lower in the sky to a traveler headed South.[6]
Ingenuity (helicopter).  Data from NASA Mars Helicopter Flight Log Ingenuity, nicknamed Ginny, is an autonomous NASA helicopter that operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024 as part of the Mars 2020 mission. Ingenuity made its first flight on 19 April 2021, demonstrating that flight is possible in the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars, and becoming the first aircraft to conduct a powered and controlled extra-terrestrial flight.[a] It was designed by NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in collaboration with AeroVironment, NASAs Ames Research Center and Langley Research Center with some components supplied by Lockheed Martin Space, Qualcomm, and SolAero. Ingenuity was delivered to Mars on 18 February 2021, attached to the underside of the Perseverance rover, which landed at Octavia E. Butler Landing near the western rim of the 45 km-wide (28 mi) Jezero crater. Because radio signals take several minutes to travel between Earth and Mars, it could not be manually controlled in real time, and instead autonomously flew flight plans sent to it by JPL. Originally intended to make only five flights, Ingenuity completed 72 flights in nearly three years. The five planned flights were part of a 30-sol technology demonstration intended to prove its airworthiness with flights of up to 90 seconds at altitudes ranging from 3–5 m (10–16 ft). Following this demonstration, JPL designed a series of operational flights to explore how aerial scouts could help explore Mars and other worlds. In this operational role, Ingenuity scouted areas of interest for the Perseverance rover, improved navigational techniques, and explored the limits of its flight envelope. Ingenuitys performance and resilience in the harsh Martian environment greatly exceeded expectations, allowing it to perform far more flights than were initially planned. On 18 January 2024, the rotor blades were broken during landing on flight 72, permanently grounding the helicopter. NASA announced the end of the mission one week later. Engineers concluded that Ingenuitys navigation system was not effective over the featureless terrain on the final flight,  resulting in a crash landing. Ingenuity had flown for a total of two hours, eight minutes and 48 seconds over 1,004 days, covering more than 17 kilometres (11 mi).
Precambrian. The Precambrian ( /priˈkæmbri.ən, -ˈkeɪm-/ pree-KAM-bree-ən, -⁠KAYM-;[2] or pre-Cambrian, sometimes abbreviated pC, or Cryptozoic) is the earliest part of Earths history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is so named because it preceded the Cambrian, the first period of the Phanerozoic Eon, which is named after Cambria, the Latinized name for Wales, where rocks from this age were first studied. The Precambrian accounts for 88% of the Earths geologic time. The Precambrian is an informal unit of geologic time,[3] subdivided into three eons (Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic) of the geologic time scale. It spans from the formation of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago (Ga) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 538.8 million years ago (Ma), when hard-shelled creatures first appeared in abundance. Relatively little is known about the Precambrian, despite it making up roughly seven-eighths of the Earths history, and what is known has largely been discovered from the 1960s onwards. The Precambrian fossil record is poorer than that of the succeeding Phanerozoic, and fossils from the Precambrian (e.g. stromatolites) are of limited biostratigraphic use.[4] This is because many Precambrian rocks have been heavily metamorphosed, obscuring their origins, while others have been destroyed by erosion, or remain deeply buried beneath Phanerozoic strata.[4][5][6] It is thought that the Earth coalesced from material in orbit around the Sun at roughly 4,543 Ma, and may have been struck by another planet called Theia shortly after it formed, splitting off material that formed the Moon (see Giant-impact hypothesis). A stable crust was apparently in place by 4,433 Ma, since zircon crystals from Western Australia have been dated at 4,404 ± 8 Ma.[7][8] The term Precambrian is used by geologists and paleontologists for general discussions not requiring a more specific eon name. However, both the United States Geological Survey[9] and the International Commission on Stratigraphy regard the term as informal.[10] Because the span of time falling under the Precambrian consists of three eons (the Hadean, the Archean, and the Proterozoic), it is sometimes described as a supereon,[11][12] but this is also an informal term, not defined by the ICS in its chronostratigraphic guide.[13]
New England Commission of Higher Education.   The New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE) is a voluntary, peer-based, non-profit membership organization that performs peer evaluation and accreditation of public and private universities and colleges in the United States and other countries. Until federal regulations changed on July 1, 2020, it was one of the seven regional accreditation organizations dating back 130 years. NECHE then became an institutional accreditor recognized by the United States Department of Education[1] and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation.[2] Its headquarters are in Wakefield, Massachusetts.[3] NECHE accredits over 200 institutions primarily in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.
Silurian. The Silurian (/sɪˈljʊəri.ən, saɪ-/ sih-LURE-ee-ən, sy-)[8][9][10] is a geologic period and system spanning 23.5 million years from the end of the Ordovician Period, at 443.1 Ma (million years ago) to the beginning of the Devonian Period, 419.62 Ma.[11] The Silurian is the third and shortest period of the Paleozoic Era, and the third of twelve periods of the Phanerozoic Eon. As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the periods start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by a few million years. The base of the Silurian is set at a series of major Ordovician–Silurian extinction events when up to 60% of marine genera were wiped out. One important event in this period was the initial establishment of terrestrial life in what is known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution: vascular plants emerged from more primitive land plants,[12][13] dikaryan fungi started expanding and diversifying along with glomeromycotan fungi,[14] and three groups of arthropods (myriapods, arachnids and hexapods) became fully terrestrialized.[15] Another significant evolutionary milestone during the Silurian was the diversification of jawed fish, which include placoderms, acanthodians (which gave rise to cartilaginous fish) and osteichthyan (bony fish, further divided into lobe-finned and ray-finned fishes),[16] although this corresponded to sharp decline of jawless fish such as conodonts and ostracoderms. The Silurian system was first identified by the Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison, who was examining fossil-bearing sedimentary rock strata in south Wales in the early 1830s. He named the sequences for a Celtic tribe of Wales, the Silures, inspired by his friend Adam Sedgwick, who had named the period of his study the Cambrian, from a Latin name for Wales.[17] Whilst the British rocks now identified as belonging to the Silurian System and the lands now thought to have been inhabited in antiquity by the Silures show little correlation (cf. Geologic map of Wales, Map of pre-Roman tribes of Wales), Murchison conjectured that their territory included Caer Caradoc and Wenlock Edge exposures - and that if it did not there were plenty of Silurian rocks elsewhere to sanction the name proposed.[18] In 1835 the two men presented a joint paper, under the title On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, Exhibiting the Order in which the Older Sedimentary Strata Succeed each other in England and Wales, which was the germ of the modern geological time scale.[19] As it was first identified, the Silurian series when traced farther afield quickly came to overlap Sedgwicks Cambrian sequence, however, provoking furious disagreements that ended the friendship. The English geologist Charles Lapworth resolved the conflict by defining a new Ordovician system including the contested beds.[20] An alternative name for the Silurian was Gotlandian after the strata of the Baltic island of Gotland.[21]
List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston.  This is a list of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston. Some are located within Boston proper while some are located in neighboring cities and towns, but all are within the 128/95/1 loop. This is closer to the inner core definition of Metropolitan Boston, which excludes more suburban North Shore, South Shore and MetroWest regions. Although larger institutions may have several schools, some of which are located in cities other than that of the main campus (such as Harvard Medical School and Tufts University School of Medicine), each institution is listed only once and location is determined by the site of each institutions main campus. Three universities—Harvard and MIT in Cambridge, as well as Tufts in Somerville—make up the brainpower triangle of greater Boston, a region defined by universities that have a large local and national influence.[1] There are a total of 44 institutions of higher education in the defined region, including three junior colleges, 11 colleges that primarily grant baccalaureate and masters degrees, eight research universities, and 22 special-focus institutions. Of these, 39 are private ventures while five are public institutions (four are run by the state of Massachusetts and one is operated by the city of Quincy). In 2023, enrollment at these colleges and universities ranged from 33 students at Boston Baptist College to 36,624 students at Boston University. The first to be founded was Harvard University, also the oldest institution of higher education in the United States, while the most recently established institution is Sattler College. All but five of these schools are accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE).
Year.   A year is a unit of time based on how long it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.[1]  In scientific use, the tropical year (approximately 365 solar days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds) and the sidereal year (about 20 minutes longer) are more exact. The modern calendar year, as reckoned according to the Gregorian calendar, approximates the tropical year by using a system of leap years. The term year is also used to indicate other periods of roughly similar duration, such as the lunar year (a roughly 354-day cycle of twelve of the Moons phases – see lunar calendar), as well as periods loosely associated with the calendar or astronomical year, such as the seasonal year, the fiscal year, the academic year, etc. Due to the Earths axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by changes in weather, the hours of daylight, and, consequently, vegetation and soil fertility. In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in the seasonal tropics, the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked.
Latin (disambiguation). Latin is an Italic language, originally spoken in ancient Rome and its empire. Latin may also refer to:
Ladin. Ladin may refer to:
Cherry blossom.  The cherry blossom, or sakura, is the flower of trees in Prunus subgenus Cerasus. Sakura usually refers to flowers of ornamental cherry trees, such as cultivars of Prunus serrulata, not trees grown for their fruit[1]: 14–18 [2] (although these also have blossoms). Cherry blossoms have been described as having a vanilla-like smell, which is mainly attributed to coumarin. Wild species of cherry tree are widely distributed, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere.[3][4][5] They are common in East Asia,  especially in Japan, where they have been cultivated, producing many varieties.[6]: 40–42, 160–161 Most of the ornamental cherry trees planted in parks and other places for viewing are cultivars developed for ornamental purposes from various wild species. In order to create a cultivar suitable for viewing, a wild species with characteristics suitable for viewing is needed. Prunus speciosa (Oshima cherry), which is endemic to Japan, produces many large flowers, is fragrant, easily mutates into double flowers and grows rapidly. As a result, various cultivars, known as the Cerasus Sato-zakura Group, have been produced since the 14th century and continue to contribute greatly to the development of hanami (flower viewing) culture.[1]: 27, 89–91 [6]: 160–161  From the modern period, cultivars are mainly propagated by grafting, which quickly produces cherry trees with the same genetic characteristics as the original individuals, and which are excellent to look at.[6]: 89–91 The Japanese word sakura (桜; Japanese pronunciation: [sa.kɯ.ɾa][7]) can mean either the tree or its flowers (see 桜).[8] The cherry blossom is considered the national flower of Japan, and is central to the custom of hanami.[9]
Private university. Private universities and private colleges are higher education institutions not operated, owned, or institutionally funded by governments. However, they often receive tax breaks, public student loans, and government grants. Depending on the country, private universities may be subject to government regulations. Private universities may be contrasted with public universities and national universities which are either operated, owned or institutionally funded by governments. Additionally, many private universities operate as nonprofit organizations. Across the world, different countries have different regulations regarding accreditation for private universities and as such, private universities are more common in some countries than in others. Some countries do not have any private universities at all. Egypt currently has 21 public universities with about two million students and 23 private universities with 60,000 students. Egypt has many private universities including the American University in Cairo, the German University in Cairo, The British University in Egypt, the Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Misr University for Science and Technology, Misr International University, Future University in Egypt and the Modern Sciences and Arts University. In addition to the state-funded national and private universities in Egypt, international university institutions were founded in the New Administrative Capital and are hosting branches of Universities from abroad. The Knowledge Hub (TKH) and European Universities in Egypt (EUE) are among these institutions.
Higher education accreditation. Higher education accreditation is a type of quality assurance and educational accreditation process under which services and operations of tertiary educational institutions or programs are evaluated to determine if applicable standards are met. If standards are met, accredited status is granted by the agency. In most countries around the world, the function of educational accreditation for higher education is conducted by a government organization, such as a ministry of education. In the United States, however, the quality assurance process is independent of government and performed by private agencies.[1] Canada takes a unique position, not allowing any accreditation by government or private agencies, causing some Canadian institutions to seek accreditation by American agencies.[2] Similar situation occurs in Singapore and Macau, which both countries do not have their own higher education accreditation organisation. Some institution from above countries seek accreditation from foreign agencies instead. The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), maintains an international directory which contains contact information of about 467 quality assurance bodies, accreditation bodies and ministries of education in 175 countries. The quality assurance and accreditation bodies have been authorized to operate by their respective governments either as agencies of the government or as private (non-governmental) organizations.[3] In September 2012, University World News reported the launching on an international division of the council.[4] A criticism of higher education accreditation is the over-reliance on input factors, such as instructional time, adequate facilities and credentialed faculty, compared to learning outcomes.[5] In Albania, the accreditation authority/national recognition body is the ASCAL – Quality Assurance Agency in Higher Education (Albanian: Agjencia e Sigurimit të Cilësisë në Arsimin e Lartë) which was established by Order of CM no. 171, dated 27.09.2010, On approval of structure of Public Accreditation Agency on Higher Education.
Ordovician.  The Ordovician (/ɔːrdəˈvɪʃi.ən, -doʊ-, -ˈvɪʃən/ or-də-VISH-ee-ən, -⁠doh-, -⁠VISH-ən)[9] is a geologic period and system, the second of six periods of the Paleozoic Era, and the second of twelve periods of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Ordovician spans 41.6 million years from the end of the Cambrian Period 486.85 Ma (million years ago) to the start of the Silurian Period 443.1 Ma.[10] The Ordovician, named after the Welsh tribe of the Ordovices, was defined by Charles Lapworth in 1879 to resolve a dispute between followers of Adam Sedgwick and Roderick Murchison, who were placing the same rock beds in North Wales in the Cambrian and Silurian systems, respectively.[11] Lapworth recognized that the fossil fauna in the disputed strata were different from those of either the Cambrian or the Silurian systems, and placed them in a system of their own. The Ordovician received international approval in 1960 (forty years after Lapworths death), when it was adopted as an official period of the Paleozoic Era by the International Geological Congress. Life continued to flourish during the Ordovician as it had in the earlier Cambrian Period, although the end of the period was marked by the Ordovician–Silurian extinction events. Invertebrates, namely molluscs and arthropods, dominated the oceans, with members of the latter group probably starting their establishment on land during this time, becoming fully established by the Devonian. The first land plants are known from this period. The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event considerably increased the diversity of life. Fish, the worlds first true vertebrates, continued to evolve, and those with jaws may have first appeared late in the period. About 100 times as many meteorites struck the Earth per year during the Ordovician compared with today in a period known as the Ordovician meteor event.[12] It has been theorized that this increase in impacts may originate from a ring system that formed around Earth at the time.[13] In 2008, the ICS erected a formal international system of subdivisions for the Ordovician Period and System.[14] Pre-existing Baltoscandic, British, Siberian, North American, Australian, Chinese, Mediterranean and North-Gondwanan regional stratigraphic schemes are also used locally.[15]
Latium.  Latium (/ˈleɪʃiəm/ LAY-shee-əm, US also /-ʃəm/ -⁠shəm;[1][2][3][4] Latin: [ˈɫati.ũː]) is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire. Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil (Old Latium) on which resided the tribe of the Latins or Latians.[5] It was located on the left bank (east and south) of the River Tiber, extending northward to the River Anio (a left-bank tributary of the Tiber) and southeastward to the Pomptina Palus (Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields) as far south as the Circeian promontory.[6] The right bank of the Tiber was occupied by the Etruscan city of Veii, and the other borders were occupied by Italic tribes. Subsequently, Rome defeated Veii and then its Italic neighbours, expanding its dominions over Southern Etruria and to the south, in a partly marshy and partly mountainous region. The latter saw the creation of numerous Roman and Latin colonies: small Roman colonies were created along the coast, while the inland areas were colonized by Latins and Romans without citizenship. The name Latium was thus also extended to this area south of Rome (Latium adiectum), up to the ancient Oscan city of Casinum, defined by Strabo as the last city of the Latins.[7] The modern descendant, the Italian Regione of Lazio, also called Latium in Latin, and occasionally in modern English, is somewhat larger still, though less than twice the size of Latium vetus et adiectum, including a large area of ancient Southern Etruria and Sabina. The ancient language of the Latins, the tribespeople who occupied Latium, was the immediate predecessor of the Old Latin language, ancestor of Latin and the Romance languages. Latium has played an important role in history owing to its status as the host of the capital city of Rome, at one time the cultural and political center of the Roman Empire. Consequently, Latium is home to celebrated works of art and architecture.
Ashfield, Massachusetts.  Ashfield is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 1,695 at the 2020 census.[2] It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. Ashfield was first settled prior to 1743 by a freed slave named Heber who had purchased rights and drew lot #1 in 1739. Ashfield was officially incorporated in 1765.  The town was originally called Huntstown for Captain Ephraim Hunt, who died in King Williams War. Sixty of his crew had petitioned for and been granted the land as compensation for hardships and services during the ill designed expedition to Canada in 1690. [3]  ≠The first permanent settlement was in 1745, by Richard Ellis, an Irish immigrant from the town of Easton.  The town was renamed upon reincorporation, although there is debate over its namesake; it is either for the ash trees in the area, or because Governor Bernard had friends in Ashfield, England.  The town had a small peppermint industry in the nineteenth century, but for the most part the town has had a mostly agrarian economy, with some tourism around Ashfield Lake.[4] Ashfield is the birthplace of prominent film director Cecil B. DeMille (whose parents were vacationing in the town at the time); Alvan Clark, nineteenth century astronomer and telescope maker; and William S. Clark, member of the Massachusetts Senate and third president of Massachusetts Agricultural College (now UMass Amherst).[5][6] According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 40.3 square miles (104.3 km2), of which 40.0 square miles (103.6 km2) is land and 0.27 square miles (0.7 km2), or 0.62%, is water.[7] Ashfield is located in the southwest corner of Franklin County, along the Hampshire County line.  Ashfield is bordered by Buckland to the north, Conway to the east, Goshen to the south, Cummington to the southwest, Plainfield to the west, and Hawley to the northwest. The northern outlying section of town includes the historic neighborhoods of Beldingville and Baptist Corner.  Ashfield is 15 miles (24 km) west-southwest of Greenfield, 35 miles (56 km) north-northwest of Springfield, and 105 miles (169 km) west-northwest of Boston.
Cambrian.  The Cambrian ( /ˈkæmbri.ən, ˈkeɪm-/ KAM-bree-ən, KAYM-) is the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, and the Phanerozoic Eon.[5] The Cambrian lasted 51.95 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran period 538.8 Ma (million years ago) to the beginning of the Ordovician Period 486.85 Ma.[1] Most of the continents were located in the southern hemisphere surrounded by the vast Panthalassa Ocean.[6] The assembly of Gondwana during the Ediacaran and early Cambrian led to the development of new convergent plate boundaries and continental-margin arc magmatism along its margins that helped drive up global temperatures.[7] Laurentia lay across the equator, separated from Gondwana by the opening Iapetus Ocean.[6] The Cambrian marked a profound change in life on Earth; prior to the Period, the majority of living organisms were small, unicellular and poorly preserved. Complex, multicellular organisms gradually became more common during the Ediacaran, but it was not until the Cambrian that fossil diversity seems to rapidly increase, known as the Cambrian explosion, produced the first representatives of most modern animal phyla.[8] The Period is also unique in its unusually high proportion of lagerstätte deposits, sites of exceptional preservation where soft parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells.[9] The term Cambrian is derived from the Latin version of Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales, where rocks of this age were first studied.[10] Cambria was the name given to the ancient Roman province of the country now known as Wales.[11] The geological term was named by Adam Sedgwick based on work done in the summer of 1831 in North Wales.[11] Sedgwick divided it into three groups: the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.[10] He defined the boundary between the Cambrian and the overlying Silurian, together with Roderick Murchison, in their joint paper On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, Exhibiting the Order in which the Older Sedimentary Strata Succeed each other in England and Wales[12] (1836). The proposal to label the period Cambrian was based on a segment of rock strata that represented a period  of geological time.[11]
Colosseum.  The Colosseum (/ˌkɒləˈsiːəm/ KOL-ə-SEE-əm; Italian: Colosseo [kolosˈsɛːo], ultimately from Ancient Greek word kolossos meaning a large statue or giant) is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is the largest standing amphitheatre in the world.  Construction began under the Emperor Vespasian (r. 69–79 AD) in 72[1] and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir, Titus (r. 79–81).[2] Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (r. 81–96).[3] The three emperors who were patrons of the work are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio [aɱfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo]) by later classicists and archaeologists for its association with their family name (Flavius). The Colosseum is built of travertine limestone, tuff (volcanic rock), and brick-faced concrete. It could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators at various points in its history,[4][5] having an average audience of some 65,000;[6] it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles including animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, dramas based on Roman mythology, and briefly mock sea battles. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine. Although substantially ruined by earthquakes and stone robbers taking spolia, the Colosseum is still a renowned symbol of Imperial Rome and was listed as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World.[7] It is one of Romes most popular tourist attractions and each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit Catholic Way of the Cross procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[8] The Colosseum is depicted on the Italian version of the 5 euro cent coin. Originally, the buildings Latin name was simply amphitheatrum, amphitheatre.[9] Though the modern name Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium) is often used, there is no evidence it was used in classical antiquity.[9] This name refers to the patronage of the Flavian dynasty, during whose reigns the building was constructed, but the structure is better known as the Colosseum.[9] In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic[10][11] as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed a Flavian Amphitheatre in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[12]
Lalande Prize. The Lalande Prize (French: Prix Lalande also known as Lalande Medal) was an award for scientific advances in astronomy, given from 1802 until 1970 by the French Academy of Sciences. The prize was endowed by astronomer Jérôme Lalande in 1801, a few years before his death in 1807, to enable the Academy of Sciences to make an annual award to the person who makes the most unusual observation or writes the most useful paper to further the progress of Astronomy, in France or elsewhere. The awarded amount grew in time: in 1918 the amount awarded was 1000 Francs, and by 1950, it was 10,000 francs.[1] It was combined with the Valz Prize (Prix Valz) in 1970 to create the Lalande-Valz Prize and then with a further 122 foundation prizes in 1997, resulting in the establishment of the Grande Médaille. The Grande Medaille is not limited to the field of astronomy.
Rumford Prize. Founded in 1796, the Rumford Prize, awarded by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, is one of the oldest scientific prizes in the United States. The prize recognizes contributions by scientists to the fields of heat and light. These terms are widely interpreted; awards range from discoveries in thermodynamics to improvements in the construction of steam boilers. The award was created through the endowment of US$5,000 to the Academy by Benjamin Thompson, who held the title Count Rumford of the United Kingdom, in 1796.[1] The terms state that the award be given to authors of discoveries in any part of the Continent of America, or in any of the American islands. Although it was founded in 1796, the first prize was not given until 1839, as the academy could not find anyone who, in their judgement, deserved the award. The academy found the terms of the prize to be too restrictive, and in 1832 the Supreme Court of Massachusetts allowed the Academy to change some of the provisions; mainly, the award was to be given annually instead of biennially, and the Academy was allowed to award the prize as it saw fit, whereas before it had to give it yearly.[2] The first award was given to Robert Hare, for his invention of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, in 1839. Twenty-three years elapsed before the award was given a second time, to John Ericsson.[3] The prize is awarded whenever the academy recognizes a significant achievement in either of the two fields. Awardees receive a gold-and-silver medal.[1] Previous prizewinners include Thomas Alva Edison, for his investigations in electric lighting; Enrico Fermi, for his studies of radiation theory and nuclear energy; and Charles H. Townes, for his development of the laser. One man, Samuel Pierpont Langley, has won both the Rumford Prize and the related Rumford Medal (the European equivalent of the Rumford Prize), both in 1886. The most recent award was given in 2021 to Charles L. Bennett for his contributions to cosmology. The prize has been given to researchers outside of the United States only twice—once to John Stanley Plaskett, from British Columbia, and once to a group of Canadian scientists for their work in the field of long-baseline interferometry.[4] Source: American Academy of Arts and Sciences: Past Prizes Canadian Group (Norman W. Broten, R. M. Chisholm, John A. Galt, Herbert P. Gush, Thomas H. Legg, Jack L. Locke, Charles W. McLeish, Roger S. Richards, Jui Lin Yen)
Astronomer.  An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. Astronomers observe astronomical objects, such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the universe as a whole. Astronomers typically fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, astrobiology, stellar astronomy, astrometry, galactic astronomy, extragalactic astronomy, or physical cosmology. Astronomers can also specialize in certain specialties of observational astronomy, such as infrared astronomy, neutrino astronomy, x-ray astronomy, and gravitational-wave astronomy. Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms astronomer and astrophysicist are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities.[1] They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.
Yamato Province. Yamato Province (大和国, Yamato no Kuni; Japanese pronunciation: [jaꜜ.ma.to (no kɯ.ɲi)][1]) was a province of Japan, located in Kinai, corresponding to present-day Nara Prefecture in Honshū.[2] It was also called Washū (和州). Yamato consists of two characters, 大 great, and 和 Wa. At first, the name was written with one different character (大倭), but due to its offensive connotation, for about ten years after 737, this was revised to use more desirable characters (大養徳) (see Names of Japan). The final revision was made in the second year of the Tenpyō-hōji era (c. 758). It is classified as a great province in the Engishiki. The Yamato Period in the history of Japan refers to the late Kofun Period (c. 250–538) and Asuka Period (538–710). Japanese archaeologists and historians emphasize the fact that during the early Kofun Period the Yamato Kingship was in close contention with other regional powers, such as Kibi Province near present-day Okayama Prefecture. Around the 6th century, the local chieftainship gained national control and established the Imperial court in Yamato Province. The battleship Yamato, the flagship of the Japanese Combined Fleet during World War II, was named after this province. During the Kofun period (300 to 538) and the Asuka period, many palace capitals were located in Kashihara, Asuka, and Sakurai. Yamato was the first central government of the unified country in the Kofun period.[3] Heijō-kyō capital was placed in Nara City during the Nara period. In the 14th century, the capital of the Southern Court was established in Yoshino and Anou.
Proto-Japonic language. Proto-Japonic, also known as Proto-Japanese or Proto-Japanese–Ryukyuan, is the reconstructed language ancestral to the Japonic language family. It has been reconstructed by using a combination of internal reconstruction from Old Japanese and by applying the comparative method to Old Japanese (both the central variety of the Nara area and Eastern Old Japanese dialects) and the Ryukyuan languages.[1] The major reconstructions of the 20th century were produced by Samuel Elmo Martin and Shirō Hattori.[1][2] The Japonic language family comprises Japanese, spoken in the main islands of Japan; Hachijō, spoken on Hachijō-jima, Aogashima, and the Daitō Islands; and the Ryukyuan languages, spoken in the Ryukyu Islands.[3] Most scholars believe that Japonic was brought to northern Kyushu from the Korean peninsula around 700 to 300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the Yayoi culture and spread throughout the Japanese archipelago, replacing indigenous languages.[4][5] The oldest attested form is Old Japanese, which was recorded using Chinese characters in the 7th and 8th centuries.[6] Ryukyuan varieties are considered dialects of Japanese in Japan but have little intelligibility with Japanese or even among one another.[7] They are divided into northern and southern groups, corresponding to the physical division of the chain by the 250 km-wide Miyako Strait.[8] The Shuri dialect of Okinawan is attested since the 16th century.[8] All Ryukyuan varieties are in danger of extinction.[9] Since Old Japanese displays several innovations that are not shared with Ryukyuan, the two branches must have separated before the 7th century.[10] The migration to the Ryukyus from southern Kyushu may have coincided with the rapid expansion of the agricultural Gusuku culture in the 10th and 11th centuries.[11] After this migration, there was limited influence from mainland Japan until the conquest of the Ryukyu Kingdom by the Satsuma Domain in 1609.[12] Early reconstructions of the proto-language, culminating in the work of Samuel Martin, were based primarily on internal reconstruction from Old Japanese. Evidence from Japanese dialects and Ryukyuan languages was also used, especially regarding the history of the Japanese pitch accent, but otherwise assuming a secondary role. The complementary approach of comparative reconstruction from the dialects and Ryukyuan has grown in importance since the work of Shirō Hattori in the 1970s.[1]
Toyo (queen). Toyo (臺與/台与), also known as Iyo (壹與/壱与), (235–?) was a queen regnant of Yamatai-koku in Japan. She was, according to the Records of Wei and other traditional sources, the successor of Queen Himiko.[1][2] Some historians believe she is the mother of Emperor Sujin.[3] Iyo is not cited in many historical records, and her origin is unknown. Records claim that Iyo was a close relative of Himiko, and she acquired great political power at a very young age.[4] Information obtained from Chinese sources and from archeological and ethnological discoveries has led Japanese scholars to conclude that Iyo was Himikos niece. Himiko and Iyo were female shamans and that sovereignty had both a political and a religious character. After Himikos death, a man took power in Yamatai as ruler. However, warfare soon engulfed the polity. The ruling council met and decided to put another woman on the throne. The one chosen was Iyo, a girl only 13 years old, who succeeded in reinstating peace in her government by following the same political line adopted by Queen Himiko.[5][6] The Records of Wei describes Himikos death and Iyos rise in the following terms: When Himiko passed away, a great mound was raised, more than a hundred paces in diameter. Over a hundred male and female attendants followed her to the grave. Then a king was placed on the throne, but the people would not obey him. Assassination and murder followed; more than one thousand were thus slain. A relative of Himiko named Iyo [壹與], a girl of thirteen, was [then] made queen and order was restored. (Zhang) Zheng (張政) (an ambassador from Wei), issued a proclamation to the effect that Iyo was the ruler. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:16)
Yayoi (disambiguation). Yayoi is a pre-historical era in Japan. Yayoi is March in old Japanese calendar. Yayoi can also refer to:
Himiko. [1] Himiko (卑弥呼; c. 170–247/248 AD), also known as the Shingi Waō (親魏倭王; Ruler of Wa, Friend of Wei),[3][a][b] was a shamaness-queen of Yamatai-koku in Wakoku (倭国). Early Chinese dynastic histories chronicle tributary relations between Queen Himiko and the Cao Wei Kingdom (220–265) and record that the Yayoi period people chose her as ruler following decades of warfare among the kings of Wa. Early Japanese histories do not mention Himiko, but historians associate her with legendary figures such as Empress Consort Jingū, who is said to have served as regent from 201 to 269.[6] Scholarly debates over the identity of Himiko and the location of her domain, Yamatai, have raged since the late Edo period, with opinions divided between northern Kyūshū or traditional Yamato Province in present-day Kinki. The Yamatai controversy, writes Keiji Imamura, is the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan.[7] A prevailing view among scholars is that she may be buried at Hashihaka Kofun in Nara Prefecture.[8] The shaman Queen Himiko is recorded in various ancient histories, dating back to 3rd-century China, 8th-century Japan, and 12th-century Korea. The first historical records of Himiko are found in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Zhi, 三國志), a Chinese classic text dating to c. 297. However, rather than Records of the Three Kingdoms, Japanese scholars use the term of Gishi Wajinden (魏志倭人伝, Records of Wei: Account of Wajin), a Japanese abbreviation for the account of Wajin in the Biographies of the Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Dongyi (烏丸鮮卑東夷傳), Volume 30 of the Book of Wei (魏書) of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志).[9] This section is the first description of Himiko (Pimiko) and Yamatai:
Bernard Lovell.  Sir Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell (/ˈlʌvəl/ LUV-əl; 31 August 1913 – 6 August 2012) was a British physicist and radio astronomer. He was the first director of Jodrell Bank Observatory, from 1945 to 1980.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Lovell was born at Oldland Common, Bristol, in 1913, the son of local tradesman and Methodist preacher Gilbert Lovell (1881–1956) and Emily Laura, née Adams.[7][8] Gilbert Lovell was an authority on the Bible and, having studied English literature and grammar, was still bombarding his son with complaints on points of grammar, punctuation and method of speaking when Lovell was in his forties.[9] Lovells childhood hobbies and interests included cricket and music, mainly the piano. He had a Methodist upbringing and attended Kingswood Grammar School.[6][10] Lovell studied physics at the University of Bristol obtaining a Bachelor of Science degree in 1934,[8] and a PhD in 1936 for his work on the electrical conductivity of thin films.[11][12][13][14] At this time, he also received lessons in music from Raymond Jones, a teacher at Bath Technical School and later an organist at Bath Abbey. The church organ was one of the main loves of his life, apart from science.[15][16] Lovell worked in the cosmic ray research team at the University of Manchester[17][18][19] until the outbreak of the Second World War. At the beginning of the war, Lovell published his first book, Science and Civilization. During the war he worked for the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) developing radar systems to be installed in aircraft, among them H2S.
Gjirokastër County. Gjirokastër County (Albanian: Qarku i Gjirokastrës) is one of the 12 counties of Albania. The total population in 2023 was 60,013, in an area of 2884 km2.[2] Its capital is the city Gjirokastër. Until 2000, Gjirokastër County was subdivided into three districts: Gjirokastër, Përmet, and Tepelenë. Since the 2015 local government reform, the county consists of the following 7 municipalities: Dropull, Gjirokastër, Këlcyrë, Libohovë, Memaliaj, Përmet and Tepelenë.[3] Before 2015, it consisted of the following 32 municipalities: The municipalities consist of about 270 towns and villages in total. See Villages of Gjirokastër County for a structured list. According to the last national census from 2023 this county has 60,013 inhabitants. Ethnic groups in the county include Albanians, Greeks, Aromanians, Romani, and Balkan Egyptians.[6] In the 2023 census Gjirokastërs was predominantly Albanian, accounting for 82.7% of the residents. The Greek community follows, making up 14.2% of the population. Smaller ethnic groups include Egyptians (0.3%), Romani (0.3%), and Bulgarians (0.1%). There are also minor groups such as Bosniaks (0.02%), Aromanians (0.3%), Macedonians (0.02%), Serbs (0.03%), and Montenegrins (0.02%). Additionally, 0.1% of the population identifies as mixed ethnicity. A small proportion, 0.01%, reported having no ethnicity, while 0.6% preferred not to answer, and 1.1% had unavailable or missing data. 
Kabushiki gaisha.  A kabushiki gaisha (Japanese: 株式会社; pronounced [kabɯɕi̥ki ɡaꜜiɕa] ⓘ; lit. share company) or kabushiki kaisha, commonly abbreviated K.K. or KK, is a type of company (会社, kaisha) defined under the Companies Act of Japan. The term is often translated as stock company, joint-stock company or stock corporation. The term kabushiki gaisha in Japan refers to any joint-stock company regardless of country of origin or incorporation; however, outside Japan the term refers specifically to joint-stock companies incorporated in Japan. In Latin script, kabushiki kaisha, with a ⟨k⟩, is often used, but the original Japanese pronunciation is kabushiki gaisha, with a ⟨g⟩, owing to rendaku. A kabushiki gaisha must include 株式会社 in its name (Article 6, paragraph 2 of the Companies Act). In a company name, 株式会社 can be used as a prefix (e.g. 株式会社電通, kabushiki gaisha Dentsū, a style called 前株, mae-kabu) or as a suffix (e.g. トヨタ自動車株式会社, Toyota Jidōsha kabushiki gaisha, a style called 後株, ato-kabu). Many Japanese companies translate the phrase 株式会社 in their name as Company, Limited—this is very often abbreviated as Co., Ltd.—but others use the more Americanized translations Corporation or Incorporated. Texts in England often refer to kabushiki kaisha as joint stock companies. While that is close to a literal translation of the term, the two are not precisely the same. The Japanese government once endorsed business corporation as an official translation[1] but now uses the more literal translation stock company.[2]
Wa (kana). Wa (hiragana: わ, katakana: ワ) is one of the Japanese kana, which each represent one mora. It represents [wa] and has origins in the character 和. There is also a small ゎ/ヮ, that is used to write the morae /kwa/ and /gwa/ (くゎ, ぐゎ), which are almost obsolete in contemporary standard Japanese but still exist in the Ryukyuan languages. A few loanword such as シークヮーサー(shiikwaasa from Okinawan language) and ムジカ・アンティクヮ・ケルン (Musica Antiqua Köln, German early music group) contains this letter in Japanese. Katakana ワ is also sometimes written with dakuten, ヷ, to represent a /va/ sound in foreign words; however, most IMEs lack a convenient way to write this. It is far more common to represent the /va/ sound with the digraph ヴァ. The kana は (ha) is read as “wa” when it represents a particle. The katakana va (ヷ), which is a wa with a dakuten (voiced mark), along with vu (ヴ), was first used by the educator Fukuzawa Yukichi for transcribing English in 1860[1][2] in his English-Japanese dictionary, which featured such entries as Heaven (Hīvunu), Venus (Venusu), River (Rīvaru), etc.[3] It is intended to represent a voiced labiodental fricative [v] in foreign languages, but the actual pronunciation by Japanese speakers may be closer to a voiced bilabial fricative [β] (see Japanese phonology § Voiced bilabial fricative). 
Rome.  Rome[b] is the capital city and most populated comune (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special comune named Roma Capitale with 2,746,984 residents in 1,287.36 km2 (497.1 sq mi),[3] Rome is the third most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. The Metropolitan City of Rome Capital, with a population of 4,223,885 residents, is the most populous metropolitan city in Italy. Its metropolitan area is the third-most populous within Italy.[5] Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber Valley. Vatican City (the smallest country in the world and headquarters of the worldwide Catholic Church under the governance of the Holy See)[6] is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city. Rome is often referred to as the City of Seven Hills due to its geography, and also as the Eternal City. Rome is generally considered to be one of the cradles of Western civilization and Western Christian culture, and the centre of the Catholic Church.[7][8][9] Romes history spans 28 centuries. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement for over three millennia and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Europe.[10] The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by many as the first-ever Imperial city and metropolis.[11] It was first called The Eternal City (Latin: Urbs Aeterna; Italian: La Città Eterna) by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy.[12][13] Rome is also called Caput Mundi (Capital of the World). After the fall of the Empire in the west, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century, it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all popes since Nicholas V (1447–1455) pursued a coherent architectural and urban programme over four hundred years, aimed at making the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world.[14] In this way, Rome first became one of the major centres of the Renaissance[15] and then became the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors, and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, creating masterpieces throughout the city. In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic. In 2019, Rome was the 14th most visited city in the world, with 8.6 million tourists, the third most visited city in the European Union, and the most popular tourist destination in Italy.[16] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[17] The host city for the 1960 Summer Olympics, Rome is also the seat of several specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, World Food Programme, International Fund for Agricultural Development and UN System Network on Rural Development and Food Security. The city also hosts the European Union (EU) Delegation to the United Nations (UN), Secretariat of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union for the Mediterranean,[18] headquarters of the World Farmers Organisation, multi-country office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Human Resources Office for International Cooperation of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, headquarters of the International Labour Organization Office for Italy, headquarters of the WORLD BANK GROUP for Italy, Office for Technology Promotion and Investment in Italy under the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Rome office of the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, and support office of the United Nations Humanitarian Response Depot, as well as the headquarters of several Italian multinational companies such as Eni, Enel, TIM, Leonardo, and banks such as BNL. Numerous companies are based within Romes EUR business district, such as the luxury fashion house Fendi located in the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana. The presence of renowned international brands in the city has made Rome an important centre of fashion and design, and the Cinecittà Studios have been the set of many Academy Award–winning movies.[19]
Ōta, Tokyo. Ōta (大田区, Ōta-ku; Japanese pronunciation: [oːta, oːtaꜜkɯ])[2][3] is a special ward in the Tokyo Metropolis in Japan. The ward refers to itself in English as Ōta City. It was formed in 1947 as a merger of Ōmori and Kamata following Tokyo Citys transformation into Tokyo Metropolis. The southernmost of the 23 special wards, Ōta borders the special wards of Shinagawa, Meguro and Setagaya to the north, and Kōtō to the east. Across the Tama River in Kanagawa Prefecture is the city of Kawasaki, forming the boundaries to the south and west. Ōta is the largest special ward in Tokyo by area, spanning 59.46 square kilometres (22.96 sq mi). As of 2024, the ward has an estimated population of 744,849, making it the third largest special ward by population, with a population density of 12,041 inhabitants per square kilometre (31,190/sq mi). Notable neighborhoods and districts of Ōta include Kamata, the administrative center of the ward where the Ward Office and central Post Office is located, and Den-en-chōfu(田園調布), known for its wealthy residents and luxury homes. Haneda Airport, the busiest airport in Japan by passenger traffic is located in the ward. The ward was founded on March 15, 1947, merging the old wards of Ōmori and Kamata. The wards name originates from the combination of letters of the two merging wards, Ōmori (大森) and Kamata (蒲田), combined into 大田 (Ōta). The ward was previously second behind Setagaya in terms of being the largest special ward in Tokyo by area, but due to land reclamation in the Tokyo Bay for the expansion of the Haneda Airport(羽田空港), Ōta overtook Setagaya for first place. Haneda Airport, now one of the two main domestic and international airports serving the Greater Tokyo Area (the other one being Narita Airport in Narita, Chiba) was first established as Haneda Airfield in 1931 in the town of Haneda, Ebara District of Tokyo Prefecture. Following Japans surrender in 1945, the airfield was turned into the Haneda Army Air Base under the control of the United States Army. In the same year, Allied occupational authorities ordered the expansion of the airport, evicting people from the surroundings on 48 hours notice. With the end of the occupation, the Americans returned part of the facility to Japanese control in 1952, completing the return in 1958. Haneda Airport first handled international traffic for Tokyo for the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics. Following the opening of Narita Airport in 1978, almost all international flights (with the exception of Taiwanese airlines) moved its operations to Narita Airport. International flights resumed in 2010 following the construction of a new International terminal.
Sino-Japanese vocabulary. Sino-Japanese vocabulary, also known as kango (Japanese: 漢語; pronounced [kaŋɡo], Han words), is a subset of Japanese vocabulary that originated in Chinese or was created from elements borrowed from Chinese. Most Sino-Japanese words were borrowed in the 5th–9th centuries AD, from Early Middle Chinese into Old Japanese. Some grammatical structures and sentence patterns can also be identified as Sino-Japanese. Kango is one of three broad categories into which the Japanese vocabulary is divided. The others are native Japanese vocabulary (yamato kotoba) and borrowings from other, mainly Western languages (gairaigo). It has been estimated that about 60% of the words contained in modern Japanese dictionaries are kango,[1] and that about 18–20% of words used in common speech are kango.[a] The usage of such kango words also increases in formal or literary contexts, and in expressions of abstract or complex ideas.[2] Kango, the use of Chinese-derived words in Japanese, is to be distinguished from kanbun, which is historical Literary Chinese written by Japanese in Japan. Both kango in modern Japanese and classical kanbun have Sino-xenic linguistic and phonetic elements also found in Korean and Vietnamese: that is, they are Sino-foreign, meaning that they are not pure Chinese but have been mixed with the native languages of their respective nations. Such words invented in Japanese, often with novel meanings, are called wasei-kango. Many of them were created during the Meiji Restoration to translate non-Asian concepts and have been reborrowed into Chinese. Kango is also to be distinguished from gairaigo of Chinese origin, namely words borrowed from modern Chinese dialects, some of which may be occasionally spelled with Chinese characters or kanji just like kango. For example, 北京 (Pekin, Beijing) which was borrowed from a modern Chinese dialect, is not kango, whereas 北京 (Hokkyō, Northern Capital, a name for Kyoto), which was created with Chinese elements, is kango. Ancient Chinas political and economic influence in the region shaped the languages of Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other Asian languages in East and Southeast Asia throughout history in a manner comparable to Greek and Latin in Europe. The Middle Chinese word for gunpowder, Chinese: 火藥 (Late Middle Chinese pronunciation: [xwa˧˥jak]),[3] is rendered as hwayak in Korean, and as kayaku in Japanese. At the time of initial contact, Japanese lacked a writing system, while Chinese had a long-established script and a great deal of academic and scientific information. Literary Chinese, known as kanbun, became the earliest written language in Japan, serving as the medium for science, scholarship, religion, and government. The kanbun writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese.
Cyprus.  Cyprus[f] (/ˈsaɪprəs/ ⓘ), officially the Republic of Cyprus,[g] is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean, after Sicily and Sardinia.[9][10] It is located southeast of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Palestine and Israel, and north of Egypt. Its capital and largest city is Nicosia. Cyprus hosts the British military bases Akrotiri and Dhekelia, whilst the northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared, largely unrecognised Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is separated from the Republic of Cyprus by the United Nations Buffer Zone. Cyprus was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 13,000 years ago, with farming communities emerging by 8500 BC. The late Bronze Age saw the emergence of Alashiya, an urbanised society closely connected to the wider Mediterranean world. Cyprus experienced waves of settlement by Mycenaean Greeks at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Owing to its rich natural resources (particularly copper) and strategic position at the crossroads of Europe, Africa, and Asia, the island was subsequently contested and occupied by several empires, including the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians, from whom it was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great. Successive rule by Ptolemaic Egypt, the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire, Arab caliphates, the French Lusignans, and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman dominion (1571–1878).[11][h] Cyprus was placed under British administration in 1878 pursuant to the Cyprus Convention and formally annexed by the United Kingdom in 1914. The islands future became a matter of disagreement between its Greek and Turkish communities. Greek Cypriots sought enosis, or union with Greece, which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.[12][13] Turkish Cypriots initially advocated for continued British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, with which they established the policy of taksim: portioning Cyprus and creating a Turkish polity in the north of the island.[14] Following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960.[15] The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves,[16]: 56–59 [17] and ended Turkish Cypriot political representation. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists[18][19] and elements of the Greek military junta.[20] This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July,[21] which captured the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and displaced over 150,000 Greek Cypriots[22][23] and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots.[24] A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983, which was widely condemned by the international community and remains recognised only by Turkey. These events and the resulting political situation remain subject to an ongoing dispute. Cyprus is a developed representative democracy with an advanced high-income economy and very high human development.[25][26][27] The islands intense Mediterranean climate and rich cultural heritage make it a major tourist destination.[28] Cyprus is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union in 2004;[29] it joined the eurozone in 2008.[30] Cyprus has long maintained good relations with NATO and announced in 2024 its intention to officially join.[31]
Conglomerate (company).  A conglomerate (/kəŋˈɡlɒmərət/) is a type of multi-industry company that consists of several different and unrelated business entities that operate in various industries. A conglomerate usually has a parent company that owns and controls many subsidiaries, which are legally independent but financially and strategically dependent on the parent company. Conglomerates are often large and multinational corporations that have a global presence and a diversified portfolio of products and services. Conglomerates can be formed by merger and acquisitions, spin-offs, or joint ventures. Conglomerates are common in many countries and sectors, such as media, banking, energy, mining, manufacturing, retail, defense, and transportation. This type of organization aims to achieve economies of scale, market power, risk diversification, and financial synergy. However, they also face challenges such as complexity, bureaucracy, agency problems, and regulation.[1] The popularity of conglomerates has varied over time and across regions. In the United States, conglomerates became popular in the 1960s as a form of economic bubble driven by low interest rates and leveraged buyouts.[2] However, many of them collapsed or were broken up in the 1980s due to poor performance, accounting scandals, and antitrust regulation.[3] In contrast, conglomerates have remained prevalent in Asia, especially in China, Japan, South Korea, and India. In mainland China, many state-affiliated enterprises have gone through high value mergers and acquisitions, resulting in some of the highest value business transactions of all time. These conglomerates have strong ties with the government and preferential policies and access to capital.[1] During the 1960s, the United States was caught up in a conglomerate fad which turned out to be a form of an economic bubble.[4]
Wa (Japanese culture). Wa (和) is a Japanese cultural concept usually translated into English as harmony. It implies a peaceful unity and conformity within a social group in which members prefer the continuation of a harmonious community over their personal interests.[1][2] The kanji character wa (和) is also a name for Japan; Japanese,[3] replacing the original graphic pejorative transcription Wa 倭 dwarf/submissive people. Wa is considered integral to Japanese society and derives from traditional Japanese family values.[4] Individuals who break the ideal of wa to further their own purposes are brought in line either overtly or covertly, by reprimands from a superior or by their family or colleagues tacit disapproval. Hierarchical structures exist in Japanese society primarily to ensure the continuation of wa.[5] Public disagreement with the party line is generally suppressed in the interests of preserving the communal harmony.[6] Japanese businesses encourage wa in the workplace, with employees typically given a career for life in order to foster a strong association with their colleagues and firm.[1][7] Rewards and bonuses are usually given to groups, rather than individuals, further enforcing the concept of group unity.[2]
Goostrey.  Goostrey is a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of Cheshire East and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It is in open countryside, 14 miles (23 km) north-east of Crewe and 12 miles (19 km) west of Macclesfield. The parish contains the Lovell Radio Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, a UNESCO World Heritage site. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 2,179 in 956 housesholds. It contains 24 listed heritage assets and one scheduled monument (a bowl barrow near Jodrell Bank Farm).  The parish also includes the hamlets of Blackden, Blackden Heath and Jodrell Bank. Goostrey may have been a meeting place or even a settlement during the 1st millennium BC, as stone and bronze axe heads and barrows within the parish boundary show the area was inhabited before the Iron Age. Bronze Age barrows have also been found near Twemlow Hall and Terra Nova School on the edge of the parish. The 1,200-year-old yew tree in Goostreys churchyard suggests that the mound on which the church is built was a focal point for a community during the Dark Ages of the 1st millennium. At that time Cheshire was under the control of the Wreocensæte people of Mercia. Goostrey first appears in recorded history in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it is spelt Gostrel. The name possibly means Godheres tree.[1] At this time most of the parish was held by William FitzNigel, Baron of Halton, and by Hugh de Mara, another follower of the Earl of Chester. Hugh FitzNorman gave much land in Goostrey to endow the new Abbey of Saint Werburgh in Chester in 1119, as did a later owner, Baron Hugh of Mold.[2] Some land in the parish or nearby Twemlow was also given to help endow the Vale Royal Abbey, near Northwich. The Parish of Goostrey-cum-Barnshaw remained ecclesiastical property until the 14th century, leased out at first and then managed by the abbey directly. Abbey records mostly relate to maintenance of ditches, mills and fish ponds and give a picture of a scatter of small farms set amongst woods and heath supplying wood, flour and fish to the great Chester Abbey, some later gifted to the new foundation of Vale Royal Abbey.
Nikkei 225.  The Nikkei 225, or the Nikkei Stock Average (Japanese: 日経平均株価, Hepburn: Nikkei heikin kabuka), more commonly called the Nikkei or the Nikkei index[1][2] (/ˈnɪkeɪ, ˈniː-, nɪˈkeɪ/), is a stock market index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE).  It is a price-weighted index, operating in the Japanese Yen (JP¥), and its components are reviewed twice a year. The Nikkei 225 measures the performance of 225 highly capitalised and liquid publicly owned companies in Japan from a wide array of industry sectors. Since 2017, the index is calculated every five seconds.[3] It was originally launched by the Tokyo Stock Exchange in 1950, and was taken over by the Nihon Keizai Shimbun (The Nikkei) newspaper in 1970, when the Tokyo Exchange switched to the Tokyo Stock Price Index (TOPIX), which is weighed by market capitalisation rather than stock prices.[4] The Nikkei 225 began to be calculated on 7 September 1950, retroactively calculated back to 16 May 1949, when the average price of its component stocks was 176.21 yen.[5][6] Since July 2017, the index is updated every 5 seconds during trading sessions.[5] The Nikkei 225 Futures, introduced at Singapore Exchange (SGX) in 1986, the Osaka Securities Exchange (OSE) in 1988, Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1990, is now an internationally recognized futures index.[7] The Nikkei average has deviated sharply from the textbook model of stock averages, which grow at a steady exponential rate. During the Japanese asset price bubble, the average hit its bubble-era record high on 29 December 1989, when it reached an intraday high of 38,957.44, before closing at 38,915.87, having grown sixfold during the decade. Subsequently, it lost nearly all these gains, reaching a post-bubble intraday low of 6,994.90 on 28 October 2008 — 82% below its peak nearly 19 years earlier.[8] The 1989 record high held for 34 years, until it was surpassed in 2024 (see below).
Cheshire East.  Cheshire East is a unitary authority area with borough status in Cheshire, England. The local authority is Cheshire East Council, which is based in the town of Sandbach. Other towns within the area include Crewe, Macclesfield, Congleton, Wilmslow, Nantwich, Poynton, Knutsford, Alsager, Bollington and Handforth. The borough council was established in April 2009 as part of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England, by virtue of an order under the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007.[6] It is an amalgamation of the former boroughs of Macclesfield, Congleton and Crewe and Nantwich, and includes the functions of the former Cheshire County Council. The residual part of the disaggregated former County Council, together with the other three former Cheshire borough councils (Chester City, Ellesmere Port & Neston and Vale Royal) were, similarly, amalgamated to create the new unitary council of Cheshire West and Chester. Cheshire East has historic links to textile mills of the Industrial Revolution, such as seen at Quarry Bank Mill. It is also home to Tatton Park, a historic estate that hosts RHS Show Tatton Park. Cheshire East lies within North West England. It borders Cheshire West and Chester to the west, Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east as well as Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south. It is home to the Cheshire Plain and the southern hills of the Pennines. The local geology is mostly glacial clay, as well as glacial sands and gravel.
Boys love.  Boys love (Japanese: ボーイズ ラブ, Hepburn: bōizu rabu), also known by its abbreviation BL (ビーエル, bīeru), is a genre of fictional media originating in Japan that depicts homoerotic relationships between male characters.[a] It is typically created by women for a female audience,[1] distinguishing it from the equivalent genre of homoerotic media created by and for gay men, though BL does also attract a male audience and can be produced by male creators. BL spans a wide range of media, including manga, anime, drama CDs, novels, video games, television series, films, and fan works. Though depictions of homosexuality in Japanese media have a history dating to ancient times, contemporary BL traces its origins to male-male romance manga that emerged in the 1970s, and which formed a new subgenre of shōjo manga (comics for girls). Several terms were used for this genre, including shōnen-ai (少年愛; lit. boy love), tanbi (耽美; lit.  aesthete or aesthetic), and June (ジュネ; [dʑɯne]). The term yaoi (/ˈjaʊi/ ⓘ YOW-ee; Japanese: やおい [jaꜜo.i]) emerged as a name for the genre in the late 1970s and early 1980s in the context of dōjinshi (self-published works) culture as a portmanteau of yama nashi, ochi nashi, imi nashi (no climax, no point, no meaning), where it was used in a self-deprecating manner to refer to amateur fan works that focused on sex to the exclusion of plot and character development, and that often parodied mainstream manga and anime by depicting male characters from popular series in sexual scenarios. Boys love was later adopted by Japanese publications in the 1990s as an umbrella term for male-male romance media marketed to women. Concepts and themes associated with BL include androgynous men known as bishōnen; diminished female characters; narratives that emphasize homosociality and de-emphasize socio-cultural homophobia; and depictions of rape. A defining characteristic of BL is the practice of pairing characters in relationships according to the roles of seme, the sexual top or active pursuer, and uke, the sexual bottom or passive pursued. BL has a robust global presence, having spread since the 1990s through international licensing and distribution, as well as through unlicensed circulation of works by BL fans online. BL works, culture, and fandom have been studied and discussed by scholars and journalists worldwide. Multiple terms exist to describe Japanese and Japanese-influenced male-male romance fiction as a genre. In a 2015 survey of professional Japanese male-male romance fiction writers by Kazuko Suzuki, five primary subgenres were identified:[2]
Rail transport.  Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport using wheeled vehicles running in tracks, which usually consist of two parallel steel rails.[1] Rail transport is one of the two primary means of land transport, next to road transport. It is used for about 8% of passenger and freight transport globally,[2] thanks to its energy efficiency[2] and potentially high speed. Rolling stock on rails generally encounters lower frictional resistance than rubber-tyred road vehicles, allowing rail cars to be coupled into longer trains. Power is usually provided by diesel or electric locomotives. While railway transport is capital-intensive and less flexible than road transport, it can carry heavy loads of passengers and cargo with greater energy efficiency and safety.[a] Precursors of railways driven by human or animal power, have existed since antiquity, but modern rail transport began with the invention of the steam locomotive in the United Kingdom at the beginning of the 19th century. The first passenger railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened in 1825. The quick spread of railways throughout Europe and North America, following the 1830 opening of the first intercity connection in England, was a key component of the Industrial Revolution. The adoption of rail transport lowered shipping costs compared to transport by water or wagon, and led to national markets in which prices varied less from city to city.[3][4][5][6][7] Railroads not only increased the speed of transport, they also dramatically lowered its cost. For example, the first transcontinental railroad in the United States resulted in passengers and freight being able to cross the country in a matter of days instead of months and at one tenth the cost of stagecoach or wagon transport. With economical transportation in the West (which had been referred to as the Great American Desert), now farming, ranching and mining could be done at a profit. As a result, railroads transformed the country, particularly the West (which had few navigable rivers).[8][9][10][11][12]
Tofu.  Tofu (Japanese: 豆腐, Hepburn: Tōfu; Korean: 두부; RR: dubu, Chinese: 豆腐; pinyin: dòufu) or bean curd is a food prepared by coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness: silken, soft, firm, and extra (or super) firm. It originated in China and has been consumed for over 2,000 years.[1][2] Tofu is a traditional component of many East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines;[3] in modern Western cooking, it is often used as a meat substitute. Nutritionally, tofu is low in calories, while containing a relatively large amount of protein. It is a high and reliable source of iron, and can have a high calcium or magnesium content depending on the coagulants (e.g. calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate) used in manufacturing. Cultivation of tofu, as a protein-rich food source, has one of the lowest needs for land use (1.3 m²/ 1000 kcal)[4] and emits some of the lowest amount of greenhouse gas emissions (1.6 kg CO2/ 100 g protein).[5][6] The English word tofu comes from Japanese tōfu (豆腐). The Japanese tofu, in turn, is a borrowing of Chinese 豆腐 (Mandarin: dòufǔ; tou4-fu) bean curd, bean ferment.[7][8][9][10] The earliest documentation of the word in English is in the 1704 translation of Domingo Fernández Navarretes A Collection of Voyages and Travels, that describes how tofu was made.[11] The word towfu also appears in a 1770 letter from the English merchant James Flint to Benjamin Franklin.[12]: 73  The term bean curd(s) for tofu has been used in the United States since at least 1840.[13][14]
Kanji Swami.  Kanji Swami (1890–1980) was a teacher of Jainism.[1][2] He was deeply influenced by the Samayasāra of Kundakunda in 1932. He lectured on these teachings for 45 years to comprehensively elaborate on the philosophy described by Kundakunda and others. He was given the title of Koh-i-Noor of Kathiawar by the people who were influenced by his religious teachings and philosophy.[3] Kanji Swami was born in Umrala, a small village in the Kathiawar region of Gujarat, in 1890 to a Sthanakvasi family.[4] Although an able pupil in school, he always had an intuition that the worldly teachings was not something that he was looking out for. His mother died when he was thirteen and he lost his father at the age of seventeen. After this, he started looking after his fathers shop. He used the frequent periods of lull in the shop in reading various books on religion and spirituality. Turning down the proposals of marriage, he confided in his brother that he wanted to remain celibate and take renunciation.[1][5] Kanji Swami became a Sthānakavāsī monastic in 1913 under Hirachanda.[4] During the ceremony, while riding on an elephant, he inauspiciously tore his robe, which was later believed to be an ill omen for his monastic career.[6] Being a believer in self effort for achieving emancipation, he quickly became a learned and famous monk and, backed by his seventeen renditions of the Bhagavati Sutra. He was known as Koh-i-Noor of Kathiawar (the gem of the Kathiawad region).[6] During 1921, he read Kundakundas Samayasāra, which influenced him greatly. He also studied writings of Pandit Todarmal and Shrimad Rajchandra. Other influences were Amritchandra and Banarasidas. During his discourses, he began to incorporate the ideas picked from these studies and began to lead a kind of double life, nominally a Sthānakavāsī monastic but referring to Digambara texts.[1][5][6]
Cangjie. Cangjie is a legendary figure in Chinese mythology, said to have been an official historian of the Yellow Emperor and the inventor of Chinese characters.[1] Legend has it that he had four eyes, and that when he invented the characters, the deities and ghosts cried and the sky rained millet. He is considered a legendary rather than historical figure, or at least not considered to be the sole inventor of Chinese characters. Cangjie was the eponym for the  Cangjiepian proto-dictionary, the Cangjie method of inputting characters into a computer, and a Martian rock visited by the Mars rover Spirit, and named by the rover team.[2] There are several versions of the legend. One tells that shortly after unifying China, the Yellow Emperor, being dissatisfied with the rope knot tying method of recording information, charged Cangjie with the task of creating characters for writing. Cangjie then settled down on the bank of a river, and devoted himself to the completion of the task at hand. Even after devoting much time and effort, however, he was unable to create even one character. One day, Cangjie suddenly saw a phoenix flying in the sky above, carrying an object in its beak. The object fell to the ground directly in front of Cangjie, and he saw it to be an impression of a hoof-print. Not being able to recognize which animal the print belonged to, he asked for the help of a local hunter passing by on the road. The hunter told him that this was, without a doubt, the hoof print of a Pixiu, being different from the hoof-print of any other beast that was alive. His conversation with the hunter greatly inspired Cangjie, leading him to believe that if he could capture in a drawing the special characteristics that set apart each and every thing on the earth, this would truly be the perfect kind of character for writing. From that day forward, Cangjie paid close attention to the characteristics of all things, including the sun, moon, stars, clouds, lakes, rivers, oceans, as well as all manner of bird and beast. He began to create characters according to the special characteristics he found, and before long, had compiled a long list of characters for writing. To the delight of the Yellow Emperor, Cangjie presented him with the complete set of characters. The emperor then called the premiers of each of the nine provinces together in order for Cangjie to teach them this new writing system. Monuments and temples were erected in Cangjies honor on the bank of the river where he created these characters.[1]
Ricardo Kanji.  Ricardo Kanji (1 March 1948 – 24 February 2025) was a Brazilian recorder player, flutist, conductor and luthier. For 12 years, he was a professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. He was a founding member of the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century. Back in Brazil, he promoted historically informed performance there as a teacher and as director of Vox Brasiliensis choir and orchestra. He was artistic director of a project History of Brazilian Music, to explore the music of colonial Brazil. Kanji was born in São Paulo[1] on 1 March 1948. He began piano lessons with Tatiana Braunwieser at age seven, and three years later studied with Lavinia Viotti who introduced him to the recorder.[2] At age fifteen he began studying flute with João Dias Carrasqueira[2][3] and two years later joined the Philharmonic Orchestra São Paulo (now defunct) and the Municipal Symphony Orchestra of São Paulo.[3] In 1966, after a period of study in the United States, he founded the group Musikantiga.[2][3] In 1969 Kanji began to study flute at the Peabody Institute of Music in Baltimore, but when he met Frans Brüggen, he moved to the Netherlands, to specialise on the interpretation of Baroque and Classical music, studying at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague with Brüggen and Frans Vester[2] between 1970 and 1972.[3] In 1970 he won the First International Recorder Competition in Bruges.[2] He was a founding member of both the conservatorys orchestra and in 1980 the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century.[2][4][3] He was a professor at the Royal Conservatory from 1973 to 1995, succeeding Bruggen.[4][5] He was also artistic director of the Concerto Amsterdam from 1991 to 1996.[2] He participated in important ensembles playing period instruments in the Netherlands and created the Ensemble Philidor.[3] Kanji returned to Brazil in 1995, continuing to work as a performer, conductor, teacher, and luthier.[5] In 1997, he founded and directed the ensemble Vox Brasiliensis,[5][3] recording Brazilian and European music. He promoted historically informed performance in Brazil, teaching it at Curitiba Music Workshop and teaching recorder at the São Paulo State Music School.[2] His students included Clea Galhano,[6] and Hanneke van Proosdij.[7]
Chinese characters.  Chinese characters[a] are logographs used to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represent the only one that has remained in continuous use. Over a documented history spanning more than three millennia, the function, style, and means of writing characters have changed greatly. Unlike letters in alphabets that reflect the sounds of speech, Chinese characters generally represent morphemes, the units of meaning in a language. Writing all of the frequently used vocabulary in a language requires roughly 2000–3000 characters; as of 2024[update], nearly 100000 have been identified and included in  The Unicode Standard. Characters are created according to several principles, where aspects of shape and pronunciation may be used to indicate the characters meaning. The first attested characters are oracle bone inscriptions made during the 13th century BCE in what is now Anyang, Henan, as part of divinations conducted by the Shang dynasty royal house. Character forms were originally ideographic or pictographic in style, but evolved as writing spread across China. Numerous attempts have been made to reform the script, including the promotion of small seal script by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Clerical script, which had matured by the early Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), abstracted the forms of characters—obscuring their pictographic origins in favour of making them easier to write. Following the Han, regular script emerged as the result of cursive influence on clerical script, and has been the primary style used for characters since. Informed by a long tradition of lexicography, states using Chinese characters have standardized their forms—broadly, simplified characters are used to write Chinese in mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia, while traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. Where the use of characters spread beyond China, they were initially used to write Literary Chinese; they were then often adapted to write local languages spoken throughout the Sinosphere. In Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, Chinese characters are known as kanji, hanja, and chữ Hán respectively. Writing traditions also emerged for some of the other languages of China, like the sawndip script used to write the Zhuang languages of Guangxi. Each of these written vernaculars used existing characters to write the languages native vocabulary, as well as the loanwords it borrowed from Chinese. In addition, each invented characters for local use. In written Korean and Vietnamese, Chinese characters have largely been replaced with alphabets—leaving Japanese as the only major non-Chinese language still written using them, alongside the other elements of the Japanese writing system. At the most basic level, characters are composed of strokes that are written in a fixed order. Historically, methods of writing characters have included inscribing stone, bone, or bronze; brushing ink onto silk, bamboo, or paper; and printing with woodblocks or moveable type. Technologies invented since the 19th century to facilitate the use of characters include telegraph codes and typewriters, as well as input methods and text encodings on computers.
North West England.  North West England is one of nine official regions of England and consists of the ceremonial counties of Cheshire, Cumbria, Greater Manchester, Lancashire and Merseyside. The North West had a population of 7,417,397 in 2021.[4] It is the third-most-populated region in the United Kingdom, after the South East and Greater London. The largest settlements are Manchester and Liverpool. It is one of the three regions, alongside North East England and Yorkshire and the Humber, that make up Northern England.[5] The official region consists of the following subdivisions: The region has the following sub-divisions: After abolition of the Greater Manchester and Merseyside County Councils in 1986, power was transferred to the metropolitan boroughs, making them equivalent to unitary authorities. In April 2011, Greater Manchester gained a top-tier administrative body in the form of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority, which means the 10 Greater Manchester boroughs are once again second-tier authorities.
Kanjibhai Rathod.  Kanjibhai Rathod was an Indian film director.[1][2] Kanjibhai Rathod from Maroli village in Navsari district of south Gujarat, was considered the first successful director in Indian cinema. His rise to fame in an era when most people stayed away from films due to a peculiar stigma attached to the filmdom.[3] Not much is known about Rathods personal life. Film historian Virchand Dharamsey writes, Kanjibhai was coming from a Dalit family and he can be considered the first successful professional director of India.[4][5][6] Rathod began as a still photographer with the Oriental Film Company. His experience earned him a job in Kohinoor Film Company and its owner Dwarkadas Sampat made him a director.[citation needed]
Chinese characters.  Chinese characters[a] are logographs used to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represent the only one that has remained in continuous use. Over a documented history spanning more than three millennia, the function, style, and means of writing characters have changed greatly. Unlike letters in alphabets that reflect the sounds of speech, Chinese characters generally represent morphemes, the units of meaning in a language. Writing all of the frequently used vocabulary in a language requires roughly 2000–3000 characters; as of 2024[update], nearly 100000 have been identified and included in  The Unicode Standard. Characters are created according to several principles, where aspects of shape and pronunciation may be used to indicate the characters meaning. The first attested characters are oracle bone inscriptions made during the 13th century BCE in what is now Anyang, Henan, as part of divinations conducted by the Shang dynasty royal house. Character forms were originally ideographic or pictographic in style, but evolved as writing spread across China. Numerous attempts have been made to reform the script, including the promotion of small seal script by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Clerical script, which had matured by the early Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), abstracted the forms of characters—obscuring their pictographic origins in favour of making them easier to write. Following the Han, regular script emerged as the result of cursive influence on clerical script, and has been the primary style used for characters since. Informed by a long tradition of lexicography, states using Chinese characters have standardized their forms—broadly, simplified characters are used to write Chinese in mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia, while traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. Where the use of characters spread beyond China, they were initially used to write Literary Chinese; they were then often adapted to write local languages spoken throughout the Sinosphere. In Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, Chinese characters are known as kanji, hanja, and chữ Hán respectively. Writing traditions also emerged for some of the other languages of China, like the sawndip script used to write the Zhuang languages of Guangxi. Each of these written vernaculars used existing characters to write the languages native vocabulary, as well as the loanwords it borrowed from Chinese. In addition, each invented characters for local use. In written Korean and Vietnamese, Chinese characters have largely been replaced with alphabets—leaving Japanese as the only major non-Chinese language still written using them, alongside the other elements of the Japanese writing system. At the most basic level, characters are composed of strokes that are written in a fixed order. Historically, methods of writing characters have included inscribing stone, bone, or bronze; brushing ink onto silk, bamboo, or paper; and printing with woodblocks or moveable type. Technologies invented since the 19th century to facilitate the use of characters include telegraph codes and typewriters, as well as input methods and text encodings on computers.
List of named minor planets (numerical).  This is a list of named minor planets in numerical order. As of 10 June 2024[update], it contains a total of 24,795 named bodies.[1][2] Minor planets for which no article exists redirect to the list of minor planets (see List of minor planets § Main index). 
Sea surface temperature.  Sea surface temperature (or ocean surface temperature) is the temperature of ocean water close to the surface. The exact meaning of surface varies in the literature and in practice. It is usually between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below the sea surface. Sea surface temperatures greatly modify air masses in the Earths atmosphere within a short distance of the shore. The thermohaline circulation has a major impact on average sea surface temperature throughout most of the worlds oceans.[2] Warm sea surface temperatures can develop and strengthen cyclones over the ocean. Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake. This is due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres (100 ft) of the ocean. Sea surface temperature changes during the day. This is like the air above it, but to a lesser degree. There is less variation in sea surface temperature on breezy days than on calm days. Coastal sea surface temperatures can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling, which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses, but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer. Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant, such as the northwest coast of South America. Coastal sea surface temperature values are important within numerical weather prediction as the sea surface temperature influences the atmosphere above, such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog. It is very likely that global mean sea surface temperature increased by 0.88 °C between 1850–1900 and 2011–2020 due to global warming, with most of that warming (0.60 °C) occurring between 1980 and 2020.[3]: 1228  The temperatures over land are rising faster than ocean temperatures. This is because the ocean absorbs about 90% of excess heat generated by climate change.[4]
List of minor planets named after rivers. This is a list of minor planets named after rivers, organized by continent.
Last Glacial Period.  The Last Glacial Period (LGP), also known as the last glacial cycle, occurred from the end of the Last Interglacial to the beginning of the Holocene, c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago, and thus corresponds to most of the timespan of the Late Pleistocene.[1] It thus formed the most recent period of what is colloquially known as the Ice Age. The LGP is part of a larger sequence of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation which started around 2,588,000 years ago and is ongoing.[2] The glaciation and the current Quaternary Period both began with the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Mya (million years ago), in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene–Oligocene extinction event), and the term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase with the current glaciation.[3] The previous ice age within the Quaternary is the Penultimate Glacial Period, which ended about 128,000 years ago, was more severe than the Last Glacial Period in some areas such as Britain, but less severe in others. The last glacial period saw alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat with the Last Glacial Maximum occurring between 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. While the general pattern of cooling and glacier advance around the globe was similar, local differences make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). The most recent cooling, the Younger Dryas, began around 12,800 years ago and ended around 11,700 years ago, also marking the end of the LGP and the Pleistocene epoch. It was followed by the Holocene, the current geological epoch. The LGP is often colloquially referred to as the last ice age, though the term ice age is not strictly defined, and on a longer geological perspective, the last few million years could be termed a single ice age given the continual presence of ice sheets near both poles. Glacials are somewhat better defined, as colder phases during which glaciers advance, separated by relatively warm interglacials. The end of the last glacial period, which was about 10,000 years ago, is often called the end of the ice age, although extensive year-round ice persists in Antarctica and Greenland. Over the past few million years, the glacial-interglacial cycles have been paced by periodic variations in the Earths orbit via Milankovitch cycles.
List of minor planets named after places.  This is a list of minor planets named after places, organized by continent.
National Science Foundation.  The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about $9.9 billion (fiscal year 2023), the NSF funds approximately 25% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities.[4][5] In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing. NSFs director and deputy director are appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate, whereas the 24 president-appointed members of the National Science Board (NSB)[6] do not require U.S. Senate confirmation. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies. The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950.[7] Its stated mission is to promote the progress of science, to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare, and to secure the national defense.[8] The NSFs scope has expanded over the years to include many areas that were not in its initial portfolio, including the social and behavioral sciences, engineering, and science and mathematics education. The NSF is the only U.S. federal agency with a mandate to support all non-medical fields of research.[4] Since the technology boom of the 1980s, the U.S. Congress has generally embraced the premise that government-funded basic research is essential for the nations economic health and global competitiveness, and for national defense. This support has manifested in an expanding National Science Foundation budget from $1 billion in 1983 to $8.28 billion in 2020.[9]
Written language. A written language is the representation of a language by means of writing. This involves the use of visual symbols, known as graphemes, to represent linguistic units such as phonemes, syllables, morphemes, or words. However, written language is not merely spoken or signed language written down, though it can approximate that. Instead, it is a separate system with its own norms, structures, and stylistic conventions, and it often evolves differently than its corresponding spoken or signed language. Written languages serve as crucial tools for communication, enabling the recording, preservation, and transmission of information, ideas, and culture across time and space. The orthography of a written language comprises the norms by which it is expected to function, including rules regarding spelling and typography. A societys use of written language generally has a profound impact on its social organization, cultural identity, and technological profile. Writing, speech, and signing are three distinct modalities of language; each has unique characteristics and conventions.[2] When discussing properties common to the modes of language, the individual speaking, signing, or writing will be referred to as the sender, and the individual listening, viewing, or reading as the receiver; senders and receivers together will be collectively termed agents. The spoken, signed, and written modes of language mutually influence one another, with the boundaries between conventions for each being fluid—particularly in informal written contexts like taking quick notes or posting on social media.[3] Spoken and signed language is typically more immediate, reflecting the local context of the conversation and the emotions of the agents, often via paralinguistic cues like body language. Utterances are typically less premeditated, and are more likely to feature informal vocabulary and shorter sentences.[4] They are also primarily used in dialogue, and as such include elements that facilitate turn-taking; these including prosodic features such as trailing off and fillers that indicate the sender has not yet finished their turn. Errors encountered in spoken and signed language include disfluencies and hesitation.[5] By contrast, written language is typically more structured and formal. While speech and signing are transient, writing is permanent. It allows for planning, revision, and editing, which can lead to more complex sentences and a more extensive vocabulary. Written language also has to convey meaning without the aid of tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language, which often results in more explicit and detailed descriptions.[6]
Lexicography. Lexicography is the study of lexicons and the art of compiling dictionaries.[1] It is divided into two separate academic disciplines: There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology, as distinct from lexicography. Some use lexicology as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language. A person devoted to lexicography is called a lexicographer and is, according to a jest of Samuel Johnson, a harmless drudge.[relevant?][3][4] Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography. Such a dictionary is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries. It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics, as the chief object of study in lexicography is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009).
Ice sheet. In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier,[2] is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).[3] The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery. Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet — these are ice streams. Even stable ice sheets are continually in motion as the ice gradually flows outward from the central plateau, which is the tallest point of the ice sheet, and towards the margins. The ice sheet slope is low around the plateau but increases steeply at the margins.[4] Increasing global air temperatures due to climate change take around 10,000 years to directly propagate through the ice before they influence bed temperatures, but may have an effect through increased surface melting, producing more supraglacial lakes. These lakes may feed warm water to glacial bases and facilitate glacial motion.[5] In previous geologic time spans (glacial periods) there were other ice sheets. During the Last Glacial Period at Last Glacial Maximum, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered much of North America. In the same period, the Weichselian ice sheet covered Northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America.
List of minor planets named after people. This is a list of minor planets named after people, both real and fictional.
Grapheme.  In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest functional unit of a writing system.[1] The word grapheme is derived from Ancient Greeks gráphō (write), and the suffix -eme (by analogy with phoneme and other emic units). The study of graphemes is called graphemics. The concept of a grapheme is abstract; it is similar to the notion of a character in computing. (A specific geometric shape that represents any particular grapheme in a given typeface is called a glyph.) In orthographic and linguistic notation, a particular glyph (character) is represented as a grapheme (is used in its graphemic sense) by enclosing it within angle brackets: e.g. ⟨a⟩. There are two main opposing grapheme concepts.[2] In the so-called referential conception, graphemes are interpreted as the smallest units of writing that correspond with sounds (more accurately phonemes). In this concept, the sh in the written English word shake would be a grapheme because it represents the phoneme /ʃ/. This referential concept is linked to the dependency hypothesis that claims that writing merely depicts speech. By contrast, the analogical concept defines graphemes analogously to phonemes, i.e. via written minimal pairs such as shake vs. snake. In this example, h and n are graphemes because they distinguish two words. This analogical concept is associated with the autonomy hypothesis which holds that writing is a system in its own right and should be studied independently from speech. Both concepts have weaknesses.[3]
Macroscopic scale. The macroscopic scale is the length scale on which objects or phenomena are large enough to be visible with the naked eye, without magnifying optical instruments.[1][2] It is the opposite of microscopic. When applied to physical phenomena and bodies, the macroscopic scale describes things as a person can directly perceive them, without the aid of magnifying devices. This is in contrast to observations (microscopy) or theories (microphysics, statistical physics) of objects of geometric lengths smaller than perhaps some hundreds of micrometres. A macroscopic view of a ball is just that: a ball. A microscopic view could reveal a thick round skin seemingly composed entirely of puckered cracks and fissures (as viewed through a microscope) or, further down in scale, a collection of molecules in a roughly spherical shape (as viewed through an electron microscope). An example of a physical theory that takes a deliberately macroscopic viewpoint is thermodynamics. An example of a topic that extends from macroscopic to microscopic viewpoints is histology. Not quite by the distinction between macroscopic and microscopic, classical and quantum mechanics are theories that are distinguished in a subtly different way.[3] At first glance one might think of them as differing simply in the size of objects that they describe, classical objects being considered far larger as to mass and geometrical size than quantal objects, for example a football versus a fine particle of dust. More refined consideration distinguishes classical and quantum mechanics on the basis that classical mechanics fails to recognize that matter and energy cannot be divided into infinitesimally small parcels, so that ultimately fine division reveals irreducibly granular features. The criterion of fineness is whether or not the interactions are described in terms of the Planck constant. Roughly speaking, classical mechanics considers particles in mathematically idealized terms even as fine as geometrical points with no magnitude, still having their finite masses. Classical mechanics also considers mathematically idealized extended materials as geometrically continuously substantial. Such idealizations are useful for most everyday calculations, but may fail entirely for molecules, atoms, photons, and other elementary particles (and vice versa). In many ways, classical mechanics can be considered a mainly macroscopic theory. On the much smaller scale of atoms and molecules, classical mechanics may fail, and the interactions of particles are then described by quantum mechanics. Near the absolute minimum of temperature, the Bose–Einstein condensate exhibits effects on macroscopic scale that demand description by quantum mechanics. In the quantum measurement problem the issue of what constitutes macroscopic and what constitutes the quantum world is unresolved and possibly unsolvable. The related correspondence principle can be articulated thus: every macroscopic phenomena can be formulated as a problem in quantum theory. A violation of the correspondence principle would thus ensure an empirical distinction between the macroscopic and the quantum.
Ancient Greek.   Ancient Greek (Ἑλληνῐκή, Hellēnikḗ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː])[1] includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (c. 1400–1200 BC), Dark Ages (c. 1200–800 BC), the Archaic or Homeric period (c. 800–500 BC), and the Classical period (c. 500–300 BC).[2] Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BC), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek, which is regarded as a separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek, and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek, and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense – being an ancient rather than medieval form of Greek, though over the centuries increasingly resembling Medieval and Modern Greek.
Flagstaff. Flagstaff commonly refers to: Flagstaff may also refer to:
Euler diagram. An Euler diagram (/ˈɔɪlər/, OY-lər) is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and their relationships. They are particularly useful for explaining complex hierarchies and overlapping definitions. They are similar to another set diagramming technique, Venn diagrams. Unlike Venn diagrams, which show all possible relations between different sets, the Euler diagram shows only relevant relationships. The first use of Eulerian circles is commonly attributed to Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783). In the United States, both Venn and Euler diagrams were incorporated as part of instruction in set theory as part of the new math movement of the 1960s. Since then, they have also been adopted by other curriculum fields such as reading[1] as well as organizations and businesses. Euler diagrams consist of simple closed shapes in a two-dimensional plane that each depict a set or category. How or whether these shapes overlap demonstrates the relationships between the sets. Each curve divides the plane into two regions or zones: the interior, which symbolically represents the elements of the set, and the exterior, which represents all elements that are not members of the set. Curves which do not overlap represent disjoint sets, which have no elements in common. Two curves that overlap represent sets that intersect, that have common elements; the zone inside both curves represents the set of elements common to both sets (the intersection of the sets). A curve completely within the interior of another is a subset of it. Venn diagrams are a more restrictive form of Euler diagrams. A Venn diagram must contain all 2n logically possible zones of overlap between its n curves, representing all combinations of inclusion/exclusion of its constituent sets. Regions not part of the set are indicated by coloring them black, in contrast to Euler diagrams, where membership in the set is indicated by overlap as well as color. As shown in the illustration to the right, Sir William Hamilton erroneously asserted that the original use of the circles to sensualize... the abstractions of logic[5] was not Euler (1707–1783) but rather Weise (1642–1708);[6] however the latter book was actually written by Johann Christian Lange, rather than Weise.[2][3] He references Eulers Letters to a German Princess.[7][a]
List of counties in Arizona.  There are 15 counties in the U.S. state of Arizona.[1] Four counties (Mohave, Pima, Yavapai and Yuma) were created in 1864 following the organization of the Arizona Territory in 1862. The now defunct Pah-Ute County was split from Mohave County in 1865, but merged back in 1871. All but La Paz County were created by the time Arizona was granted statehood in 1912. La Paz County was established in 1983 after many years of pushing for independence from Yuma County.[2] Eight of Arizonas fifteen counties are named after various Native American groups that are resident in parts of what is now Arizona, with another (Cochise County) being named after a native leader. Four other counties, Gila County, Santa Cruz County, Pinal County, and Graham County, are named for physical features of Arizonas landscape: the Gila River, the Santa Cruz River, Pinal Peak, and Mount Graham, respectively. Another county, La Paz County, is named after a former settlement, while the final county, Greenlee County, is named after one of the states early pioneers.[3] Under Arizona laws, a county shall not be formed or divided by county initiative unless each proposed county would have all of the following characteristics: (1) at least three-fourths of one percent of the total state assessed valuation and at least the statewide per capita assessed valuation; (2) a population of at least three-fourths of one percent of the total state population according to the most recent United States decennial census; (3) at least one hundred square miles of privately owned land; (4) common boundaries with either (a) at least three other existing or proposed counties; or (b) at least two other existing or proposed counties and the state boundary.[4] A county formation commission is required to be formed to evaluate the feasibility of the proposed county.[5] A proposal to divide a county must be approved by a majority of the votes cast in each proposed new county.[6] Under the Arizona Constitution, counties are politically and legally creatures of the state, and do not have charters of their own. Counties are governed by boards of supervisors which act in the capacity of executive authority for the county within the statutes and powers prescribed by Arizona state law. With few exceptions, these powers are narrowly construed. The state legislature devotes considerable time to local matters, with limited discretion granted to the Board of Supervisors on minor ordinance, zoning, and revenue collection issues.
List of municipalities in Arizona.  Arizona is a state located in the Western United States. According to the 2020 United States census, Arizona is the 14th most populous state with 7,151,502 inhabitants (as of the 2020 census)[1] and the 6th largest by land area spanning 113,623.1 square miles (294,282 km2).[2] Arizona is divided into 15 counties and contains 91 incorporated cities and towns. Incorporated places in Arizona are those that have been granted home rule, possessing a local government in the form of a city or town council. Most of the population is concentrated within the Phoenix metropolitan area, with a 2020 census population of 4,845,832 (67.8% of the state population).[3] Phoenix is the capital and largest city by population in Arizona with 1,608,139 residents,[4] is ranked as the fifth most populous city in the United States, and land area spanning 517.5 sq mi (1,340 km2) as of the 2020 census. The smallest municipality by population and land area is Winkelman with 296 residents in 0.75 sq mi (1.9 km2).[5] The oldest incorporated place in Arizona is Tucson which incorporated in 1877 and the most recent was the town of Tusayan which incorporated in March 2010.[6] The Arizona Constitution has, since its ratification in 1912, allowed for the creation of municipal corporations in any community with a population of 3,500 or greater.[7] According to the Constitution, a municipal charter cannot be created by special laws or by the legislature, but rather by the communities themselves as provided by general law.[8] The population limit specified by the constitution was lowered by state law to a minimum of population of 1,500 for most locations, and further reduced to 500 for communities located within 10 miles (16 km) of a national park or national monument.[9] State law further restricts the incorporation of new municipalities within urbanized areas, which are defined as a specific buffer zone surrounding existing cities and towns.[10] State law allows for the incorporation of a community as either a city or a town; the only additional requirement to incorporate as a city is a minimum population of 3,000.[11] Cities and towns in Arizona function largely in an identical manner, but cities are provided with additional powers that a town charter does not provide, limited primarily to certain powers regarding the regulation of utilities and construction within the city limits.[12] State law allows adjoining towns to merge and it allows a city to annex a town, but it does not allow cities to merge.[13][14] Additionally, a town may change its form of government to a city upon reaching the minimum population of 3,000.[15] There are, however, large communities that have remained incorporated as a town in spite of attaining a large population; Gilbert, with 267,918 residents, remains incorporated as a town.
The Times.   Defunct The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, adopting its modern name on 1 January 1788. The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times (founded in 1821), are published by Times Media, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, in turn wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times were founded independently and have had common ownership only since 1966.[2] It is considered a newspaper of record in the UK.[3] The Times was the first newspaper to bear that name, inspiring numerous other papers around the world. In countries where these other titles are popular, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times[4] or The Times of London,[5] although the newspaper is of national scope and distribution.
North America.  North America is a continent[b] in the Northern and Western hemispheres.[c] North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. The region includes Middle America (comprising the Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico) and Northern America. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), representing approximately 16.5% of Earths land area and 4.8% of its total surface area. It is the third-largest continent by size after Asia and Africa, and the fourth-largest continent by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. As of 2021[update], North Americas population was estimated as over 592 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the worlds population. In human geography, the terms North America and North American refers to Canada, Greenland, Mexico, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and the United States.[7][8][9][10][11] It is unknown with certainty how and when first human populations first reached North America. People were known to live in the Americas at least 20,000 years ago,[12] but various evidence points to possibly earlier dates.[13][14] The Paleo-Indian period in North America followed the Last Glacial Period, and lasted until about 10,000 years ago when the Archaic period began. The classic stage followed the Archaic period, and lasted from approximately the 6th to 13th centuries. Beginning in 1000 AD, the Norse were the first Europeans to begin exploring and ultimately colonizing areas of North America. In 1492, the exploratory voyages of Christopher Columbus led to a transatlantic exchange, including migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, enslaved Africans, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and descendants of these respective groups.
Worlds Dumbest....  truTV Presents: Worlds Dumbest... (formerly titled The Smoking Gun Presents: Worlds Dumbest..., and simply known as Worlds Dumbest...) is an American reality comedy television series produced by Meetinghouse Productions, Inc. and aired on truTV from 2008 to 2014. Each episode features a ranked compilation of 20 video clips depicting unconventional or ill-advised behavior, often sourced from surveillance footage, eyewitness recordings, or public broadcasts, and includes commentary from featured celebrities or comedians. Segments are organized by thematic categories such as criminals, drivers, daredevils, partiers, and performers. Starting on May 31, 2022, TBD (now Roar) is currently airing reruns, albeit heavily edited down to a half-hour.[1][2] Each episode of the series, originally only known as Worlds Dumbest Criminals, presented a comedic look at 20 half-witted and offbeat events recorded on camera and occasionally, on tape by 911 dispatchers.
Coconino County, Arizona.  Coconino County is a county in the  North-Central part of the U.S. state of Arizona. Its population was 145,101 at the 2020 census.[1] The county seat is Flagstaff.[2] The county takes its name from Cohonino,[3] a name applied to the Havasupai people. It is the second-largest county by area in the contiguous United States, behind San Bernardino County, California. It has 18,661 sq mi (48,332 km2), or 16.4% of Arizonas total area, and is larger than the nine smallest states in the U.S. Coconino County comprises the Flagstaff metropolitan statistical area, Grand Canyon National Park, the federally recognized Havasupai Nation, and parts of the federally recognized Navajo, Hualapai, and Hopi nations. As a result, its relatively large Native American population makes up nearly 30% of the countys total population; it is mostly Navajo, with smaller numbers of other tribes. The county was the setting for George Herrimans early 20th-century Krazy Kat comic strip. After European Americans completed the Atlantic & Pacific Railroad in 1883, the region of northern Yavapai County began to undergo rapid growth. The people of the northern reaches had tired of the rigors of traveling to Prescott to conduct county business. They believed that they should have their own county jurisdiction, so petitioned in 1887 for secession from Yavapai and creation of a new Frisco County. This did not take place, but Coconino County was formed in 1891 and its seat was designated as Flagstaff.
TruTV.  TruTV (stylized as truTV) is an American basic cable channel owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. The channel primarily broadcasts reruns of comedy, docusoaps and reality shows, with a recent strong primetime focus on live sports. The channel was originally launched on December 14, 1990 as Court TV, a network that focused on crime-themed programs such as true crime documentary series, legal dramas, and coverage of prominent criminal cases. The channel was initially a joint venture between Time Warner, Cablevision, American Lawyer Media, Liberty Media, and GE, with Liberty joining the venture a year after its launch in 1991. By 2005, Liberty Media and Time Warner had purchased ALM, Cablevision and GEs stakes in Court TV. Time Warner subsequently bought out Libertys share in 2006 for $735 million, and brought the channel under the Turner Broadcasting System. In 2008, the channel relaunched as TruTV, changing its focus to action-oriented docusoaps and caught on camera programs, which it marketed as actuality television. The channel continued to carry legal coverage during the daytime hours under the title In Session, but this was phased out by September 2013. The Court TV name was later bought by Katz Broadcasting (now Scripps Networks), which since 2017 has been part of the E. W. Scripps Company. In 2011, the channel began to add occasional sports broadcasts from Turner Sports (renamed TNT Sports in 2023), primarily the NCAA mens basketball tournament. In October 2014, TruTV pivoted its format to focus more on comedy-based reality series, such as Impractical Jokers. In March 2024, TruTV began to increase its focus on sports programming, introducing a weeknight block that will feature sports-related programming, as well as being incorporated into new and upcoming TNT Sports rights such as MotoGP and NASCAR. As of January 2016,[update] TruTV was available to approximately 91 million households (78.1%) in the United States.[1] By June 2023, this number has dropped to 68.3 million households.[2] The Courtroom Television Network, or Court TV for short, was launched on July 1, 1991, at 6:00 a.m. Eastern Time, and was available to three million subscribers.[3] Its original anchors were Jack Ford, Fred Graham, Cynthia McFadden, and Gregg Jarrett. The network was born out of two competing projects to launch cable channels with live courtroom proceedings, the American Trial Network from Time Warner and American Lawyer Media (ALM), and In Court from Cablevision and NBC. Both projects were present at the National Cable Television Association in June 1990.[4] Rather than trying to establish two competing networks, the projects were combined on December 14, 1990. Liberty Media would join the venture in 1991.
Defenceman.  Defence or defense (in American English) in ice hockey is a player position that is primarily responsible for preventing the opposing team from scoring. They are often referred to as defencemen, D, D-men or blueliners (the latter a reference to the blue line in ice hockey which represents the boundary of the offensive zone; defencemen generally position themselves along the line to keep the puck in the zone). They were once called cover-point. In regular play, two defencemen complement three forwards and a goaltender on the ice. Exceptions include overtime during the regular season and when a team is short-handed (i.e. has been assessed a penalty), in which two defencemen are typically joined by only two forwards and a goaltender; when a team is on the power play (i.e. the opponent has been assessed a penalty), teams will often play only one defenceman, joined by four forwards and a goaltender. In National Hockey League regular season play in overtime, effective with the 2015-16 season, teams (usually) have only three position players and a goaltender on the ice, and may use either two forwards and one defenceman, or—rarely—two defencemen and one forward. Organized play of ice hockey originates from the first indoor game in Montreal in 1875. In subsequent years, the number of players per side was reduced to seven. Positions were standardized, and two correspond to the two defencemen of current six-man rules. These were designated as cover point and point, although they lined up behind the center and the rover, unlike today. Decades later, defencemen were standardized into playing left and right sides of the ice. According to one of the earliest known books on ice hockey, Farrells Hockey: Canadas Royal Winter Game (1899), Mike Grant of the Montreal Victorias, describes the point as essentially defensive. He should not stray too far from his place, because oftentimes he is practically a second goal-minder ... although he should remain close to his goal-keeper, he should never obstruct that mans view of the puck. He should, as a rule, avoid rushing up the ice, but if he has a good opening for such a play he should give the puck to one of the forwards on the first opportunity and then hasten back to his position, which has been occupied, in the interim, by the cover-point.[1]
Ladera Heights, California.  Ladera Heights is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The population was 6,634 at the 2020 census.[4] Culver City lies to its west, the Baldwin Hills neighborhood to its north, the View Park–Windsor Hills community to its east, the Westchester neighborhood to its south and southwest and the city of Inglewood to its southeast. With an average household income of $132,824, Ladera Heights ranks third amongst the ten wealthiest majority-Black communities in the United States. Ladera Heights originated in the late 1940s with the development of Old Ladera. In the 1960s, custom homes were built in New Ladera. Prominent architect builders included Valentine and Gallant. Robert Earl, who designed many of the Valentine homes, went on to build large multimillion-dollar estates throughout Southern California and in other countries.  Neighboring Fox Hills contained a golf course with rolling hills that backed up to Wooster Avenue. Valentine built Robert Earl designed homes on Wooster overlooking the Fox Hills golf course. Baseball player Frank Robinson and other sports players began moving to Ladera Heights in the early 1970s.[5]  Many celebrities have lived in Ladera Heights over the years, including Peter Vidmar, Vanessa Williams, Chris Darden, Chris Strait, Lisa Leslie, Olympia Scott, Ken Norton, Arron Afflalo, Tyler, The Creator, Michael Cooper and Byron Scott.[6] Ladera Heights is known as a residence for affluent African Americans.[7][8] According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 3.0 square miles (7.8 km2), all of it land.
Cornerback. A cornerback (CB) is a member of the defensive backfield or secondary in gridiron football.[1] Cornerbacks cover receivers most of the time, but also blitz and defend against such offensive running plays as sweeps and reverses. They create turnovers through hard tackles, interceptions, and  deflecting forward passes. Other members of the defensive backfield include strong and free safeties. The cornerback position requires speed, agility, strength, and the ability to make rapid sharp turns. A cornerbacks skill set typically requires proficiency in anticipating the quarterback, backpedaling, executing single and zone coverage, disrupting pass routes, block shedding, and tackling. Cornerbacks are among the fastest players on the field.  Because of this, they are frequently used as return specialists on punts or kickoffs. The cornerbacks chief responsibility is to defend against the offenses pass. The rules of American professional football and American college football  do not mandate starting position, movement, or coverage zones for any member of the defense.[2][3] There are no illegal defense formations. Cornerbacks can be anywhere on the defensive side of the line of scrimmage at the start of play, although their proximity, formations, and strategies are outlined by the coaching staff or captain. Examples of cornerbacks in the NFL are Jalen Ramsey, Patrick Surtain II, Marlon Humphrey, Jaire Alexander, Sauce Gardner, LJarius Sneed, and Charvarius Ward. Most modern National Football League defensive formations use four defensive backs (two safeties and two corners); Canadian Football League defenses generally use five defensive backs (one safety, two defensive halfbacks, and two corners). A cornerbacks responsibilities vary depending on how the defense assigns protection to its defensive secondary. In terms of defending the run, often corners may be assigned to blitz depending on the coaching decisions in a game. In terms of defending passing plays, a corner will be typically assigned to either zone or man-to-man coverage.
Amalgamated Transit Union.  The Amalgamated Transit Union (ATU) is a labor organization in the United States and Canada that represents employees in the public transit industry. Established in 1892 as the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees of America, the union was centered primarily in the Eastern United States; as of 2020, ATU has had over 200,000 members throughout the United States and Canada. The union was founded in 1892 as the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees of America. The union has its origins in a meeting of the American Federation of Labor in 1891 at which president Samuel Gompers was asked to invite the local street railway associations to form an international union. Gompers sent a letter to the local street railway unions in April 1892, and based on the positive response arranged for a convention of street railway workers.[2] The convention began on September 12, 1892, in Indianapolis, Indiana, attended by fifty delegates from twenty-two locals. Many of the smaller unions were affiliated with the AFL, while four larger locals were affiliated with the Knights of Labor and two were independent.[3] The first president was William J. Law from the AFL-affiliated local in Detroit.[3] Detroit was chosen as the headquarters, using the same facilities as the Detroit local.[4] Because the number of members affiliated with the Knights of Labor was greater than the numbers affiliated with the AFL, according to the claims of the delegates, the new international remained unaffiliated despite pleas by Gompers.[4] The objectives included education, settlement of disputes with management, and securing good pay and working conditions. The international was given considerable authority over the locals.[5] The second convention was held in Cleveland in October 1893, with just fifteen divisions represented by about twenty delegates.[6] At this meeting William D. Mahon was named president, and he still held this position in 1937. By then the union had been renamed the Amalgamated Association of Street, Electric Railway and Motor Coach Employees of America.[2] The union struggled in the early years as the transit companies followed the practice of firing union activists. In the 1897 meeting in Dayton, Ohio, there were twenty delegates. The treasury of the union now had $4,008.[7] An early achievement was to have laws passed in a dozen states by 1899 that mandated enclosed vestibules for the motormen. Wages were close to $2 a day where the union was established, and in Detroit and Worcester the nine-hour day had been achieved, although in most cities ten- or eleven-hour days were common.[8]
2013 Stanley Cup playoffs.  The 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs was the playoff tournament of the National Hockey League (NHL) for the 2012–13 season. They began on April 30, 2013,[1] following the conclusion of the regular season. The regular season was shortened to 48 games and the playoffs were pushed to a later date due to a lockout. The playoffs ended on June 24, 2013, with the Chicago Blackhawks defeating the Boston Bruins in the Stanley Cup Finals in six games to win the Stanley Cup.[1] Patrick Kane won the Conn Smythe trophy as the playoffs MVP, with 19 points (9 goals and 10 assists). The Blackhawks made the playoffs as the Presidents Trophy winners with the most points (i.e., best record) during the regular season. The Detroit Red Wings increased their postseason appearance streak to twenty-two seasons, the longest active streak at the time. The Toronto Maple Leafs made the playoffs for the first time since 2004, breaking the longest active drought at the time. The 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs marked the first time since 1996 that every Original Six team advanced to the playoffs in the same year. Additionally, four Canadian teams qualified for the playoffs (Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, and Vancouver), the most since 2006, three of those teams were in Eastern Canada. The first round series between Montreal and Ottawa was the first playoff series between two Canadian teams since 2004. For the second time in three years, all three teams from California made the playoffs.[2] The New Jersey Devils and Philadelphia Flyers missed the playoffs this year, marking the first time this happened since the Devils relocated in 1982. For the first time since 1945, the four semifinalists were the previous four Stanley Cup champions: Pittsburgh (2009), Chicago (2010), Boston (2011), and Los Angeles (2012).[3] In fact, Detroit, the 2008 Stanley Cup champions, were the last team to be eliminated in the conference semifinals, so the last five teams remaining were the previous five champions. The 2013 Stanley Cup Finals were contested between Blackhawks and Bruins, the first meeting in the Finals between the two teams, and the first time that two Original Six teams competed in the Finals since Montreal defeated the New York Rangers in the 1979 Stanley Cup Finals.[4] It is also the most recent Stanley Cup Finals to feature two Original Six teams. The Blackhawks also became the first Presidents Trophy winners to win the Stanley Cup since the Red Wings in 2008. To date they are the most recent team to accomplish this feat and most recent Presidents Trophy winners to even reach the Finals.
Labour movement.  The labour movement[a] is the collective organisation of working people to further their shared political and economic interests. It consists of the trade union or labour union movement, as well as political parties of labour. It can be considered an instance of class conflict. The labour movement developed as a response to capitalism and the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, at about the same time as socialism.[1] The early goals of the movement were the right to unionise, the right to vote, democracy, safe working conditions and the 40-hour week. As these were achieved in many of the advanced economies of Western Europe and North America in the early decades of the 20th century, the labour movement expanded to issues of welfare and social insurance, wealth distribution and income distribution, public services like health care and education, social housing and common ownership. Labor is prior to, and independent of, capital. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration. The labour movement has its origins in Europe during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when agricultural and cottage industry jobs disappeared and were replaced as mechanization and industrialization moved employment to more industrial areas like factory towns causing an influx of low-skilled labour and a concomitant decline in real wages and living standards for workers in urban areas.[3] Prior to the industrial revolution, economies in Europe were dominated by the guild system which had originated in the Middle Ages.[4]  The guilds were expected to protect the interests of the owners, labourers, and consumers through regulation of wages, prices, and standard business practices.[5] However, as the increasingly unequal and oligarchic guild system deteriorated in the 16th and 17th centuries, spontaneous formations of journeymen within the guilds would occasionally act together to demand better wage rates and conditions, and these ad hoc groupings can be considered the forerunners of the modern labour movement.[6] These formations were succeeded by trade unions forming in the United Kingdom in the 18th century. Nevertheless, without the continuous technological and international trade pressures during the Industrial Revolution, these trade unions remained sporadic and localised only to certain regions and professions, and there was not yet enough impetus for the formation of a widespread and comprehensive labour movement. Therefore, the labour movement is usually marked as beginning concurrently with the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom, roughly around 1760–1830.[7]
Inglewood, California.   Inglewood is a city in southwestern Los Angeles County, California, United States, in the Greater Los Angeles metropolitan area. As of the 2020 U.S. census, the city had a population of 107,762. It is in the South Bay region of Los Angeles County, near Los Angeles International Airport.[6] The Inglewood area was developed following the opening of the Venice–Inglewood railway in 1887 and incorporated as a city on February 14, 1908.[7] The Inglewood Oil Field is the largest urban oil field in the US. The city is a major hub for professional sports with several teams that have played in Inglewoods venues. The Kia Forum, an indoor arena, opened in 1967 and hosted the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association, Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League, and the Los Angeles Sparks of the Womens National Basketball Association, until the opening of Staples Center in 1999. Two National Football League teams—the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers—have played at SoFi Stadium since it opened in 2020; the stadium will also host the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2028 Summer Olympics. The Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association began play at Intuit Dome in 2024. The earliest residents of what is now Inglewood were Native Americans who used the Aguaje de Centinela natural springs in todays Edward Vincent Sr. Park (known for most of its history as Centinela Park). Local historian Gladys Waddingham wrote that these springs took the name Centinela from the hills that rose gradually around them, and which allowed ranchers to watch over their herds, (thus the name centinelas or sentinels).[8]
Juan Navarro High School.  Juan Navarro Early College High School (formerly Sidney Lanier High School) was established in 1961 as the sixth high school in the Austin Independent School District (AISD) and was originally located in the building which today houses Burnet Middle School. Lanier was named in honor of the Southern poet and Confederate veteran Sidney Lanier. The current campus, opened in 1966, is located on Payton Gin Road. In 1997, Lanier was nationally recognized as a Blue Ribbon School, the highest honor a school could receive at the time. When it first opened, Lanier had virtually an all White student base with a highly active FFA chapter, but over the years it has become a primarily Mexican-American school with over 85% of its students being Hispanic.[2] The AISD Board of Trustees voted on March 24, 2019, to rename the school Juan Navarro High School. Juan Navarro was a 2007 graduate who died in Afghanistan from an improvised explosive device in July 2012.[3] 
Solar System.  The Solar System[d] consists of the Sun and the objects that orbit it.[11] The name comes from Sōl, the Latin name for the Sun.[12] It formed about 4.6 billion years ago when a dense region of a molecular cloud collapsed, creating the Sun and a protoplanetary disc from which the orbiting bodies assembled. The fusion of hydrogen into helium inside the Suns core releases energy, which is primarily emitted through its outer photosphere. This creates a decreasing temperature gradient across the system. Over 99.86% of the Solar Systems mass is located within the Sun. The most massive objects that orbit the Sun are the eight planets. Closest to the Sun in order of increasing distance are the four terrestrial planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Only the Earth and Mars orbit within the Suns habitable zone, where liquid water can exist on the surface. Beyond the frost line at about five astronomical units (AU),[e] are two gas giants – Jupiter and Saturn – and two ice giants – Uranus and Neptune. Jupiter and Saturn possess nearly 90% of the non-stellar mass of the Solar System. There are a vast number of less massive objects. There is a strong consensus among astronomers that the Solar System has at least nine dwarf planets: Ceres, Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, Makemake, Gonggong, Eris, and Sedna.[f] Six planets, seven dwarf planets, and other bodies have orbiting natural satellites, which are commonly called moons, and range from sizes of dwarf planets, like Earths Moon, at their largest, to much less massive moonlets at their smallest. There are small Solar System bodies, such as asteroids, comets, centaurs, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust clouds. Some of these bodies are in the asteroid belt (between Marss and Jupiters orbit) and the Kuiper belt (just outside Neptunes orbit).[g] Between the bodies of the Solar System is an interplanetary medium of dust and particles. The Solar System is constantly flooded by outflowing charged particles from the solar wind, forming the heliosphere. At around 70–90 AU from the Sun, the solar wind is halted by the interstellar medium, resulting in the heliopause. This is the boundary to interstellar space. The Solar System extends beyond this boundary with its outermost region, the theorized Oort cloud, the source for long-period comets, extending to a radius of 2,000–200,000 AU. The Solar System currently moves through a cloud of interstellar medium called the Local Cloud. The closest star to the Solar System, Proxima Centauri, is 4.25 light-years (269,000 AU) away. Both are within the Local Bubble, a relatively small 1,000 light-years wide region of the Milky Way.
Waltham, Massachusetts.  Waltham (/ˈwɔːlθæm/ WAWL-tham) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States, and was an early center for the labor movement as well as a major contributor to the American Industrial Revolution. The original home of the Boston Manufacturing Company, the city was a prototype for 19th century industrial city planning, spawning what became known as the Waltham-Lowell system of labor and production. The city is now a center for research and higher education as home to Brandeis University and Bentley University. The population was 65,218 at the 2020 United States census.[2] Waltham is part of the Greater Boston area and lies 9 miles (14 km) west of Downtown Boston. Waltham has been called watch city because of its association with the watch industry. Waltham Watch Company opened its factory in Waltham in 1854 and was the first company to make watches on an assembly line. It won the gold medal in 1876 at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. The company produced over 35 million watches, clocks, and instruments before it closed in 1957.[3] Waltham borders Watertown and Belmont to the east, Lexington to the north, Lincoln and Weston to the west, and Newton to the south. Waltham was first settled by the English in 1634 as part of Watertown, and was officially incorporated as a separate town in 1738,[4] but the area was inhabited for thousands of years prior to English colonization. At the time of European arrival, Waltham was in a border zone between the territories of the Pawtucket confederation and the Massachusett, with nearby native settlements at Nonantum and Pequosset (Watertown).[5] Early settlers recorded the presence of an Indian Stockade near todays Cambridge Reservoir, and an Indian Hollow in todays Calvary Cemetery.[6] A native trail through Waltham, the Old Connecticut Path saw continued use after colonization and became the basis for present day Route 20.[6]
Planet.  A planet is a large, rounded astronomical body that is generally required to be in orbit around a star, stellar remnant, or brown dwarf, and is not one itself.[1] The Solar System has eight planets by the most restrictive definition of the term: the terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, and the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The best available theory of planet formation is the nebular hypothesis, which posits that an interstellar cloud collapses out of a nebula to create a young protostar orbited by a protoplanetary disk. Planets grow in this disk by the gradual accumulation of material driven by gravity, a process called accretion. The word planet comes from the Greek πλανήται (planḗtai) wanderers. In antiquity, this word referred to the Sun, Moon, and five points of light visible to the naked eye that moved across the background of the stars—namely, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Planets have historically had religious associations: multiple cultures identified celestial bodies with gods, and these connections with mythology and folklore persist in the schemes for naming newly discovered Solar System bodies. Earth itself was recognized as a planet when heliocentrism supplanted geocentrism during the 16th and 17th centuries. With the development of the telescope, the meaning of planet broadened to include objects only visible with assistance: the moons of the planets beyond Earth; the ice giants Uranus and Neptune; Ceres and other bodies later recognized to be part of the asteroid belt; and Pluto, later found to be the largest member of the collection of icy bodies known as the Kuiper belt. The discovery of other large objects in the Kuiper belt, particularly Eris, spurred debate about how exactly to define a planet. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a definition of a planet in the Solar System, placing the four terrestrial planets and the four giant planets in the planet category; Ceres, Pluto, and Eris are in the category of dwarf planet.[2][3][4] Many planetary scientists have nonetheless continued to apply the term planet more broadly, including dwarf planets as well as rounded satellites like the Moon.[5] Further advances in astronomy led to the discovery of over 5,900 planets outside the Solar System, termed exoplanets. These often show unusual features that the Solar System planets do not show, such as hot Jupiters—giant planets that orbit close to their parent stars, like 51 Pegasi b—and extremely eccentric orbits, such as HD 20782 b. The discovery of brown dwarfs and planets larger than Jupiter also spurred debate on the definition, regarding where exactly to draw the line between a planet and a star. Multiple exoplanets have been found to orbit in the habitable zones of their stars (where liquid water can potentially exist on a planetary surface), but Earth remains the only planet known to support life.
List of jōyō kanji.  The jōyō kanji (常用漢字; Japanese pronunciation: [dʑoːjoːkaꜜɲdʑi], lit. regular-use kanji) system of representing written Japanese currently consists of 2,136 characters.
List of minor planet discoverers.  This is a list of minor-planet discoverers credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of one or several minor planets (such as near-Earth and main-belt asteroids, Jupiter trojans and distant objects).[1] As of January 2022[update], the discovery of 612,011 numbered minor planets are credited to 1,141 astronomers and 253 observatories, telescopes or surveys (see § Discovering dedicated institutions). On how a discovery is made, see observations of small Solar System bodies. For a description of the tables below, see § Notes.  The discovery table consist of the following fields:
Strike action.  Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike in British English, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. As striking became a more common practice, governments were often pushed to act (either by private business or by union workers). When government intervention occurred, it was rarely neutral or amicable. Early strikes were often deemed unlawful conspiracies or anti-competitive cartel action and many were subject to massive legal repression by state police, federal military power, and federal courts.[1] Many Western nations legalized striking under certain conditions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Occasionally, strikes destabilize the rule of a particular political party or ruler; in such cases, strikes are often part of a broader social movement taking the form of a campaign of civil resistance. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard and the 1981 Warning Strike led by Lech Wałęsa. These strikes were significant in the long campaign of civil resistance for political change in Poland, and were an important mobilizing effort that contributed to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of communist party rule in Eastern Europe.[2] Another example is the general strike in Weimar Germany that followed the March 1920 Kapp Putsch. It was called by the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and received such broad support that it resulted in the collapse of the putsch.[3] The use of the English word strike to describe a work protest was first seen in 1768, when sailors, in support of demonstrations in London, struck or removed the topgallant sails of merchant ships at port, thus crippling the ships.[4][5][6] The first historically certain account of strike action was in ancient Egypt on 14 November in 1152 BCE, when artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs in protest at the failure of the government of Ramesses III to pay their wages on time and in full.[7][8] The royal government ended the strike by raising the artisans wages.
Trade union.  A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment,[1] such as attaining better wages and benefits, improving working conditions, improving safety standards, establishing complaint procedures, developing rules governing status of employees (rules governing promotions, just-cause conditions for termination) and protecting and increasing the bargaining power of workers. Trade unions typically fund their head office and legal team functions through regularly imposed fees called union dues. The union representatives in the workforce are usually made up of workplace volunteers who are often appointed by members through internal democratic elections. The trade union, through an elected leadership and bargaining committee, bargains with the employer on behalf of its members, known as the rank and file, and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining agreements) with employers. Unions may organize a particular section of skilled or unskilled workers (craft unionism),[2] a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism), or an attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism). The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank-and-file members and the employer, and in some cases on other non-member workers. Trade unions traditionally have a constitution which details the governance of their bargaining unit and also have governance at various levels of government depending on the industry that binds them legally to their negotiations and functioning. Originating in the United Kingdom, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution when employment (rather than subsistence farming) became the primary mode of earning a living.  Trade unions may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past workers, students, apprentices or the unemployed. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union, is highest in the Nordic countries.[3][4]
Kanbun (era). Kanbun (寛文) was a Japanese era (年号, nengō; year name) after Manji and before Enpō.  This period spanned the years from April 1661 to September 1673.[1] The reigning emperors were Go-Sai-tennō (後西天皇) and Reigen-tennō (霊元天皇).[2]
New York Islanders.  The New York Islanders (colloquially known as the Isles) are a professional ice hockey team based in Elmont, New York. The Islanders compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Metropolitan Division in the Eastern Conference. The team plays its home games at UBS Arena. The Islanders are one of three NHL franchises in the New York metropolitan area, along with the New Jersey Devils and New York Rangers, and their fanbase resides primarily on Long Island. The team was founded in 1972 as part of the NHLs maneuvers to keep a team from rival league World Hockey Association (WHA) out of the newly built Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in suburban Uniondale, New York. After two years of building up the teams roster, they found almost instant success by securing 14 straight playoff berths starting with their third season. The Islanders won four consecutive Stanley Cup championships between 1980 and 1983, the eighth of nine dynasties recognized by the NHL in its history. Their 19 consecutive playoff series wins between 1980 and 1984 is a feat that remains unparalleled in the history of professional sports. They are the last team in any major professional North American sport to win four consecutive championships, and to date the last NHL team to achieve a three-peat. Following the teams dynasty era, the franchise ran into problems with money, ownership and management, an aging arena, and low attendance. Their woes were reflected on the ice, as the team has not won a division title since 1987–88, and went 22 seasons without winning a playoff series prior to the 2016 playoffs. After years of failed attempts to rebuild or replace Nassau Coliseum in suburban Long Island, the Islanders relocated to Barclays Center in Brooklyn following the 2014–15 season.[4] In the 2018–19 and 2019–20 seasons, the Islanders split their home games between Barclays Center and Nassau Coliseum. The Islanders played all their home games in the 2020–21 season at Nassau Coliseum. Their new arena near Belmont Park was opened in 2021. Ten former members of the Islanders have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame, seven of whom—Mike Bossy, Clark Gillies, Denis Potvin, Billy Smith, Bryan Trottier, coach Al Arbour, and general manager Bill Torrey—were members of all four Cup-winning teams. Post-dynasty players Pat LaFontaine, Roberto Luongo, Pierre Turgeon, and Zdeno Chara were also inducted.
2004 NFL draft.  The 2004 NFL draft was the procedure by which National Football League teams selected amateur college football players. It is officially known as the NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting.  The draft was held from April 24–25, 2004, at the Theater at Madison Square Garden in New York City.[1][2][3] No teams chose to claim any players in the supplemental draft that year. The draft was shown on ESPN both days and eventually moved to ESPN2 both days. The draft began with the San Diego Chargers selecting Mississippi quarterback Eli Manning with the first overall selection. Due to his refusal to play for the Chargers, Manning was later traded to the New York Giants for the fourth overall pick Philip Rivers of NC State. There were 32 compensatory selections distributed among 16 teams, with the Eagles, Rams, and Jets each receiving 4 compensatory picks.[4] Seven wide receivers were selected in the first round, a draft record later tied in 2024.[5] Another record set by the draft was the most trades in the first round, with twenty-eight trades. The University of Miami set an NFL record for the most first rounders drafted with six, which would be tied by Alabama in 2021. Ohio State set an NFL draft record having 14 total players selected through all rounds. It was the first draft to have produced two quarterbacks who each won multiple Super Bowls, with Ben Roethlisberger winning his second in 2008 and Eli Manning his second in 2011. The 255 players chosen in the draft were composed of: In the explanations below,  (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2004 Draft, while  (PD) indicates trades completed pre-draft.
Neritic zone.  The neritic zone (or sublittoral zone) is the relatively shallow part of the ocean above the drop-off of the continental shelf, approximately 200 meters (660 ft) in depth.[1][2] From the point of view of marine biology it forms a relatively stable and well-illuminated environment for marine life, from plankton up to large fish and corals, while physical oceanography sees it as where the oceanic system interacts with the coast. In marine biology, the neritic zone, also called coastal waters, the coastal ocean or the sublittoral zone,[3] refers to the zone of the ocean where sunlight reaches the ocean floor, that is where the water is never so deep as to take it out of the photic zone. It extends from the low tide mark to the edge of the continental shelf, with a relatively shallow depth extending to about 200 meters (660 feet). Above the neritic zone lie the intertidal (or eulittoral) and supralittoral zones; below it the continental slope begins, descending from the continental shelf to the abyssal plain and the pelagic zone. Within the neritic, marine biologists also identify:[citation needed]
Oklahoma Sooners football.  The Oklahoma Sooners football team represents the University of Oklahoma (OU) in college football at the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision level in the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The program began in 1895 and is one of the most successful in history, having won 950 games[4] and possessing a .723 winning percentage,[5] both sixth all-time. Oklahoma has appeared in the AP poll 905 times,[6] including 101 No. 1 rankings,[7] both third all-time. The program claims seven national championships,[8] 50 conference championships,[1] 167 first-team All-Americans (82 consensus, 35 unanimous),[2] and seven Heisman Trophy winners. The school has had 29 former players and coaches inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame and holds the record for the longest winning streak in Division I history with 47 straight victories. Oklahoma is also the only program with which four coaches have won more than 100 games each.[9] The Sooners play their home games at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium in Norman, Oklahoma. Brent Venables is the head coach and has served since 2022. The first football game in the universitys history was played on December 14, 1895, 12 years before Oklahoma became a state.[10] The team was organized by John A. Harts, a student from Winfield, Kansas.[11] Oklahoma was shut out 34–0 by a more experienced team from Oklahoma City in what was the Sooners only game that season.[10][12] Oklahoma failed to record a first down throughout the entire game,[12] which was played on a field of low prairie grass just northwest of the current site of Holmberg Hall.[13] Several members of the Oklahoma team were injured, including Harts. By the end of the game, Oklahoma had borrowed members from the opposing squad so they would have a full lineup.[12] After that year, Harts left Oklahoma to become a gold prospector.[12] After playing two games without a coach in 1896, a professor named Vernon Louis Parrington became head coach in 1897.[14] Parrington had played football at Harvard.[14] In his four years as head coach, Parringtons teams compiled a 9–2–1 record.[14][15] After the 1900 season, football began interfering with Parringtons teaching, and he stepped down as head coach.[14] He would go on to win the Pulitzer Prize for History in 1928 at the University of Washington.[14]
Continental shelf.  A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an island is known as an insular shelf. The continental margin, between the continental shelf and the abyssal plain, comprises a steep continental slope, surrounded by the flatter continental rise, in which sediment from the continent above cascades down the slope and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the slope. Extending as far as 500 km (310 mi) from the slope, it consists of thick sediments deposited by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope.[1][2] The continental rises gradient is intermediate between the gradients of the slope and the shelf. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the name continental shelf was given a legal definition as the stretch of the seabed adjacent to the shores of a particular country to which it belongs. The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope[3] (called the shelf break). The sea floor below the break is the continental slope.[4] Below the slope is the continental rise, which finally merges into the deep ocean floor, the abyssal plain.[5] The continental shelf and the slope are part of the continental margin.[6]
Classical Chinese.  Classical Chinese[a] is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from c. the 5th century BCE.[2] For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in a form now called Literary Chinese, which was used for almost all formal writing in China until the early 20th century. Each written character corresponds to a single spoken syllable, and almost always to a single independent word. As a result, the characteristic style of the language is comparatively terse. Starting in the 2nd century CE, use of Literary Chinese spread to the countries surrounding China, including Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands, where it represented the only known form of writing. Literary Chinese was adopted as the language of civil administration in these countries, creating what is known as the Sinosphere. Each additionally developed systems of readings and annotations that enabled non-Chinese speakers to interpret Literary Chinese texts in terms of the local vernacular. While not static throughout its history, its evolution has traditionally been guided by a conservative impulse: many later changes in the varieties of Chinese are not reflected in the literary form. Due to millennia of this evolution, Literary Chinese is only partially intelligible when read or spoken aloud for someone only familiar with modern vernacular forms. Literary Chinese has largely been replaced by written vernacular Chinese among Chinese speakers; speakers of non-Chinese languages have similarly abandoned Literary Chinese in favour of their own local vernaculars. Although varieties of Chinese have diverged in various directions from the Old Chinese words in the Classical lexicon, many cognates can still be found. There is no universal agreement on the definition of Classical Chinese. At its core, the term refers to the language used by the classics of Chinese literature roughly from the 5th century BCE to the end of the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). The form of Chinese used in works written before the 4th century BCE, like the Five Classics, is distinct from that found in later works. The term pre-Classical Chinese is used to distinguish this earlier form from Classical Chinese proper, as it did not inspire later imitation to a comparable degree despite the works equal importance in the canon.[3]
Kelp forest. Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the worlds coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.[1][2] Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earths total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity.[3] Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans.[1] In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.[4] I can only compare these great aquatic forests ... with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian[s] ... would ... decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist. Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms[6] and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns[7] and provide many ecosystem services.[8] However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp forest degradation. Of particular concern are the effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the overgrazing of kelp and other algae.[9] This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist.[10][11] Already due to the combined effects of overfishing and climate change,[12] kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as Tasmanias east coast and the coast of Northern California.[13][14] The implementation of marine protected areas is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors. The term kelp refers to marine algae belonging to the order Laminariales (phylum: Ochrophyta). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally.[8] The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps (Macrocystis spp.), although numerous other genera such as Laminaria, Ecklonia, Lessonia, Nereocystis, Alaria, and Eisenia are described.
Peter Andrikidis.  Peter Andrikidis is an Australian film and television director, and producer. Andrikidis went to the Sydney high school Drummoyne Boys High School in the mid-1970s, where he made a small film called Nemesis. He graduated from the Australian Film Television and Radio School (AFTRS) in Film Direction in 1981. Immediately after graduation from AFTRS, Andrikidis was recruited to Crawford Productions, where he worked on The Flying Doctors.
Kristen Dunphy.  Kristen Dunphy is an Australian television screenwriter and producer. She is best known as creator, co-writer and co-executive producer of Wakefield, which screened on ABC TV in 2021. Dunphys career in film and television began when producer Sandra Levy employed her to work as assistant to Gillian Armstrong, who was directing the 1987 film, High Tide.[1] When Levy became head of drama at ABC TV she employed Dunphy as a screenwriter on G.P. (1992–1996), The Ferals (1995) and Heartbreak High (1995–1997).[1] Dunphy, as creator, co-writer and joint executive producer, began developing the eight-part serial, Wakefield in 2012.[2] During its production in 2020 she worked as joint showrunner.[3] Wakefield screened on ABC TV in 2021[4] and received five AACTA Award nominations.[5] Dunphy won her first AWGIE in 2003 for Best Television Series Episode for episode 14 of White Collar Blue (Network 10/Knapman Wyld).[6] She won the 2008 AWGIE for Best Television Series Drama for Eastwest 101 (SBS/Knapman Wyld) and the 2012 AWGIE for Best Mini-Series Television Drama for The Straits (ABC/Matchbox) 2012.[7] She was awarded the Foxtel Fellowship in 2012 for her significant contribution to the Australian cultural landscape made by television writing.[1]
Rachel Ward.  Rachel Claire Ward AM (born 12 September 1957) is an English-Australian actress, theatre director and filmmaker.[1] Ward was born in Oxfordshire near Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, the daughter of Claire Leonora (née Baring) and the Hon. Peter Alistair Ward. Her grandfathers were William Ward, 3rd Earl of Dudley and the cricketer Giles Baring.[citation needed] Ward is also the great-granddaughter of William Ward, 2nd Earl of Dudley, Governor-General of Australia 1908–11, and sister of environmental campaigner and former actress Tracy Louise Ward, Duchess of Beaufort. She attended Hatherop Castle School, Hatherop, Gloucestershire,[2] then the Byam Shaw School of Art in Kensington,  West London. She left school at age 16 to become a fashion and photography model.[3] She briefly dated David Kennedy, son of Robert F. Kennedy.[4] During her modelling career, she was featured on the covers of Vogue, Harpers & Queen, and Cosmopolitan magazines. After moving to the United States in 1977, she appeared in television advertisements such as the Lincoln Mercury Cougar Girl[5] and Revlons Scoundrel Girl.[6] In 1981, she received a Golden Globe Award nomination for New Star of the Year for her role in the crime drama film Sharkys Machine starring with Burt Reynolds. The following year, she starred in the comedy Dead Men Dont Wear Plaid with Steve Martin. Her big break came in 1983, when she starred opposite Richard Chamberlain as the lead role portraying Meggie Cleary in the television miniseries The Thorn Birds, for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film. Ward assigns much of the credit for this breakthrough performance to acting coach Sandra Seacat, first for simply helping her get the job (after her disastrous first reading)[7] and then for the quality of the finished performance, assembled over the course of a gruelling five-month shooting schedule, while undergoing a simultaneous and no less gruelling makeover programme at the hands of Seacat.[8] Also in 1983, U.S. audiences voted Ward one of the worlds 10 most beautiful women.[4] In 1984, she played Jess in the film noir remake Against All Odds, with Jeff Bridges and James Woods. After filming Fortress in 1985, Ward then disappeared from film for a few years to study acting. She reappeared in 1987 playing opposite her husband, Bryan Brown (whom she met on the set of The Thorn Birds), in The Umbrella Woman. In 2001, she was again nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film for her role in On the Beach (2000). Also in 2001, Ward won the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Short Fiction Film for The Big House,[9] and Best Australian Film at Flickerfest. The film also won the Film Critics Circle of Australia award, as did her 2003 film Marthas New Coat. That film also won the 2003 ATOM Award.
Prominence (disambiguation). Prominence in topography is a measure of the independence of a summit. Prominence or Prominent may also refer to:
Künten.  Künten is a municipality in the district of Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. It lies on the Reuss River and includes the previously independent community of Sulz, which merged with Künten in 1973. Various finds point to an early settlement. Coins, shards, bronze and iron tools from a Roman settlement from the early 2nd century were discovered near Künten, while archaeologists discovered a burial mound near Sulz. Chünten and Sulzo were first mentioned in documents around 1160 in the Acta Murensia, which identified the villages as the property of Muri Abbey. The place name Künten comes from the late Latin (praedium) Quintinacum and means estate belonging to Quintinus. The current form of the name came about through a sound shift via the Old High German Chüntinacha. In the Middle Ages, the municipality was under the rule of the Habsburgs, who also exercised blood jurisdiction. Most of the lower jurisdiction was in the hands of the Hermetschwil Abbey. From 1392, a farm in Künten belonged to the Chapel of St. Nicholas [de] in Baden. In 1415, the Confederates conquered Aargau. Both villages were now part of the Amt Rohrdorf in the county of Baden, a common lordship. After the Reformation was introduced in 1529, the inhabitants had to return to the Catholic denomination after the Second Kappel War of 1531. In March 1798, the French invaded Switzerland and proclaimed the Helvetic Republic. Künten and Sulz initially belonged to the short-lived Canton of Baden, and from 1803 to the Canton of Aargau. Both villages formed a joint municipality, but were also two separate local communities with a certain degree of autonomy. This structure remained in place until 1973, when the Ortsbürgergemeinden were dissolved and merged with the Einwohnergemeinde. On June 10, 1866, a major fire in Künten destroyed 14 thatched houses. Künten remained dominated by agriculture until well into the 20th century. With the opening of the nearby highway, the population began to increase significantly and has more than doubled since then.
Writing system. A writing system comprises a set of symbols, called a script, as well as the rules by which the script represents a particular language. The earliest writing appeared during the late 4th millennium BC. Throughout history, each independently invented writing system gradually emerged from a system of proto-writing, where a small number of ideographs were used in a manner incapable of fully encoding language, and thus lacking the ability to express a broad range of ideas. Writing systems are generally classified according to how their symbols, called graphemes, relate to units of language. Phonetic writing systems – which include alphabets and syllabaries – use graphemes that correspond to sounds in the corresponding spoken language. Alphabets use graphemes called letters that generally correspond to spoken phonemes. They are typically divided into three sub-types: Pure alphabets use letters to represent both consonant and vowel sounds, abjads generally only use letters representing consonant sounds, and abugidas use letters representing consonant–vowel pairs. Syllabaries use graphemes called syllabograms that represent entire syllables or moras. By contrast, logographic (or morphographic) writing systems use graphemes that represent the units of meaning in a language, such as its words or morphemes. Alphabets typically use fewer than 100 distinct symbols, while syllabaries and logographies may use hundreds or thousands respectively. According to most contemporary definitions, writing is a visual and tactile notation representing language. As such, the use of writing by a community presupposes an analysis of the structure of language at some level.[2] The symbols used in writing correspond systematically to functional units of either a spoken or signed language. This definition excludes a broader class of symbolic markings, such as drawings and maps.[a][4] A text is any instance of written material, including transcriptions of spoken material.[5] The act of composing and recording a text is referred to as writing,[6] and the act of viewing and interpreting the text as reading.[7] The relationship between writing and language more broadly has been the subject of philosophical analysis as early as Aristotle (384–322 BC).[8] While the use of language is universal across human societies, writing is not; writing emerged much more recently, and was independently invented in only a handful of locations throughout history. While most spoken languages have not been written, all written languages have been predicated on an existing spoken language.[9] When those with signed languages as their first language read writing associated with a spoken language, this functions as literacy in a second, acquired language.[b][10] A single language (e.g. Hindustani) can be written using multiple writing systems, and a writing system can also represent multiple languages. For example, Chinese characters have been used to write multiple languages throughout the Sinosphere – including the Vietnamese language from at least the 13th century, until their replacement with the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet in the 20th century.[11] In the first several decades of modern linguistics as a scientific discipline, linguists often characterized writing as merely the technology used to record speech – which was treated as being of paramount importance, for what was seen as the unique potential for its study to further the understanding of human cognition.[12]
Aaron Faaoso.  Aaron Faaoso is an Australian actor, screenwriter and producer, known for his roles in East West 101, The Straits (which he also wrote and produced) and Black Comedy. He established Lonestar Productions in 2013, which brings stories of the people of the Torres Strait Islands and north Queensland to the screen. Faaoso was born into the Kheodal (Crocodile) and Samu (Emu) clans of Torres Strait Islanders people, his family having moved from Saibai Island to the mainland of Australia in 1947.[1] He is also of Samoan and Tongan descent.[2][3] He grew up in a big Torres Strait Islander community[4] in Bamaga on the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland.[1] He graduated high school,[4] and worked as a sexual health worker in Bamaga, and played rugby league football in the Australian Rugby League and Super League competitions.[2] He moved from Cairns to Sydney to pursue a rugby career, joining the Canterbury Bulldogs rugby league club.[4] Faaoso began his acting television career in 2006, where he played Eddie Gaibui on RAN, a six-part drama which aired on SBS One. In late 2007 to early 2008 he appeared in the first series of another SBS drama series, East West 101, playing Detective Sonny Koa. Later that year he had a guest role in Sea Patrol, which aired on Network Nine.[5][6]
Seagrass meadow.  A seagrass meadow or seagrass bed is an underwater ecosystem formed by seagrasses. Seagrasses are marine (saltwater) plants found in shallow coastal waters and in the brackish waters of estuaries. Seagrasses are flowering plants with stems and long green, grass-like leaves. They produce seeds and pollen and have roots and rhizomes which anchor them in seafloor sand. Seagrasses form dense underwater meadows which are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. They provide habitats and food for a  diversity of marine life comparable to that of coral reefs. This includes invertebrates like shrimp and crabs, cod and flatfish, marine mammals and birds. They provide refuges for endangered species such as seahorses, turtles, and dugongs. They function as nursery habitats for shrimps, scallops and many commercial fish species. Seagrass meadows provide coastal storm protection by the way their leaves absorb energy from waves as they hit the coast. They keep coastal waters healthy by absorbing bacteria and nutrients, and slow the speed of climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide into the sediment of the ocean floor. Seagrasses evolved from marine algae which colonized land and became land plants, and then returned to the ocean about 100 million years ago. However, today seagrass meadows are being damaged by human activities such as pollution from land runoff, fishing boats that drag dredges or trawls across the meadows uprooting the grass, and overfishing which unbalances the ecosystem. Seagrass meadows are currently[when?] being destroyed at a rate of about 3 square metres per second (1,900 sq ft/min). Seagrasses are flowering plants (angiosperms) which grow in marine environments. They evolved from terrestrial plants which migrated back into the ocean about 75 to 100 million years ago.[1][2] In the present day they occupy the sea bottom in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms.[3]
Topographic isolation.  The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum horizontal distance to a point of equal elevation, representing a radius of dominance in which the peak is the highest point.  It can be calculated for small hills and islands as well as for major mountain peaks and can even be calculated for submarine summits.  Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth, has an undefined isolation, since there are no higher points to reference.[1] Because topographic isolation can be difficult to determine, a common approximation is the distance to a peak called the nearest higher neighbour (NHN).[2] The following sortable table lists Earths 40 most topographically isolated summits.
Los Angeles.  Los Angeles,[a] often referred to by its initials L.A., is the most populous city in the U.S. state of California, and the commercial, financial, and cultural center of Southern California. With an estimated 3.88 million residents within the city limits as of 2024[update],[8] it is the second-most populous city in the United States, behind New York City. Los Angeles has an ethnically and culturally diverse population, and is the principal city of a metropolitan area of 12.9 million people (2024). Greater Los Angeles, a combined statistical area that includes the Los Angeles and Riverside–San Bernardino metropolitan areas, is a sprawling metropolis of over 18.5 million residents. The majority of the city proper lies in a basin in Southern California, adjacent to the Pacific Ocean in the west and extending partly through the Santa Monica Mountains and north into the San Fernando Valley, with the city bordering the San Gabriel Valley to its east. It covers about 469 square miles (1,210 km2),[6] and is the county seat and most populated city of Los Angeles County, which is the most populous county in the United States with an estimated 9.86 million residents as of 2022[update].[17] It is the third-most visited city in the U.S. with over 2.7 million visitors as of 2023.[18] The area that became Los Angeles was originally inhabited by the indigenous Tongva people and later claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542. The city was founded on September 4, 1781, under Spanish governor Felipe de Neve, on the village of Yaanga.[19] It became a part of the First Mexican Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. In 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and became part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood. The discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city.[20] The city was further expanded with the completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, which delivers water from Eastern California. Los Angeles has a diverse economy with a broad range of industries. Despite a steep exodus of film and television production since the COVID-19 pandemic,[21] Los Angeles is still one of the largest hubs of American film production,[22][23] the worlds largest by revenue; the city is an important site in the history of film. It also has one of the busiest container ports in the Americas,[24][25][26] and despite a business exodus from downtown Los Angeles, the citys urban core is evolving as a cultural center with the worlds largest showcase of architecture designed by Frank Gehry.[27] In 2018, the Los Angeles metropolitan area had a gross metropolitan product of over $1.0 trillion,[28] making it the city with the third-largest GDP in the world, after New York and Tokyo. Los Angeles hosted the Summer Olympics in 1932 and 1984, and will also host in 2028.
Rowan Woods.  Rowan Woods is an Australian AACTA Award-winning film and television director, best known for the 1998 film The Boys and the 2016 television drama series The Kettering Incident. Woods directed The Boys in 1998[1] and won an ACCTA Award for Best Direction.[2] The film was also entered into the 48th Berlin International Film Festival.[3] His next film, Little Fish, starring Cate Blanchett, was released in September 2005.[4] His 2009 film, Fragments received mixed, but mostly negative reviews from critics.[5] Woods has directed episodes of several television series, including Farscape, Fireflies, Police Rescue, and Spartacus: Blood and Sand.[citation needed]
Contour line. A contour line (also isoline, isopleth, isoquant or isarithm) of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value, so that the curve joins points of equal value.[1][2] It is a plane section of the three-dimensional graph of the function     f ( x , y )   {\displaystyle f(x,y)}   parallel to the     ( x , y )   {\displaystyle (x,y)}  -plane. More generally, a contour line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting points where the function has the same particular value.[2] In cartography, a contour line (often just called a contour) joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level.[3] A contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines, for example a topographic map, which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness or gentleness of slopes.[4] The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines.[5] The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines. When the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation is steep. A level set is a generalization of a contour line for functions of any number of variables. Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer the relative gradient of a parameter and estimate that parameter at specific places. Contour lines may be either traced on a visible three-dimensional model of the surface, as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots elevation contours, or interpolated from the estimated surface elevations, as when a computer program threads contours through a network of observation points of area centroids. In the latter case, the method of interpolation affects the reliability of individual isolines and their portrayal of slope, pits and peaks.[6] The idea of lines that join points of equal value was rediscovered several times. The oldest known isobath (contour line of constant depth) is found on a map dated 1584 of the river Spaarne, near Haarlem, by Dutchman Pieter Bruinsz.[7] In 1701, Edmond Halley used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.[8]  The Dutch engineer Nicholas Cruquius drew the bed of the river Merwede with lines of equal depth (isobaths) at intervals of 1 fathom in 1727, and Philippe Buache used them at 10-fathom intervals on a chart of the English Channel that was prepared in 1737 and published in 1752.  Such lines were used to describe a land surface (contour lines) in a map of the Duchy of Modena and Reggio by Domenico Vandelli in 1746, and they were studied theoretically by Ducarla in 1771, and Charles Hutton used them in the Schiehallion experiment.  In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.  In 1801, the chief of the French Corps of Engineers, Haxo, used contour lines at the larger scale of 1:500 on a plan of his projects for Rocca dAnfo, now in northern Italy, under Napoleon.[9][10][11]
Massachusetts.   Masshole (colloquial)[8][9][10][11][12][13] Massachusettsan (recommended by the U.S. GPO)[14] Massachusetts (/ˌmæsəˈtʃuːsɪts/ ⓘ /-zɪts/ MASS-ə-CHOO-sits, -⁠zits; Massachusett: Muhsachuweesut [məhswatʃəwiːsət]), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts,[b] is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Maine to its east, Connecticut and Rhode Island to its south, New Hampshire and Vermont to its north, and New York to its west. Massachusetts is the sixth-smallest state by land area. With a 2024 U.S. Census Bureau-estimated population of 7,136,171,[5] its highest estimated count ever, Massachusetts is the most populous state in New England, the 16th-most-populous in the United States, and the third-most densely populated U.S. state, after New Jersey and Rhode Island.
Topography. Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the landforms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief, but also natural, artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings.[1] In the United States, topography often means specifically relief, even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.[2] Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms; this is also known as geomorphometry. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints, and relief shading. The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome, as the detailed description of a place. The word comes from the Greek τόπος (topos, place) and -γραφία (-graphia, writing).[3] In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, what is now largely called local history. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense.[4] Detailed military surveys in Britain (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called Ordnance Surveys, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps.[5] The earliest scientific surveys in France were the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations.[6] The term topographic surveys appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the Topographical Bureau of the Army, formed during the War of 1812,[7] which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838.[8] After the work of national mapping was assumed by the United States Geological Survey in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard.
Fujiyama (surname). Fujiyama (written: 藤山) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Austin, Texas.  Austin (/ˈɔːstɪn/ ⓘ AW-stin)[8] is the capital city of the U.S. state of Texas. With a population of 961,855 at the 2020 census,[9] it is the 13th-most populous city in the U.S., fifth-most populous city in Texas, and second-most populous U.S. state capital (after Phoenix, Arizona), while the Austin metro area with an estimated 2.55 million residents is the 25th-largest metropolitan area in the nation. Austin is the county seat and most populous city of Travis County, with portions extending into Hays and Williamson counties. Incorporated on December 27, 1839,[10] it has been one of the fastest-growing large cities in the United States since 2010.[11][12][13] Located in Central Texas within the greater Texas Hill Country, it is home to numerous lakes, rivers, and waterways, including Lady Bird Lake and Lake Travis on the Colorado River, Barton Springs, McKinney Falls, and Lake Walter E. Long. Austins history dates back to at least 9200 BC, with early habitation by Clovis peoples and later by Indigenous groups such as the Tonkawa. Austin and San Antonio are approximately 80 miles (129 km) apart, and both fall along the I-35 corridor. This combined metropolitan region of San Antonio–Austin has approximately 5 million people.[14] Austin is the southernmost state capital in the contiguous United States and is considered a Gamma + level global city as categorized by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[15] Residents of Austin are known as Austinites.[16] They include a diverse mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, and blue-collar workers. The citys official slogan promotes Austin as The Live Music Capital of the World, a reference to the citys many musicians and live music venues, as well as the long-running PBS TV concert series Austin City Limits.[17][18] Austin is the site of South by Southwest (SXSW), an annual conglomeration of parallel film, interactive media, and music festivals. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to a rapid influx of technology and development companies. In recent years, some Austinites have adopted the unofficial slogan Keep Austin Weird,[19] which refers to the desire to protect small, unique, and local businesses from being overrun by large corporations.[20] Ongoing rapid development and gentrification challenge its bohemian roots and fuel nostalgia for “Old Austin.”  Since the late 19th century, Austin has also been known as the City of the Violet Crown, because of the colorful glow of light across the hills just after sunset.[21] Emerging from a strong economic focus on government and education, since the 1990s, Austin has become a center for technology and business.[22][23] The technology roots in Austin can be traced back to the 1960s, when defense electronics contractor Tracor (now BAE Systems) began operations in the city in 1962. IBM followed in 1967, opening a facility to produce its Selectric typewriters. Texas Instruments was set up in Austin two years later, and Motorola (now NXP Semiconductors) started semiconductor chip manufacturing in 1974. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including 3M, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Agilent Technologies, Amazon, Apple, Dell, Expedia, Facebook (Meta), General Motors, Google, IBM, Intel, NXP Semiconductors, Oracle, Tesla, and Texas Instruments.[citation needed] With regard to education, Austin is the home of the University of Texas at Austin, one of the largest universities in the U.S., with over 50,000 students.[24] In 2021, Austin became home to Austin FC, the first (and currently only) major professional sports team in the city.
Japanese warship Fujiyama. Fujiyama (富士山) was a Japanese steam frigate acquired by the Tokugawa shogunate during the Bakumatsu period immediately prior to the Meiji Restoration. She was built in New York City, United States, in 1864. Ordered in 1862 as part of an arms package consisting of two steam frigates and one gunboat to the United States government, work on Fujiyama was delayed by issues with American neutrality during the Battles for Shimonoseki. The Tokugawa shogunate cancelled the contract for the remaining vessels, but Fujiyama was already under construction. She was received by the Shogunate on 7 December 1866 at Yokohama. Fujiyama was one of the four ships remitted by Enomoto Takeaki to the Imperial forces during the Boshin War, before Enomoto fled to Hokkaidō, suggesting that her performance was not so impressive. After the Meiji restoration, Fujiyama was incorporated in the newly formed Imperial Japanese Navy in July 1869. She was rated as a 4th class warship (四等艦) on November 15, 1871, and a third-class warship on November 20, 1874. She was thereafter only used as a training ship, until her decommission on May 10, 1889. She was subsequently used as a floating barracks at Kure Naval District for a few months in 1889. She was sold for scrap in 1896.
Blues rock. Blues rock is a fusion genre and form of rock and blues music that relies on the chords/scales and instrumental improvisation of blues.[3] It is mostly an electric ensemble-style music with instrumentation similar to electric blues and rock (electric guitar, electric bass guitar, drums, and sometimes with keyboards and harmonica). From its beginnings in the early to mid-1960s, blues rock has gone through several stylistic shifts and along the way it inspired and influenced hard rock, Southern rock, and early heavy metal. Blues rock started with rock musicians in the United Kingdom and the United States performing American blues songs. They typically recreated electric Chicago blues songs, such as those by Willie Dixon, Muddy Waters, and Jimmy Reed, at faster tempos and with a more aggressive sound common to rock. In the UK, the style was popularized by groups such as the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, and the Animals, who put several blues songs into the pop charts. In the US, Lonnie Mack, the Paul Butterfield Blues Band, and Canned Heat were among the earliest exponents. Some of these bands also played long, involved improvisations as were then commonplace on jazz records.[4] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the style became more hard rock-oriented. In the US, Johnny Winter, the early Allman Brothers Band, and ZZ Top represented a hard rock trend, along with Led Zeppelin, Ten Years After, Chicken Shack, and Foghat in the UK. Along with hard rock, blues rock songs became the core of the music played on album-oriented rock radio in the United States, and later the classic rock format established there during the 1980s.[5] The blues gave rock a mother’s unconditional love, nurturing it through its difficult stages and always providing a welcome return no matter how far it strayed from home. Blues rock can be characterized by bluesy improvisation, extended boogie jams typically focused on electric guitar solos, and often a heavier, riff-oriented sound and feel to the songs than found in typical Chicago-style blues. Blues rock bands borrow[ed] the idea of an instrumental combo and loud amplification from rock & roll.[4] It is also often played at a fast tempo, again distinguishing it from the blues.[4]
Fujiyama Station. Fujiyama Station (藤山駅, Fujiyama-eki) was a train station in Rumoi, Hokkaidō, Japan. The station closed on 1 April 2023 owing to poor patronage.[1][2]  This Hokkaido rail station-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Dire Straits (disambiguation). Dire Straits were a British rock band. Dire Straits may also refer to:
Fujiyama (roller coaster). Fujiyama (フジヤマ) is a steel roller coaster at Fuji-Q Highland, Fujiyoshida, Japan.[1] When Fujiyama opened in July 1996, it was the worlds tallest roller coaster at 259 feet (79 m),[2] and had the largest drop in the world at 230 feet (70 m).[3] Fujiyama was also the worlds fastest roller coaster for a year of its operation, being succeeded by Tower of Terror at Dreamworld theme park in Queensland, Australia in 1997.[4] Despite being the worlds fastest roller coaster for a year, Fujiyama set no official world records for roller coaster speed. The Steel Phantom coaster at Kennywood in Pennsylvania, U.S., set the world record for speed instead.[5][6] Fujiyama is named after the iconic Mount Fuji, which stands to the west of Tokyo. The term Fujiyama comes from fuji, and yama which means mountain.[1] Mount Fuji is seldom referred to as Fujiyama in the Japanese language, but is instead more commonly referred to as Fujisan, using the onyomi pronunciation of the mountain character. The roller coaster Fujiyama is named as a play on the common foreign mistransliteration.[7] As with many Japanese roller coasters, Fujiyama has a maximum rider age of 64 years old, as well as the height restrictions typical of any roller coaster. If an unlimited ride ticket has not been purchased, it also has a separate entrance fee (2,000 yen). The layout of Fujiyama is that of a typical out-and-back roller coaster.[1] It incorporates many of the elements that are typical of this coaster design, including a large first drop, headchopper elements, and a series of small bunny hills near the end of the coasters course.[5] Given its record-breaking status, Fujiyama attracted considerable attention when it opened. The ride has been rated positively by many reviewers, garnering 5 stars in Steven Urbanowiczs The Roller Coaster Lovers Companion.[8] Fujiyama did not, however, achieve a listing amongst the top 50 steel roller coasters in Amusement Todays 2009 Golden Ticket Awards.[9] Fujiyama inadvertently attracted attention in 2000 after an article was published in the journal Neurology.[10][11] The article discussed the possible relationship between riding roller coasters and the occurrence of subdural hematomas. The primary case study cited by the authors was a woman who had reported severe headaches after riding several roller coasters at Fuji-Q Highland, including Fujiyama. Upon investigation, it was discovered that this woman did in fact have a subdural hematoma.[12] Subsequent research, however, has maintained that this risk remains low and is not unique to this particular coaster.[13]
Mount Fuji.  Mount Fuji[a] (富士山・富士の山, Fujisan, Fuji no Yama[b]) is an active stratovolcano located on the Japanese island of Honshu, with a summit elevation of 3,776.24 m (12,389 ft 3 in). It is the highest mountain in Japan, the second-highest volcano on any Asian island (after Mount Kerinci on the Indonesian island of Sumatra), and seventh-highest peak of an island on Earth.[1] Mount Fuji last erupted from 1707 to 1708.[7][8] It is located about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Tokyo, from where it is visible on clear days. Its exceptionally symmetrical cone, which is covered in snow for about five months of the year, is a Japanese cultural icon and is frequently depicted in art and photography, as well as visited by sightseers, hikers, and mountain climbers.[9] Mount Fuji is one of Japans Three Holy Mountains (三霊山, Sanreizan) along with Mount Tate and Mount Haku. It is a Special Place of Scenic Beauty and one of Japans Historic Sites.[10] It was added to the World Heritage List as a Cultural Site on June 22, 2013.[10] According to UNESCO, Mount Fuji has inspired artists and poets and been the object of pilgrimage for centuries. UNESCO recognizes 25 sites of cultural interest within the Mount Fuji locality. These 25 locations include Mount Fuji and the Shinto shrine, Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha.[11] The current kanji for Mount Fuji, 富 and 士, mean wealth or abundant and man of status respectively. The origins of this spelling and the name Fuji continue to be debated. In Japanese, kanji characters are often applied by sound, and the meaning of the kanji may have nothing to do with the name of the mountain. Mt. Fuji was called Fuji before the kanji was applied to it.[12]
Roots rock. Roots rock is a genre of rock music that looks back to rocks origins in folk, blues, and country music.[1] First emerging in the late 1960s, it is seen as a response to the perceived excesses of the then dominant psychedelic and the developing progressive rock.[2] Because roots music (Americana) is often used to mean folk and world musical forms, roots rock is sometimes used in a broad sense to describe any rock music that incorporates elements of this music.[3] After a further decline, the 2000s saw a new interest in roots music. One proof of that is the specific Grammy Award given since 2015, notably to Jon Batiste in 2022. According to their website, that trophy is defined as: This category recognizes excellence in Americana, bluegrass, blues or folk recordings in modern and/or traditional vocal and instrumental styles, as well as original material by artists who use traditional and/or modern roots elements, sounds and instrumental techniques as the basis for their recordings.[4] In 1966, as many rock artists moved towards expansive and experimental psychedelia, Bob Dylan spearheaded the back-to-basics roots revival when he went to Nashville to record the album Blonde on Blonde, using notable local musicians like Charlie McCoy.[5] This, and the subsequent more clearly country-influenced albums, John Wesley Harding (1967) and Nashville Skyline (1969), have been seen as creating the genre of country folk, a route pursued by a number of, largely acoustic, folk musicians.[5] Other acts that followed the back to basics trend in different ways were the Canadian/American group The Band and the California-based Creedence Clearwater Revival, both of which mixed basic rock and roll with folk, country, and blues, to be among the most successful and influential bands of the late 1960s.[6] At the same time the Grateful Dead, a band previously associated with the San Francisco sound and known for ferocious psychedelic improvisation, followed in the footsteps of Crosby, Stills & Nash to focus on Americana-styled songwriting for their 1970 albums Workingmans Dead and American Beauty. The same movement saw the beginning of the recording careers of Californian solo artists like Ry Cooder, Bonnie Raitt, and Lowell George.[7] The blues boom overlapped, both chronologically and in terms of personnel, with the earlier, wider rhythm and blues phase, which had begun to peter out in the mid-1960s leaving a nucleus of instrumentalists with a wide knowledge of blues forms and techniques, which they would carry into the pursuit of more purist blues interests.[8][9] Blues Incorporated and John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers were well known in the London Jazz and emerging R&B circuits, but the Bluesbreakers began to gain some national and international attention, particularly after the release of Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton album (1966), considered one of the seminal British blues recordings.[10] From 1966 to 1968, young Englishmen formed blues rock bands such as Cream, Fleetwood Mac, Keef Hartley Band, Ten Years After, and Free. In America, Paul Butterfield Blues Band,[11] Canned Heat, and Johnny Winter performed at Woodstock Festival 1969. Dylans lead was also followed by the Byrds, who were joined by Gram Parsons in 1968. Earlier in the year Parsons had already recorded Safe at Home with the International Submarine Band, which made extensive use of pedal steel guitar and is seen by some as the first true country-rock album.[2] The result of Parsons tenure in the Byrds was Sweetheart of the Rodeo (1968), generally considered one of the finest and most influential recordings in the genre.[2] The Byrds continued for a brief period in the same vein, but Parsons left soon after the album was released to be joined by another ex-Byrds member Chris Hillman in forming the Flying Burrito Brothers. Over the next two years they recorded the albums The Gilded Palace of Sin (1969) and Burrito Deluxe (1970), which helped establish the respectability and parameters of the genre, before Parsons departed to pursue a solo career.[2]
Pub rock (United Kingdom).  Pub rock is a subgenre of rock music that emerged in the early to mid-1970s in the United Kingdom. A back-to-basics movement, which incorporated roots rock, pub rock was a reaction against the expensively-recorded and produced progressive rock and flashy glam rock scenes at the time. Although short-lived, pub rock was played live in small traditional venues like pubs and clubs.[1] Since major labels showed no interest in pub rock groups, pub bands sought out independent record labels such as Stiff Records. Indie labels used relatively inexpensive recording processes, so they had a much lower break-even point for a record than a major label. With pub rocks emphasis on small venues, simple, fairly inexpensive recordings and indie record labels, it was the catalyst for the development of the British punk rock scene. Despite these shared elements, though, there was a difference between the genres: while pub rock harked back to early rock and roll and R&B, punk was iconoclastic, and sought to break with the past musical traditions. Pub rock was deliberately nasty, dirty and post-glam.[2] Dress style was based around denim and checked shirts, tatty jeans and droopy hair.[3] The figureheads of the movement, Dr. Feelgood, were noted for their frontmans filthy white suit.[4] Bands looked menacing and threatening, like villains on The Sweeney.[5] According to David Hepworth, Dr. Feelgood looked as if they had come together in some unsavoury section of the army. Pub rock groups disdained any form of flashy presentation. Scene leaders like Dr. Feelgood, Kilburn and the High Roads and Ducks Deluxe played simple, back to mono rhythm and blues in the tradition of white British groups like the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds, with fuzzy overdriven guitars and whiny vocals.[5] Lesser known acts played funky soul (Kokomo, Clancy, Cado Belle) or country rock (the Kursaal Flyers, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers).[6] While pub rockers did not have expensive stage shows, they took inspiration from early R&B and increased the dynamism and intensity of their live shows.[7] Pub rock allowed a variety of singers and musicians to perform, even if they did not adhere to a clearly defined musical genre.[7] Major labels scouted pub rock acts, thinking they might find the next Beatles at a local pub; however A&R representatives decided that pub rock did not have potential for mass market hits.[7] With no interest from major labels, pub rockers put out their records through small independent record labels such as Stiff Records and Chiswick Records.[7]
Opposition (astronomy). In positional astronomy, two astronomical objects are said to be in opposition when they are on opposite sides of the celestial sphere, as observed from a given body (usually Earth). A planet (or asteroid or comet) is said to be in opposition or at opposition when it is in opposition to the Sun. Because most orbits in the Solar System are nearly coplanar to the ecliptic, this occurs when the Sun, Earth, and the body are configured in an approximately straight line, or syzygy; that is, Earth and the body are in the same direction as seen from the Sun. Opposition occurs only for superior planets (see the diagram). The instant of opposition is defined as that when the apparent geocentric celestial longitude of the body differs by 180° from the apparent geocentric longitude of the Sun.[1]  At that time, a body is: The Moon, which orbits Earth rather than the Sun, is in approximate opposition to the Sun at full moon.[7] A more exact opposition occasionally occurs with mathematical regularity if the Moon is at its usual sun and Earth-aligning point so that it appears full and happens to be aligning with the ecliptic (Earths orbital plane) during the descending or ascending phase of its 5° inclined (tilted) orbit, which is more concisely termed at a node of its orbit, in which case, a lunar eclipse occurs.  A more exact, shaded form is when a central area of the earth aligns more precisely: a central lunar eclipse, of which there were 14 in the 50 years to 2000, others being penumbral. The astronomical symbol for opposition is ☍ (U+260D). ()
Insular Japonic languages. The Insular Japonic languages or Japonic-Ryukyu languages are a subdivision of the Japonic languages, as opposed to the hypothetical Peninsular Japonic languages formerly spoken in central and southern Korea. This grouping, originally proposed by Vovin, has been taken up several times subsequently.[1] Currently, most scholars agree that the Japonic languages were brought to the Japanese archipelago between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC by wet rice farmers of the Yayoi culture from northern Kyushu, replacing the indigenous Jōmon people.[2] Toponyms indicate that the Ainu language were formerly spoken in eastern Japan.[3][4][5] Later, Japonic speakers settled on the Ryukyu Islands.[2] Linguistically, there is disagreement over the location and date of separation from the continental branch. Martine Robbeets argues that the two branches of the Japonic (Japonic) family split when their speakers moved from Shandong around 1500 BC to central and southern Korea. According to her, the Insular Japonic languages entered the archipelago around 700 BC, with some remaining in the southern Mahan and Byeonhan confederations.[6] This theory has little support. Vovin and Whitman instead argue that the Insular Japonic languages split from the Peninsular Japonic languages upon arriving in Kyūshū between 1000 and 800 BC.[7] There is also disagreement regarding the separation of Old Japanese and the Ryukyu languages. One theory suggests that when taking into account innovations in Old Japanese not shared with the Ryukyu languages, the two branches must have separated before the 7th century,[8] with the Ryukyus migrating from southern Kyushu to the Ryukyus with the expansion of the Gusuku culture around the 10th–11th century.[9] Old Japanese is thought to have emerged during the Nara period.[10] Robbeets proposes a similar theory, but places the separation date in the 1st century BC.[11] Boer proposes that the Ryukyu languages are descended from the Kyushuan dialect of Old Japanese.[12] One theory also suggests that Ryukyus remained in Kyushu until the 12th century.[13] The relationship between Japanese and the Ryukyu languages was established in the 19th century by Basil Hall Chamberlain[14] in his comparison of Okinawan and Japanese.[15]
Small Solar System body. A small Solar System body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The term was first defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as follows: All other objects, except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as Small Solar System Bodies.[1] This encompasses all comets and all minor planets other than those that are dwarf planets. Thus SSSBs are: the comets; the classical asteroids, with the exception of the dwarf planet Ceres; the trojans; and the centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects, with the exception of the dwarf planets Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Quaoar, Orcus, Sedna, Gonggong and Eris and others that may turn out to be dwarf planets. The current definition was included in the 2006 IAU resolution that defined the term planet, demoting the status of Pluto to that of dwarf planet. In the context, it should be interpreted as, All objects other than planets and dwarf planets orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as Small Solar System Bodies. The definition excludes interstellar objects traveling through the Solar System, such as the interstellar interlopers 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov. It is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as interplanetary dust, particles of solar wind and free particles of hydrogen.) Except for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.
Hakone. Hakone (箱根町, Hakone-machi) is a town in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 October 2023[update], the town had a population of 10,965,[1][2] and total area of 92.82 km2 (35.84 sq mi). Hakone is a notable spa town and a popular tourist destination due to its many hot springs being within view of nearby Mount Fuji, the most visited mountain in Japan. Hakone is located in the mountains in the far west of the prefecture, on the eastern side of Hakone Pass. Most of the town is within the borders of the volcanically active Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, centered on Lake Ashi. Kanagawa Prefecture Shizuoka Prefecture
Bussokuseki-kahi. Cultural and Modern Thinkers The Bussokuseki-kahi (仏足石歌碑) is a well-known monument in the Yakushi Temple in Nara, consisting of a traditional Buddha footprint inscribed with twenty-one poems, known as bussokusekika (also known as Bussokuseki no Uta). Numbering twenty one poems in total, they are divided into two sections: Part of the stone monument has worn away making the eleventh poem of the first section and the fourth poem of the second section partially unreadable. The Buddha Foot monument at Yakushi Temple was constructed in 753 and the poems are viewed as being composed around that time. The author is unknown.
Hakone Ropeway. The Hakone Ropeway (箱根ロープウェイ, Hakone Rōpuwei) is the name of an aerial lift, as well as its operator. The funitel line links between Sōunzan and Tōgendai via Ōwakudani, all within Hakone, Kanagawa, Japan. The line became funitel in 2002, the second of its kind in the nation, after Hashikurasan Ropeway. It makes a part of the sightseeing route between Odawara and Lake Ashi. The company belongs to the Odakyū Group. Hakone Ropeway was a single line until 2001. From 2002, it became a system consisted of two distinct sections, although they are still treated as the same line. All stations at Hakone, Kanagawa. 35°14′39.7″N 139°1′8.8″E / 35.244361°N 139.019111°E / 35.244361; 139.019111 
Mokena, Illinois.  Mokena (/moʊˈkinə/ moh-KEE-nuh) is a village in Will County, Illinois, United States. It is a southwest suburb of Chicago. The population was 19,887 at the 2020 census. The Census Bureaus 2019 estimate found that the population had increased to 20,159.[3] Mokena is a name apparently derived from a Native American language meaning mud turtle.[4] While the particular language from which the name originates is not documented, likely candidates are Anishinaabemowin, whose word for snapping turtle is mikinaak,[5] and its close sister language Potawatomi, in which the same animal is called mkenak.[6] Both languages were once spoken in the area now occupied by the town. Mokena is located at 41°32′4″N 87°52′37″W / 41.53444°N 87.87694°W / 41.53444; -87.87694.[7] According to the 2010 census, Mokena has an area of 8.893 square miles (23.03 km2), of which 8.89 square miles (23.02 km2) (or 99.97%) is land and 0.003 square miles (0.01 km2) (or 0.03%) is water.[8] It is bordered by Tinley Park to the northeast, Orland Park to the north, Homer Glen to the northwest, Frankfort to the south, and New Lenox to the west. Elementary school services are provided by one of four school districts: Mokena School District 159, New Lenox School District 122, Frankfort School District 157C, and Summit Hill School District 161. Schools within District 159 include MES (Mokena Elementary School), MIS (Mokena Intermediate School), and MJHS (Mokena Junior High School). Mokena is served by Lincoln-Way Community High School District 210; students living in districts 159 or 122 attend Lincoln-Way Central High School, and students living in districts 157C or 161 attend Lincoln-Way East High School. Higher education is provided at Joliet Junior College, the nations first public community college, and at Rasmussen College.
Hot spring. A hot spring, hydrothermal spring, or geothermal spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater onto the surface of the Earth. The groundwater is heated either by shallow bodies of magma (molten rock) or by circulation through faults to hot rock deep in the Earths crust. Hot spring water often contains large amounts of dissolved minerals. The chemistry of hot springs ranges from acid sulfate springs with a pH as low as 0.8, to alkaline chloride springs saturated with silica, to bicarbonate springs saturated with carbon dioxide and carbonate minerals. Some springs also contain abundant dissolved iron. The minerals brought to the surface in hot springs often feed communities of extremophiles, microorganisms adapted to extreme conditions, and it is possible that life on Earth had its origin in hot springs.[1][2] Humans have made use of hot springs for bathing, relaxation, or medical therapy for thousands of years. However, some are hot enough that immersion can be harmful, leading to scalding and, potentially, death.[3] There is no universally accepted definition of a hot spring. For example, one can find the phrase hot spring defined as The related term warm spring is defined as a spring with water temperature less than a hot spring by many sources, although Pentecost et al. (2003) suggest that the phrase warm spring is not useful and should be avoided. In 1923, Menzier proposed that a warm spring be defined as a thermal spring where the water is below that of the human body, but above that of the mean air temperature around the spring, though this definition is contested.[18][9]
Volcano.  A volcano is commonly defined as a vent or fissure in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.[1] On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and because most of Earths plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a mid-ocean ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes resulting from divergent tectonic activity are usually non-explosive whereas those resulting from convergent tectonic activity cause violent eruptions.[2][3] Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crusts plates, such as in the East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field, and the Rio Grande rift in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries most likely arises from upwelling diapirs from the core–mantle boundary called mantle plumes, 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in hotspot volcanism or intraplate volcanism, in which the plume may cause thinning of the crust and result in a volcanic island chain due to the continuous movement of the tectonic plate, of which the Hawaiian hotspot is an example.[4] Volcanoes are usually not created at transform tectonic boundaries where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes, based on their frequency of eruption or volcanism, are referred to as either active or extinct.[5] Active volcanoes have a history of volcanism and are likely to erupt again while extinct ones are not capable of eruption at all as they have no magma source. Dormant volcanoes have not erupted in a long time – generally accepted as since the start of the Holocene, about 12000 years ago – but may erupt again.[5] These categories arent entirely uniform; they may overlap for certain examples.[2][6][7] Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the Sun and cool Earths troposphere. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by volcanic winters which have caused catastrophic famines.[8]
Sulfur.  Sulfur (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphur (Commonwealth spelling)[9] is a chemical element; it has symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with the chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow, crystalline solid at room temperature. Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element by mass in the universe and the fifth most common on Earth. Though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur on Earth usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ancient India, ancient Greece, China, and ancient Egypt. Historically and in literature sulfur is also called brimstone,[10] which means burning stone.[11] Almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and petroleum.[12][13] The greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, and other chemical processes. Sulfur is used in matches, insecticides, and fungicides. Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, bad breath, grapefruit, and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes. Sulfur is an essential element for all life, almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides. Amino acids (two proteinogenic: cysteine and methionine, and many other non-coded: cystine, taurine, etc.) and two vitamins (biotin and thiamine) are organosulfur compounds crucial for life. Many cofactors also contain sulfur, including glutathione, and iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the (among others) protein keratin, found in outer skin, hair, and feathers. Sulfur is one of the core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all living organisms. Sulfur forms several polyatomic molecules. The best-known allotrope is octasulfur, cyclo-S8. The point group of cyclo-S8 is D4d and its dipole moment is 0 D.[14] Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless.[a] It melts at 115.21 °C (239.38 °F),[b] and boils at 444.6 °C (832.3 °F).[10] At 95.2 °C (203.4 °F), below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur begins slowly changing from α-octasulfur to the β-polymorph.[16] The structure of the S8 ring is virtually unchanged by this phase transition, which affects the intermolecular interactions. Cooling molten sulfur freezes at 119.6 °C (247.3 °F),[17] as it predominantly consists of the β-S8 molecules.[c] Between its melting and boiling temperatures, octasulfur changes its allotrope again, turning from β-octasulfur to γ-sulfur, again accompanied by a lower density but increased viscosity due to the formation of polymers.[16] At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs. Molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above 200 °C (392 °F). The density of sulfur is about 2 g/cm3, depending on the allotrope; all of the stable allotropes are excellent electrical insulators.
ARCA Menards Series. The ARCA Menards Series is an American stock car series, the premier division of the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA). It is considered a minor, semi-professional league of stock car racing, used as a feeder series into the three national touring series of NASCAR,[1][2] and hosts events at a variety of track types including superspeedways, road courses, and dirt tracks.[3] It also provides hobby drivers a chance to experience racing at large tracks used in the three national touring series in NASCAR. The series has had a longstanding relationship with NASCAR, including using former NASCAR Cup Series cars, hosting events in the same race weekend such as Daytona Speedweeks, and naming an award after NASCAR founder Bill France, Sr.[3][4][5] However, the series was not officially affiliated with NASCAR until its buyout on April 27, 2018.[6] 2020 was the first season that the series was sanctioned by NASCAR.[7] The series was known as the ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series from 1986 until 1991, the ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series from 1993 until 1995, and the ARCA Bondo/Mar-Hyde Series from 1996 to 2000.[8][9] The series was sponsored by real estate company RE/MAX as the ARCA RE/MAX Series from 2001 until 2009.[10] Midwest-based home improvement company Menards began sponsoring the series in 2010 jointly with RE/MAX, and became the lone presenting sponsor in 2011,[10] and from then until February 2019 the series was known as the ARCA Racing Series presented by Menards. The series was founded in Toledo, Ohio in 1953 as the Midwest Association for Race Cars (MARC), a local touring group in the Midwestern United States.[4] The series was founded by John Marcum, a friend and former competitor of Bill France, Sr. and former NASCAR employee, who created MARC as a northern counterpart to the southern-based NASCAR. Early drivers included Iggy Katona and Nelson Stacy.[5] The series became a part of Daytona Speedweeks in 1964 at the request of Bill France, allowing the series to open its season alongside the Daytona 500.[4][11] That same year, the series name was changed from MARC (Midwest Association for Race Cars) to the current ARCA (Automobile Racing Club of America) as a suggestion from France to give the series more national exposure.[5] The series races on a variety of tracks from small ovals to superspeedways such as Daytona International Speedway. In 2008 the series returned to racing on a road course.[12] The series is currently headed by Marcums grandson, Ron Drager.[5]
Comet.  A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that warms and begins to release gases when passing close to the Sun, a process called outgassing. This produces an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere or coma surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes a tail of gas and dust gas blown out from the coma. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the outstreaming solar wind plasma acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times Earths diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit. If sufficiently close and bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and can subtend an arc of up to 30° (60 Moons) across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures and religions. Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star.[2] Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun by gravitational perturbations from passing stars and the galactic tide. Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition. Extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids.[3] Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System.[4][5] However, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets. In the early 21st century, the discovery of some minor bodies with long-period comet orbits, but characteristics of inner solar system asteroids, were called Manx comets. They are still classified as comets, such as C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS).[6] Twenty-seven Manx comets were found from 2013 to 2017.[7] As of November 2021[update], there are 4,584 known comets.[8] However, this represents a very small fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the Oort cloud) is about one trillion.[9][10] Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye, though many of those are faint and unspectacular.[11] Particularly bright examples are called great comets. Comets have been visited by uncrewed probes such as NASAs Deep Impact, which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior, and the European Space Agencys Rosetta, which became the first to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet.[12]
List of minor planets.  The following is a list of minor planets in ascending numerical order. Minor planets are small bodies in the Solar System: asteroids, distant objects, and dwarf planets, but not comets. As of 2022, the vast majority (97.3%) are asteroids from the asteroid belt. Their discoveries are certified by the Minor Planet Center, which assigns them numbers on behalf of the International Astronomical Union. Every year, the Center publishes thousands of newly numbered minor planets in its Minor Planet Circulars (see index).[1][2] As of August 2025[update], the 847,427 numbered minor planets made up more than half of the 1,460,349 observed small Solar System bodies, of which the rest were unnumbered minor planets and comets.[3] The catalogs first object is 1 Ceres, discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801, while its best-known entry is Pluto, listed as 134340 Pluto. Both are among the 3.1% of numbered minor planets with names, mostly of people, places, and figures from mythology and fiction.[4] (4596) 1981 QB and 826631 Frascati are currently the lowest-numbered unnamed and highest-numbered named minor planets, respectively.[1][4] There are more than a thousand minor-planet discoverers observing from a growing list of registered observatories. The most prolific discoverers are Spacewatch, LINEAR, MLS, NEAT and CSS. It is expected that the upcoming survey by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory will discover another 5 million minor planets during the next ten years—almost a tenfold increase from current numbers.[5] While all main-belt asteroids with a diameter above 10 km (6.2 mi) have been discovered, there might be as many as 10 trillion 1 m (3.3 ft)-sized asteroids or larger out to the orbit of Jupiter; and more than a trillion minor planets in the Kuiper belt.[5][6] For minor planets grouped by a particular aspect or property, see § Specific lists. The list of minor planets consists of more than 700 partial lists, each containing 1000 minor planets grouped into 10 tables. The data is sourced from the Minor Planet Center (MPC) and expanded with data from the JPL SBDB (mean-diameter), Johnstons archive (sub-classification) and others (see detailed field descriptions below). For an overview of all existing partial lists, see § Main index.
Col. A col in geomorphology is the lowest point on a mountain ridge between two peaks.[1] It may also be called a gap or pass.[1] Particularly rugged and forbidding cols in the terrain are usually referred to as notches. They are generally unsuitable as mountain passes, but are occasionally crossed by mule tracks or climbers routes. Derived from the French col (collar, neck) from Latin collum, neck,[2]  the term tends to be associated more with mountain than hill ranges.[3]  The distinction with other names for breaks in mountain ridges such as saddle, wind gap or notch is not sharply defined and may vary from place to place. Many double summits are separated by prominent cols. The height of a summit above its highest col (called the key col) is effectively a measure of a mountains topographic prominence. Cols lie on the line of the watershed between two mountains, often on a prominent ridge or arête. For example, the highest col in Austria, the Obere Glocknerscharte (Upper Glockner Col, 3,766 m (AA)) lies between the Kleinglockner (3,783 m above sea level (AA)) and Grossglockner (3,798 m above sea level (AA)) mountains, giving the Kleinglockner a minimum prominence of 17 metres.[4]
Robert Strait.  Robert Strait (born November 14, 1969) is a former American football running back. Strait is considered one of the best high-school football players in Texas history. While playing at Cuero High School from 1985 to 1988, Strait rushed for 8,411 yards on a state-record 1,131 carries, and scored 841 points. He had 41 games with more than 100 yards rushing for his career, which was then second to Emmitt Smiths national record of 45 games and was the Texas state record until Wes Danaher broke the record in 1995 with 43 100-yard games. In 1987, Strait scored 372 points, which is second in Texas football history only to Ken Hall (395 points in 1953),[1] while Cuero High won the 3A state championship. In 1985 and 1986, Cuero had lost the title game. Considered the states top recruit in 1989 alongside Jessie Armstead, Strait accepted a scholarship offer by Grant Teaff to play for Baylor University. At the time, he was considered “the most heralded recruit in Baylor school history.”[2] In the 1994 NFL draft he was picked by the Cleveland Browns in the sixth round with the 171st pick overall.[3] He never played in the NFL, though. 
Highest unclimbed mountain.  An unclimbed mountain is a mountain peak that has not been climbed to the top. Determining which unclimbed peak is highest is often a matter of controversy. In some parts of the world, surveying and mapping are still unreliable. There are no comprehensive records of the routes of explorers, mountaineers, and local inhabitants. In some cases, even modern ascents by larger parties have been poorly documented and, with no universally recognized listing, the best that can be achieved in determining the worlds highest unclimbed peaks is somewhat speculative. Most sources indicate that Gangkhar Puensum (7,570 metres, 24,840 ft) on the Bhutan–Tibet border is the tallest mountain in the world that has not been fully summited. Gangkhar Puensum has been off limits to climbers since 1994 when Bhutan prohibited all mountaineering above 6,000 m (20,000 ft) due to spiritual/religious beliefs.[1] Unclimbed mountains are sometimes referred to as virgin peaks. Many virgin peaks exist because no one has had access to that mountain due to its geographic isolation or political instability. Some are off limits due to religious beliefs in that country or region which hold that a certain mountain is sacred and should remain inviolate. Of those, Mount Kailash, a mountain in the Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China, with an altitude of 6,638 m (21,778 ft), is one of the most prominent. It lies in the Kailash Range (Gangdisê Mountains) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau.  Mount Kailash is considered sacred in four religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon. Because of its status as a sacred mountain there are annual pilgrimages to see it, but any climbing activities on it are forbidden. Additionally, since climbing tall mountains is usually a major undertaking and climbers are attracted to climbing the tallest ones, lower peaks (even if they are very formidable) simply get less attention, and instead the taller peaks are summited again, by parties following a new route, or perhaps during the winter when conditions are generally more treacherous.[1] Many mountains, in addition to their highest point or peak, also have subpeaks. There is no universally accepted way of deciding when a subpeak is distinct enough to be classified as a mountain in its own right; therefore, any list of the worlds mountains is subject to dispute. The topographic prominence of each apex and the general topography of the area both come into consideration when determining their status. Although objective criteria have been proposed, there is no widely agreed standard. In 1994, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation classified 82 mountain peaks in the Alps whose summits were at least 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level and with at least 30 m (98 ft) of topographic prominence over any adjacent mountain pass or col, as a distinct peak.[2]
List of past presumed highest mountains.  The following is a list of mountains that have been presumed, at one time, to be the highest mountain in the world. How general the following presumptions were is unclear. Before the Age of Discovery, no geographer could make any plausible assumption.
Littoral (disambiguation). Littoral zone is an area near the coastline of a body of water. Littoral or Litoral may also refer to:
Mountain.  A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earths crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher than a hill, typically rising at least 600 metres (2,000 ft) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges.[1] Mountains are formed through tectonic forces, erosion, or volcanism,[1] which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years.[2] Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of weathering, through slumping and other forms of mass wasting, as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers.[3] High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as mining and logging, along with recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing. The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft). The tallest mountain including submarine terrain is Mauna Kea in Hawaii from its underwater base at 9,330 m (30,610 ft); some scientists consider it to be the tallest on earth.[3]
NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series. The NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series is a pickup truck racing series owned and operated by the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR), and is the only series in NASCAR to race production pickup truck-based stock cars. The series is one of three national divisions of NASCAR, ranking as the third tier behind the second-tier NASCAR Xfinity Series and the top level NASCAR Cup Series and is also the youngest NASCAR-sanctioned national racing competition to date. The 2023 season was the first with Stanley Black & Decker holding the series naming rights.  Previously, Sears, Roebuck & Co held title sponsorship from 1995 through 2008 with the Craftsman brand, during which the series was known as the NASCAR SuperTruck Series in 1995 and the Craftsman Truck Series from 1996 through 2008. Camping World took over the sponsorship to dub the Camping World Truck Series from 2009 through 2018, followed by the Gander Outdoors Truck Series in 2019, the Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series in 2020, and a return to the Camping World name in 2021 and 2022.  Stanley Black & Decker, which acquired the Craftsman brand in 2017, took over starting in 2023. The idea for the Truck Series dates back to 1991.[1] A group of SCORE off-road racers (Dick Landfield, Jimmy Smith, Jim Venable, and Frank Scoop Vessels)[2] had concerns about desert racings future, and decided to create a pavement truck racing series. They visited NASCAR Western Operations Vice President Ken Clapp to promote the idea, who consulted Bill France Jr. with it, but the plans fell apart. Afterwards, Clapp told the four to build a truck before NASCAR considered it. Bakersfield fabricator Gary Collins built a prototype truck, which was first shown off during Speedweeks for the 1994 Daytona 500[1] and tested by truck owner Jim Smith around Daytona International Speedway.[3] The truck proved to be popular among fans, and NASCAR arranged a meeting in a Burbank, California hotel on April 11, 1994; the meeting ultimately led to the creation of the SuperTruck Series.[1] Four demonstration races were held at Mesa Marin Raceway, Portland Speedway, Saugus Speedway and Tucson Raceway Park.[2] Tucson held four events that winter, which were nationally televised during the Winter Heat Series coverage.[2] Sears, Roebuck, & Co., through the Craftsman brand, served as the sponsor of the series on a three-year deal, and the series was renamed to the Craftsman Truck Series in 1996. In addition, the series $580,000 purse is larger than the Busch Grand National Series fund.[4] While a new series, it garnered immediate support from many prominent Winston Cup Series team owners and drivers. Prominent Cup owners Richard Childress, Rick Hendrick, and Jack Roush owned truck teams, and top drivers such as Dale Earnhardt and Ernie Irvan also fielded SuperTrucks for others.[4] The series also attracted the attention of drivers like sprint car racing star Sammy Swindell, Walker Evans of off-road racing fame, open-wheel veteran and later long-time NASCAR driver Mike Bliss, and Atlanta Falcons head coach Jerry Glanville.[1] The inaugural race, the Skoal Bandit Copper World Classic at Phoenix International Raceway, was held on February 5; the race, featuring an event-record crowd of 38,000 spectators,[1] concluded with eventual series champion Mike Skinner holding off Cup veteran Terry Labonte to win.[5] Only one team from the first season of the series, FDNY Racing, is still racing in the series today. At the end of the 2008 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series schedule, Craftsman ended its sponsorship of the series.[6] Subsequently, Camping World signed a seven-year contract with NASCAR, rebranding the series as the Camping World Truck Series.[7]
NASCAR.   The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, LLC (NASCAR) is an American auto racing sanctioning and operating company that is best known for stock car racing.[1] It is considered to be one of the top-ranked motorsports organizations in the world and is one of the largest spectator sports leagues in America. The privately owned company was founded by Bill France Sr. in 1948,[2] and his son, Jim France, has been the CEO since August 2018.[3] The company is headquartered in Daytona Beach, Florida.[4] Each year, NASCAR sanctions over 1,500 races at over 100 tracks in 48 US states, as well as in Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and Europe. NASCAR, and stock car racing as a whole, traces its roots back to moonshine runners during Prohibition, who grew to compete against each other in a show of pride. This happened notably in North Carolina. In 1935, Bill France Sr. established races in Daytona Beach, with the hope that people would come to watch races and that racers would race for him, as other organizers tended to fleece the winners of their payouts. This was a success, and the series was founded in 1948. Races were held in several divisions, which eventually morphed into what is the ladder: the Cup Series at the top, the Xfinity Series second, and the Truck Series third, with smaller series spread out below. Chevrolet, Ford, and Toyota compete in each series. The vast majority of NASCAR drivers are American, but drivers from Canada, Mexico, Europe, Australasia, and other places have competed. All Cup Series races are held in the United States and Mexico. There are 36 points-paying races in a season, along with the pre-season Clash and mid-season All-Star race. NASCAR runs races primarily on ovals, including superspeedways, short tracks, and previously dirt tracks, but also road courses and street circuits.
Mountain pass. A mountain pass is a navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge. Since mountain ranges can present formidable barriers to travel, passes have played a key role in trade, war, and both human and animal migration throughout history. At lower elevations it may be called a hill pass. A mountain pass is typically formed between two volcanic peaks or created by erosion from water or wind. Mountain passes make use of a gap, saddle, col or notch. A topographic saddle is analogous to the mathematical concept of a saddle surface, with a saddle point marking the minimum high point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge.[2][3] On a topographic map, passes can be identified by contour lines with an hourglass shape, which indicates a low spot between two higher points.[4] In the high mountains, a difference of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) between the summit and the mountain[clarification needed] is defined as a mountain pass.[5] Passes are often found just above the source of a river, constituting a drainage divide. A pass may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the pass, or a valley many kilometers long, whose highest point might only be identifiable by surveying. Roads and railways have long been built through passes. Some high and rugged passes may have tunnels bored underneath a nearby mountainside, as with the Eisenhower Tunnel bypassing Loveland Pass in the Rockies, to allow faster traffic flow throughout the year. The top of a pass is frequently the only flat ground in the area, and may be a high vantage point. In some cases this makes it a preferred site for buildings. If a national border follows the ridge of a mountain range, a pass over the mountains is typically on the border, and there may be a border control or customs station, and possibly a military post. For instance, Argentina and Chile share the worlds third-longest international border, 5,300 kilometres (3,300 mi) long, which runs north–south along the Andes mountains and includes 42 mountain passes.[6][7]
List of highest mountains on Earth.  There are at least 108 mountains on Earth with elevations of 7,200 m (23,622 ft; 4 mi) or greater above sea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,247 ft; 5 mi).[1] The vast majority of these mountains are part of either the Himalayas or the Karakoram mountain ranges located on the edge of the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate in China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.[a] The dividing line between a mountain with multiple  peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see also Highest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure called topographic prominence or re-ascent (the higher summit is called the parent peak). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (984 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such as Eiger, Nuptse or Annapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of S. It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, because synthetic aperture radar can and has been used to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks.
List of highest mountains on Earth.  There are at least 108 mountains on Earth with elevations of 7,200 m (23,622 ft; 4 mi) or greater above sea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,247 ft; 5 mi).[1] The vast majority of these mountains are part of either the Himalayas or the Karakoram mountain ranges located on the edge of the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate in China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.[a] The dividing line between a mountain with multiple  peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see also Highest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure called topographic prominence or re-ascent (the higher summit is called the parent peak). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (984 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such as Eiger, Nuptse or Annapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of S. It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, because synthetic aperture radar can and has been used to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks.
List of mountains by elevation. This is an incomplete list of notable mountains on Earth, sorted by elevation in metres above sea level. For a complete list of mountains over 7200 m high, with at least 500 m of prominence, see List of highest mountains. See also a list of mountains ranked by prominence. There are 14 mountains over 8,000 metres (26,247 ft), which are often referred to as the eight-thousanders. (There are six more 8,000m peaks in Nepal, waiting for official recognition, making for a total of 20.[1]) All are in the two highest mountain ranges in the world, the Himalayas and the Karakoram. There are 132 mountains between 7,000 and 8,000 metres (22,966 ft and 26,247 ft) Mountains between 6,000 and 7,000 metres (19,685 ft and 21,966 ft) Mountains between 5,000 and 6,000 metres (16,404 ft and 19,685 ft)
Saline water. Saline water (more commonly known as salt water) is water that contains a high concentration of dissolved salts (mainly sodium chloride). On the United States Geological Survey (USGS) salinity scale, saline water is saltier than brackish water, but less salty than brine. The salt concentration is usually expressed in parts per thousand (permille, ‰) and parts per million (ppm). The USGS salinity scale defines three levels of saline water. The salt concentration in slightly saline water is 1,000 to 3,000 ppm (0.1–0.3%); in moderately saline water is 3,000 to 10,000 ppm (0.3–1%); and in highly saline water is 10,000 to 35,000 ppm (1–3.5%). Seawater has a salinity of roughly 35,000 ppm, equivalent to 35 grams of salt per one liter (or kilogram) of water. The saturation level is only nominally dependent on the temperature of the water.[1] At 20 °C (68 °F) one liter of water can dissolve about 357 grams of salt, a concentration of 26.3 percent by weight (% w/w). At 100 °C (212 °F) (the boiling temperature of pure water), the amount of salt that can be dissolved in one liter of water increases to about 391 grams, a concentration of 28.1% w/w. At 100 °C (212 °F; 373 K), saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K), brine can only hold about 26% salt.[3] At 20 °C one liter of water can dissolve about 357 grams of salt, a concentration of 26.3%.[4] The thermal conductivity of seawater (3.5% dissolved salt by weight) is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C (77 °F).[5] The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. [6] [7] The salt content can be determined with a salinometer. Density ρ of brine at various concentrations and temperatures from 200 to 575 °C (392 to 1,067 °F) can be approximated with a linear equation:[8] ρ [ l b  /  f  t  3   ] =  a  3   − (  a  2   ⋅ T [ F ] )   {\displaystyle \rho [lb/ft^{3}]=a_{3}-(a_{2}\cdot T[F])}
Denali.   Denali (/dəˈnɑːli/),[5] federally designated as Mount McKinley,[6][7] is the highest mountain peak in North America, with a summit elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190 m) above sea level. It is the tallest mountain in the world from base to peak on land, measuring 18,000 ft (5,500 m).[8] With a topographic prominence of 20,156 feet (6,144 m)[3] and a topographic isolation of 4,621.1 miles (7,436.9 km),[3] Denali is the third most prominent and third-most isolated peak on Earth, after Mount Everest and Aconcagua. Located in the Alaska Range in the interior of the U.S. state of Alaska, Denali is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve. The Koyukon people who inhabit the area around the mountain have referred to the peak as Denali for centuries. In 1896, a gold prospector named it Mount McKinley in support of then-presidential candidate William McKinley, who later became the 25th president; McKinleys name was the official name recognized by the federal government of the United States from 1917 until 2015. In August 2015, 40 years after Alaska had officially named the mountain Denali, the United States Department of the Interior under the Obama administration changed the official federal name of the mountain also to Denali.[9][10][11] In January 2025, the Department of the Interior under the Trump administration reverted the mountains official federal name to Mount McKinley.[12][13] In 1903, James Wickersham recorded the first attempt at climbing Denali, which was unsuccessful. In 1906, Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent, but this ascent is unverified and its legitimacy questioned. The first verifiable ascent to Denalis summit was achieved on June 7, 1913, by climbers Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum, who went by the South Summit. In 1951, Bradford Washburn pioneered the West Buttress route, considered to be the safest and easiest route, and therefore the most popular currently in use.[14]
Foreshore, Cape Town. The Foreshore is an area in Cape Town, South Africa, situated in the citys central business district (CBD), between the historic city centre and the Port of Cape Town.[2] It is built on land reclaimed from Table Bay in the 1930s and 1940s, in connection with the construction of the Duncan Dock, to replace the old harbor. Because of its development later on, many buildings in the Foreshore have more modern architecture than those situated in older parts of Cape Town CBD, closer towards District Six, Table Mountain, and De Waterkant. Much of the Foreshore area is occupied by transport infrastructure for the port and Cape Town Railway Station. Other notable buildings in the area are the Cape Town Civic Centre, the Artscape Theatre Centre, and the Cape Town International Convention Centre. The area is also home to the regional office of Standard Bank, located in The Towers. When the area was reclaimed, the Government undertook a detailed study (the Szlumper Commission) to decide how to use the land not needed by South African Railways. This resulted in the issuance of a detailed proposal - The Cape Town Foreshore Plan.[3]
Aquatic ecosystem. An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water, in contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain communities of organisms—aquatic life—that are dependent on each other and on their environment. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.[1] Freshwater ecosystems may be lentic (slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes); lotic (faster moving water, for example streams and rivers); and wetlands (areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time).[2] A lake ecosystem or lacustrine ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (non-living) physical and chemical interactions.[9]  Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems (lentic refers to stationary or relatively still freshwater, from the Latin lentus, which means sluggish), which include ponds, lakes and wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of freshwater ecosystems. Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to Lake Baikal, which has a maximum depth of 1642 m.[10] The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown[9] states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified. Ponds and pools have two regions: the pelagic open water zone, and the benthic zone, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the profundal.[11] These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there.[9] River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts.[13][14] River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river beds gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers. Aquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental functions. For example, they recycle nutrients, purify water, attenuate floods, recharge ground water and provide habitats for wildlife.[19] The biota of an aquatic ecosystem contribute to its self-purification, most notably microorganisms, phytoplankton, higher plants, invertebrates, fish, bacteria, protists, aquatic fungi, and more. These organisms are actively involved in multiple self-purification processes, including organic matter destruction and water filtration. It is crucial that aquatic ecosystems are reliably self-maintained, as they also provide habitats for species that reside in them.[20] In addition to environmental functions, aquatic ecosystems are also used for human recreation, and are very important to the tourism industry, especially in coastal regions.[21] They are also used for religious purposes, such as the worshipping of the Jordan River by Christians, and educational purposes, such as the usage of lakes for ecological study.[22]
Outsourcing.  Outsourcing is a business practice in which companies use external providers to carry out business processes that would otherwise be handled internally.[1][2][3] Outsourcing sometimes involves transferring employees and assets from one firm to another. The term outsourcing, which came from the phrase outside resourcing, originated no later than 1981 at a time when industrial jobs in the United States were being moved overseas, contributing to the economic and cultural collapse of small, industrial towns.[4][5][6] In some contexts, the term smartsourcing is also used.[7] The concept, which The Economist says has made its presence felt since the time of the Second World War,[8] often involves the contracting out of a business process (e.g., payroll processing, claims processing), operational, and/or non-core functions, such as manufacturing, facility management, call center/call center support. The practice of handing over control of public services to private enterprises (privatization), even if conducted on a limited, short-term basis,[9] may also be described as outsourcing.[10]
Freshwater ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earths aquatic ecosystems that include the biological communities inhabiting freshwater waterbodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands.[1] They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a much higher salinity. Freshwater habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems: lentic (slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes), lotic (faster moving streams, for example creeks and rivers) and wetlands (semi-aquatic areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time).[2][1] Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the worlds known fish species.[3] Freshwater ecosystems have undergone substantial transformations over time, which has impacted various characteristics of the ecosystems.[4] Original attempts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats to human health (for example cholera outbreaks due to sewage contamination).[5] Early monitoring focused on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type of monitoring involves quantifying differing groups of organisms (macroinvertebrates, macrophytes and fish) and measuring the stream conditions associated with them.[6] Threats to freshwater biodiversity include overexploitation, water pollution, flow modification, destruction or degradation of habitat, and invasion by exotic species.[7] Climate change is putting further pressure on these ecosystems because water temperatures have already increased by about 1 °C, and there have been significant declines in ice coverage which have caused subsequent ecosystem stresses.[8] There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems: Lentic (slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes), lotic (faster moving water, for example streams and rivers) and wetlands (areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time). Limnology (and its branch freshwater biology) is the study of freshwater ecosystems.[1]
Hydropunctaria maura.  Hydropunctaria maura, still often called by the older name Verrucaria maura and commonly known as tar lichen,[3] is a species of saxicolous (rock-dwelling), crustose lichen belonging to the family Verrucariaceae.[4] A perennial species that does not experience seasonal variations, it is the type species of the genus Hydropunctaria.[5] The medulla is a black basal layer that forms columns (Latin: punctae) to the upper surface and isolates the algae into pockets near the upper surface. The black band formed by H. maura can often be seen at a distance as a marker of the high water point. Hydropunctaria maura is commonly found on hard rocks in the intertidal zone. Compared to terrestrial lichens, the species is typically located in areas of direct sunlight, suggests that it may have specific adaptations against damage from the sun.[6] It is considered an upper littoral (supralittoral) lichen, compared to other, lower littoral lichens such as Wahlenbergiella mucosa, distinguished by environmental factors such as water availability, UV exposure, and temperature.[7] Because of the relatively extreme conditions of the supralittoral zone, crustose lichens are the only organisms capable of colonizing these areas. H. maura effectively serves as the primary biological indicator of the extent of the zone where it is found.[5] Both H. maura and Hydropunctaria amphibia synthesize sucrose in response to high salt concentrations.[8][9] It forms thin, matte-black crusts with the algae genus Dilabifilum as a photobiont. A study of four lichen species from southwestern Norway showed that H. maura had a greater diversity of microorganisms, greater bacterial diversity in the thalli, and a higher number of different bacterial sequences. The diversity of microorganisms is likely related to its strong marine influence. It is commonly associated with Thermoproteota (formerly Crenarchaeota).[10] Other studies have identified Jannaschia pohangensis and Bacillus aerius, among others, as associated with Hydropunctaria maura.[11] The growth rate of H. maura colonies is estimated to be less than 1 mm per year. After elimination, it is estimated to take three years for the species to recolonize a substrate.[12] Germination of the spores of this species is stimulated by seawater salinity concentrations that typically inhibit germination of spores of other lichens.[13]
Estuary (disambiguation). An estuary is a semi-enclosed body of water flowing into the sea. Estuary may also refer to:
Saint-Malo.  Saint-Malo (UK: /sæ̃ ˈmɑːloʊ/,[3] US: /ˌsæ̃ məˈloʊ/,[4][5] French: [sɛ̃ malo] ⓘ; Gallo: Saent-Malô; Breton: Sant-Maloù) is a historic French port commune in Ille-et-Vilaine, Brittany. The walled city on the English Channel coast has a long history of piracy, earning much wealth from local extortion and overseas adventures. In 1944, during World War II, the Allies heavily bombed Saint-Malo. The city became a popular tourist centre, with a ferry terminal serving the Channel Islands of Jersey and Guernsey, as well as the Southern English settlements of Portsmouth, Hampshire and Poole, Dorset. The transatlantic single-handed yacht race Route du Rhum, which takes place every four years in November, is between Saint Malo and Pointe-à-Pitre in Guadeloupe. The population in 2017 was 46,097[6] – though this can increase to up to 300,000 in the summer tourist season. With the suburbs included, the metropolitan areas population is approximately 133,000 (2017).[7]
Río de la Plata. 27,225 m3/s (961,400 cu ft/s)[5] 22,000 m3/s (780,000 cu ft/s)[3] The Río de la Plata (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈri.o ðe la ˈplata] ⓘ; lit. River of Silver), also called the River Plate or La Plata River in English, is the estuary formed by the confluence of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River at Punta Gorda. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean and forms a funnel-shaped indentation on the southeastern coastline of South America. Depending on the geographer, the Río de la Plata may be considered a river, an estuary, a gulf, or a marginal sea.[3][7][better source needed] If considered a river, it is the widest in the world, with a maximum width of 220 kilometres (140 mi). The river is about 290 kilometres (180 mi) long and widens from about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) at its source to about 220 kilometres (140 mi) at its mouth.[8] It forms part of the border between Argentina and Uruguay. The name Río de la Plata is also used to refer to the populations along the estuary, especially the main port cities of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, where Rioplatense Spanish is spoken and tango culture developed. The coasts of the river are the most densely populated areas of Uruguay and Argentina.[3] The Río de la Plata begins at the confluence of the Uruguay and Paraná rivers at Punta Gorda and flows eastward into the South Atlantic Ocean. No clear physical boundary marks the rivers eastern end; the International Hydrographic Organization defines the eastern boundary of the Río de la Plata as a line joining Punta del Este, Uruguay and Cabo San Antonio, Argentina.[2] Though it is generally spoken of as a river, the Río de la Plata is considered by some geographers to be a large bay or marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean.[3][8] For those who regard it as a river, it is the widest in the world, with a maximum width of about 220 kilometres (140 mi) and a total surface area of about 35,000 square kilometres (14,000 sq mi).[3]
Observations of small Solar System bodies. Observations of minor planets as well as comets and natural satellites of the Solar System are made by astronomical observatories all over the world and reported to the Minor Planet Center (MPC), a service of the International Astronomical Union. The MPC maintains a data base that stores all observations submitted by these registered observatories. An astrometric record consists of the position, brightness and timestamp of an observed object, besides additional information. The database contains more than 200 million records gathered over the past two centuries.[2] The MPC assigns a 3 digit observatory code for each observatory, also known as MPC- or IAU codes. The code is in the range 000 to Z99 and serves as a unique identifier for the reported observations. The MPC periodically published a revised List Of Observatory Codes with newly registered observatories in their Minor Planet Circulars. Over time, the number of astronomical observatories worldwide has been growing constantly and contains 2468 observatory codes as of November 2023[update].[3] On numbering, often years later, the MPC determines the discovery among all the reported observations for an object. This does not need to be the earliest dated observation, also see precovery. The date of the selected observation will become the objects discovery date, and the corresponding observing astronomer or facility will become its discoverer.[4] The discovery circumstances are given in the catalog of numbered minor planets. An astrometric observational record includes the position, timestamp, and absolute brightness of an observed object. Typically, an observatory observes an objects at least three times within a short timespan during the same night. The records are then reported together with the individual code of the observatory to the Minor Planet Center. These are then compared to MPCs internal database and a new provisional designation is assigned if no match is found. The observational records are published by the MPC on a weekly basis. Summaries are published in the Minor Planet Circulars several times a year.[5] The example shows the first observational record for the Jupiter trojan (21271) 1996 RF33 as found in the lower section of the MPCs corresponding object page.[6] The observation was taken on 21 March 1980 at 14 hours 18 minutes and 43 seconds (1980 03 21.59633). The position of the object is given in the celestial coordinate system as declination (DEC) and right ascension (RA). The observation was taken by the Siding Spring Observatory in Australia and later released by the Digitized Sky Survey (DSS) using the observatorys archived photographic plates with a dedicated IAU code (260). The observation was published in the Minor Planets and Comets Supplement (MPS) on the continual page number 15065 on 21 June 2000.[5][6]
Biodiversity.  Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity.[1] Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than one-fifth of Earths terrestrial area and contain about 50% of the worlds species.[2] There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity for both marine and terrestrial taxa.[3] Since life began on Earth, six  major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic aeon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion. In this period, the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses. Those events have been classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse may have led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. Human activities have led to an ongoing biodiversity loss and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. This process is often referred to as Holocene extinction, or sixth mass extinction. For example, it was estimated in 2007 that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050.[4] Destroying habitats for farming is a key reason why biodiversity is decreasing today. Climate change also plays a role.[5][6] This can be seen for example in the effects of climate change on biomes. This anthropogenic extinction may have started toward the end of the Pleistocene, as some studies suggest that the megafaunal extinction event that took place around the end of the last ice age partly resulted from overhunting.[7] Biologists most often define biodiversity as the totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.[8][9] An advantage of this definition is that it presents a unified view of the traditional types of biological variety previously identified:
Mattole River.  The Mattole River is a river on the north coast of California, that flows northerly, then westerly into the Pacific Ocean. The vast majority of its 62 miles (100 km) course is through southern Humboldt County, though a short section of the river flows through northern Mendocino County. Communities, from north to south, closely associated with the Mattole River include: Petrolia, Honeydew, Ettersburg, Thorn Junction, and Whitethorn. The river enters the ocean at the Mattole Estuary about 4 miles (6.4 km) west-southwest of Petrolia and 10 miles (16 km) south of Cape Mendocino. Mattole refers to an Athabaskan Indian people, the Mattole. They historically called themselves Mattóal or bedool, but were referred to by neighboring Wyott Indians as Medol or metuul.[2][3] The local tradition is that Mattole means clear water.[2] The Mattole lived principally on the Mattole and Bear rivers.[4] During the Bald Hills War, this tribe mustered its warriors but it was outgunned and practically exterminated because of its resistance to white settlers.[2] The river and its 74 tributaries drain about 304 square miles (790 km2), including the eastern side of the King Range, and flows through Mattole Valley before emptying into the Pacific Ocean.[5] Although the Mattole Rivers source is at about 1,780 feet (540 m) elevation, its tributaries originate as high as 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above sea level.[6] The North Fork of the Mattole River enters the river main stem just west of Petrolia. For most of its length, the river is only a 4.2 miles (6.8 km) east of the King Range National Conservation Area. About halfway to the ocean, near Honeydew, California, the river passes by Humboldt Redwoods State Park. There are numerous tributaries and creeks that feed the drainage area. Some of the largest are the Upper North Fork at Honeydew (as opposed to the North Fork at Petrolia), Honeydew, Bear, Rattlesnake, and Oil Creeks.
Toulouse Observatory. The Toulouse Observatory (French: Observatoire de Toulouse) is located in Toulouse, France and was established in 1733.[1] It was founded by lAcadémie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres de Toulouse (Academy of Science, Inscriptions and the Humanities of Toulouse). It was moved 1841 and again in 1981.[citation needed] In 1987, Genevieve Soucail of the Toulouse Observatory and her collaborators presented data of a blue ring-like structure in Abell 370 and proposed a gravitational lensing interpretation[2] In the 1990s the observatory worked on MEGACAM with several other institutions.[3] The observatory was started by Garipuy in the 1730s with support from the Academy of Sciences.[4]
Isaac Roberts Observatory.  Isaac Roberts Observatory was an observatory, installed in the private home of the British astronomer Isaac Roberts. It was in Crowborough, Sussex, and was active from 1890, when Roberts installed it, until his death in 1904. The observatory appears in the List of observatory codes of the Minor Planet Center with the code 001.[1] Roberts began his astronomical observations in 1878, and early on saw the need to have the best observation conditions to make photographic records.[2] This factor, coupled with his chronic bronchitis, which meant he needed a better climate for his health, motivated him to look for a new location suitable for his observations. In 1885 he acquired copy of Observations upon the Topography and Climate of Crowborough Hill, Sussex by Charles L. Prince, describing and extolling the conditions of the area, precisely those he needed. The local landowner[who?] sold to Roberts part of his property, four acres (1.6 hectares), where he built his house including a domed observatory to accommodate his telescopes. In 1890 Roberts, who called the house Starfield, moved in. In his new house and observatory he continued his work—which earned him, among others awards, the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of London—until his death in 1904.[3] After his death the house changed hands several times until, in 1928, it was bought by local government and turned into offices. In 1935 the offices were extended resulting in the disappearance of the dome of the observatory. Finally in the 1980s, due to needs of local government outstripping the property, the house was sold and demolished to build new houses. The new neighbourhood is called Starfield.[3] The observatory was situated in the summit of Crowborough Hill, a hill of roughly 250 m above sea level, the highest point of the surrounding region. The buildings were designed to allow that the telescopes could go down until the 20° above the horizon when they focused above the roofs of the house. Joined to the observatory there were some buildings devoted to a photographic laboratory, with darkroom and facilities for the enhancement of photography. The observatory was connected with the house by a corridor that opened into the library.
Composer.  A composer is a person who writes music.[1] The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music,[2] or those who are composers by occupation.[3] Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music. The term is descended from Latin, compōnō; literally one who puts together.[4] The earliest use of the term in a musical context given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from Thomas Morleys 1597 A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, where he says Some wil  [sic] be good descanters [...] and yet wil be but bad composers.[1] Composer is a loose term that generally refers to any person who writes music.[1] More specifically, it is often used to denote people who are composers by occupation,[3] or those who work in the tradition of Western classical music.[2] Writers of exclusively or primarily songs may be called composers, but since the 20th century the terms songwriter or singer-songwriter are more often used, particularly in popular music genres.[5] In other contexts, the term composer can refer to a literary writer,[6] or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole.[7] Across cultures and traditions composers may write and transmit music in a variety of ways. In much popular music, the composer writes a composition, and it is then transmitted via oral tradition. Conversely, in some Western classical traditions music may be composed aurally—i.e. in the mind of the musician—and subsequently written and passed through written documents.[8]
Royal Observatory, Greenwich.  The Royal Observatory, Greenwich (ROG;[1] known as the Old Royal Observatory from 1957 to 1998, when the working Royal Greenwich Observatory, RGO, temporarily moved south from Greenwich to Herstmonceux) is an observatory situated on a hill in Greenwich Park in south east London, overlooking the River Thames to the north. It played a major role in the history of astronomy and navigation, and because the Prime Meridian passed through it, it gave its name to Greenwich Mean Time, the precursor to todays Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The ROG has the IAU observatory code of 000, the first in the list.[2] ROG, the National Maritime Museum, the Queens House and the clipper ship Cutty Sark are collectively designated Royal Museums Greenwich.[1] The observatory was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II, with the foundation stone being laid on 10 August. The old hilltop site of Greenwich Castle was chosen by Sir Christopher Wren, a former Savilian Professor of Astronomy; as Greenwich Park was a royal estate, no new land needed to be bought.[3] At that time the king also created the position of Astronomer Royal, to serve as the director of the observatory and to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation. He appointed John Flamsteed as the first Astronomer Royal. The building was completed in the summer of 1676.[4] The building was often called Flamsteed House, in reference to its first occupant. The scientific work of the observatory was relocated elsewhere in stages in the first half of the 20th century, and the Greenwich site is now maintained almost exclusively as a museum, although the AMAT telescope became operational for astronomical research in 2018. There had been significant buildings on this land since the reign of William I.[8][page needed] Greenwich Palace, on the site of the present-day National Maritime Museum, was the birthplace of both Henry VIII and his daughters Mary I and Elizabeth I; the Tudors used Greenwich Castle, which stood on the hilltop that the Observatory presently occupies, as a hunting lodge. Greenwich Castle was reportedly a favourite place for Henry VIII to house his mistresses, so that he could easily travel from the Palace to see them.[9][page needed]
Emeritus.  An emeritus (/ə.ˈmɛ.rɪ.təs/) or  emerita (/ə.ˈmɛ.rɪ.tə/)[Note 1] is an honorary title granted to someone who retires from a position of distinction, most commonly an academic faculty position, but is allowed to continue using the previous title, as in professor emeritus.[1] In some cases, the term is conferred automatically upon all persons who retire at a given rank, but in others, it remains a mark of distinguished performance (usually in the area of research) awarded selectively on retirement. It is also used when a person of distinction in a profession retires or hands over the position, enabling their former rank to be retained in their title. The term emeritus does not necessarily signify that a person has relinquished all the duties of their former position, and they may continue to exercise some of them.[citation needed] In descriptions of deceased professors emeriti listed at U.S. universities, the title emeritus is replaced by an indication of the years of their appointments,[2] except in obituaries, where it may be used to indicate their status at the time of death.[2] Emeritus (past participle of Latin emerere, meaning complete ones service) is a compound of the Latin prefix e- (variant of ex-) meaning out of, from and merere (source of merit) meaning to serve, earn. The word is attested since the early 17th century with the meaning having served out ones time, having done sufficient service. The Latin feminine equivalent, emerita (/ə.ˈmɛ.rɪ.tə/), is also sometimes used, although in English the word emeritus is often unmarked for gender.[3]
Walter Slaughter.  Walter Alfred Slaughter (17 February 1860 – 2 March 1908) was an English conductor and composer of musical comedy, comic opera and childrens shows.  He was engaged in the West End as a composer and musical director from 1883 to 1904. Slaughter was born in Fitzroy Square, London.[1] He attended the City of London School, and sang in the choir of St. Andrews Church, Wells Street under Joseph Barnby.[2]  After leaving school, he worked in a wine merchants office and then for the music publishers Metzler.[3]  While there, he studied music under Alfred Cellier, Berthold Tours, and Georges Jacobi, the musical director of the Alhambra Theatre.[2]  He was also brought into frequent contact with Arthur Sullivan, who gave him much encouragement and friendly advice.[2]  Slaughter once asked Sullivan the best way to study composition; Sullivan replied, Take off your gloves, go into the orchestra and study it there, as an engineer studies his business in the engine room.[1]  Slaughter married Luna Lauri (Mlle. Luna), one of the two famous dancing daughters of John Lauri, ballet-master at the Alhambra Theatre.  Their daughter, Marjorie Slaughter, also became a composer.[4] Slaughter served as the organist at St. Andrews and as a cellist and pianist in music halls prior to becoming a musical director in West End theatre productions.  Before he was 20, he had composed three ballets for the South London Palace.  His early works also included some individual songs, one of which was the popular The Dear Homeland. He  composed the music for the successful all-women one-act opera di camera An Adamless Eden (1882 at the Opera Comique),[5] which was produced in Britain and in America (1884) by Lila Clays ladies company. He also provided additional music in 1883, for the English adaptation of  Edmond Audrans Gillette de Narbonne.[6] After several one-act works, including Sly and Shy (1883), The Casting Vote (1885)[7] and Maries Honeymoon (1885), he wrote the score for what became the most successful musical version of Alice in Wonderland, in 1886, to a book and lyrics by Henry Savile Clarke.  He also wrote a work called Sappho that year for the Opera Comique, which was not as well received because of a weak libretto.[8] Slaughter later wrote the score to the medieval comic opera Marjorie produced by the Carl Rosa Opera Company in 1890 (Prince of Waless Theatre, 193 performances), and contributed to the Gaiety Theatres Cinderella burlesque, Cinder-Ellen Up-too-Late in 1891 and King Kodak in 1894.  In 1893 he composed the score for a musical farce, Peggys Plot, for the German Reeds.[9]  At the same time, Slaughter composed incidental music for plays, including those produced at the St. Jamess Theatre, while he was employed as the musical director there, including, in 1890, Walter Friths Molierè and Quinton and Hamiltons Lord Anerley; in 1891, Haddon Chamberss The Idler; and in 1892, Oscar Wildes Lady Windermeres Fan and Donna Luiza (with Basil Hood as librettist).
Earth.  Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all of Earths water is contained in its global ocean, covering 70.8% of Earths crust. The remaining 29.2% of Earths crust is land, most of which is located in the form of continental landmasses within Earths land hemisphere. Most of Earths land is at least somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while large ice sheets at Earths polar deserts retain more water than Earths groundwater, lakes, rivers, and atmospheric water combined. Earths crust consists of slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation. Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earths surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It has a composition of primarily nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Suns light. This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C (58.57 °F), at which water is liquid under normal atmospheric pressure. Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as carbon and nitrogen to cycle. Earth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 kilometres (24,900 miles). It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about eight light-minutes (1 AU) away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). Earths axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 384,400 km (238,855 mi)—1.28 light seconds—and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moons gravity helps stabilize Earths axis, causes tides and gradually slows Earths rotation. Likewise Earths gravitational pull has already made the Moons rotation tidally locked, keeping the same near side facing Earth. Earth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, formed about 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust in the early Solar System. During the first billion years of Earths history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it. Life spread globally and has been altering Earths atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread across every continent on Earth. Humans depend on Earths biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted the planets environment. Humanitys current impact on Earths climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and causing widespread extinctions.
Through the Looking-Glass.  Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There is a novel published in December 1871 by Lewis Carroll, the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, a mathematics lecturer at Christ Church, Oxford. It was the sequel to his Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865), in which many of the characters were anthropomorphic playing-cards. In this second novel the theme is chess. As in the earlier book, the central figure, Alice, enters a fantastical world, this time by climbing through a large looking-glass (a mirror)[n 1] into a world that she can see beyond it. There she finds that, just as in a reflection, things are reversed, including logic (for example, running helps one remain stationary, walking away from something brings one towards it, chessmen are alive and nursery-rhyme characters are real). Among the characters Alice meets are the severe Red Queen,[n 2] the gentle and flustered White Queen, the quarrelsome twins Tweedledum and Tweedledee, the rude and opinionated Humpty Dumpty, and the kindly but impractical White Knight. Eventually, as in the earlier book, after a succession of strange adventures, Alice wakes and realises she has been dreaming. As in Alices Adventures in Wonderland, the original illustrations are by John Tenniel. The book contains several verse passages, including Jabberwocky, The Walrus and the Carpenter and the White Knights ballad, A-sitting On a Gate. Like Alices Adventures in Wonderland, the book introduces phrases that have become common currency, including jam to-morrow and jam yesterday – but never jam to-day, sometimes Ive believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast, un-birthday presents, portmanteau words and as large as life and twice as natural. Through the Looking Glass has been adapted for the stage and the screen and translated into many languages. Critical opinion of the book has generally been favourable and either ranked it on a par with its predecessor or else only just short of it.
Libretto.  A libretto (From the Italian word libretto, lit. booklet) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or musical. The term libretto is also sometimes used to refer to the text of major liturgical works, such as the Mass, requiem and sacred cantata, or the story line of a ballet. The Italian word libretto (pronounced [liˈbretto], plural libretti [liˈbretti]) is the diminutive of the word libro (book). Sometimes other-language equivalents are used for libretti in that language, livret for French works, Textbuch for German and libreto for Spanish. A libretto is distinct from a synopsis or scenario of the plot, in that the libretto contains all the words and stage directions, while a synopsis summarizes the plot. Some ballet historians also use the word libretto to refer to the 15- to 40-page books which were on sale to 19th century ballet audiences in Paris and contained a very detailed description of the ballets story, scene by scene.[1] The relationship of the librettist (that is, the writer of a libretto) to the composer in the creation of a musical work has varied over the centuries, as have the sources and the writing techniques employed. In the context of a modern English-language musical theatre piece, the libretto is considered to encompass both the book of the work (i.e., the spoken dialogue) and the sung lyrics.
West End theatre.  West End theatre is mainstream professional theatre staged in the large theatres in and near the West End of London.[1] Along with New York Citys Broadway theatre, West End theatre represents the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world.[2] Seeing a West End show is a common tourist activity in London.[1] Prominent screen actors, British and international alike, frequently appear on the London stage.[3][4][5][6][7] There are approximately 40 theatres in the West End, with the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, opened in May 1663, the oldest theatre in London.[8] The Savoy Theatre—built as a showcase for the popular series of comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan—was entirely lit by electricity in 1881.[9] The Society of London Theatre (SOLT) announced that 2018 was a record year for the capitals theatre industry with attendances topping 15.5 million for the first time since the organisation began collecting audience data in 1986. Box office revenues exceeded £765 million.[10] While attendance in 2019 was down 1.4% compared to the previous year, box office revenues reached a record £799 million.[11] In 2023, audiences reached a record 17.1 million.[12] The majority of West End theatres are owned by the ATG Entertainment, Delfont Mackintosh Theatres, Nimax Theatres, LW Theatres, and the Nederlander Organization.
Henry Savile Clarke.  Henry Savile Clarke (14 February 1841 – 5 October 1893) was an English dramatist, journalist and critic. He produced and wrote the lyrics and book for the first professional dramatisation of Alices Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass (1886) which remained a popular childrens Christmas entertainment for half a century.[1][2][3] Clarke was the oldest of six children born to the Rev. Henry Clarke, Vicar of Guisborough (1814–1861), and his wife Catherine Frances née Dawson (1818–1852). Clarke went to Edinburgh to study medicine, but there became increasingly interested in journalism. He became one of the circle of enthusiastic young men around the writer James Hannay and consequently left medicine for literature. On 27 April 1865 Clarke married the artist Helen Weatherill (1840–1898) in Guisborough.[4] In 1866 the couple moved to London, where they had three daughters: the writer Clara Savile Clarke (1869–1898), Margaret Helen Maggie Clarke (1870–1894) and Catherine Dawson Kitty Clarke (1872–1901).[5] Clarke took up writing in London and within a year or two was listed in advertising for Cassells Magazine, where he was described as one of its well-known contributors. He gradually became known as a journalist on various subjects, while writing light literature and the books and lyrics for musicals.[2] This career was to last for about 25 years.[5] In 1878 he wrote the words for Songs of Israel to the music of Abraham Saqui (c. 1824–1893), the first choirmaster of the Princes Road Synagogue in Liverpool. Other works by Clarke include lyrics for the operetta An Adamless Eden! (1882) and for Lila Clay and her all-female troupe.[6] He also wrote the English adaptation of Gillette de Narbonne, which opened at Londons Royalty Theatre on 19 November 1883, with additional music by Walter Slaughter and Hamilton Clarke.[7] The production was not a success and closed within a month.[8] In August 1886 Clarke wrote to Lewis Carroll for permission to adapt Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871) into a Christmas musical stage show. There had been some amateur productions of Alice, and for the first and only time Carroll agreed to his work being performed on the professional stage. Carroll soon accepted Clarkes proposal, but with several stipulations: There are one or two wishes on the subject, which I will name for your consideration: but the only essential consideration is that I should have your written guarantee that, neither in the libretto nor in any of the stage business, should any coarseness, or anything suggestive of coarseness, be admitted.... This piece ought to be an Operetta (like The Mikado) and not a Pantomime.[9]
Playwright. A playwright or dramatist is a person who writes plays, which are a form of drama that primarily consists of dialogue between characters and is intended for theatrical performance rather than just reading. Ben Jonson coined the term playwright and is the first person in English literature to refer to playwrights as separate from poets. The earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. William Shakespeare is amongst the most famous playwrights in literature, both in England and across the world. The word play is from Middle English pleye, from Old English plæġ, pleġa, plæġa (play, exercise; sport, game; drama, applause).[1] The word wright is an archaic English term for a craftsperson or builder (as in a wheelwright or cartwright).[2] The words combine to indicate a person who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form — a play. (The homophone with write is coincidental.) The first recorded use of the term playwright is from 1605,[3] 73 years before the first written record of the term dramatist.[4] It appears to have been first used in a pejorative sense by Ben Jonson[5] to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson uses the word in his Epigram 49, which is thought to refer to John Marston[6] or Thomas Dekker:[7]
David Henry Hwang.  David Henry Hwang (born August 11, 1957) is an American playwright, librettist, screenwriter, and theater professor at Columbia University in New York City. He has won three Obie Awards for his plays  FOB, Golden Child, and Yellow Face. He has one Tony Award (M. Butterfly) and two other nominations (Golden Child and Flower Drum Song). Three of his works (M. Butterfly, Yellow Face, and Soft Power) have been finalists for the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. He was born in 1957 in Los Angeles, California, to Henry Yuan Hwang, the founder of Far East National Bank,[1] and Dorothy Hwang, a piano teacher. The oldest of three children, he has two younger sisters. He received a bachelors degree in English from Stanford University in 1979 and attended the Yale School of Drama between 1980 and 1981, taking literature classes.[2] He left once workshopping of new plays began, since he already had a play being produced in New York. His first play was produced at the Okada House dormitory (named Junipero House at the time) at Stanford University after he briefly studied playwriting with Sam Shepard and María Irene Fornés.[3] In summer 1978, he studied playwriting with Sam Shepard and attended Padua Hills Playwrights Festival, both of which led him to write his first plays such as FOB.[4] Hwangs early plays concerned the role of the Chinese American and Asian American in the contemporary world. His first play, FOB,[5] explores the contrasts and conflicts between established Asian Americans and Fresh Off the Boat new immigrants. The play was developed by the National Playwrights Conference at the Eugene ONeill Theater Center and premiered in 1980 Off-Broadway at the Joseph Papp Public Theater. In 1981 it won an Obie Award for Best New American Play.[6] Papp produced four more of Hwangs plays, including two in 1981: The Dance and the Railroad, which tells the story of a former Chinese opera star working as a coolie laborer in the 19th-century American West,[7] and Family Devotions,[8] a darkly comic take on the effects of Western religion on a Chinese-American family. This was nominated for the Drama Desk Award. Those three plays added up to what the author described as a Trilogy of Chinese America.[9] After this, Papp also produced the show Sound and Beauty, the omnibus title to two Hwang one-act plays set in Japan. At this time, Hwang started to work on projects for the small screen. A television movie, Blind Alleys, written by Hwang and Frederic Kimball and starring Pat Morita and Cloris Leachman, was produced in 1985 and followed a television version of The Dance and the Railroad.[7]
Unsuk Chin.  Unsuk Chin (Korean: 진은숙 [tɕin ɯn.suk]; born July 14, 1961) is a South Korean composer of contemporary classical music, who is based in Berlin, Germany. Chin was a self-taught pianist from a young age and studied composition at Seoul National University as well as with György Ligeti at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg.[1] The recipient of numerous awards, she won the 2004 Grawemeyer Award for her Violin Concerto No. 1, the 2010 Music Composition Prize of the Prince Pierre Foundation for the ensemble piece Gougalōn and the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize in 2024. In 2019, writers of The Guardian ranked her Cello Concerto (2009) the 11th greatest work of art music since 2000, with Andrew Clements describing it as perhaps the most original and entertainingly disconcerting of all of [her concertos], cast in four brilliant movements that never quite conform to type.[2] Unsuk Chin was born in Seoul, South Korea. She studied composition with Sukhi Kang at Seoul National University and won several international prizes in her early 20s. In 1985, Chin won the Gaudeamus Foundation located in Amsterdam, with her piece Spektra for three celli, which was composed for her graduation project. She also received an academic grant to study in Germany, where she moved that same year.[1] There she studied with György Ligeti at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg from 1985 to 1988.[1] In 1988, Chin worked as a freelance composer at the electronic music studio of Technische Universität Berlin, releasing seven works. Her first electronic piece was Gradus ad Infinitum, which was composed in 1989.[3] Her first large orchestral piece, Die Troerinnen (1986, rev.1990), for womens voices, was premiered by the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra in 1990.[4] In 1991, her breakthrough work Acrostic Wordplay was premiered by the Nieuw Ensemble. Since then, it has been performed in more than 20 countries in Europe, Asia and North America. Chins collaboration with the Ensemble Intercontemporain, which has led to several commissions from them, started in 1994 with Fantaisie mecanique. Since 1995, Chin has been published exclusively by Boosey & Hawkes.[1] In 1999, Chin began an artistic collaboration with Kent Nagano, who has since premiered six of her works.
Business.  Business is the practice of making ones living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).[1][2][3][4] It is also any activity or enterprise entered into for profit.[5] A business entity is not necessarily separate from the owner and the creditors can hold the owner liable for debts the business has acquired except for limited liability company.[6] The taxation system for businesses is different from that of the corporates. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from the business. A distinction is made in law and public offices between the term business and a company (such as a corporation or cooperative). Colloquially, the terms are used interchangeably. Corporations are distinct from sole proprietors and partnerships. Corporations are separate and unique legal entities from their shareholders; as such they provide limited liability for their owners and members. Corporations are subject to corporate tax rates. Corporations are also more complicated, expensive to set up, along with the mandatory reporting of quarterly or annual financial information to the national (or state) securities commissions or company registers, but offer more protection and benefits for the owners and shareholders.[6]
Music.  Music is the arrangement of sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm, or otherwise expressive content.[1][2][3] Music is generally agreed to be a cultural universal that is present in all human societies.[4] Definitions of music vary widely in substance and approach.[5] While scholars agree that music is defined by a small number of specific elements, there is no consensus as to what these necessary elements are.[6] Music is often characterized as a highly versatile medium for expressing human creativity.[7] Diverse activities are involved in the creation of music, and are often divided into categories of composition, improvisation, and performance.[8] Music may be performed using a wide variety of musical instruments, including the human voice. It can also be composed, sequenced, or otherwise produced to be indirectly played mechanically or electronically, such as via a music box, barrel organ, or digital audio workstation software on a computer. Music often plays a key role in social events and religious ceremonies. The techniques of making music are often transmitted as part of a cultural tradition. Music is played in public and private contexts, highlighted at events such as festivals and concerts for various different types of ensembles. Music is used in the production of other media, such as in soundtracks to films, TV shows, operas, and video games. Listening to music is a common means of entertainment. The culture surrounding music extends into areas of academic study, journalism, philosophy, psychology, and therapy. The music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and publishers of sheet music and recordings. Technology facilitating the recording and reproduction of music has historically included sheet music, microphones, phonographs, and tape machines, with playback of digital music being a common use for MP3 players, CD players, and smartphones. The modern English word music came into use in the 1630s.[9] It is derived from a long line of successive precursors: the Old English musike of the mid-13th century; the Old French musique of the 12th century; and the Latin mūsica.[10][7][n 1] The Latin word itself derives from the Ancient Greek mousiké (technē)—μουσική (τέχνη)—literally meaning (art) of the Muses.[10][n 2] The Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek mythology who presided over the arts and sciences.[13][14] They were included in tales by the earliest Western authors, Homer and Hesiod,[15] and eventually came to be associated with music specifically.[14] Over time, Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently than the other muses.[11] The Latin word musica was also the originator for both the Spanish música and French musique via spelling and linguistic adjustment, though other European terms were probably loanwords, including the Italian musica, German Musik, Dutch muziek, Norwegian musikk, Polish muzyka and Russian muzïka.[14]
Maghreb.  The Maghreb (/ˈmɑːɡrəb/;[2] Arabic: ْاَلْمَغْرِب, romanized: al-Maghrib, lit. The place where the sun sets [ælˈmaɣrɪb] ⓘ), also known as the Arab Maghreb (Arabic: اَلْمَغْرِبُ الْعَرَبِيُّ, romanized: al-Maghrib al-ʿArabi, lit. the Arab west) or the Greater Maghreb (Arabic: المغرب الكبير al-Maghrib al-Kabīr), and Northwest Africa,[3] is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb also includes the disputed territory of Western Sahara. As of 2018, the region had a population of over 100 million people. The Maghreb is usually defined as encompassing much of the northern part of Africa, including a large portion of the Sahara Desert, but excluding Egypt and the Sudan, which are considered to be located in the Mashriq—the eastern part of the Arab world. The traditional definition of the Maghreb—which restricted its scope to the Atlas Mountains and the coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya—was expanded in modern times to include Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara. During the era of al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula (711–1492), the Maghrebs inhabitants—the Muslim Maghrebis—were known by Europeans as the Moors.[4] The Greeks referred to the region as the Land of the Atlas, referring to its Atlas Mountains.[5] Before the establishment of modern nation states in the region during the 20th century, the Maghreb most commonly referred to a smaller area, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the south. It often also included the territory of eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century, the term Maghreb was used to refer to the western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in particular.[6] The region comprising the Maghreb was somewhat unified as an independent political entity under the kingdom of Numidia. This period was followed by one of the Roman Empires rule or influence. The Germanic Vandals invaded after that, followed by the equally brief re-establishment of a weak Roman rule by the Byzantine Empire. The Islamic caliphates came to power under the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate and the Fatimid Caliphate. The most enduring rule was that of the local Arab empires of the Aghlabids, Idrisids, Salihids, Sulaymanids, Umayyads of Cordoba, Hammudids, Nasrids, Saadians, Alawites and the Sennusids, as well as the Berber empires of the Ifranids, Almoravids, Almohads, Hammadids, Zirids, Marinids, Zayyanids, Hafsids and Wattasids, extending from the 8th to 13th centuries. The Ottoman Empire also controlled parts of the region for a period.
East West Bancorp. East West Bancorp is the parent company of East West Bank. It is a publicly owned company with over $70 billion in assets as of 2024.[1][2] The companys wholly owned subsidiary, East West Bank, is the largest state-chartered bank in California as of 2023.[3] East West earned the top spot in S&P Global Market Intelligences 2022 Ranking of U.S. Public Banks by Financial Performance.[4] As of 2024, East West Bank has more than 100 locations in the United States and Asia.[5][6] The East West Federal Bank (now East West Bank) was founded in 1973.[7] Dominic Ng is chairman and CEO of East West Bank.[8][9]
Music theory.  Music theory is the study of theoretical frameworks for understanding the practices and possibilities of music. The Oxford Companion to Music describes three interrelated uses of the term music theory: The first is the rudiments, that are needed to understand music notation (key signatures, time signatures, and rhythmic notation); the second is learning scholars views on music from antiquity to the present; the third is a sub-topic of musicology that seeks to define processes and general principles in music. The musicological approach to theory differs from music analysis in that it takes as its starting-point not the individual work or performance but the fundamental materials from which it is built.[1] Music theory is frequently concerned with describing how musicians and composers make music, including tuning systems and composition methods among other topics. Because of the ever-expanding conception of what constitutes music, a more inclusive definition could be the consideration of any sonic phenomena, including silence. This is not an absolute guideline, however; for example, the study of music in the Quadrivium liberal arts university curriculum, that was common in medieval Europe, was an abstract system of proportions that was carefully studied at a distance from actual musical practice.[n 1] But this medieval discipline became the basis for tuning systems in later centuries and is generally included in modern scholarship on the history of music theory.[n 2] Music theory as a practical discipline encompasses the methods and concepts that composers and other musicians use in creating and performing music. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory in this sense may be found in oral and written music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. For example, ancient instruments from prehistoric sites around the world reveal details about the music they produced and potentially something of the musical theory that might have been used by their makers. In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music-making. Many cultures have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises and music notation. Practical and scholarly traditions overlap, as many practical treatises about music place themselves within a tradition of other treatises, which are cited regularly just as scholarly writing cites earlier research. In modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history. Guido Adler, however, in one of the texts that founded musicology in the late 19th century, wrote that the science of music originated at the same time as the art of sounds,[3] where the science of music (Musikwissenschaft) obviously meant music theory. Adler added that music only could exist when one began measuring pitches and comparing them to each other. He concluded that all people for which one can speak of an art of sounds also have a science of sounds.[4] One must deduce that music theory exists in all musical cultures of the world.
France.  France,[h] officially the French Republic,[i] is a country primarily located in Western Europe. Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and many islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean, giving it the largest discontiguous exclusive economic zone in the world. Metropolitan France shares borders with Belgium and Luxembourg to the north; Germany to the northeast; Switzerland to the east; Italy and Monaco to the southeast; Andorra and Spain to the south; and a maritime border with the United Kingdom to the northwest. Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea. Its eighteen integral regions—five of which are overseas—span a combined area of 632,702 km2 (244,288 sq mi) and have an estimated total population of over 68.6 million as of January 2025[update]. France is a semi-presidential republic. Its capital, largest city and main cultural and economic centre is Paris. Metropolitan France was settled during the Iron Age by Celtic tribes known as Gauls before Rome annexed the area in 51 BC, leading to a distinct Gallo-Roman culture. In the Early Middle Ages, the Franks formed the kingdom of Francia, which became the heartland of the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 partitioned the empire, with West Francia evolving into the Kingdom of France. In the High Middle Ages, France was a powerful but decentralised feudal kingdom, but from the mid-14th to the mid-15th centuries, France was plunged into a dynastic conflict with England known as the Hundred Years War. In the 16th century, French culture flourished during the French Renaissance and a French colonial empire emerged. Internally, France was dominated by the conflict with the House of Habsburg and the French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots. France was successful in the Thirty Years War and further increased its influence during the reign of Louis XIV. The French Revolution of 1789 overthrew the Ancien Régime and produced the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which expresses the nations ideals to this day. France reached its political and military zenith in the early 19th century under Napoleon Bonaparte, subjugating part of continental Europe and establishing the First French Empire. The collapse of the empire initiated a period of relative decline, in which France endured the Bourbon Restoration until the founding of the French Second Republic which was succeeded by the Second French Empire upon Napoleon IIIs takeover. His empire collapsed during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. This led to the establishment of the Third French Republic, and subsequent decades saw a period of economic prosperity and cultural and scientific flourishing known as the Belle Époque. France was one of the major participants of World War I, from which it emerged victorious at great human and economic cost. It was among the Allies of World War II, but it surrendered and was occupied in 1940. Following its liberation in 1944, the short-lived Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the defeat in the Algerian War. The current Fifth Republic was formed in 1958 by Charles de Gaulle. Algeria and most French colonies became independent in the 1960s, with the majority retaining close economic and military ties with France. France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art, science, and philosophy. It hosts the fourth-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is the worlds leading tourist destination, having received 100 million foreign visitors in 2023. A developed country, France has a high nominal per capita income globally, and its economy ranks among the largest in the world by both nominal GDP and PPP-adjusted GDP. It is a great power, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and an official nuclear-weapon state. The country is part of multiple international organisations and forums.
Figurine. A figurine (a diminutive form of the word figure) or statuette is a small, three-dimensional sculpture that represents a human, deity or animal, or, in practice, a pair or small group of them. Figurines have been made in many media, with clay, metal, wood, glass, and today plastic or resin the most significant. Ceramic figurines not made of porcelain are called terracottas in historical contexts. Figures with movable parts, allowing limbs to be posed, are more likely to be called dolls, mannequins, or action figures; or robots or automata, if they can move on their own. Figurines and miniatures are sometimes used in board games, such as chess, and tabletop role playing games. The main difference between a figurine and a statue is size.  There is no agreed limit, but typically objects are called figurines up to a height of perhaps two feet (60 cm), though most types are less than one foot (30 cm) high. In China, there are extant Neolithic figurines.[1] European prehistoric figurines of women, some appearing pregnant, are called Venus figurines, because of their presumed connection to fertility. The two oldest known examples are made of stone, were found in Africa and Asia,[citation needed] and are several hundred thousand years old. Many made of fired clay have been found in Europe that date to 25–30,000 BC, and are the oldest ceramics known.
Company.  A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether natural, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specific, declared goals. Over time, companies have evolved to have the following features: separate legal personality, limited liability, transferable shares, investor ownership, and a managerial hierarchy.[1] The company, as an entity, was created by the state which granted the privilege of incorporation.[1] Companies take various forms, such as: A company can be created as a legal person so that the company itself has limited liability as members perform or fail to discharge their duties according to the publicly declared incorporation published policy. When a company closes, it may need to be liquidated to avoid further legal obligations. Companies may associate and collectively register themselves as new companies; the resulting entities are often known as corporate groups, collections of parent and subsidiary corporations.
East West Bank. East West Bank is an American bank that is the primary subsidiary of East West Bancorp. It is the largest publicly traded bank headquartered in Southern California.[6] The company has been ranked the #1 performing U.S. bank with more than $10 billion in assets by S&P Global Market Intelligence, and the top performing bank in its asset size (in excess of $50 billion) by Bank Director.[7][8][9] East West was founded in 1973 in Los Angeles to serve the Chinese American community. As of 2024, the company is involved in commercial banking, residential lending, private equity, media, entertainment, infrastructure, healthcare, clean energy, technology, manufacturing, commercial real estate, and other sectors.[10][11] In 1973, East West Federal Bank was founded as a federal savings and loan association, focused on serving the Chinese American community in Southern California.[12] In 1991, during the savings and loan crisis, the company acquired Pacific Coast Savings,[13][14][15] which increased the banks assets from $600 million to $1 billion and expanded operations to San Francisco, California. In 1992, Dominic Ng was named CEO of the company. East West became a state-chartered commercial bank on July 31, 1995.[16] In 1999, the company acquired First Central Bank for $13.5 million in cash.[17]
The Japan Times.  The Japan Times is Japans largest and oldest English-language daily newspaper.[1][2] It is published by The Japan Times, Ltd. (株式会社ジャパンタイムズ, Kabushiki gaisha Japan Taimuzu), a subsidiary of News2u Holdings, Inc. It is headquartered in the Kioicho Building (紀尾井町ビル, Kioicho Biru) in Kioicho, Chiyoda, Tokyo.[3][4] The Japan Times was launched by Motosada Zumoto [ja] on 22 March 1897, with the goal of giving Japanese people an opportunity to read and discuss news and current events in English to help Japan participate in the international community.[5] In 1906, Zumoto was asked by Japanese Resident-General of Korea Itō Hirobumi to lead the English-language newspaper The Seoul Press. Zumoto closely tied the operations of the two newspapers, with subscriptions of The Seoul Press being sold in Japan by The Japan Times, and vice versa for Korea.[6][7] Both papers wrote critically of Korean culture and civilization, and advocated for Japans colonial control over the peninsula in order to civilize the Koreans.[6][8] The newspaper was independent of government control, but from 1931 onward, the papers editors experienced mounting pressure from the Japanese government to submit to its policies. In 1933, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs appointed Hitoshi Ashida, former ministry official, as chief editor.[9]
Tajiri, Miyagi. Tajiri (田尻町, Tajiri-chō) was a town located in Tōda District, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. In 2003, the town had an estimated population of 13,023 and a population density of 198.55 persons per km². The total area was 65.59 km². The primary industry was rice farming. There was also a chemical plant. On March 31, 2006, Tajiri, along with the city of Furukawa, the towns of Iwadeyama and Naruko (both from Tamatsukuri District), and the towns of Kashimadai, Matsuyama and Sanbongi (all from Shida District), was merged to create the city of Ōsaki.[1] Tamatsukuri District and Shida District were dissolved as a result of this merger.
Organization.  An organization or organisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences) is an entity—such as a company, or corporation or an institution (formal organization), or an association—comprising one or more people and having a particular purpose. Organizations may also operate secretly or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, and resistance movements. And in some cases may have obstacles from other organizations (e.g.: MLKs organization).[1] What makes an organization recognized by the government is either filling out incorporation or recognition in the form of either societal pressure (e.g.: Advocacy group), causing concerns (e.g.: Resistance movement) or being considered the spokesperson of a group of people subject to negotiation (e.g.: the Polisario Front being recognized as the sole representative of the Sahrawi people and forming a partially recognized state.) Compare the concept of social groups, which may include non-organizations.[2]
Princeton University.  Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the  College of New Jersey, Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.[9][10][a] The institution moved to Newark in 1747 and then to its Mercer County campus in Princeton nine years later. It officially became a university in 1896 and was subsequently renamed Princeton University. The university is governed by the Trustees of Princeton University and has an endowment of $37.7 billion, the largest endowment per student in the United States. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering to approximately 8,500 students on its main campus spanning 600 acres (2.4 km2) within the borough of Princeton. It offers postgraduate degrees through the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, the School of Engineering and Applied Science, the School of Architecture and the Bendheim Center for Finance. The university also manages the Department of Energys Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and is home to the NOAAs Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. It is classified among R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity and has one of the largest university libraries in the world.[15] Princeton uses a residential college system and is known for its eating clubs for juniors and seniors. The university has over 500 student organizations. Princeton students embrace a wide variety of traditions from both the past and present. The university is an NCAA Division I school and competes in the Ivy League. The schools athletic team, the Princeton Tigers, has won the most titles in its conference and has sent many students and alumni to the Olympics. As of July 2025, 79 Nobel laureates, 16 Fields Medalists and 17 Turing Award laureates have been affiliated with Princeton University as alumni, faculty members, or researchers. In addition, Princeton has been associated with 21 National Medal of Science awardees, 5 Abel Prize awardees, 11 National Humanities Medal recipients, 217 Rhodes Scholars, 137 Marshall Scholars, and 62 Gates Cambridge Scholars. Two U.S. presidents, twelve U.S. Supreme Court justices (three of whom serve on the court as of 2010[update]) and numerous living industry and media tycoons and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. Princeton has graduated many members of the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Cabinet, including eight secretaries of state, three secretaries of defense and two chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
National Museum of Japanese History. The National Museum of Japanese History (国立歴史民俗博物館, Kokuritsu Rekishi Minzoku Hakubutsukan), commonly known in Japanese as Rekihaku, is a history museum in Sakura, Chiba, Japan. The museum was founded in 1981 as an inter-university research consortium, and opened in 1983. The collections of the museum focus on the history, archaeology, and folk culture of Japan.[1]  This article related to a museum in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Alice in Wonderland: A Dance Fantasy.  Alice in Wonderland is a 1993 ballet film with the Prague Chamber Ballet performing to a score by Viktor Kalabis performed by the Czech Philharmonic, based on Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass and the  1951 Disney film. Eva Zamazalová  [Wikidata] portrays Alice. Adam Rezek directs. This ballet-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Mauritania.  Mauritania,[a] officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania,[b] is a country in Northwest Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Western Sahara to the north and northwest, Algeria to the northeast, Mali to the east and southeast, and Senegal to the southwest. By land area Mauritania is the 11th-largest country in Africa and the 28th-largest in the world; 90% of its territory is in the Sahara. Most of its population of some 4.3 million live in the temperate south of the country; roughly a third of the population is concentrated in the capital and largest city, Nouakchott, on the Atlantic coast. The countrys name derives from Mauretania, the Latin name for a region in the ancient Maghreb. It extended from central present-day Algeria to the Atlantic. Berbers occupied what is now Mauritania by the beginning of the 3rd century AD. Groups of Arab tribes migrated to this area in the late 7th century, bringing with them Islam, Arab culture, and the Arabic language. In the early 20th century, Mauritania was colonized by France as part of French West Africa. It achieved independence in 1960. However, the country has since experienced recurrent coups and periods of military dictatorship. The 2008 Mauritanian coup détat was led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, who won subsequent presidential elections in 2009 and 2014.[11] He was succeeded by General Mohamed Ould Ghazouani following the 2019 elections,[12] head of an autocratic government with a very poor human rights record, particularly because of its perpetuation of slavery; the 2018 Global Slavery Index estimates there are about 90,000 slaves in the country (or 2.1% of the population).[13][14][15] Despite an abundance of natural resources, Mauritania remains poor; its economy is based primarily on agriculture and fishing. Mauritania is culturally and politically part of the Arab world. It is a member of the Arab League and Arabic is the official language. The official religion is Islam, and almost all inhabitants are Sunni Muslims. Despite its prevailing Arab identity, Mauritanian society is multiethnic. The Bidhan, or so-called white moors, make up 30% of the population,[16] while the Haratin, or so-called black moors, comprise 40%.[16] Both groups reflect a fusion of Arab-Berber ethnicity, language, and culture. The remaining 30% of the population comprises various sub-Saharan ethnic groups. Mauritania takes its name from the ancient Berber kingdom that flourished beginning in the third century BC and later became the Roman province of Mauretania, which flourished into the seventh century AD. The two territories do not overlap, though; historical Mauretania was considerably farther north than modern Mauritania, as it was spread out along the entire western half of the Mediterranean coast of Africa. The term Mauretania, in turn, derives from the Greek and Roman exonym for the Berber peoples of the kingdom, the Mauri people. The word Mauri is also the root of the name for the Moors.[17]
Christopher Wheeldon.  Christopher Peter Wheeldon OBE (born 22 March 1973) is an English international choreographer of contemporary ballet. Born in Yeovil, Somerset, to an engineer and a physical therapist, Wheeldon began training to be a ballet dancer at the age of eight. He attended the Royal Ballet School between the ages of 11 and 18. In 1991, Wheeldon joined the Royal Ballet, London; and in that same year, he won the gold medal at the Prix de Lausanne competition. In 1993, at the age of 19, Wheeldon moved to New York City to join the New York City Ballet. He was named Soloist in 1998.[1] Wheeldon began choreographing for the New York City Ballet in 1997, while continuing his career as a dancer.  He retired as a dancer in 2000 in order to focus on his choreography.
Algeria.  Algeria,[e] officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria,[f] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia; to the east by Libya; to the southeast by Niger; to the southwest by Mali, Mauritania, and Western Sahara; to the west by Morocco; and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The capital and largest city is Algiers, located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast. Inhabited since prehistory, Algeria has been at the crossroads of numerous cultures and civilisations for millennia, including the Phoenicians, Numidians, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantine Greeks. Its modern identity is rooted in centuries of Arab Muslim migration since the seventh century and the subsequent Arabisation of indigenous Berber populations. Following a succession of Islamic Arab and Berber dynasties between the eighth and 15th centuries, the Regency of Algiers was established in 1516 as a largely independent tributary state of the Ottoman Empire. After nearly three centuries as a major power in the Mediterranean, the country was invaded by France in 1830 and formally annexed in 1848, though it was not fully conquered and pacified until 1903. French rule brought mass European settlement that displaced the local population, which was reduced by up to one-third due to warfare, disease, and starvation.[12] The Sétif and Guelma massacre in 1945 catalysed local resistance that culminated in the outbreak of the Algerian War in 1954. Algeria gained independence in 1962. It descended into a bloody civil war from 1992 to 2002, remaining in an official state of emergency until the 2010–2012 Algerian protests during the Arab Spring. Spanning 2,381,741 square kilometres (919,595 sq mi), Algeria is the worlds tenth-largest country by area and the largest in Africa.[13] It has a semi-arid climate, with the Sahara desert dominating most of the territory except for its fertile and mountainous north, where most of the population is concentrated. With a population of 44 million, Algeria is the tenth-most populous country in Africa, and the 33rd-most populous in the world. Algerias official languages are Arabic and Tamazight; the vast majority of the population speak the Algerian dialect of Arabic. French is used in media, education, and certain administrative matters, but has no official status. Most Algerians are Arabs, with Berbers forming a sizeable minority. Sunni Islam is the official religion and practised by 99 percent of the population.[14] Algeria is a semi-presidential republic composed of 58 provinces (wilayas) and 1,541 communes. It is a regional power in North Africa and a middle power in global affairs. As of 2025, the country has the highest Human Development Index in continental Africa, and the third largest economy in Africa, due mostly to its large petroleum and natural gas reserves, which are the sixteenth and ninth largest in the world, respectively. Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa and a major supplier of natural gas to Europe. The Algerian military is one of the largest in Africa, with the highest defence budget on the continent and the 22nd highest in the world.[15] Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the OIC, OPEC, the United Nations, and the Arab Maghreb Union, of which it is a founding member.
Joby Talbot.  Joby Talbot (born 25 August 1971) is a British composer.[1] He has written for a wide variety of purposes, with a broad range of styles, including instrumental and vocal concert music, film and television scores, pop arrangements and works for dance.[2] He is known, to sometimes disparate audiences, for quite different works. Prominent compositions include the a cappella choral works The Wishing Tree (2002) and Path of Miracles (2005); orchestral works Sneaker Wave (2004), Tide Harmonic (2009), Worlds, Stars, Systems, Infinity (2012) and Meniscus (2012); the theme and score for the popular BBC Two comedy series The League of Gentlemen (1999–2002); silent film scores The Lodger (1999) and The Dying Swan (2002) for the British Film Institute; film scores The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy (2005), Son of Rambow (2007) and Penelope (2008).[3] Works for dance include shorter works Chroma (2006), Genus (2007), Fools Paradise (2007), and Chamber Symphony (2012); and four full-length narrative ballet scores, commissioned by The Royal Ballet, the National Ballet of Canada and The Australian Ballet, Alices Adventures in Wonderland (2011, revived 2012 and 2013), The Winters Tale (2014), Like Water for Chocolate (2022),[3] and Oscar (2024).[4] Talbot premiered his first opera in January 2015 with Dallas Opera, a one-act work entitled Everest  to a libretto by Gene Scheer, which follows three of the climbers involved in the 1996 Mount Everest disaster.[5]
The Royal Ballet.  The Royal Ballet is a British internationally renowned classical ballet company, based at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London, England. The largest of the five major ballet companies in Great Britain, the Royal Ballet was founded in 1931 by Dame Ninette de Valois.[1] It became the resident ballet company of the Royal Opera House in 1946, and has purpose-built facilities within these premises.[1] It was granted a royal charter in 1956, becoming recognised as Britains flagship ballet company. The Royal Ballet was one of the foremost ballet companies of the 20th century, and continues to be one of the worlds most famous ballet companies to this day, generally noted for its artistic and creative values. The company employs approximately 100 dancers. The official associate school of the company is the Royal Ballet School, and it also has a sister company, the Birmingham Royal Ballet, which operates independently. The Prima ballerina assoluta of the Royal Ballet is the late Dame Margot Fonteyn. Ninette de Valois, an Irish-born dancer founded the Academy of Choreographic Art, in 1926, a dance school for girls.[2] Her intention was to form a repertory ballet company and school, leading her to collaborate with the English theatrical producer and theatre owner Lilian Baylis. Baylis owned the Old Vic and Sadlers Wells theatres and in 1925 she engaged de Valois to stage dance performances at both venues. Sadlers Wells reopened in 1931 and the Vic-Wells Ballet and Vic-Wells Ballet School were established in premises at the theatre. These would become the predecessors of todays Royal Ballet, Birmingham Royal Ballet and Royal Ballet School. Prior to her return to Britain, Ninette de Valois had been a member of the Ballets Russes, one of the most renowned and influential ballet companies of the 20th century. The company disbanded in 1929 following the death of its founder Serge Diaghilev. When de Valois formed the Vic-Wells Ballet, she employed some of the companys former stars, including Alicia Markova and Anton Dolin, who joined as Principal dancers, and Tamara Karsavina, who worked with the company as an advisor. The Founder Musical Director was the conductor and composer Constant Lambert who had considerable artistic as well as musical influence over the early years of the company.[3] The long-term pianist and accompanist (from the 1930s until her death in 1974) was Hilda Gaunt.
Emperor Nintoku. Emperor Nintoku (仁徳天皇, Nintoku-tennō), also known as Ohosazaki no Sumeramikoto (大鷦鷯天皇) was the 16th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.[3][4][5] Due to his reputation for goodness derived from depictions in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, he is sometimes referred to as the Saint Emperor (聖帝, Hijiri-no-mikado). While his existence is generally accepted as fact, no firm dates can be assigned to Nintokus life or reign. He is traditionally considered to have reigned from 313 to 399,[6] although these dates are doubted by scholars.[7] The Japanese have traditionally accepted Nintokus historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Nintoku is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which are collectively known as Kiki (記紀) or Japanese chronicles. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The Kiki states that Nintoku was born to Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命) sometime in 290 AD, and was given the name Ohosazaki no Mikoto (大鷦鷯尊).[2] According to the Nihon Shoki, he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin.[8] Nintoku is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century[9] whose existence is generally accepted as fact without attributing all of the things he allegedly accomplished.[7] Nintokus contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning the great king who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Nintoku might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the Great King of Yamato. The name Nintoku also might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to him, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki.[10][11] Although the Nihon Shoki states that Nintoku ruled from 313 to 399, research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate.[12] William George Aston notes that if they were factual, Nintoku would be 312 years old in his 78th year of reign assuming that the traditional accounts are correct.[13] Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei[a] (c. 509 – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.[14] The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as traditional though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu[b] between 737 and 806 AD.[10]
Libya.  Libya,[b] officially the State of Libya,[c] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest. With an area of almost 1.8 million km2 (700,000 sq mi), Libya is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and the 16th-largest in the world.[10] The country claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of Ghat.[1][11] The capital and largest city is Tripoli, located in the northwest and contains over a million of Libyas 7 million people.[12] Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age as descendants from Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians established city-states and trading posts in western Libya, while several Greek cities were established in the East. Parts of Libya were variously ruled by Carthaginians, Numidians, Persians, and Greeks before the entire region becoming a part of the Roman Empire. Libya was an early centre of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century when invasions brought Islam to the region. From then on, centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb shifted the demographic scope of Libya in favour of Arabs. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the Italo-Turkish War in 1911, which resulted in Italy occupying Libya and establishing two colonies: Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica, later unified in the Italian Libya colony from 1934 to 1943.[13] During World War II, Libya was an area of warfare in the North African Campaign. The Italian population then went into decline and Libya became independent as a kingdom in 1951. A bloodless military coup in 1969, initiated by a coalition led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, overthrew King Idris I and created a republic. Gaddafi was often described by critics as a dictator, and was one of the worlds longest serving non-royal leaders. He ruled  for 42 years until being overthrown and killed in the 2011 civil war, which was part of the wider Arab Spring, with authority transferred to the National Transitional Council then to the elected General National Congress. Since 2011, Libya has been involved in a political and humanitarian crisis, and by 2014, two rival authorities claimed to govern Libya, which led to a second civil war, with parts of Libya split between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments as well as various tribal and Islamist militias. The two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire in 2020, and a unity government took authority to plan for democratic elections, though political rivalries continue to delay this.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] In March 2022, the House of Representatives ceased recognising the Government of National Unity and proclaimed an alternative government, the Government of National Stability (GNS). Both governments have been functioning simultaneously since then, which has led to dual power in Libya. The international community continues to recognise the unity government as the legitimate government of the country. Libya is a developing country ranking 115th by HDI, and has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves in the world. Libya has the highest level of greenhouse gas emissions per person in Africa, but has made little progress toward developing climate commitments. Libya is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and OPEC. The countrys official religion is Islam, with 96.6% of the Libyan population being Sunni Muslims.[1] The official language of Libya is Arabic, with vernacular Libyan Arabic being spoken most widely. The majority of Libyas population is Arab.[22][23][24]
Mozu Tombs. The Mozu Tombs (百舌鳥古墳群, Mozu kofungun) are a group of kofun (Japanese: 古墳)—megalithic tombs—in Sakai, Osaka Prefecture, Japan. Originally consisting of more than 100 tombs, fewer than 50% of the key-hole, round, and rectangular tombs remain.[1][2] The Daisenryo Kofun (大仙陵古墳, Daisenryō kofun),[3] the largest kofun in Japan, is believed to have been constructed over a period of 20 years in the mid 5th century during the Kofun Period.  While it cannot be accurately confirmed, it is commonly accepted that the tomb was built for the late Emperor Nintoku.[4] The Imperial Household Agency of Japan treats it as such. The Mozu Kofun Cluster is located in the city of Sakai which is within Osaka Prefecture. The tumuli are  built on a plateau overlooking Osaka Bay near the ancient coastline and are distributed in a range of about four kilometers from east-to-west and north-to-south.The Furuichi Kofun Cluster is located in nearby Habikino and Fujiidera cities.[5] In the Japanese archipelago, more than 20,000 tumuli (kofun), which are mounds of earth and stones erected over graves of the ruling class, were built between the later part of the 3rd century and the 6th century.[6] It was the peak period of building such mounds.[5] They represent a cultural tradition which is an expression of forms, and design of the kofun of the sociopolitical hierarchical order and the link that was prevalent during that period between regions. This period is termed as the Kofun Period.[6] The most prominent imperial mausolea in this cluster of tumuli are those of Emperor Nintoku and Emperor Richū.[7] There are 44 burial mounds in the Mozu cluster, including those that are partially destroyed.[8] Of these, 19 have been designated as national historic sites,[9][10] and separately, the Imperial Household Agency has ruled three to be Imperial mausoleums, two to be Tomb Reference Sites, and 18 to be baichō, or ancillary mausoleums connected with an Imperial mausoleum.[11] There used to be more than 100 burial mounds, but due to the rapid development of residential land after World War II, more than half of the burial mounds were destroyed.[8]
Egypt.  Egypt (Arabic: مصر, romanized: Miṣr, pronounced [mɪsˤr] ⓘ, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤr]), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Palestine (Gaza Strip) and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west; the Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Cairo is the capital, largest city, and leading cultural center, while Alexandria is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism.[21] With over 107 million inhabitants, Egypt is the third-most populous country in Africa and 15th-most populated in the world. Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the Nile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.[22] Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, later adopting Islam from the seventh century onwards. Alexandria, Egypt’s former capital and currently second largest city, was a hub of global knowledge through its Library. Cairo became the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate in the tenth century and of the subsequent Mamluk Sultanate in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517, until its local ruler Muhammad Ali established modern Egypt as an autonomous Khedivate in 1867. The country was then occupied by the British Empire along with Sudan and gained independence in 1922 as a monarchy. Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt declared itself a republic. Between 1958 and 1961 Egypt merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic. Egypt fought several armed conflicts with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, and occupied the Gaza Strip intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, which recognised Israel in exchange for its withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After the Arab Spring, which led to the 2011 Egyptian revolution and overthrow of Hosni Mubarak, the country faced a protracted period of political unrest; its first democratic election in 2012 resulted in the short-lived, Muslim Brotherhood-aligned government of Mohamed Morsi, which was overthrown by the military after mass protests in 2013. The current government is a semi-presidential republic led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, who was elected in 2014 but is widely regarded as authoritarian.[23] Egypt is a developing country with the second-largest economy in Africa. It is considered to be a regional power in the Middle East, North Africa and the Muslim world, and a middle power worldwide. Islam is the official religion and Arabic is official language. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, World Youth Forum, and a member of BRICS.[1][24][25]
Royal Opera House.  The Royal Opera House (ROH) is a theatre in Covent Garden, central London. The building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after a previous use of the site. The ROH is the main home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, which are known collectively as the Royal Ballet and Opera. The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there. The current building is the third theatre on the site, following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856 to previous buildings.[2] The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive reconstruction in the 1990s. The main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 14.80 metres (48 ft 7 in) wide, with the stage of the same depth and 12.20 metres (40 ft 0 in) high. The main auditorium is a Grade I listed building.[3]
Jack Murphy (writer).  Jack Murphy is a lyricist and composer. He has written the lyrics to several international musicals, such as Death Note: The Musical and The Civil War, the latter of which garnered him a Tony Nomination for Best Score.[1] He has collaborated with composer Frank Wildhorn on many projects.  This musical theatre related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article on a songwriter is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Mozu Tombs. The Mozu Tombs (百舌鳥古墳群, Mozu kofungun) are a group of kofun (Japanese: 古墳)—megalithic tombs—in Sakai, Osaka Prefecture, Japan. Originally consisting of more than 100 tombs, fewer than 50% of the key-hole, round, and rectangular tombs remain.[1][2] The Daisenryo Kofun (大仙陵古墳, Daisenryō kofun),[3] the largest kofun in Japan, is believed to have been constructed over a period of 20 years in the mid 5th century during the Kofun Period.  While it cannot be accurately confirmed, it is commonly accepted that the tomb was built for the late Emperor Nintoku.[4] The Imperial Household Agency of Japan treats it as such. The Mozu Kofun Cluster is located in the city of Sakai which is within Osaka Prefecture. The tumuli are  built on a plateau overlooking Osaka Bay near the ancient coastline and are distributed in a range of about four kilometers from east-to-west and north-to-south.The Furuichi Kofun Cluster is located in nearby Habikino and Fujiidera cities.[5] In the Japanese archipelago, more than 20,000 tumuli (kofun), which are mounds of earth and stones erected over graves of the ruling class, were built between the later part of the 3rd century and the 6th century.[6] It was the peak period of building such mounds.[5] They represent a cultural tradition which is an expression of forms, and design of the kofun of the sociopolitical hierarchical order and the link that was prevalent during that period between regions. This period is termed as the Kofun Period.[6] The most prominent imperial mausolea in this cluster of tumuli are those of Emperor Nintoku and Emperor Richū.[7] There are 44 burial mounds in the Mozu cluster, including those that are partially destroyed.[8] Of these, 19 have been designated as national historic sites,[9][10] and separately, the Imperial Household Agency has ruled three to be Imperial mausoleums, two to be Tomb Reference Sites, and 18 to be baichō, or ancillary mausoleums connected with an Imperial mausoleum.[11] There used to be more than 100 burial mounds, but due to the rapid development of residential land after World War II, more than half of the burial mounds were destroyed.[8]
Sakai.  Sakai (堺市, Sakai-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [saꜜ.kai, sa.kaꜜi.ɕi][2]) is a city located in Osaka Prefecture, Japan. It has been one of the largest and most important seaports of Japan since the medieval era. Sakai is known for its kofun, keyhole-shaped burial mounds dating from the fifth century. The kofun in Sakai include the largest grave in the world by area, Daisen Kofun. Once known for swords, Sakai is now famous for the quality of its cutlery. As of 1 January 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 819,965,[3] making it the fourteenth most populous city in Japan (excluding Tokyo). Sakai is located in southern Osaka Prefecture, on the edge of Osaka Bay and directly south of the city of Osaka. Osaka Prefecture Sakai has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Sakai is 16.5 °C (61.7 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,232.9 mm (48.54 in) with June as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 28.6 °C (83.5 °F), and lowest in January, at around 5.6 °C (42.1 °F).[4]
Toraijin. Toraijin (Japanese: 渡来人, とらいじん) refers to the people who came to Japan from mainland Asia in ancient times, as well as their descendants.[2][3] Up until the 1960s, these people were commonly called the Kikajin, meaning naturalized people, but beginning in the 1970s, the term was replaced by Toraijin, meaning people who have crossed over as not all those who came to Japan became naturalized.[4] They arrived in Japan as early as the Jōmon period or Yayoi period, and their arrival became more significant from the end of the 4th century (Kofun period) to the late 7th century (Asuka period). During these periods, they introduced Confucianism, Buddhism, Chinese characters (Kanbun/Kanji), medicine, lunar calendar, and cultural practices such as Sue ware production and weaving to Japan. They were favored by the Yamato Imperial Court, and many were appointed to government positions.[3][2] Historical records and archaeological data provide strong support for continued population movements from the continent to the Japanese archipelago via the southern Korean peninsula from 800 BCE to 600 AD.[5][4] The Toraijins arrived in the archipelago in multiples waves. In the initial wave starting approximately three thousand years ago, the Toraijins introduced wet-rice farming to the archipelago, where the indigenous Jōmon people were engaged in subsistence based primarily on fishing, hunting, and gathering. During the middle-Yayoi period from approximately 350 BCE to 50 CE, Toraijins arrived with bronze technology. 20th century anthropologists such as Torii Ryūzō stated that the Stone Age in Japan and that in Korea are very similar. The similarities are so outstanding that we can say their relationship was like that of cousins, if not of a parent and child, or siblings in his book Yūshi izen no Nihon (有史以前の日本/Japan before History)[6] highlighting a close connection between the Japanese and the Koreans even during the prehistoric periods due to the major overlap of immigrants. During the formative 5th and 6th centuries, they brought horse breeding and horse driven transportation, stoneware pottery, high temperature iron-working, advanced iron tool manufacturing, and their Chinese-based writing system. In addition to technological and cultural contributions, Toraijins also brought the ideologies of Confucianism and Buddhism from the mainland, which were critical to the state formation and socio-cultural changes during the Kofun period and Asuka period. According to modern Japanese researchers, in each major epoch in Japanese history, Toraijins arriving from the Korean peninsula acted as transmitters and transplanters of advanced continental technology and culture to the Japanese archipelago, just as the population groups on the Korean peninsula experienced similar transformations with the arrival of millet and rice agriculture, bronze and iron objects and technologies, and culture and religion from further west and north in the continent.[4]
Frank Wildhorn.  Frank Wildhorn (born November 29, 1958) is an American composer of both musicals and popular songs. His musical Jekyll & Hyde ran for four years on Broadway. He also wrote the hit song Where Do Broken Hearts Go for Whitney Houston. Wildhorn was born in Harlem and spent his childhood in Queens before moving to Hollywood, Florida, at age 14. Soon after he taught himself how to play the piano, Wildhorn realized he wanted to compose music. During high school, he played in and wrote for various bands, ranging from rock and roll to Rhythm and blues to jazz. He attended Miami-Dade College for two years before transferring to the University of Southern California, where he studied history and philosophy. He started writing Jekyll & Hyde with Steve Cuden, who was working at USC when Frank was a student. He is Jewish.[1] In the popular music arena, Wildhorn has worked with such artists as Stacy Lattisaw, Natalie Cole, Kenny Rogers, Trisha Yearwood, Tracy Lawrence, Trace Adkins, Patti LaBelle, Dennis DeYoung, and Linda Eder, to whom he was married. His Where Do Broken Hearts Go was an international number one hit for Whitney Houston in 1988. Wildhorn is Creative Director of Atlantic Theatre, an Atlantic Records division that develops new American musicals. In 2005, he co-founded GlobalVision Records with long-time collaborator Jeremy Roberts. GlobalVision releases include a new concept recording of Dracula, the Musical and a new studio recording of Jekyll & Hyde: Resurrection. In 1999, Wildhorn had three shows running simultaneously on Broadway: Jekyll & Hyde at the Plymouth Theatre, The Scarlet Pimpernel at the Minskoff Theatre, and The Civil War at the St. James Theatre; however, all three shows closed without making a profit, for a total loss approaching $20 million.[2] In 2004, he collaborated with Don Black and Christopher Hampton on a musical based on Dracula.
Takamatsu Castle (Sanuki). Takamatsu Castle (高松城, Takamatsu-jō) is a Japanese castle located in central Takamatsu, Kagawa Prefecture, on the island of Shikoku, Japan.  It is also called Tamamo Castle (玉藻城, Tamamo-jō), literally seaweed castle, for its seawater moats. The castle was headquarters of the Takamatsu Domain, which ruled eastern Sanuki Province (modern-day Kagawa) from 1588 to 1869. It is now a park. The castle site has been a National Historic Site since 1955.[1] This castle is one of three in Japan to use seawater moats, along with Imabari Castle in Ehime Prefecture and Nakatsu Castle in Ōita Prefecture. Takamatsu Castle is located on the coast of the Seto Inland Sea, in front of Takamatsu port. Following the conquest of Shikoku during the Sengoku period by the forces of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he assigned his general Ikoma Chikamasa as ruler of all of Sanuki.[2]  This area was of critical strategic importance, as the Chugoku region on the opposite shores of Honshu was controlled by the  Mōri and their allies, all of whom were enemies of the Toyotomi government, and it was economically critical to keep the sea lanes open. The Ikoma first established their stronghold at Hiketa Castle, but it was inconveniently located near the eastern border of Sanuki, and therefore in 1588 Ikoma Chikamasa selected a more central location for a new castle, which was completed by 1590. Takamatsu Castle was a sea castle in that was situated directly on the coast, so that the ocean formed one side of its natural defenses. The castle covered an area of 400 by 200 meters. The inner bailey, which contained the three-story tenshu was only 50 by 20 meters, and could be reached only by bridge. It was surrounded by a concentric series of enclosures, each protected by stone walls, water moats and masugata-style compound gates. Due to the small size of the castle, the Ikoma clan used Marugame Castle as their primary stronghold for a time, but were forced to return to Takamatsu Castle after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 and the reduction in their territories by the Tokugawa shogunate. In 1640, the Ikoma were demoted and transferred to the much smaller Yashima Domain in Dewa Province. In 1642, the domain was awarded to a cadet branch of the Matsudaira clan from Shimodate Domain in Hitachi Province.[2] The Matsudaira rebuilt Matsuyama Castle, adding a new five-story tenshu. The Matsudaira ruled from this location until the Meiji restoration. In 1868, the castle was turned over to the Imperial Japanese Army, which used the grounds to 1874. The tenshu was destroyed in 1884 due to aging, and many other castle structures were demolished. The following year the castle was returned to the Matsudaira family, who sold off more of the grounds and rebuilt a luxurious villa in the inner ring.[2][3] The castle was extensively damaged in air raids during World War II, and the Sakuragomon gate in the San-no-maru enclosure burned down (it was rebuilt in 2022). In 1947, under the former National Treasures Preservation Law, four surviving buildings, the Kita-no-Maru Tsukimi Yagura, the Kita-no-Maru Mizute Gomon, the Kita-no-Maru Watari Yagura, and the Higashi-No-Maru Ushitora Yagura were designated as national treasures. This designation was changed to that of National Important Cultural Properties in 1950 and the castle grounds opened to the public in 1955.[2] Takamatsu Castle was listed as one of Japans Top 100 Castles by the Japan Castle Foundation in 2006.[4]
Osaka.  Osaka (Japanese: 大阪市, Hepburn: Ōsaka-shi; pronounced [oː.sa.kaꜜ.ɕi]; commonly just 大阪, Ōsaka [oː.sa.ka] ⓘ) is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third-most populous city in Japan, following the special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of 2.7 million in 2020, it is the largest component of the Keihanshin Metropolitan Area, which is the second-largest metropolitan area in Japan[3] and the 10th-largest urban area in the world with more than 19 million inhabitants.[2] Ōsaka was traditionally considered Japans economic hub. By the Kofun period (300–538) it had developed into an important regional port, and in the 7th and 8th centuries, it served briefly as the imperial capital. Osaka continued to flourish during the Edo period (1603–1867) and became known as a center of Japanese culture. Following the Meiji Restoration, Osaka greatly expanded in size and underwent rapid industrialization. The construction boom accelerated population growth throughout the following decades, and by the 1900s, Osaka was the industrial hub in the Meiji and Taishō eras. Osaka made noted contributions to redevelopment, urban planning and zoning standards in the postwar period, and the city developed rapidly as one of the major financial centers in the Keihanshin Metropolitan Area. Osaka is a major financial center of Japan, and it is recognized as one of the most multicultural and cosmopolitan cities in Japan. The city is home to the Osaka Exchange as well as the headquarters of multinational electronics corporations such as Panasonic and Sharp. Osaka is an international center of research and development and is represented by several major universities, notably Osaka University, Osaka Metropolitan University, and Kansai University. Famous landmarks in the city include Osaka Castle, Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan, Dōtonbori, Tsūtenkaku in Shinsekai, Tennōji Park, Abeno Harukas, Sumiyoshi Taisha Grand Shrine, and Shitennō-ji, one of the oldest Buddhist temples in Japan. Ōsaka means large hill or large slope. It is unclear when this name gained prominence over Naniwa, but the oldest written evidence for the name dates back to 1496.[4][5]
Japan National Route 11.  National Route 11 (国道11号, Kokudō Jūichi-gō) is a Japanese highway on the island of Shikoku. The most important artery in Shikoku, it originates at the intersection with Routes 28, 55 and 195 in the prefectural capital of Tokushima (Tokushima Prefecture) and terminates at the intersection with Routes 33, 56, 317, 379, 440 and 494 in Matsuyama (the capital of Ehime Prefecture). Between the terminals, it passes through Naruto (Tokushima Prefecture) and Takamatsu (the capital of Kagawa Prefecture), as well as other regional population centers. Route 11 measures 239.4 km in length.[2]  This article relating to the roads and highways in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Takamatsu (disambiguation). Takamatsu may refer to:
Ritsurin Garden. Ritsurin Garden (栗林公園, Ritsurin Kōen) is a large, historic garden in Takamatsu, Japan. It was completed in 1745 as a private strolling garden and villa for the local feudal lords, and opened to the public in 1875.[1] Ritsurin is one of the largest strolling gardens in Japan,[2] and a major tourist attraction for Kagawa Prefecture.[3] Ritsurin Garden lies in a former river bed on the east side of Mt. Shiun. Numerous ponds and small artificial hills dot the garden. The southern portion is in traditional Japanese style, with historic teahouses and numerous shaped pine trees. After becoming a public garden in 1875, the north portion underwent Western-style redesigns, and a large museum (currently the multipurpose Commerce and Industry Promotion Hall) and folk craft galleries were built in the center of the garden. For a time, the garden even housed a zoo and swimming pool, since closed and removed.[4][5] The buildings in the garden date back to the early 17th century. In 1625, the feudal lord of Takamatsu in Sanuki Province, Ikoma Takatoshi, began construction of Ritsurin, specifically the building of a garden around the South Pond using the beautiful greenery of Mt. Shiun (Purple Cloud Mountain) as a backdrop. After Matsudaira Yorishige took control of the province, he continued the gardens construction. Work was completed by the Fifth Lord Yoritaka in 1745 after 100 years of improvements and extensions made by successive lords. The new Meiji government came to power in 1868 and requisitioned the garden. Despite an initial proposal to build a silk mill, Ritsurin was designated a prefectural garden and opened to the public on 16 March 1875.[4] In 1953, the garden was designated a Special Place of Scenic Beauty. The garden covers 750,000 square meters.[6] Among the features of the garden are:
Arab (disambiguation).  An Arab is a member of the Arabic speaking nations in the Middle East and North Africa. It can also refer to someone who has citizenship of another country but is of Arab descent. Arab, Arabic, Ərəb or Arap may also refer to:
Sanin Kaigan Geopark. The Sanin Kaigan Geopark (山陰海岸ジオパーク) is a geopark in Japan. The area was declared a Japanese Geopark in 2008, and a UNESCO Global Geopark in 2010. The underlying themes of the geopark are geological features, the natural environment, peoples lives, and the formation of the Sea of Japan. This geologically diverse area contains records of the process from when Japan was part of the Asian continent to its present-day formation of the Sea of Japan. Peoples lives are also diverse in this area because of its geodiversity.[1] The Sanin Kaigan Geopark is located to the northwest of Osaka and Kyoto and consists of Kyotango in Kyoto Prefecture, Toyooka, Kami, and Shinonsen in Hyōgo Prefecture, Iwami, and a major part of Tottori in Tottori Prefecture. The geopark has an area of 2,458.44 square kilometers.[2] The geopark includes sites that relate to the surrounding geomorphology and geology. Examples include the rice terraces and Tajima cattle grazing areas located on the gentle slopes formed by landslides, red snow crabs and other fishery products from the Sea of Japan, the Oriental white stork habitat in the Toyooka Basin, the local handbag manufacturing industry, onsen (hot springs), and the cultivation of melons and Chinese shallots in the sand dunes. One of the major geosites is Genbudo Cave formed in Quaternary basalt, located in Toyooka City. This site is internationally significant, as it is where reversed geomagnetic polarity was first proposed and in respect of its importance in this regard, Genbudo Cave was included by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.[3] 35°35′17″N 134°48′15″E / 35.5880°N 134.8043°E / 35.5880; 134.8043
Osaka Prefecture. Osaka Prefecture (大阪府, Ōsaka-fu; pronounced [oː.sa.ka, oː.sa.kaꜜ.ɸɯ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu.[3] Osaka Prefecture has a population of 8,778,035 (as of 1 April 2022[update]) and has a geographic area of 1,905 square kilometres (736 sq mi). Osaka Prefecture borders Hyōgo Prefecture to the northwest, Kyoto Prefecture to the north, Nara Prefecture to the southeast, and Wakayama Prefecture to the south. Osaka is the capital and largest city of Osaka Prefecture, and the third-largest city in Japan, with other major cities including Sakai, Higashiōsaka, and Hirakata.[4] Osaka Prefecture is located on the western coast of the Kii Peninsula, forming the western is open to Osaka Bay. Osaka Prefecture is the third-most-populous prefecture, but by geographic area the second-smallest; at 4,600 inhabitants per square kilometre (12,000/sq mi) it is the second-most densely populated, below only Tokyo. Osaka Prefecture is one of Japans two urban prefectures using the designation fu (府) rather than the standard ken for prefectures, along with Kyoto Prefecture. Osaka Prefecture forms the center of the Keihanshin metropolitan area, the second-most-populated urban region in Japan after the Greater Tokyo area and one of the worlds most productive regions by GDP. Prior to the Meiji Restoration, the modern-day area of Osaka Prefecture was split between Kawachi, Izumi,[6][7] and Settsu provinces.[8] Osaka Prefecture was created on June 21, 1868, at the very beginning of the Meiji era.[9] During the instigation of Fuhanken Sanchisei in 1868, the prefecture received its suffix fu, designating it as a prefecture. On September 1, 1956, the city of Osaka was promoted to a city designated by government ordinance and thereby divided into 24 wards.[10] Sakai became the second city in the prefecture to be promoted to a city designated by government ordinance on April 1, 2006, and was divided into seven wards.[11]
Hideto Ōnishi. Hideto Ōnishi (大西 秀人, Ōnishi Hideto) is a Japanese politician and the current mayor of Takamatsu, the capital city of Kagawa Prefecture, Japan.[1]  This article about a mayor in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Arab world.    The Arab world (Arabic: اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ al-ʿālam al-ʿarabī), formally the Arab homeland (اَلْوَطَنُ الْعَرَبِيُّ al-waṭan al-ʿarabī),[7][8][9] also known as the Arab nation (اَلْأُمَّةُ الْعَرَبِيَّةُ al-ummah al-ʿarabiyyah), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states,[10] comprises a large group of countries, mainly located in West Asia and North Africa. While the majority of people in the Arab world are ethnically Arab,[11][12] there are also significant populations of other ethnic groups such as Berbers, Kurds, Somalis and Nubians, among other groups.[13] Arabic is used as the lingua franca throughout the Arab world.[14][15][16][17][18][19] The Arab world is at its minimum defined as the 19 states where Arabs form at least a plurality of the population.[20][21] At its maximum it consists of the 22 members of the Arab League, an international organization,[6] which on top of the 19 plurality Arab states also includes the Bantu-speaking Comoros, and the Cushitic-speaking Djibouti and Somalia. The region stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Indian Ocean in the southeast.[6] The eastern part of the Arab world is known as the Mashriq, and the western part as the Maghreb.
Iberian. Iberian refers to Iberia. Most commonly Iberian refers to: The term Iberian is also used to refer to anything pertaining to the former Kingdom of Iberia, an exonym for the Georgian kingdom of Kartli.
Amharic.  Amharic[a] is an Ethio-Semitic language, which is a subgrouping within the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages. It is spoken as a first language by the Amhara people, and also serves as a lingua franca for all other metropolitan populations in Ethiopia.[10] The language serves as the official working language of the Ethiopian federal government, and is also the official or working language of several of Ethiopias federal regions.[11] In 2020 in Ethiopia, it had over 33.7 million mother-tongue speakers of which 31 million are ethnically Amhara, and more than 25.1 million second language speakers in 2019, making the total number of speakers over 58.8 million.[12][13] Amharic is the largest, most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and the most spoken mother-tongue in Ethiopia. Amharic is also the second most widely spoken Semitic language in the world (after Arabic).[14][15] Amharic is written left-to-right using a system that grew out of the Geʽez script.[16] The segmental writing system in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as units is called an abugida (አቡጊዳ).[17] The graphemes are called fidäl (ፊደል), which means script, alphabet, letter, character. There is no universally agreed-upon Romanization of Amharic into Latin script. The Amharic examples in the sections below use one system that is common among linguists specializing in Ethiopian Semitic languages.
UNESCO Global Geoparks. UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGp) are geoparks certified by the UNESCO Global Geoparks Council as meeting all the requirements for belonging to the Global Geoparks Network (GGN). The GGN is both a network of geoparks and the agency of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)[1] that administers the network. The agency was founded in 2004 in partnership with the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). The network was set up to conserve Earths geological heritage, as well as to promote the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities. To implement these goals they adopted the concept of geopark, a term that had already been in use for one of the proposed parks. Geoparks were conceived as single, unified geographical areas where sites and landscapes of international geological significance are managed with a holistic concept of protection, education and sustainable development. As the geopark did not naturally conform to all those requirements, compliance involved considerable work of the country where the geopark was to be located. In essence, the park had to be not only protected, but marketed sustainably to the public. In 2015, the Member States of UNESCO ratified the rebranding to the current name. Since 2015, the application and designation process has been defined by the Statutes and Operational Guidelines of the UGGp.[2] As of April 2023, there were 195 UGGps in 48 countries.[3] There are now GGN member sites situated in five of seven continents, there being none currently in either Antarctica or Australasia. There are not yet (2022) global geoparks in the United States. China is the country with the largest number of global geoparks.[attribution needed] The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) (also known as the Global Network of National Geoparks) is UNESCO assisted network established in 1998. Managed under the bodys Ecological and Earth Sciences Division, the GGN seeks the promotion and conservation of the planets geological heritage, as well as encourages the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities.[4][5][6] Since 2015, its members are officially designated as UNESCO Global Geoparks.[1]
Iberia (disambiguation). Iberia, in its most common meaning, refers to the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. In history, it was also used to refer to anything pertaining to the former Kingdom of Iberia, an exonym for the Georgian kingdom of Kartli. Iberia may also refer to:
Government (disambiguation). Government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state. Government may also refer to:
Naskh (script). Naskh[a] is a small, round script of Islamic calligraphy. Naskh is one of the first scripts of Islamic calligraphy to develop, commonly used in writing administrative documents and for transcribing books, including the Qur’an, because of its easy legibility.[1] The Naskh style of writing can be found as early as within the first century of the Islamic calendar.[2] It was established at this time by order of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan due to the presence of defects in the Kufic script.[1] Ibn Muqla is credited with standardizing the Six Pens of Islamic calligraphy, also including thuluth, tawqi’, riqaaʿ, muhaqqaq, and rayhani.[1] These are known as the proportioned scripts (al-khatt al-mansub) or the six scripts (al-aqlam al-sitta).[3] Kufic is commonly believed to predate naskh, but historians have traced the two scripts as coexisting long before their codification by Ibn Muqla,[4] as the two served different purposes.[5] Kufic was used primarily in decoration, while Naskh served for everyday scribal use.[6] The Naskh script is believed to have existed since the first century of the Islamic calendar.[7] The alif is written as a straight stroke, bending to the lower left.[1] Naskh differentiates various sounds through the use of diacritical points, in the form of 1–3 dots above or below the letter, which makes the script more easily legible.[5] Naskh uses a horizontal base line; in situations where one character starts within the tail of the preceding letter, the base line is broken and raised.[8] In sixteenth-century Constantinople, Şeyh Hamdullah (1429–1520) redesigned the structure of naskh, along with the other Six Pens, in order to make the script appear more precise and less heavy.[9]
Gov (disambiguation). Gov or GOV may refer to:
Aramaic. Aramaic (Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: ארמית, romanized: ˀərāmiṯ; Classical Syriac: ܐܪܡܐܝܬ, romanized: arāmāˀiṯ[a]) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Arabia,[3][4] where it has been continually written and spoken in different varieties[5] for over three thousand years. Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, particularly the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Achaemenid Empire, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study within Judaism, Christianity, and Gnosticism. Several modern varieties of Aramaic are still spoken. The modern eastern branch is spoken by Assyrians, Mandeans, and Mizrahi Jews.[6][7][8][9] Western Aramaic is still spoken by the Muslim and Christian Arameans (Syriacs) in the towns of Maaloula, Bakha and nearby Jubbadin in Syria.[10] Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches,[11][12] as well as in Judaism,[13][14] Samaritanism,[15] and Mandaeism.[16] The Aramaic language is now considered endangered, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations.[17] Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before or in case they become extinct.[18][19] Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the mutually intelligible Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, Ekronite, Sutean, and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic.[20][21] Aramaic varieties are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet. The most prominent variant of this alphabet is the Syriac alphabet, used in the ancient city of Edessa.[22] The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of West Asia, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet.[23] Early Aramaic inscriptions date from the 11th century BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down.[5] Aramaicist Holger Gzella [de] notes, The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown.[24] Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary language spoken by Jesus of Nazareth both for preaching and in everyday life.[25][26] Old Aramaic was the language of the ancient Aramean tribes. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire by Assyrian kings, and its use was spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor, the Arabian Peninsula, and Ancient Iran under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of northwest Iran, as well as the southern Caucasus, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.[27][28][29]
Chūgoku Mountains. Chūgoku Mountains (中国山地, Chūgoku Sanchi) is a mountain range in the Chūgoku region of western Japan. It runs in an east–west direction and stretches approximately 500 km (311 mi) from Hyōgo Prefecture in the east to the coast of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The range also reaches under the Pacific Ocean.[1][2][3] The two tallest mountains in the group are Daisen and Mount Hyōno, which are 1,729 m (5,673 ft) and 1,510 m (4,954 ft), respectively. Many other mountains in the range are also over 1,000 m (3,281 ft), while some of the smaller mountains are less than 500 m (1,640 ft).[1] Granite is the most common stone found among the mountains, much of which has been exposed through erosion. Other than Daisen, most of the mountains run along the border of Tottori and Okayama prefectures and the border of Shimane and Hiroshima prefectures. The mountains form a drainage divide and natural barrier in western Japan between the Sanin Region to the north and the Sanyō Region to the south.[1][2] The Chūgoku Mountains are the source of several rivers in western Japan. All flow either north to the Japan Sea or south to the Inland Sea with the exception of the Gōnokawa River (206 kilometres (128 mi)), which runs along the mountain range in Hiroshima and Shimane prefectures. The Sendai River (52 kilometres (32 mi)), the Tenjin River (32 kilometres (20 mi)), the Hino River (77 kilometres (48 mi)), and the Kando River (82 kilometres (51 mi)) all run steeply from the Chūgoku Mountains to the Japan Sea. The Yoshii River (83 kilometres (52 mi)), the Asahi River (88 kilometres (55 mi)), and the Ōta River (655 kilometres (407 mi)) form a broader alluvial plain to the south of the mountain range and empty in to the Inland Sea.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Dune.  A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill.[1] An area with dunes is called a dune system[2][3][4][5] or a dune complex.[6] A large dune complex is called a dune field,[7] while broad, flat regions covered with wind-swept sand or dunes, with little or no vegetation, are called ergs or sand seas.[8][9][10] Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, but most kinds of dunes are longer on the stoss (upflow) side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and have a shorter slip face in the lee side.[11] The valley or trough between dunes is called a dune slack.[12] Dunes are most common in desert environments, where the lack of moisture hinders the growth of vegetation that would otherwise interfere with the development of dunes. However, sand deposits are not restricted to deserts, and dunes are also found along sea shores, along streams in semiarid climates, in areas of glacial outwash, and in other areas where poorly cemented sandstone bedrock disintegrates to produce an ample supply of loose sand.[13] Subaqueous dunes can form from the action of water flow (fluvial processes) on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries, and the sea-bed.[14][15] Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea.[16] Artificial dunes are sometimes constructed to protect coastal areas.[17][18] The dynamic action of wind and water can sometimes cause dunes to drift, which can have serious consequences. For example, the town of Eucla, Western Australia, had to be relocated in the 1890s because of dune drift.[19] The modern word dune came into English from French around 1790,[20] which in turn came from Middle Dutch dūne.[14]
Executive (government). The executive is the part of the government that executes or enforces the law. It can be organised as a branch of government, as in liberal democracies, or as an organ of the unified state apparatus, as is the case in communist states. The scope of executive power varies greatly depending on the political context in which it emerges, and it can change over time in a given country. In democratic countries, the executive often exercises broad influence over national politics, though limitations are often applied to the executive.[1] In political systems based on the separation of powers, government authority is distributed between several branches to prevent power from being concentrated in the hands of a single person or group. To achieve this, each branch is subject to checks by the other branches; in general, the role of the legislature is to pass laws, which are then enforced by the executive, and interpreted by the judiciary. The executive can also be the source of certain types of law or law-derived rules, such as a decree or executive order. In those that use fusion of powers, typically parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom, the executive forms the government, and its members generally belong to the political party that controls the legislature. Since the executive requires the support and approval of the legislature, the two bodies are fused together, rather than being independent. The principle of parliamentary sovereignty means powers possessed by the executive are solely dependent on those granted by the legislature, which can also subject its actions to judicial review. However, the executive often has wide-ranging powers stemming from the control of the government bureaucracy, especially in the areas of overall economic or foreign policy. In parliamentary systems, the executive is responsible to the elected legislature, which must maintain the confidence of the legislature or one part of it, if bicameral. In certain circumstances (varying by state), the legislature can express its lack of confidence in the executive, which causes either a change in the governing party or group of parties or a general election. Parliamentary systems have a head of government (who leads the executive, often called ministers) normally distinct from the head of state (who continues through governmental and electoral changes). In the Westminster type of parliamentary system, the principle of separation of powers is not as entrenched as in some others. Members of the executive (ministers), are also members of the legislature, and hence play an important part in both the writing and enforcing of law. In presidential systems, the directly elected head of government appoints the ministers. The ministers can be directly elected by the voters.[2]
Ishikawa Prefecture.  Ishikawa Prefecture (石川県, Ishikawa-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [i.ɕi̥.ka.wa, -waꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu island.[3] Ishikawa Prefecture has a population of 1,096,721 (1 January 2025) and has a geographic area of 4,186 km2 (1,616 sq mi). Ishikawa Prefecture borders Toyama Prefecture to the east, Gifu Prefecture to the southeast, and Fukui Prefecture to the south. Kanazawa is the capital and largest city of Ishikawa Prefecture, with other major cities including Hakusan, Komatsu, and Kaga.[4] Ishikawa is located on the Sea of Japan coast and features most of the Noto Peninsula which forms Toyama Bay, one of the largest bays in Japan. Ishikawa Prefecture is part of the historic Hokuriku region and formerly an important populated center that contained some of the wealthiest han (domains) of the Japanese feudal era. Ishikawa Prefecture is home to Kanazawa Castle, Kenroku-en one of the Three Great Gardens of Japan, Nyotaimori (body sushi), and Kutani ware. Ishikawa was formed in 1872 from the merger of Kaga Province and the smaller Noto Province, with the seat of the government being located in  Mikawa.[5] The political center of Ishikawa was moved to Kanazawa in 1873.[6] The newly formed Ishikawa Prefecture came to be regarded with caution by the national government following the Kioizaka Incident [ja] in 1878, in which 6 shizoku (士族), dissatisfied by the Meiji governments maladministration, suppression of civil rights, and misuse of government property, assassinated Japanese statesman Ōkubo Toshimichi.[7] Concerned about the possibility of a Hokuriku bloc forming in support of the Freedom and Peoples Rights Movement, and thus wanting to weaken the influence of the former Kaga lords, the national government made the decision to divide the prefecture. This took place in two stages, beginning in 1881, when Fukui Prefecture was formed, and ending in 1883 with the formation of Toyama Prefecture.[8]
Kanagawa (disambiguation). The word Kanagawa may refer to:
Aragonese language. Aragonese (/ˌærəɡəˈniːz/ ARR-ə-gə-NEEZ; aragonés [aɾaɣoˈnes] in Aragonese) is a Romance language spoken in several dialects by about 12,000 people as of 2011, in the Pyrenees valleys of Aragon, Spain, primarily in the comarcas of Somontano de Barbastro, Jacetania, Alto Gállego, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza/Ribagorça.[1][2] It is the only modern language which survived from medieval Navarro-Aragonese in a form distinct from Spanish. Historically, people referred to the language as fabla (talk or speech). Native Aragonese people usually refer to it by the names of its local dialects such as cheso (from Valle de Hecho) or patués (from the Benasque Valley). Aragonese, which developed in portions of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages similar to modern Basque might have been previously spoken. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded southward from the mountains, pushing the Moors farther south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language. The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two territories; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west, with the boundaries blurred by dialectal continuity. The Aragonese Reconquista in the south ended with the cession of Murcia by James I of Aragon to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess. The best-known proponent of the Aragonese language was Johan Ferrandez dHeredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote an extensive catalog of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe).
Asturian language. Asturian (/æˈstʊəriən/; asturianu [astuˈɾjanʊ])[4][5] is a West Iberian Romance language spoken in the Principality of Asturias, Spain.[6] Asturian is part of a wider linguistic group, the Asturleonese languages. The number of speakers is estimated at 100,000 (native) and 450,000 (second language).[7] The dialects of the Astur-Leonese language family are traditionally classified in three groups: Western, Central, and Eastern. For historical and demographic reasons, the standard is based on Central Asturian. Asturian has a distinct grammar, dictionary, and orthography. It is regulated by the Academy of the Asturian Language. Although it is not an official language of Spain,[8] it is protected under the Statute of Autonomy of Asturias and is an elective language in schools.[9] For much of its history, the language has been ignored or subjected to repeated challenges to its status as a language variety due to its lack of official status.[10] Asturian is the historical language of Asturias, portions of the Spanish provinces of León and Zamora and the area surrounding Miranda do Douro in northeastern Portugal.[11] Like the other Romance languages of the Iberian peninsula, it evolved from Vulgar Latin during the early Middle Ages. Asturian was closely linked with the Kingdom of Asturias (718–910) and the ensuing Leonese kingdom. The language had contributions from pre-Roman languages spoken by the Astures, an Iberian Celtic tribe, and the post-Roman Germanic languages of the Visigoths and Suebians. The transition from Latin to Asturian was slow and gradual; for a long time they co-existed in a diglossic relationship, first in the Kingdom of Asturias and later in that of Asturias and Leon. During the 12th, 13th and part of the 14th centuries Astur-Leonese was used in the kingdoms official documents, with many examples of agreements, donations, wills and commercial contracts from that period onwards. Although there are no extant literary works written in Asturian from this period, some books (such as the Llibru dAlexandre and the 1155 Fueru dAvilés)[12][13] had Asturian sources. Castilian Spanish arrived in the area during the 14th century, when the central administration sent emissaries and functionaries to political and ecclesiastical offices. Asturian codification of the Astur-Leonese spoken in the Asturian Autonomous Community became a modern language with the founding of the Academy of the Asturian Language (Academia Asturiana de la Llingua) in 1980. The Leonese dialects and Mirandese are linguistically close to Asturian. Efforts have been made since the end of the Francoist period in 1975 to protect and promote Asturian.[14] In 1994 there were 100,000 native speakers and 450,000[15][better source needed] second-language speakers able to speak (or understand) Asturian.[16] However, the language is endangered: there has been a steep decline in the number of speakers over the last century. Law 1/93 of 23 March 1993 on the Use and Promotion of the Asturian Language addressed the issue, and according to article four of the Asturias Statute of Autonomy:[4] The Asturian language will enjoy protection. Its use, teaching and diffusion in the media will be furthered, whilst its local dialects and voluntary apprenticeship will always be respected.
Kanazawa. Kanazawa (金沢市, Kanazawa-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [ka.naꜜ.(d)za.wa, ka.na.(d)za.waꜜ.ɕi][1]) is the capital of Ishikawa Prefecture in central Japan. As of 1 January 2018[update], the city had an estimated population of 466,029 in 203,271 households, and a population density of 990 persons per km2.[2] The total area of the city was 468.64 square kilometres (180.94 sq mi). The name Kanazawa (金沢, 金澤), which literally means marsh of gold, is said to derive from the legend of the peasant Imohori Togoro (literally Togoro Potato-digger), who was digging for potatoes when flakes of gold washed up. The well in the grounds of Kenroku-en is known as Kinjo Reitaku (金城麗澤)  to acknowledge these roots. The area where Kanazawa is was originally known as Ishiura, whose name is preserved at the Ishiura Shrine near Kenrokuen. The area around Kanazawa was part of ancient Kaga Province. During the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573), as the power of the central shōguns in Kyoto was waning, Kaga Province came under the control of the Ikkō-ikki, followers of the teachings of priest Rennyo, of the Jōdo Shinshū sect, who displaced the official governors of the province, the Togashi clan, and established a kind of theocratic republic later known as The Peasants Kingdom.  Their principal stronghold was the Kanazawa Gobo, on the tip of the Kodatsuno Ridge. Backed by high hills and flanked on two sides by rivers, it was a natural fortress, around which a castle town developed. This was the start of what would become the city of Kanazawa. In 1580, during the Sengoku period (1467 to 1615), Oda Nobunaga sent Shibata Katsuie, and his general Sakuma Morimasa, to conquer the Kaga Ikko-ikki.[3] After overthrowing the Peasants Kingdom, Morimasa was awarded the province as his fief. However, after the assassination of Oda Nobunaga in 1582, he was displaced by Maeda Toshiie, who founded Kaga Domain.  At the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Maeda sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu and thus was able to further enlarge his holdings to a massive 1.2 million koku — by far the largest feudal domain within the Tokugawa shogunate. The Maeda clan continued to rule Kaga Domain from Kanazawa Castle through the end of the Edo period.
Parliamentary system.  A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government (chief executive) derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support (confidence) of a majority of the legislature, to which they are held accountable. This head of government is usually, but not always, distinct from a ceremonial head of state. This is in contrast to a presidential system, which features a president who is not fully accountable to the legislature, and cannot be replaced by a simple majority vote. Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament, or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is from the legislature. In a few countries, the head of government is also head of state but is elected by the legislature. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house. Parliamentary democracy is the predominant form of government in the European Union, Oceania, and throughout the former British Empire, with other users scattered throughout Africa and Asia. A similar system, called a council–manager government, is used by many local governments in the United States. The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages. The earliest example of a parliament is disputed, especially depending how the term is defined.
Parliamentary republics with an executive president. A parliamentary republic with an executive president, is a form of parliamentary democracy in which the executive derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the confidence of the legislature to which it is held accountable, but is characterized by a combined head of state–head of government in the form of an executive president who carries out the functions of the head of state. This is in contrast to other parliamentary systems where the executive is separate from the head of state, and a presidential system where the executive is separate from the legislature. The president is typically elected by the legislature and must maintain its confidence to remain in office, for which purpose they may be required to hold a seat. 
Minato Mirai 21. Minato Mirai 21 (みなとみらい21, Minato Mirai Nijūichi), often known as simply Minato Mirai and abbreviated as MM (used on the Minatomirai Line station numbering; e.g. “MM 1”) is the central business district of Yokohama, Japan. Initially developed in the 1980s, Minato Mirai 21 was designed as a large master-planned development and new urban center planned to connect Yokohamas traditionally important areas and commercial centers of Kannai and the Yokohama Station area. Today, Minato Mirai is a major center for business, shopping, and tourism, attracting visitors and businesspersons throughout the Greater Tokyo Area. The business district is host to several major hotels, office towers including the Yokohama Landmark Tower, the Pacifico Yokohama convention center, art museums, and numerous cafés and shops in shopping centers and along its central pedestrian mall. The area continues to be developed as originally envisioned in the 1980s. Minato Mirai 21 was originally proposed as one of Yokohamas six major development plans by the mayor of Yokohama, Ichio Asukata, in 1965. After several assessments and review sessions, actual construction started in 1983. The area where it is located was once known as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Yokohama shipyard and the Japanese National Railways classification yard, Takashima wharf and Shinko wharf of Port of Yokohama. Conducted as an urban renewal and reclaimed land project, the port and industrial areas once divided the two city centers of Kannai and the Yokohama Station area. With the development of Minato Mirai 21, the two city centers were linked and now form part of the business and central core of Yokohama. The name Minato Mirai 21 was selected by a public opinion poll. Translated literally as Port Future 21, it  means Port of the Future in the 21st century. The area is now flourishing as one of the newest urban business districts in the Greater Tokyo Metropolitan area, symbolized by Landmark Tower, Japans third tallest skyscraper, the three Queens Square Towers, which contain a large shopping mall, the Pacifico Yokohama convention center, the Intercontinental Hotel, the Cosmo Clock 21 Ferris wheel, and more. Next to Landmark Tower is the Yokohama Museum of Art. The area is an important business center, with Nissan Motors, JGC Corporation, Chiyoda Corporation and other major corporations locating their headquarters and branches in the Minato Mirai area. Today, about 79,000 people work in Minato Mirai 21.
Tottori (city).  Tottori (鳥取市, Tottori-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [tot.to.ɾʲi, tot.to.ɾʲiꜜ.ɕi][2]) is the capital and the largest city of Tottori Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. As of 30 November 2022[update], the city had an estimated population of 183,383 in 81,732 households and a population density of 240 persons per km2.[3] The total area of the city is 765.31 square kilometres (295.49 sq mi). Most of the city is within the Sanin Kaigan Geopark.[4] The city of Tottori is located in the east of the prefecture at the foot of the Chūgoku Mountains at the mouth of the Sendai River. While it is  about 300 km by road to Hiroshima city, which is the regional hub of the Chūgoku region, it is only 180 km from Kobe, 190 km from Osaka, and 220 km from Kyoto. Within Japan the city is best known for the Tottori Sand Dunes which are a popular tourist attraction, drawing visitors from outside the prefecture. The sand dunes are also important as a centre for research into arid agriculture, hosting Tottori Universitys Arid Land Research Center. Hyōgo Prefecture Okayama Prefecture
Polyarchy. In political science, the term polyarchy (poly many, arkhe rule)[1] was used by Robert Dahl to describe a form of government in which power is invested in multiple people. It takes the form of neither a dictatorship nor a democracy.[2] This form of government was first implemented in the United States and France and gradually adopted by other countries. Polyarchy is different from democracy, according to Dahl, because the fundamental democratic principle is the continuing responsiveness of the government to the preferences of its citizens, considered as political equals with unimpaired opportunities.[2] A polyarchy is a form of government that has certain procedures that are necessary conditions for following the democratic principle.[3][4] In semblance, the word polycracy describes the same form of government,[5] although from a slightly different premise: a polycracy is a society ruled by more than one person, as opposed to a monocracy. The word derives from Greek poly (many) and kratos (rule or strength). Dahls original theory of polyarchal democracy is in his 1956 book A Preface to Democratic Theory. His theory evolved over the decades, and the description in later writings is somewhat different. Dahl argues that democracy is an ideal type that no country has ever achieved.[6] For Dahl, democracy is a system that is completely responsive to all its citizens,[6] and the closest to the democratic ideal any country has come is polyarchy.[6] In the book, Dahl gives eight conditions that measure the extent to which majority rule is in effect in an organization. These are (p. 84):
Port of Yokohama. The Port of Yokohama (横浜港, Yokohama-kō) is operated by the Port and Harbor Bureau of the City of Yokohama in Japan. It opens onto Tokyo Bay. The port is located at a latitude of 35.27–00°N and a longitude of 139.38–46°E. To the south lies the Port of Yokosuka; to the north, the ports of Kawasaki and Tokyo. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce of 1858 specified Kanagawa as an open port. The Port of Yokohama formally opened to foreign trade on the 2nd of June 1859.  The port grew rapidly through the Meiji and Taisho periods as a center for raw silk export and technology import. Yokohama Port has ten major piers. Honmoku Pier is the ports core facility with 24 berths including 14 container berths.[1] Osanbashi Pier handles passenger traffic including cruises, and has customs, immigration and quarantine facilities for international travel.[2] Detamachi, the banana pier, is outfitted for receiving fresh fruits and vegetables.[3] Daikoku Pier, on an artificial island measuring 321 hectares, is equipped with container logistics facilities including seven container berths and houses a million square meters of warehouse space at the Yokohama Port Cargo Center.[4] At Minami Honmoku, the newest facility to be developed, there are two 350 meter operational berths with a depth of 16 meters capable of handling larger post Panamax container ships with 6 mega container cranes for 22 lines of containers. Additional berths are under construction for larger ships in dimensions equal to or exceeding the size of a Mærsk E-class container ship.
Portuguese language.  Portuguese (endonym: português or língua portuguesa) is a Western Romance language of the Indo-European language family originating from the Iberian Peninsula of Europe. It is spoken chiefly in Brazil, Portugal, and several countries in Africa, as well as by immigrants in North America, Europe, and South America. With approximately 267 million speakers, it is listed as the fifth-most spoken native language. Portuguese-speaking people or nations are known as Lusophone (lusófono). As the result of expansion during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese speakers is also found around the world. Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia and the County of Portugal, and has kept some Celtic phonology.[7][8] Portuguese language structure reflects its Latin roots and centuries of outside influences. These are seen in phonology, orthography, grammar, and vocabulary. Phonologically, Portuguese has a rich system of nasal vowels, complex consonant variations, and different types of guttural R and other sounds in European and Brazilian varieties. Its spelling, based like English on the Latin alphabet, is largely phonemic but is influenced by etymology and tradition. Recent spelling reforms attempted to create a unified spelling for the Portuguese language across all countries that use it. Portuguese grammar retains many Latin verb forms and has some unique features such as the future subjunctive and the personal infinitive. The vocabulary is derived mostly from Latin but also includes numerous loanwords [pt] from Celtic, Germanic, Arabic, African, Amerindian, and Asian languages, resulting from historical contact including wars, trade, and colonization. There is significant variation in dialects of Portuguese worldwide, with two primary standardized varieties: European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese, each one having numerous regional accents and subdialects. African and Asian varieties generally follow the European written standard, though they often have different phonological, lexical, and sometimes syntactic features. While there is broad mutual intelligibility among varieties, variation is seen mostly in speech patterns and vocabulary, with some regional differences in grammar.
Direct democracy. Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of democracy in which the electorate directly decides on policy initiatives, without elected representatives as proxies, as opposed to the representative democracy model which occurs in the majority of established democracies. The theory and practice of direct democracy and participation as its common characteristic constituted the core of the work of many theorists, philosophers, politicians, and social critics, among whom the most important are Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Stuart Mill, and G.D.H. Cole.[1] In direct democracy the people decide on policies without any intermediary or representative, whereas in a representative democracy people vote for representatives who then enact policy initiatives.[2]  Depending on the particular system in use, direct democracy might entail passing executive decisions, the use of sortition, making laws, directly electing or dismissing officials, and conducting trials. Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy. Semi-direct democracies, in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain the sovereign, allow for three forms of popular action: referendum (plebiscite), initiative, and recall. The first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation.[3] As of 2019[update], thirty countries allowed for referendums initiated by the population on the national level.[4] A compulsory referendum subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to a binding popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation. A popular referendum empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a vote by the citizens. Institutions specify the timeframe for a valid petition and the number of signatures required and may require signatures from diverse communities to protect minority interests.[3] This form of direct democracy effectively grants the voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, as in Switzerland.[5][6][7][8] A citizen-initiated referendum, also called an initiative, empowers members of the general public to propose, by petition, specific statutory measures or constitutional reforms to the government and, as with other referendums, the vote may be binding or simply advisory. Initiatives may be direct or indirect: with the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote (as exemplified by Californias system).[3] With an indirect initiative, a successful proposition is first presented to the legislature for their consideration; however, if no acceptable action is taken after a designated period of time, the proposition moves to direct popular vote. Constitutional amendments in Switzerland, Liechtenstein or Uruguay goes through such a form of indirect initiative.[3] A deliberative referendum is a referendum that increases public deliberation through purposeful institutional design. Power of recall gives the public the power to remove elected officials from office before the end of their designated standard term of office.[9]
Parliamentary republic. A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan referee of the political process.[1][2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence. In general, parliamentary republics grant the  highest sovereign powers to the parliament. In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[1][2][clarification needed] However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament. In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system. Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.[3]
Sortition.  Condorcet methods Positional voting Cardinal voting Quota-remainder methods
Group polarization. In social psychology, group polarization refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. These more extreme decisions are towards greater risk if individuals initial tendencies are to be risky and towards greater caution if individuals initial tendencies are to be cautious.[1] The phenomenon also holds that a groups attitude toward a situation may change in the sense that the individuals initial attitudes have strengthened and intensified after group discussion, a phenomenon known as attitude polarization.[2] Group polarization is an important phenomenon in social psychology and is observable in many social contexts. For example, a group of women who hold moderately feminist views tend to demonstrate heightened pro-feminist beliefs following group discussion.[3] Similarly, studies have shown that after deliberating together, mock jury members often decided on punitive damage awards that were either larger or smaller than the amount any individual juror had favored prior to deliberation.[4] The studies indicated that when the jurors favored a relatively low award, discussion would lead to an even more lenient result, while if the jury was inclined to impose a stiff penalty, discussion would make it even harsher.[5] Moreover, in recent years, the Internet and online social media have also presented opportunities to observe group polarization and compile new research. Psychologists have found that social media outlets such as Facebook and Twitter demonstrate that group polarization can occur even when a group is not physically together. As long as the group of individuals begins with the same fundamental opinion on the topic and a consistent dialogue is kept going, group polarization can occur.[6] Research has suggested that well-established groups suffer less from polarization, as do groups discussing problems that are well known to them. However, in situations where groups are somewhat newly formed and tasks are new, group polarization can demonstrate a more profound influence on decision-making.[7] Attitude polarization, also known as belief polarization and the polarization effect, is a phenomenon in which a disagreement becomes more extreme as the different parties consider evidence on the issue. It is one of the effects of confirmation bias: the tendency of people to search for and interpret evidence selectively, to reinforce their current beliefs or attitudes.[8] When people encounter ambiguous evidence, this bias can potentially result in each of them interpreting it as in support of their existing attitudes, widening rather than narrowing the disagreement between them.[9] The effect is observed with issues that activate emotions, such as political hot-button issues.[10] For most issues, new evidence does not produce a polarization effect.[11] For those issues where polarization is found, mere thinking about the issue, without contemplating new evidence, produces the effect.[11] Social comparison processes have also been invoked as an explanation for the effect, which is increased by settings in which people repeat and validate each others statements.[12] This apparent tendency is of interest not only to psychologists, but also to sociologists[13] and philosophers.[14]
English-speaking world.  The English-speaking world comprises the 88 countries and territories in which English is an official, administrative, or cultural language. In the early 2000s, between one and two billion people spoke English,[1][2] making it the largest language by number of speakers, the third largest language by number of native speakers and the most widespread language geographically. The countries in which English is the native language of most people are sometimes termed the Anglosphere. Speakers of English are called Anglophones. Early Medieval England was the birthplace of the English language; the modern form of the language has been spread around the world since the 17th century, first by the worldwide influence of England and later the United Kingdom, and then by that of the United States. Through all types of printed and electronic media of these countries, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and professional fields, such as science, navigation and law.[3] The United States and India have the most total English speakers, with 306 million and 129 million,[4] respectively. These are followed by the United Kingdom (68 million), and Nigeria (60 million).[5] As of 2022, there were about 400 million native speakers of English.[6]  Including people who speak English as a second language, estimates of the total number of Anglophones vary from 1.5 billion to 2 billion.[2] David Crystal calculated in 2003 that non-native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of three to one.[7] Besides the major varieties of English—American, British, Canadian, Australian, Irish, New Zealand English—and their sub-varieties, countries such as South Africa, India, Nigeria, the Philippines, Singapore, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from English-based creole languages to Standard English. Other countries and territories, such as Ghana, also use English as their primary official language even though it is not the native language of most of the people. English holds official status in numerous countries within the Commonwealth of Nations.[8]
Presidential system. A presidential, strong-president, or single-executive system (sometimes also congressional system)[1][2] is a form of government in which a head of government (usually titled president) heads an executive branch that derives its authority and legitimacy from a source that is separate from the legislative branch. The system was popularized by its inclusion in the Constitution of the United States.[3] This head of government is often also the head of state. In a presidential system, the head of government is directly or indirectly elected by a group of citizens and is not responsible to the legislature, and the legislature cannot dismiss the president except in extraordinary cases. A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system, where the head of government (usually called a prime minister) derives their power from the confidence of an elected legislature, which can dismiss the prime minister with a simple majority. Not all presidential systems use the title of president. Likewise, the title is sometimes used by other systems. It originated from a time when such a person personally presided over the governing body, as with the President of the Continental Congress in the early United States, before the executive function being split into a separate branch of government. Presidents may also use it in semi-presidential systems. Heads of state of parliamentary republics, largely ceremonial in most cases, are called presidents. Dictators or leaders of one-party states, whether popularly elected or not, are also often called presidents. The presidential system is the most common form of government in the Americas and is also frequently found in Sub-Saharan Africa (along with semi-presidential hybrid systems). By contrast, there are very few presidential republics in Europe (with Cyprus and Turkey being the only examples). In Asia, the system is used by South Korea, Syria, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The presidential system has its roots in the governance of the British colonies of the 17th century in what is now the United States. The Pilgrims, permitted to govern themselves in Plymouth Colony, established a system that utilized an independent executive branch. Each year, a governor was chosen by the colonial legislature, as well as several assistants, analogous to modern-day cabinets. Additional executive officials such as constables and messengers were then appointed.[4] At the same time, the British Isles underwent a brief period of republicanism as the Protectorate, during which the Lord Protector served as an executive leader similar to a president.[5]
Liberal democracy.  Liberal democracy, also called Western-style democracy,[1] or substantive democracy,[2] is a form of government that combines the organization of a democracy with ideas of liberal political philosophy. Common elements within a liberal democracy are: elections between or among multiple distinct political parties; a separation of powers into different branches of government; the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society; a market economy with private property; universal suffrage; and the equal protection of human rights, civil rights, civil liberties, and political freedoms for all citizens. Substantive democracy refers to substantive rights and substantive laws, which can include substantive equality,[2] the equality of outcome for subgroups in society.[3][4] Liberal democracy emphasizes the separation of powers, an independent judiciary, and a system of checks and balances between branches of government. Multi-party systems with at least two persistent, viable political parties are characteristic of liberal democracies. Governmental authority is legitimately exercised only in accordance with written, publicly disclosed laws adopted and enforced in accordance with established procedure. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either codified or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. A liberal democracy may take various and mixed constitutional forms: it may be a constitutional monarchy or a republic. It may have a parliamentary system, presidential system, or semi-presidential system. Liberal democracies are contrasted with illiberal democracies and dictatorships. Some liberal democracies, especially those with large populations, use federalism (also known as vertical separation of powers) in order to prevent abuse and increase public input by dividing governing powers between municipal, provincial and national governments. The characteristics of liberal democracies are correlated with increased political stability,[5] lower corruption,[6] better management of resources,[7] and better health indicators such as life expectancy and infant mortality.[8] Liberal democracy traces its origins—and its name—to the Age of Enlightenment. The conventional views supporting monarchies and aristocracies were challenged at first by a relatively small group of Enlightenment intellectuals, who believed that human affairs should be guided by reason and principles of liberty and equality. They argued that all people are created equal, that governments exist to serve the people—not vice versa—and that laws should apply to those who govern as well as to the governed (a concept known as rule of law), formulated in Europe as Rechtsstaat. In England, thinkers such as John Locke (1632–1704) argued that all people are created equal, that governments exist to serve the governed, and that laws must apply equally to rulers and citizens alike (a concept later expressed as the rule of law). At the same time, on the European continent, French philosophers developed equally influential theories: Montesquieus The Spirit of the Laws (1748) advanced the doctrine of separation of powers, Rousseaus The Social Contract (1762) articulated the principle of popular sovereignty and the general will, and Voltaire championed freedom of conscience and expression. These ideas were central to the French Revolution and spread widely across Europe and beyond. They also influenced the American Revolution and the broader development of liberal democracy.. After a period of expansion in the second half of the 20th century, liberal democracy became a prevalent political system in the world.[9] Liberal democracy traces its origins—and its name—to 18th-century Europe, during the Age of Enlightenment. At the time, the vast majority of European states were monarchies, with political power held either by the monarch or the aristocracy. The possibility of democracy had not been a seriously considered political theory since classical antiquity and the widely held belief was that democracies would be inherently unstable and chaotic in their policies due to the changing whims of the people. It was further believed that democracy was contrary to human nature, as human beings were seen to be inherently evil, violent and in need of a strong leader to restrain their destructive impulses. Many European monarchs held that their power had been ordained by God and that questioning their right to rule was tantamount to blasphemy.
List of regions of Japan.  Japan is often divided into regions, each containing one or more of the countrys 47 prefectures at large. Sometimes, they are referred to as blocs (ブロック, burokku), or regional blocs (地域ブロック, chiiki burokku) as opposed to more granular regional divisions. They are not official administrative units, though they have been used by government officials for statistical and other purposes since 1905. They are widely used in, for example, maps, geography textbooks, and weather reports, and many businesses and institutions use their home regions in their names as well, for example Kyushu National Museum, Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, and Tōhoku University. One common division groups the prefectures into eight regions. In this arrangement, of the four main islands of Japan, Hokkaidō, Shikoku, and Kyūshū, each form their own region, with Kyūshū also including the Satsunan Islands. The largest island, Honshū, is split into five regions. Okinawa Prefecture is usually considered part of Kyūshū, but it is sometimes treated as its own ninth region. Japan has eight High Courts, but their jurisdictions do not match the typical eight-region geographical division (see #Other regional divisions and Judicial system of Japan for details). This is a list of Japans major islands, traditional regions, and subregions, going from northeast to southwest.[10][11] The eight traditional regions are marked in bold.
Economic democracy.  Economic democracy (sometimes called a democratic economy[1][2]) is a socioeconomic philosophy that proposes to shift ownership[3][4][5] and decision-making power from corporate shareholders and corporate managers (such as a board of directors) to a larger group of public stakeholders that includes workers, consumers, suppliers, communities and the broader public. No single definition or approach encompasses economic democracy, but most proponents claim that modern property relations externalize costs, subordinate the general well-being to private profit and deny the polity a democratic voice in economic policy decisions.[6] In addition to these moral concerns, economic democracy makes practical claims, such as that it can compensate for capitalisms inherent effective demand gap.[7] Proponents of economic democracy generally argue that modern capitalism periodically results in economic crises, characterized by deficiency of effective demand; as society is unable to earn enough income to purchase its own production output. Corporate monopoly of common resources typically creates artificial scarcity, resulting in socio-economic imbalances that restrict workers from access to economic opportunity and diminish consumer purchasing power.[8] Economic democracy has been proposed as a component of larger socioeconomic ideologies, as a stand-alone theory and as a variety of reform agendas. For example, as a means to securing full economic rights, it opens a path to full political rights, defined as including the former.[6] Both market and non-market theories of economic democracy have been proposed. As a reform agenda, supporting theories and real-world examples can include decentralization, democratic cooperatives, public banking, fair trade and the regionalization of food production and currency. According to many analysts, deficiency of effective demand is the most fundamental economic problem. That is, modern society does not earn enough income to purchase its output. For example, economic geographer David Harvey claims, Workers spending their wages is one source of effective demand, but the total wage bill is always less than the total capital in circulation (otherwise there would be no profit), so the purchase of wage goods that sustain daily life (even with a suburban lifestyle) is never sufficient for the profitable sale of the total output.[7] In the Georgist view of any economic system, wealth includes all material things produced by labor for the satisfaction of human desires and having exchange value. Land, labor and capital are generally considered the essential factors in producing wealth. Land includes all natural opportunities and forces. Labor includes all human exertion. Capital includes the portion of wealth devoted to producing more wealth. While the income of any individual might include proceeds from any combination of these three sources—land, labor and capital are generally considered mutually exclusive factors in economic models of the production and distribution of wealth. According to Henry George: People seek to satisfy their desires with the least exertion.[8] Human beings interact with nature to produce goods and services that other human beings need or desire. The laws and customs that govern the relationships among these entities constitute the economic structure of a given society.
Australian English.  Australian English (AusE, AusEng, AuE, AuEng, en-AU) is the set of varieties of the English language native to Australia. It is the countrys common language and de facto national language. While Australia has no official language, English is the first language of the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the de facto national language since the onset of British settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of Australians in 2021.[5] It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts. Australian English began to diverge from British and Hiberno-English after the First Fleet established the Colony of New South Wales in 1788. Australian English arose from a dialectal melting pot created by the intermingling of early settlers who were from a variety of dialectal regions of Great Britain and Ireland,[6] though its most significant influences were the dialects of South East England.[7] By the 1820s, the native-born colonists speech was recognisably distinct from speakers in Britain and Ireland.[8] Australian English differs from other varieties in its phonology, pronunciation, lexicon, idiom, grammar and spelling.[9] Australian English is relatively consistent across the continent, although it encompasses numerous regional and sociocultural varieties. General Australian describes the de facto standard dialect, which is perceived to be free of pronounced regional or sociocultural markers and is often used in the media. Similar to early American English, Australian English passed through a process of extensive dialect levelling and mixing which produced a relatively homogeneous new variety of English which was easily understood by all.[6]
Federal Union (disambiguation). A federal union is a political system of government. Federal Union may also refer to a number of political movements:
New Zealand English.  New Zealand English (NZE) is the variant of the English language spoken and written by most English-speaking New Zealanders.[3] Its language code in ISO and Internet standards is en-NZ.[4] It is the first language of the majority of the population. The English language was established in New Zealand by colonists during the 19th century. It is one of the newest native-speaker variet[ies] of the English language in existence, a variety which has developed and become distinctive only in the last 150 years.[2] The variety of English that had the biggest influence on the development of New Zealand English was Australian English, itself derived from Southeastern England English, with considerable influence from Scottish and Hiberno-English, and with lesser influences the British prestige accent Received Pronunciation (RP) and American English. An important source of vocabulary is the Māori language of the indigenous people of New Zealand, whose contribution distinguishes New Zealand English from other varieties.[5] Non-rhotic New Zealand English is most similar to Australian English in pronunciation, but has key differences.[6] A prominent difference is the realisation of /ɪ/ (the KIT vowel): in New Zealand English this is pronounced as a schwa. New Zealand English has several increasingly distinct varieties, and while most New Zealanders speak non-rhotic English, rhoticity is increasing quickly, especially among Pasifika and Māori in Auckland and the upper North Island.[7][failed verification] The first dictionary with entries documenting New Zealand English was probably the Heinemann New Zealand Dictionary published in 1979.[8] Edited by Harry Orsman (1928–2002), it is a 1,337-page book with information relating to the usage and pronunciation of terms that were widely accepted throughout the English-speaking world, and those peculiar to New Zealand. It includes a one-page list of the approximate date of entry into common parlance of the many terms found in New Zealand English but not elsewhere, such as haka (1827), boohai (1920), and bach (1905). A second edition was published in 1989 with the cover subtitle The first dictionary of New Zealand English and New Zealand pronunciation. A third edition, edited by Nelson Wattie, was published as The Reed Dictionary of New Zealand English by Reed Publishing in 2001.[8]
Federation (disambiguation). A federation is a state governed under the system of federalism. Federation may also refer to:
American and British English spelling differences.   Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most notable variations being British and American spelling. Many of the differences between American and British or Commonwealth English date back to a time before spelling standards were developed. For instance, some spellings seen as American today were once commonly used in Britain, and some spellings seen as British were once commonly used in the United States. A British standard began to emerge following the 1755 publication of Samuel Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language, and an American standard started following the work of Noah Webster and, in particular, his An American Dictionary of the English Language, first published in 1828.[1] Websters efforts at spelling reform were effective in his native country, resulting in certain well-known patterns of spelling differences between the American and British varieties of English. However, English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise. As a result, modern English orthography varies only minimally between countries and is far from phonemic in any country. In the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publication of influential dictionaries. Todays British English spellings mostly follow Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), while many American English spellings follow Websters An American Dictionary of the English Language (ADEL, Websters Dictionary, 1828).[2]
Federated state. A federated state (also  state, province, region, canton,  land,  governorate,  oblast, emirate, or  country) is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation.[1] A federated state does not have international sovereignty since powers are divided between the other federated states and the federal government. Unlike international sovereign states, which have what is often referred to as Westphalian sovereignty (such as exercised by their federal government), federated states operate under their domestic or federal law with relation to the rest of the world. Federated states do not have automatic standing as entities of international law. Instead, the federal union (federation) as a single entity is the sovereign state for purposes of international law.[2] Depending on the constitutional structure of a particular federation, a federated state can hold various degrees of legislative, judicial, and administrative jurisdiction over a defined geographic territory and is a form of regional government.  A federated state may nonetheless establish offices internationally, for example, to promote trade or tourism, while still operating only within the trade policy or other applicable law of their federation, and their host country.  They also may enter into international regional agreements under the laws of their federation and state, such as to protect a cross-border resource like water or other shared matters. In some cases, a federation is created from the union of political entities that are either independent or dependent territories of another sovereign entity (most commonly a colonial power).[A] In other cases, federated states have been created out of the administrative divisions of previously unitary states.[B] Once a federal constitution is formed, the rules governing the relationship between federal and regional powers become part of the countrys constitutional law and not international law. In countries with federal constitutions, there is a division of power between the central government and the component states. These entities – states, provinces, counties, cantons, Länder, etc. – are partially self-governing and are afforded a degree of constitutionally guaranteed autonomy that varies substantially from one federation to another.[C] Depending on the form the decentralization of powers takes, a federated states legislative powers may or may not be overruled or vetoed by the federal government. Laws governing the relationship between federal and regional powers can be amended through the national or federal constitution, and, if they exist, state constitutions as well. In terms of internal politics, federated states can have republican or monarchical forms of government. Those of republican form (federated republics) are usually called states (like states of the US) or republics (like republics in the former USSR).
Confederation.  A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a political union of sovereign states united for purposes of common action.[1] Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defence, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the central government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form of intergovernmentalism, defined as any form of interaction around states that takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government. The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government and their distribution of powers varies. Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations while other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems. These elements of such confederations, the international organization and federalist perspective, has been combined as supranational unions. Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right of secession. The political philosopher Emmerich de Vattel said: Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each, in particular, ceasing to be a perfect state.... The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member.[2] Under a confederation, compared to a federal state, the central authority is relatively weak.[3] Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect; they are not laws acting directly upon the individual but have more the character of interstate agreements.[4] Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity), not by the majority. Historically, those features limit the unions effectiveness. Hence, political pressure tends to build over time for the transition to a federal system of government, as in the American, Swiss and German cases of regional integration.
Ideology. An ideology is a set of beliefs or values attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain knowledge,[1][2] in which practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones.[3] Formerly applied primarily to economic, political, or religious theories and policies, in a tradition going back to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory.[4] The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy, a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher, who conceived it in 1796 as the science of ideas to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science, the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems.[4] The term ideology originates from French idéologie, itself coined from combining Greek: idéā (ἰδέα, notion, pattern; close to the Lockean sense of idea) and -logíā (-λογῐ́ᾱ, the study of). An ideologue is someone who strongly believes in an ideology. The term carries negative connotations, often referring to someone who is blindly partisan, zealous, or fanatical in their beliefs. The term ideology and the system of ideas associated with it were developed in 1796 by Antoine Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836), who crystallised his ideas while in prison (November 1793 to October 1794) pending trial during the Reign of Terror of c. 1793 to July 1794. While imprisoned he read the works of Locke and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac.[5]
Akita Prefecture.  Akita Prefecture (秋田県, Akita-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [aꜜ.kʲi̥.ta, a.kʲi̥.taꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu.[3] Its population is estimated 915,691 as of 1 August 2023 and its geographic area is 11,637 km2 (4,493 sq mi). Akita Prefecture is bordered by Aomori Prefecture to the north, Iwate Prefecture to the east, Miyagi Prefecture to the southeast, and Yamagata Prefecture to the south. Akita is the capital and largest city of Akita Prefecture.  Other major cities include Yokote, Daisen, and Yurihonjō.[4] Akita Prefecture is located on the coast of the Sea of Japan and extends east to the Ōu Mountains, the longest mountain range in Japan, at the border with Iwate Prefecture. Akita Prefecture formed the northern half of the historic Dewa Province with Yamagata Prefecture. The region of Akita was created from the ancient provinces of Dewa and Mutsu.[5] Separated from the principal Japanese centres of commerce, politics, and population by several hundred kilometres and by the Ōu and Dewa mountain ranges to the east, Akita remained largely isolated from Japanese society until after the year 600. Akita was a region of hunter-gatherers and principally nomadic tribes.[citation needed]
Akita (city). Akita (秋田市, Akita-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [aꜜ.kʲi̥.ta, a.kʲi̥.taꜜ.ɕi][1]) is the capital and most populous city of Akita Prefecture, Japan, and has been designated a core city since 1 April 1997. As of 1 August 2023[update], the city has an estimated population of 300,502 persons in 136,628 households[2] and a population density of 332 persons per km2. The total area of the city is 906.07 square kilometres (349.84 sq mi). The area of present-day Akita was part of ancient Dewa Province, and has been inhabited for thousands of years. The Jizōden ruins within the city limits are a major archaeological site with artifacts from the Japanese Paleolithic period through the Jōmon and Yayoi periods. During the Nara period, the imperial court established Akita Castle in 733 AD to bring the local Emishi tribes under its control. The area was ruled by a succession of local samurai clans in the Sengoku period, before coming under the control of the Satake clan of Kubota Domain during the Edo period. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, a castle town developed around Kubota Castle. With the start of the Meiji period, Kubota Domain was abolished, and its castle town divided into the towns of Akita and Kubota. Akita Prefecture was established in 1871, and Shima Yoshitake was named the first governor. Ancient Akita District was divided into Kitaakita and Minamiakita Districts in 1878. Most of Akita town burned down in a great fire on 30 April 1886. With the establishment of the modern municipalities system on 1 April 1889, the city of Akita was officially established, including former Kubota and Akita towns. The port area was separated into Tsuchizaki-Minato Town, which became part of Minamiakita District. The first city hall was located inside the former Minamiakita District office. In September 1898, the Imperial Japanese Armys 17th Infantry Regiment was based in Akita. The first public library was opened in 1898, electrification of Tsuchizaki began in 1901, and Akita Station was opened in 1902, as well as running water and telephone services in 1907. The Taishō period brought further development to Akita with Nippon Oil Corporation developing the nearby Kurokawa Oil Fields in 1914, and a branch of the Bank of Japan opening in Akita in 1917.
Tottori Castle.  Tottori Castle (鳥取城, Tottori-jō) was a Japanese castle located in Tottori, Tottori Prefecture in the Sanin Region of western Japan. It has been protected by the central government as a National Historic Site since 1957 with the area under protection expanded in 1987. The Historical Site designation also includes the Taikōganaru (太閤ヶ平) fortification erected by Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the 1581 Siege of Tottori.[1] Tottori Castle was constructed in Inaba Province during the Sengoku period as a yamashiro (mountain castle) built into the mountain itself, using natural obstacles and defenses to a greater extent than man-made walls. The castle is located to the north the center of modern Tottori on Mount Kyusho, which has steep slopes.[2]  It is claimed that in the late 12th century, following the Genpei War, the new Shōgun Minamoto no Yoritomo granted the position of shugo of Inaba Province to Nasu no Yoichi, the hero of the Battle of Yashima. Nasu lost the castle soon afterwards to Kajiwara Kagetoki in a hunting competition.  However, the castle in its present form was constructed by the Yamana clan from 1532 to 1555. In the early Muromachi period, the Yamana once held the position of shugo over most of the Sanin and the Sanyō region, but their hold over Inaba Province itself was weak following the Onin War and the castle was built to counter the increasingly aggressive Amago clan from Izumo, who had seized neighboring Hōki Province from the Yamana and who were now threatening their home province of Tajima. The Amago were defeated by the Mōri clan of Aki Province in 1566 and Inaba Province became a battleground between the Mōri, the remnants of the Amago, and the waning power of the Yamana, who under , Yamana Toyokuni moved clans  main stronghold to Tottori castle from Tenjinyama castle in 1573.[3] The castle fell to the Mōri in 1575; however, by seizing  Inaba and parts of Harima Province, the Mōri came into conflict with the rapidly increasing power of Oda Nobunaga. In 1577, Nobunaga dispatched an army under Hashiba Hideyoshi to conquer the Mōri. Hideyoshis campaign took several years.  In 1577 he first had to suppress revolts at Miki Castle in Harima and Arioka Castle in Settsu Province; he completed his conquest of Tajima Province (with its silver mines) in 1580 and Harima Province in 1581, and persuaded the Nanjō clan (who controlled Hōki Province) and Ukita Naoie (who controlled Mimasaka and Bizen Provinces to defect from the Mōri. In 1581 the Mōri responded by appointing Kikkawa Tsuneie to Tottori Castle with an army of 3000 men. Rather than attack the reputedly impregnable Tottori Castle by frontal assault, Hideyoshi opted for siege warfare. He purchased all available rice and other foodstuffs in Inaba Province for very high prices. He also built a semi-circular 12-kilometer long encampment called the Taikoganaru (太閤ヶ平) on three sides of the castle to isolate it from the town and any supplies or reinforcement. With little food and no hope of reinforcement, the castle surrendered after three months and Kikkawa Tsuneie was forced to commit seppuku. After taking the castle without damage, Hideyoshi assigned it to his general, Miyabe Keihin. However, after his death and the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu reassigned the castle to Ikeda Mitsumasa in 1616. As daimyō of Tottori Domain, which ruled both Inaba and Hōki Provinces, Ikeda Mitsumasa greatly expanded upon and rebuilt Tottori Castle with stone walls and water moats. The mountain areas of the castle, including its original inner bailey were abandoned, but at the lower levels a three-story tenshu was constructed. The castle remained in the hands of a branch of the Ikeda clan to the end of the Edo Period.
Shimane Prefecture.  Shimane Prefecture (島根県, Shimane-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [ɕiꜜ.ma.ne, ɕi.ma.neꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region of Honshu.[3] Shimane Prefecture is the second-least populous prefecture of Japan at 665,205 (February 1, 2021) and has a geographic area of 6,708.26 km2. Shimane Prefecture borders Yamaguchi Prefecture to the southwest, Hiroshima Prefecture to the south, and Tottori Prefecture to the east. Matsue is the capital and largest city of Shimane Prefecture, with other major cities including Izumo, Hamada, and Masuda.[4] Shimane Prefecture contains the majority of the Lake Shinji-Nakaumi metropolitan area centered on Matsue, and with a population of approximately 600,000 is Japans third-largest metropolitan area on the Sea of Japan coast after Niigata and Greater Kanazawa. Shimane Prefecture is bounded by the Sea of Japan coastline on the north, where two-thirds of the population live, and the Chūgoku Mountains on the south. Shimane Prefecture governs the Oki Islands in the Sea of Japan which juridically includes the disputed Liancourt Rocks (竹島, Takeshima). Shimane Prefecture is home to Izumo-taisha, one of the oldest Shinto shrines in Japan, and the Tokugawa-era Matsue Castle. The history of Shimane starts with Japanese mythology. The Shinto god Ōkuninushi was believed to live in Izumo, an old province in Shimane. Izumo Shrine, which is in the city of Izumo, honors the god.[5] At that time, the current Shimane prefecture was divided into three parts: Iwami, Izumo, and Oki.[6] That lasted until the abolition of the han system took place in 1871. During the Nara period, Kakinomoto no Hitomaro wrote a poem on Shimanes nature when he was sent as the Royal governor.[7] Later on in the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the Kamakura shogunate forced emperors Go-Toba and Godaigo into exile in Oki. Emperor Go-Daigo later escaped from Oki and began rallying supporters against the shogunate, which proved successful.[8]
Köppen climate classification.  The Köppen climate classification divides Earth climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups are A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the E group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example, Af indicates a tropical rainforest climate. The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the A group, indicated by the third letter for climates in B, C, D, and the second letter for climates in E. Other examples include: Cfb indicating an oceanic climate with warm summers as indicated by the ending b., while  Dwb indicates a semi-monsoonal continental climate, also with warm summers. Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.[1] The Köppen climate classification is the most widely used climate classification scheme.[2] It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884,[3][4] with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.[5][6] Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification.[7][8] As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist, his main climate groups represent a classification by vegetation type. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.[9] The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within the Trewartha climate classification system in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).[10]: 200–201
Blue-and-white flycatcher.  The blue-and-white flycatcher (Cyanoptila cyanomelana) is a migratory songbird in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae. The species is also known as the Japanese flycatcher. It breeds in Japan, Korea, and in parts of north eastern China and the Russian Far East. It winters in South East Asia, especially in Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Sumatra and Borneo. This species has been recorded as a vagrant from the Sinharaja Rainforest in Sri Lanka in 2014. The species was first described in 1829 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck under the Binomial name Muscicapa cyanomelana. It is now located in the genus Cyanoptila alongside Zappeys flycatcher, which used to be conspecific with this taxon.[2] The genus name comes from ancient Greek: kuanos meaning dark-blue; and ptilon – plumage. The specific cyanomelana also comes from kuanos, paired with melas, melanos meaning dark, black.[3] Two recognized subspecies:[4][5]
Sea of Japan.  The Sea of Japan (see below for other names) is the marginal sea between the Japanese archipelago, Sakhalin, the Korean Peninsula, and the mainland of the Russian Far East. The Japanese archipelago separates the sea from the Pacific Ocean. Like the Mediterranean Sea, it has almost no tides due to its nearly complete enclosure from the Pacific Ocean.[1] This isolation also affects faunal diversity and salinity, both of which are lower than in the open ocean. The sea has no large islands, bays or capes. Its water balance is mostly determined by the inflow and outflow through the straits connecting it to the neighboring seas and the Pacific Ocean. Few rivers discharge into the sea and their total contribution to the water exchange is within 1%. The seawater has an elevated concentration of dissolved oxygen that results in high biological productivity. Therefore, fishing is the dominant economic activity in the region. The intensity of shipments across the sea has been moderate owing to political issues, but it is steadily increasing as a result of the growth of East Asian economies. Sea of Japan is the dominant term used in English for the sea. The sea is called Nihon kai (日本海, literally Japan Sea) in Japan, Rìběn hǎi (日本海, Japan Sea) or originally Jīng hǎi (鲸海, Whale Sea) in China,[2] Yaponskoye more (Японское море, Japanese Sea) in Russia, Chosŏn Tonghae (조선동해, literally Korean East Sea) in North Korea, and Donghae (동해, literally East Sea) in South Korea. The naming of the sea is the subject of an ongoing dispute. Japan uses the name “Sea of Japan” and asserts that it has been the internationally accepted term since the early 19th century.[3] In contrast, South Korea contends that the “East Sea” was historically used before Japanese colonial rule,[4][5] and officially requests that it be used alongside “Sea of Japan”. North Korea advocates for the name “East Sea of Korea”.[6]
Humid subtropical climate. A humid subtropical climate is a subtropical-temperate climate type, characterized by long and hot summers, and cool to mild winters. These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents (except Antarctica), generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and are located poleward from adjacent tropical climates, and equatorward from either humid continental (in North America and Asia) or oceanic climates (in other continents). It is also known as warm temperate climate in some climate classifications.[1] Under the Köppen climate classification, Cfa and Cwa climates are either described as humid subtropical climates or warm temperate climates. This climate features mean temperature in the coldest month between −3 °C (27 °F) (or 0 °C (32 °F)) and 18 °C (64 °F) and mean temperature in the warmest month 22 °C (72 °F) or higher. However, while some climatologists have opted to describe this climate type as a humid subtropical climate,[2] Köppen himself never used this term. The humid subtropical climate classification was officially created under the Trewartha climate classification.[3] In this classification, climates are termed humid subtropical when they have at least 8 months with a mean temperature above 10 °C (50 °F). While many subtropical climates tend to be located at or near coastal locations, in some cases, they extend inland, most notably in China and the United States,[citation needed] where they exhibit more pronounced seasonal variations and sharper contrasts between summer and winter, as part of a gradient between the hotter tropical climates of the southern coasts and the colder continental climates to the north and further inland. As such, the climate can be said to exhibit somewhat different features depending on whether it is found inland, or in a maritime position. In a humid subtropical climate, summers are typically long, hot and humid. A deep current of tropical air dominates the humid subtropics at the time of high sun, and daily intense (but brief) convective thundershowers are common. Monthly mean temperatures in winter may be mild or slightly above freezing.[4][5] Rainfall often shows a summer peak especially where storms reaching the level of monsoons are well developed, as in Southeast Asia and South Asia.[6] Other areas have a more uniform or varying rainfall cycles but consistently lack any predictably dry summer months unlike Mediterranean climates (which lie at similar latitudes but, in most continents, on opposite coasts). Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms that build up due to the intense surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle. Weak tropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans, as well as occasional tropical cyclones often contribute to summer seasonal rainfall peaks. Winter rainfall (and occasional snowfall, especially near the poleward margins) is often associated with large storms in the westerlies that have fronts that reach down into subtropical latitudes.
List of time zone abbreviations.  This is a list of time zone abbreviations. Time zones are often represented by alphabetic abbreviations such as EST, WST, and CST, but these are not part of the international time and date standard ISO 8601 and their use as sole designator for a time zone is discouraged. Such designations can be ambiguous; for example, CST can mean China Standard Time (UTC+08:00), Cuba Standard Time (UTC−05:00), and (North American) Central Standard Time (UTC−06:00), and it is also a widely used variant of ACST (Australian Central Standard Time, UTC+9:30). Such designations predate both ISO 8601 and the internet era; in an earlier era, they were sufficiently unambiguous for many practical uses within a national context (for example, in railway timetables and business correspondence), but their ambiguity explains their deprecation in the internet era, when communications more often cannot rely on implicit geographic context to supply part of the meaning.
Military time zone. The military time zones are a standardized, uniform set of time zones for expressing time across different regions of the world, named after the NATO phonetic alphabet. The Zulu time zone (Z) is equivalent to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and is often referred to as the military time zone. The military time zone system ensures clear communication in a concise manner, and avoids confusion when coordinating across time zones. The Combined Communications-Electronics Board, representing the armed forces of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, publishes the military time zone system as the ACP 121 standard.[1] The armed forces of Austria and many nations in NATO use it.[citation needed] Going east from the prime meridian at Greenwich, letters Alfa[a] to Mike (skipping J, see below) represent the 12 time zones with positive UTC offsets until reaching the international Date Line. Going west from Greenwich, letters November to Yankee represent zones with negative offsets. The letters are typically used in conjunction with military time. For example, 6:00 a.m. in zone UTC−5 is written 0600R and spoken zero six hundred Romeo. The numeric zone description or plus and minus system indicates the correction which must be applied to the time as expressed in order to convert to UTC. For example, the zone description for the Romeo time zone is +5. Therefore, adding 5 hours to 0600R produces the time in UTC, 1100Z.[1] The letter J (Juliet), originally skipped, may be used to indicate the observers local time.[2] The letter L was previously misidentified in some editions of U.S. Army publications, such as FM 5-0,[3] as representing Local time, which conflicted with its established use for the Lima time zone (UTC+11). This error has been rectified in the latest edition of FM 5-0, released in May 2022,[4] which no longer includes this incorrect usage. LT may instead be used to denote local time.
Yin and yang.  Model humanity: Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions:
Jinpūkaku. Jinpūkaku (仁風閣, Jinpūkaku) is a Western-style French Renaissance style residence of the Ikeda clan located in Tottori, Tottori Prefecture, Japan. Jinpūkaku was commissioned in 1906 by the 14th daimyō of the Ikeda clan, Nakahiro Ikeda (1877–1948).[1] The residence was designed by the Meiji period architect Katayama Tōkuma (1854–1917), and covers 1,046 square metres (11,260 sq ft) on a site of 7,200 square metres (78,000 sq ft), and was completed in 1907. Jinpūkaku resembles Tōkumas Nara National Museum (1894) and Akasaka Palace (1909), and cost 43,335 yen to build. Jinpūkaku was built in close proximity to the ruins of Tottori Castle, which was long controlled by the Ikeda clan, and Kōzen-ji, the temple of the Ikeda family. Ikeda ostensibly commissioned Jinpūkaku as a detached residence for the family, but it was likely constructed to house Crown Prince Yoshihito, later Emperor Taishō on his tour of the Sanin Region in 1907, the same year construction on the residence was completed.[2] Ikeda was closely associated with Tōgō Heihachirō (1848–1934), Fleet Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy, who accompanied the Emperor Taishō on the tour and gave the residence its name. A nameplate with Tōgōs inscription is prominently displayed in the second floor hall of the structure. Jinpūkaku was the first residence in Tottori to be electrified, and as such was a symbol of the progress of the Meiji period to local residents.[3] After the Meiji period Jinpūkaku was used as a welcome hall and public gathering place by the City of Tottori. The structure was significantly damaged in the 1943 Tottori earthquake. The chimneys of the structure protruded through the roof. During the repairs after the earthquake a slate roof was placed on the residence. Jinpūkaku housed the predecessor of the Tottori Prefectural Museum from 1949 until the museum was relocated to its current structure in 1972.[4] The structure was designated as one of the Important Cultural Properties of Japan in 1973, and an extensive renovation was carried out for the following three years. The residence is open to the public, and includes a display of materials related to the Ikeda clan.[5] The site was used as the backdrop for filming one of the major fight scenes in 2012 live-action Rurouni Kenshin (film).
List of time offsets by U.S. state and territory.  This is a list of the time offsets by U.S. states, federal district, and territories. For more about the time zones of the U.S. see time in the United States. Most states are located entirely within one time zone. However, some states are located in two time zones for geographic, socio-political, or economic reasons.
Canada.   Canada[a] is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the second-largest country by total area, with the longest coastline of any country. Its border with the United States is the longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of over 41 million, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in its urban areas and large areas being sparsely populated. Canadas capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver. Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations, and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The countrys head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.
List of UTC offsets.  This is a list of the UTC time offsets, showing the difference in hours and minutes from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), from the westernmost (−12:00) to the easternmost (+14:00). It includes countries and regions that observe them during standard time or year-round. The main purpose of this page is to list the current standard time offsets of different countries, territories and regions. Information on daylight saving time or historical changes in offsets can be found in the individual offset articles (e.g. UTC+01:00) or the country-specific time articles (e.g. Time in Russia). Places that observe daylight saving time (DST) during their respective summer periods are listed only once, at the offset for their winter (usually known as standard) period; see their individual articles for more information. A source for detailed DST and historical information is the tz database. Note that there are many instances of unofficial observation of a different offset (and/or DST) than expected by areas close to borders, usually for economic reasons.[1] In the section names, the letter after the offset is that used in nautical time, with which the UTC offset section overlaps at least partially. Nautical time strictly partitions the globe at 15 degrees, whereas UTC offsets can deviate, for instance according to borders. If present, a dagger (†) indicates the usage of a nautical time zone letter outside of the standard geographic definition of that time zone.
Republic of Ireland.  – in Europe (light green & dark grey)– in the European Union (light green) Ireland (Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ⓘ), also known as the Republic of Ireland (Poblacht na hÉireann),[a] is a country in Northwestern Europe. It consists of 26 of the 32 counties of the island of Ireland, with a population of about 5.4 million.[4] Its capital and largest city is Dublin, on the eastern side of the island, with a population of over 1.5 million.[4] The sovereign state shares its only land border with Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, St Georges Channel to the south-east and the Irish Sea to the east. It is a unitary, parliamentary republic.[12] The legislature, the Oireachtas, consists of a lower house, Dáil Éireann; an upper house, Seanad Éireann; and an elected president (Uachtarán) who serves as the largely ceremonial head of state, but with some important powers and duties. The head of government is the Taoiseach (prime minister, lit. chief), elected by the Dáil and appointed by the president, who appoints other government ministers. The Irish Free State was created with Dominion status in 1922, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty. In 1937, a new constitution was adopted, in which the state was named Ireland and effectively became a republic, with an elected non-executive president. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following The Republic of Ireland Act 1948. Ireland became a member of the United Nations in 1955. It joined the European Communities (EC), the predecessor of the European Union (EU), in 1973. The state had no formal relations with Northern Ireland for most of the 20th century, but the 1980s and 1990s saw the British and Irish governments working with Northern Irish parties to resolve the conflict that had become known as the Troubles. Since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the Irish government and Northern Irish government have co-operated on a number of policy areas under the North/South Ministerial Council created by the Agreement. Ireland is a developed country with a quality of life ranked sixth in the world by the 2024 Human Development Index Report adjusted for inequality.[13] It also ranks highly in healthcare, economic freedom and freedom of the press.[14][15] According to the Global Peace Index, Ireland was the second most peaceful country worldwide in 2024.[16]
Time Zones (album).  Time Zones is an album by electronic musician Richard Teitelbaum and saxophonist Anthony Braxton, recorded in 1976 and released on the Freedom label.[1][2][3] The AllMusic review by Brian Olewnick stated: The two had a long and fruitful relationship and these pieces give a good idea why: both possessed probing intelligence that enabled them to dig deep into each others individual musical languages, unearthing surprising common ground as well as acknowledging differences.[4] In JazzTimes, Bill Shoemaker wrote: Teitelbaum is in a class by himself when it comes to improvising with synthesizers. His ability to morph from horn-like voice to viscous texture, to melt between foreground and background, and to incite inspired improvisations from Braxton (especially an alto solo at the end of Crossings, which unravels from desultory lyricism to an eerie reed effect), is thoroughly engaging.[5] All compositions by Richard Teitelbaum.
Time Zone (video game). Time Zone is a multi-disk graphical adventure game written and directed by Roberta Williams for the Apple II. Developed in 1981 and released in 1982 by On-Line Systems (later Sierra Entertainment), the game was shipped with six double-sided floppy disks and contained 1,500 areas (screens) to explore along with 39 scenarios to solve. Produced at a time when most games rarely took up more than one side of a floppy, Time Zone is one of the first games of this magnitude released for home computer systems.[2] Ports were released for Japanese home computers PC-88, PC-98 and FM-7 in 1985. Time Zone allows players to travel through time and across the globe solving puzzles while meeting famous historical figures such as Benjamin Franklin, Cleopatra, and Julius Caesar. The game has static pictures and a text parser that understands two-word commands. The game used the companys existing Hi-Res Adventures engine. Roberta Williams was the designer and writer, and its development took six months and about ten other people—the first example of the modern video game-development model in which programmers, artists, and designers are separate people in a team larger than a few people—worked on the game for a year. Each of the more than 1,300 locations had its own artwork. The company hoped to release Time Zone before Christmas 1981, but did not do so until March 1982.[3] Because of the games difficulty, Sierra offered a telephone help line that players could call for hints.[4] BYTE wrote The Guinness Book of World Records must be getting ready for a computer game category, if Time Zone is any indication of things to come. Without a doubt, it is the longest adventure game to date.[5] The game received a Certificate of Merit in the category of Best Computer Adventure at the 4th annual Arkie Awards.[6]: 32 Williams brother-in-law and fellow employee, John, later said, It frankly wasnt that good. Time Zone sold poorly; the original retail price of US$99 (equivalent to $323 in 2024) may make it the most expensive computer game in history after inflation.[3] The game was reissued the year of its release as part of the short-lived SierraVentures line.[7][4]
New Zealand.  New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa, pronounced [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa]) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui) and the South Island (Te Waipounamu)—and over 600 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island country by area and lies east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and south of the islands of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. The countrys varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps (Kā Tiritiri o te Moana), owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, and its most populous city is Auckland. The islands of New Zealand were the last large habitable land to be settled by humans. Between about 1280 and 1350, Polynesians began to settle in the islands and subsequently developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight and record New Zealand. In 1769 the British explorer Captain James Cook became the first European to set foot on and map New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the United Kingdom and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which paved the way for Britains declaration of sovereignty later that year and the establishment of the Crown Colony of New Zealand in 1841. Subsequently, a series of conflicts between the colonial government and Māori tribes resulted in the alienation and confiscation of large amounts of Māori land. New Zealand became a dominion in 1907; it gained full statutory independence in 1947, retaining the monarch as head of state. Today, the majority of New Zealands population of around 5.3 million is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pasifika. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers but has recently broadened from increased immigration. The official languages are English, Māori, and New Zealand Sign Language, with the local dialect of English being dominant. A developed country, New Zealand was the first to introduce a minimum wage and give women the right to vote. It ranks very highly in international measures of quality of life and human rights and has one of the lowest levels of perceived corruption in the world. It retains visible levels of inequality, including structural disparities between its Māori and European populations. New Zealand underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. The service sector dominates the countrys economy, followed by the industrial sector, and agriculture; international tourism is also a significant source of revenue. New Zealand and Australia have a strong relationship and are considered to share a strong Trans-Tasman identity, stemming from centuries of British colonisation. The country is part of multiple international organizations and forums. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Government, led by the prime minister, currently Christopher Luxon. Charles III is the countrys king and is represented by the governor-general, Cindy Kiro. New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica.
List of cities in Japan.  This is a list of cities in Japan sorted by prefecture and within prefecture by founding date. The list is also sortable by population, area, density and foundation date. Most large cities in Japan are cities designated by government ordinance. Some regionally important cities are designated as core cities. Tokyo is not included on this list, as the City of Tokyo ceased to exist on July 1, 1943. Tokyo now exists as a special metropolis prefecture (都, to), with 23 special wards (with the same status of city) making up the former boundaries of the former city in the eastern half of the prefecture.
List of tz database time zones.  This is a list of time zones from release 2025b of the tz database.[2] Standard Time (SDT) and Daylight Saving Time (DST) offsets from UTC in hours and minutes. For zones in which Daylight Saving is not observed, the DST offset shown in this table is a simple duplication of the SDT offset. The UTC offsets are based on the current or upcoming database rules. This table does not attempt to document any of the historical data which resides in the database. In Ireland, what Irish law designates as standard time is observed during the summer, with clocks turned one hour ahead of UTC.[3][4] The SDT column shows the offset from UTC during the winter, even in Ireland, where thats referred to as winter time, and the DST column shows the offset from UTC during the summer, even in Ireland, where thats referred to as standard time. Time zone abbreviations for both Standard Time and Daylight Saving Time are shown exactly as they appear in the database.  See strftime and its %Z field. Some of zone records use 3 or 4 letter abbreviations that are tied to physical time zones, others use numeric UTC offsets.
Afrika Bambaataa.  Lance Taylor (born April 17, 1957), also known as Afrika Bambaataa (/ˌæfrɪkə bæmˈbɑːtə/),[2][3] is a retired American DJ, rapper, and record producer.[4][3] He is notable for releasing a series of genre-defining electro tracks in the 1980s that influenced the development of hip hop culture.[5] Afrika Bambaataa is one of the originators of breakbeat DJing.[1] Through his co-opting of his street gang Black Spades into the music and culture-oriented organization Universal Zulu Nation, he has helped spread hip hop culture throughout the world.[6] In May 2016, Bambaataa left his position as head of the Universal Zulu Nation due to multiple allegations of child sexual abuse dating as far back as the 1970s.[7] Born Lance Taylor to Jamaican and Barbadian immigrants,[8] Bambaataa grew up in the Bronx River Projects, with an activist mother and uncle. As a child, he was exposed to the black liberation movement and witnessed debates between his mother and uncle regarding the conflicting ideologies in the movement. He was exposed to his mothers extensive and eclectic record collection.[5] Gangs in the area became the law, clearing their turf of drug dealers, assisting with community health programs and both fighting and partying to keep members and turf.[5] Bambaataa was a member of the Black Spades. He quickly rose to the position of warlord in one of the divisions. As warlord, it was his job to build ranks and expand the turf of the young Spades. He was not afraid to cross turfs to forge relationships with other gangs, and their members. As a result, the Spades became the biggest gang in the city in terms of both membership and turf.[5]
Timezone (video arcades).  Timezone is an international chain of family entertainment centres and amusement arcade centres based in Australia. It is owned and operated by The Entertainment and Education Group (TEEG). Outside of Australia, Timezone is currently operating in India, New Zealand, Singapore, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vietnam. In 1958, Malcolm Steinbergs father gave him 21 pinball machines. In Perth, the 18-year-old struck deals to place the pinballs in fish and chip shops and milk bars in exchange for half the earnings.[1] Steinbergs company Leisure & Allied Industries (LAI), which manufactured and imported arcade games, entered the video game retail market in the early 1970s with its first two stores, Blue Pumpernickel and Crystal Palace. In 1978, Steinberg opened the first Timezone — his first arcade — on Murray Street, Perth. He also relaunched the stores under the new brand. Timezone was successful, reaching a peak of eight stores in Western Australia.[2][3] Timezone began to expand outside the state in the early 1980s. From 1989 to 1991, LAI opened 25 locations.[2]
Standard time (manufacturing). In industrial engineering, the standard time is the time required by an average skilled operator, working at a normal pace, to perform a specified task using a prescribed method.[1] It includes appropriate allowances to allow the person to recover from fatigue and, where necessary, an additional allowance to cover contingent elements which may occur but have not been observed. Standard time = normal time + allowance Where; Normal time = average time × rating factor (take rating factor between 1.1 and 1.2) Time times for all operations are known.
Local mean time. Local mean time (LMT) is a form of solar time that corrects the variations of local apparent time, forming a uniform time scale at a specific longitude. This measurement of time was used for everyday use during the 19th century before time zones were introduced beginning in the late 19th century; it still has some uses in astronomy and navigation.[1] The difference between local mean time and local apparent time is the equation of time. Local mean time was used from the early 19th century, when local solar time or sundial time was last used until standard time was adopted on various dates in the several countries.   Each town or city kept its own meridian, so locations one degree of longitude apart had times four minutes apart.[2] This became a problem in the mid 19th century when railways needed clocks for railway time that were synchronized between stations, while local people needed to match their clock (or the church clock) to the time tables. Standard time means that the same time is used throughout some regional time zone—usually, it is at an offset from Greenwich Mean Time or the local mean time of the capital of the region.
Daylight saving time by country.  Daylight saving time (DST), also known as summer time, is the practice of advancing clocks during part of the year, typically by one hour around spring and summer, so that daylight ends at a later time of the day. As of 2025[update], DST is observed in most of Europe, most of North America and parts of Africa and Asia around the Northern Hemisphere summer, and in parts of South America and Oceania around the Southern Hemisphere summer. It was also formerly observed in other areas. As of 2025[update], the following locations were scheduled to start and end DST at the following times:[1][2] In the table above, the DST start and end times refer to the local time before each change occurs, unless otherwise specified. The shift is the amount of time added at the DST start time and subtracted at the DST end time. For example, in Canada and the United States, when DST starts, the local time changes from 02:00 to 03:00, and when DST ends, the local time changes from 02:00 to 01:00. As the time change depends on the time zone, it does not occur simultaneously in all parts of these countries. Conversely, in almost all parts of Europe that observe DST, the time change occurs simultaneously at 01:00 UTC regardless of their time zone. Morocco, including the portion of Western Sahara that it administers, also observes an annual time change but not related to seasonal daylight. The local time is decreased by one hour on the Sunday before Ramadan at 03:00, and increased by one hour on the Sunday after Ramadan at 02:00 (in 2025, the dates are 23 February and 6 April).
Mad Men season 7.  The seventh and final season of the American television drama series Mad Men premiered on April 13, 2014, and concluded on May 17, 2015, on AMC. The season consists of 14 episodes split into two, seven-episode parts: the first half, titled The Beginning, aired from April 13 to May 25, 2014; and the second half, titled The End of an Era, aired from April 5 to May 17, 2015.[2] The first part of the seventh season was released on Blu-ray/DVD on October 21, 2014,[3] and the second half was released on October 13, 2015.[4] Each episode in the season has a running time of approximately 48 minutes, with the exception of the final two episodes which are 54 and 57 minutes, respectively.[5] The first part of season 7 begins in January 1969, several weeks after the Thanksgiving 1968 ending of season 6, with characters dealing with the dynamics of lives and offices being split between New York and Los Angeles, and ends in July 1969. The second part of season 7 takes place between April and November 1970.[6][7] Both halves received critical acclaim, and based on year-end lists published by television critics, Mad Mens seventh season was the seventh most acclaimed series of 2014 for its first seven episodes, and was the second most acclaimed series of 2015 for its final episodes.[8][9] The seventh season of Mad Men received acclaim. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 90% of 510 critics reviewed the season favorably with an average score of 8.85/10. The sites consensus is: Just in time to rekindle viewers interest, Mad Men gets back on track for one last season, revisiting its steady, deliberate pace and style on its way to a sure-to-be-compelling climax.[27] On Metacritic, the first part of the seventh season scored 85 out of 100 based on 26 reviews; the second part scored 83 out of 100, based on 19 reviews, both indicating universal acclaim.[28][29] For the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards, the first half of the season was nominated for Outstanding Drama Series, Jon Hamm was nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Christina Hendricks was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, and Robert Morse was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series.[30] For the 67th Writers Guild of America Awards, the series was nominated for Best Drama Series and Jonathan Igla and Matthew Weiner were nominated for Best Episodic Drama for A Days Work.[31]
Adélie Land.  Adélie Land (French: Terre Adélie [tɛʁ adeli]) or Adélie Coast[3] is a claimed territory of France located on the continent of Antarctica. It stretches from a portion of the Southern Ocean coastline all the way inland to the South Pole. France has administered it as one of five districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands since 1955 and applied the Antarctic Treaty System rules since 1961. Article 4 of the Antarctic Treaty deals with territorial claims, and although it does not renounce or diminish any preexisting claims to sovereignty, it also does not prejudice the position of contracting parties in their recognition or non-recognition of territorial sovereignty. France has had a permanent station in Adélie Land since 9 April 1950. Adélie Land lies between 136° E (near Pourquoi Pas Point at 66°12′S 136°11′E / 66.200°S 136.183°E / -66.200; 136.183) and 142° E (near Point Alden at 66°48′S 142°02′E / 66.800°S 142.033°E / -66.800; 142.033), with a shore length of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) and with its inland part extending as a sector of a circle about 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) toward the South Pole. Adélie Land has borders with the Australian Antarctic Territory both on the east and on the west, namely on Clarie Land (part of Wilkes Land) in the west, and George V Land in the east. Additionally, it is the only territory claimed within French Southern and Antarctic Lands that is not an island.[4] Its total land area, mostly covered with glaciers,[3] is estimated to be 432,000 square kilometres (167,000 sq mi).[5] The coast of Adélie Land is known for its katabatic winds which push snow and sea ice away from the coast.[3] In a 1915 Science Magazine volume, it was named the stormiest spot on the face of earth.[6]
Time standard.  A time standard is a specification for measuring time: either the rate at which time passes or points in time or both. In modern times, several time specifications have been officially recognized as standards, where formerly they were matters of custom and practice. An example of a kind of time standard can be a time scale, specifying a method for measuring divisions of time.  A standard for civil time can specify both time intervals and time-of-day. Standardized time measurements are made using a clock to count periods of some period changes, which may be either the changes of a natural phenomenon or of an artificial machine. Historically, time standards were often based on the Earths rotational period. From the late 18 century to the 19th century it was assumed that the Earths daily rotational rate was constant. Astronomical observations of several kinds, including eclipse records, studied in the 19th century, raised suspicions that the rate at which Earth rotates is gradually slowing and also shows small-scale irregularities, and this was confirmed in the early twentieth century. Time standards based on Earth rotation were replaced (or initially supplemented) for astronomical use from 1952 onwards by an ephemeris time standard based on the Earths orbital period and in practice on the motion of the Moon. The invention in 1955 of the caesium atomic clock has led to the replacement of older and purely astronomical time standards, for most practical purposes, by newer time standards based wholly or partly on atomic time. Various types of second and day are used as the basic time interval for most time scales. Other intervals of time (minutes, hours, and years) are usually defined in terms of these two.
Territorial claims in Antarctica. Seven sovereign states – Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom – have made eight territorial claims in Antarctica. These countries have tended to place their Antarctic scientific observation and study facilities within their respective claimed territories; however, a number of such facilities are located outside of the area claimed by their respective countries of operation, and countries without claims such as Belgium, Spain, China, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Africa (SANAE), Poland, and the United States have constructed research facilities within the areas claimed by other countries. There are overlaps among the territories claimed by Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom. Spanish Empire 1539–1555 France 1840–present United Kingdom 1908–present New Zealand 1923–present
Standard Time (album).  Standard Time is the debut album by former Wings guitarist Laurence Juber, released in 1982. The album is mostly a collection of covers aside from one track, Maisie. Its an original song that was recorded with Wings on July 21st, 1978 at Low Ranachan Farm, Campbeltown, Scotland during the Back to the Egg sessions and features Paul McCartney on Rickenbacker bass guitar, Denny Laine and Steve Holley.[1] Maisie would later re-appear in a different version on Jubers 1993 album Naked Guitar as Maise. The album was originally released on vinyl and was unavailable digitally until 2014 when it was re-released on CD in expanded form as part of Jubers book Guitar with Wings.[2]
Winter time (clock lag).  Winter time is the practice of shifting the clock behind standard time during winter months, usually −1 hour. It is the opposite of daylight saving time in that the different time is in effect during winter months, rather than the usual case where the different time is in effect during summer months. However, while summer time is widely applied, use of winter time has been and is very rare. Winter time was applied in Czechoslovakia by government ordinance no. 213/1946 Sb. from 1 December 1946 (3:00→2:00) to 23 February 1947 (2:00→3:00), authorized by act 212/1946 Sb., o zimním čase (about the winter time). This simple two-paragraph act, approved on 21 November 1946 and announced on 27 November 1946, authorised the government to implement winter time by ordinance at any time.[1] The government gave as the main reason for this provision the fact that power plants had approximately 10% lack of capacity in peak hours (07:00–08:00 and 16:00–20:00) and winter time should help to spread the load out.[2] The act was never cancelled and it theoretically authorises the government in the successor Czech Republic, as well as in the Slovak Republic, which adopted Czechoslovak law, to implement winter time again at any time. However, the experiment has never been repeated.[3] Namibia used winter time since 1994 until 2017. In this period Namibian Standard Time was UTC+02:00 (derived from South African Standard Time) in summer, and UTC+01:00 (equivalent to West Africa Time) in winter.[4] Winter time began on the first Sunday in April at 03:00, and lasted until the first Sunday in September, 02:00 hours. In the Zambezi Region in the far north-east of Namibia clocks were not changed and remained on Central Africa Time all year round so that during winter time, Namibia spanned two time zones.[5]
Artist.  An artist is a person engaged in creating art, or practicing the arts. The most common usage in everyday speech and academic discourse refers to a practitioner in the visual arts only. However, the term is also very widely used in the entertainment business to refer to actors, musicians, singers, dancers and other performers.[1] The French word artiste is sometimes used in English in this context, although this has become old-fashioned. The use of the term artist to describe writers is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts such as critics reviews;[2] author is generally used instead. While the use of the word artist is common, there is no agreed upon definition of art[3]—this makes the definition of who is and is not an artist indeterminate. Many artist and theorists still debate their interpretation of arts definition.[4] I am only pointing out that my project, like Collingwoods, Osbornes, and others, is metaphysical in nature. I am interested in trying to find out what a work of art is and what it is essentially.
Visualization (graphics).  Visualization (or visualisation), also known as graphics visualization, is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of humanity. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vincis revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering purposes that actively involve scientific requirements. Visualization today has ever-expanding applications in science, education, engineering (e.g., product visualization), interactive multimedia, medicine, etc. Typical of a visualization application is the field of computer graphics. The invention of computer graphics (and 3D computer graphics) may be the most important development in visualization since the invention of central perspective in the Renaissance period. The development of animation also helped advance visualization. The use of visualization to present information is not a new phenomenon. It has been used in maps, scientific drawings, and data plots for over a thousand years. Examples from cartography include Ptolemys Geographia (2nd century AD), a map of China (1137 AD), and Minards map (1861) of Napoleons invasion of Russia a century and a half ago. Most of the concepts learned in devising these images carry over in a straightforward manner to computer visualization. Edward Tufte has written three critically acclaimed books that explain many of these principles.[1][2][3] Computer graphics has from its beginning been used to study scientific problems. However, in its early days the lack of graphics power often limited its usefulness. The recent emphasis on visualization started in 1987 with the publication of Visualization in Scientific Computing, a special issue of Computer Graphics.[4] Since then, there have been several conferences and workshops, co-sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society and ACM SIGGRAPH, devoted to the general topic, and special areas in the field, for example volume visualization.
Adobe Illustrator.  Adobe Illustrator is a vector graphics editor and design software developed and marketed by Adobe. Originally designed for the Apple Macintosh, development of Adobe Illustrator began in 1985. Along with Creative Cloud (Adobes shift to a monthly or annual subscription service delivered over the Internet), Illustrator CC was released. The latest version, Illustrator 2025, was released on October 14, 2024, and is the 29th generation in the product line. Adobe Illustrator was reviewed as the best vector graphics editing program in 2021 by PC Magazine.[1] Development of Adobe Illustrator for the Apple Macintosh began in 1985[2] (shipping in January 1987) as Adobes second software product after PostScript. Adobe co-founder and CEO John Warnock created Illustrator in late 1986 to automate many of the manual tasks utilized by his wife, Marva, a graphic designer. It used lines and bézier curves to render infinitely scalable graphics.[3][4] Illustrator was released in early 1987,[5] and became a commercialization of Adobes in-house font development software and PostScript file format. Adobe Illustrator is the companion product of Adobe Photoshop. Photoshop is primarily geared toward digital photo manipulation and photorealistic styles of computer illustration, while Illustrator provides results in the typesetting and logo graphic areas of design. Early magazine advertisements (featured in graphic design trade magazines such as Communication Arts) referred to the product as the Adobe Illustrator. Illustrator 88, the product name for version 1.6,[6] was released in 1988 and introduced many new tools and features.[7] Byte in 1989 listed Illustrator 88 as among the Distinction winners of the Byte Awards, stating that with it Adobe had pulled ahead of previously industry-dominant competitor Aldus FreeHand.[8]
Sire. Sire is an archaic respectful form of address to reigning kings in Europe. In French and other languages it is less archaic and relatively more current.[citation needed] In Belgium, the king is addressed as Sire... in both Dutch and French.[citation needed] The words sire and sir, as well as the French (mon)sieur, the Spanish señor, and the Portuguese senhor, share a common etymological origin, all ultimately being related to the Latin senior.  The female equivalent form of address is dame or dam.[1]
Honorific. An honorific is a title that conveys esteem, courtesy, or respect for position or rank when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes, the term honorific is used in a more specific sense to refer to an honorary academic title. It is also often conflated with systems of honorific speech in linguistics, which are grammatical or morphological ways of encoding the relative social status of speakers. Honorifics can be used as prefixes or suffixes depending on the appropriate occasion and presentation in accordance with style and customs. Typically, honorifics are used as a style in the grammatical third person, and as a form of address in the second person. Some languages have anti-honorific (despective or humilific) first person forms (expressions such as your most humble servant or this unworthy person) whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded to the person addressed. The most common honorifics in modern English are usually placed immediately before a persons name. Honorifics used (both as style and as form of address) include, in the case of a man, Mr. (irrespective of marital status), and, in the case of a woman, previously either of two depending on marital status: Miss if unmarried and Mrs. if married, widowed, or divorced; more recently, a third, Ms., became the more prevalent norm, mainly owing to the desire to avoid identifying women by their marital status. Further considerations regarding identifying people by gender currently are raised with varying prevalence and details; in some environments, honorifics such as Mx., Ind. or Misc. may be used so as not to identify people by gender. In some environments, the honorific Mstr. may be used for a boy who has not yet entered adult society; similar to this, Miss may be considered appropriate for a girl but inappropriate for a woman (but unless parallel to Mstr. the reasoning is not explicit). All the above terms but Miss are written as abbreviations—most were originally abbreviations (e.g., from Mister, Mistress), others may be considered as coined to directly parallel them for consistency. Abbreviations that include the initial and final letters (a type of contraction) are typically written in most English dialects (modern U.K. English, Australian English, South African English as examples) without full stops (periods) but in U.S. English and Canadian English always end with a period. Other honorifics may denote the honored persons occupation, for instance Doctor, Esquire, Captain, Coach, Officer, The Reverend (for all Christian clergy) or Father (for a Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, or Anglican Christian priest), Rabbi for Jewish clergy, or Professor.[a] Holders of an academic doctorate, such as a Ph.D., are addressed as Doctor (abbreviated Dr.). Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as Sir or Maam, or Your Honour/Honor. Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking a superior a question or after responding to an order: Yes, sir or even Sir, yes, sir.
Democracy (disambiguation). Democracy is a political concept or form of government. Democracy or Democracies may also refer to:
Writing.  Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of language. A writing system includes a particular set of symbols called a script, as well as the rules by which they encode a particular spoken language. Every written language arises from a corresponding spoken language; while the use of language is universal across human societies, most spoken languages are not written.[1] Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes. The outcome of this activity, also called writing (or a text) is a series of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented symbols. Reading is the corresponding process of interpreting a written text, with the interpreter referred to as a reader.[2] In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space.[3][4] While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. written correspondence) and stored over time (e.g. libraries).[5] Writing can also impact what knowledge people acquire, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise.[6][7][8] Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the systems used.[9] Writing implements used to make physical inscriptions include fingers, styluses, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography; writing surfaces on which inscriptions may be made include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slips, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, and slate.[10]
Sir (disambiguation). Sir is a respectful form of address for a man, and a formal title used in the United Kingdom for knights and baronets. Sir, SIR or SiR may also refer to:
Democracy indices. Democracy indices are quantitative and comparative assessments of the state of democracy[1] for different countries according to various definitions of democracy.[2] The democracy indices differ in whether they are categorical, such as classifying countries into democracies, hybrid regimes, and autocracies,[3][4] or continuous values.[5] The qualitative nature of democracy indices enables data analytical approaches for studying causal mechanisms of regime transformation processes. Democracy indices vary in their scope and the weight assigned to different aspects of democracy. These aspects include the breadth and strength of core democratic institutions, the competitiveness and inclusiveness of polyarchy, freedom of expression, governance quality, adherence to democratic norms, co-option of opposition, and other related factors, such as electoral system manipulation, electoral fraud, and popular support of anti-democratic alternatives.[6][7][8] Other measured aspects of democracy include voter turnout, efficiency gap, wasted vote, and political efficacy.[19][20] Democracy is a multifaceted concept encompassing the functioning of diverse institutions, many of which are challenging to measure. As a result, limitations arise in quantifying and econometrically analyzing democracys potential effects or its relationships with other phenomena, such as inequality, poverty, and education. etc.[29] Given the challenges of obtaining reliable data on within-country variations in aspects of democracy, much of the academic focus has been on cross-country comparisons. However, significant variations in democratic institutions can exist within individual countries, highlighting the limitations of such an approach. Another dimension of the difficulty in measuring democracy lies in the ongoing debate between minimalist and maximalist definitions of democracy. A minimalist conception of democracy defines democracy by primarily considering the essence of democracy; such as electoral procedures.[30] A maximalist definition of democracy can include outcomes, such as economic or administrative efficiency, into measures of democracy.[31] Some aspects of democracy, such as responsiveness[32] or accountability, are generally not included in democracy indices due to the difficulty measuring these aspects. Other aspects, such as judicial independence or quality of the electoral system, are included in some democracy indices but not in others.
Idea. In philosophy and in common usage, an idea (from the Greek word: ἰδέα (idea), meaning a form, or a pattern) is the result of thought.[1] Also in philosophy, ideas can also be mental representational images of some object. Many philosophers have considered ideas to be a fundamental ontological category of being. The capacity to create  and understand the meaning of ideas is considered to be an essential and defining feature of human beings. An idea arises in a reflexive, spontaneous manner, even without thinking or serious reflection, for example, when we talk about the idea of a person or a place. A new or an original idea can often lead to innovation. Our actions are based upon beliefs, beliefs are patterns or organized sets of ideas.[2] The word idea comes from Greek ἰδέα, romanized: idea, form, pattern, from the root of ἰδεῖν idein, to see.[3] The argument over the underlying nature of ideas was opened by Plato, whose exposition of his theory of forms—which recurs and accumulates over the course of his many dialogs—appropriates and adds a new sense to the Greek word for things that are seen (re. εἶδος) that highlights those elements of perception which are encountered without material or objective reference available to the eyes (re. ἰδέα). As this argument was disseminated the word idea began to take on connotations that would be more familiarly associated with the term today. In the fifth book of his Republic, Plato defines philosophy as the love of this formal (as opposed to visual) way of seeing. Plato advanced the theory that perceived but immaterial objects of awareness constitute a realm of deathless forms or ideas from which the material world emanates. Aristotle challenged Plato in this area, positing that the phenomenal world of ideas arises as mental composites of remembered observations. Though it is anachronistic to apply these terms to thinkers from antiquity, it clarifies the argument between Plato and Aristotle if we call Plato an idealist thinker and Aristotle an empiricist thinker.
Democrat. Democrat, Democrats, or Democratic may refer to:
Types of democracy.  Types of democracy refers to the various governance structures that embody the principles of democracy (rule by the people) in some way. Democracy is frequently applied to governments (ranging from local to global), but may also be applied to other constructs like workplaces, families, community associations, and so forth. Types of democracy can cluster around values. Some such types, defined as direct democracy (or participatory democracy, or deliberative democracy), promote equal and direct participation in political decisions by all members of the public. Others, including the many variants of representative democracy (i.e., constitutional), favor more indirect or procedural approaches to collective self-governance, wherein decisions are made by elected representatives rather than by the people directly.[1] Types of democracy can be found across time, space, and language.[2] The foregoing examples are just a few of the thousands of refinements of, and variations on, the central notion of democracy.[3] A direct democracy, or pure democracy, is a type of democracy where the people govern directly, by voting on laws and policies. It requires wide participation of citizens in politics.[4] Athenian democracy, or classical democracy, refers to a direct democracy developed in ancient times in the Greek city-state of Athens. A popular democracy is a type of direct democracy based on referendums and other devices of empowerment and concretization of popular will.
High Middle Ages.   Central EuropeGuelf, Hohenstaufen, and Ascanian domains in Germany about 1176  The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the period of European history between c. 1000 and c. 1300; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended c. 1500 according to historiographical convention.[1][2]   Key historical trends of the High Middle Ages include the rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era, and the Renaissance of the 12th century, including the first developments of rural exodus and urbanization. By 1350, the robust population increase had greatly benefited the European economy, which had reached levels that would not be seen again in some areas until the 19th century. That trend faltered in the early 14th century, as the result of numerous events which together comprised the crisis of the late Middle Ages—most notable among them being the Black Death, in addition to various regional wars and economic stagnation.
History of democracy.  A democracy is a political system, or a system of decision-making within an institution, organization, or state, in which members have a share of power.[2] Modern democracies are characterized by two capabilities of their citizens that differentiate them fundamentally from earlier forms of government: to intervene in society and have their sovereign (e.g., their representatives) held accountable to the international laws of other governments of their kind. Democratic government is commonly juxtaposed with oligarchic and monarchic systems, which are ruled by a minority and a sole monarch respectively. Democracy is generally associated[vague] with the efforts of the ancient Greeks, whom 18th-century intellectuals such as Montesquieu  considered the founders of Western civilization. These individuals attempted to leverage these early democratic experiments into a new template for post-monarchical political organization.[3][page needed] The extent to which these 18th-century democratic revivalists succeeded in turning the democratic ideals of the ancient Greeks into the dominant political institution of the next 300 years is hardly debatable, even if the moral justifications they often employed might be.  Nevertheless, the critical historical juncture catalyzed by the resurrection of democratic ideals and institutions fundamentally transformed the ensuing centuries and has dominated the international landscape since the dismantling of the final vestige of the British Empire following the end of the Second World War. Modern representative democracies attempt to bridge the gap between Rousseaus depiction of the state of nature and Hobbess depiction of society as inevitably authoritarian through social contracts that enshrine the rights of the citizens, curtail the power of the state, and grant agency through the right to vote.[4] Anthropologists have identified forms of proto-democracy that date back to small bands of hunter-gatherers that predate the establishment of agrarian, sedentary societies and still exist virtually unchanged[disputed – discuss] in isolated indigenous groups today. In these groups of generally 50–100 individuals, often tied closely by familial bonds, decisions are reached by consensus or majority and many times without the designation of any specific chief.[4]
Parallel universes in fiction. A parallel universe, also known as an alternate universe, world, or dimension, is a plot device in fiction which uses the notion of a hypothetical universe co-existing with another, typically to enable alternative narrative possibilities. The sum of all potential parallel universes that constitute reality is often called the multiverse. The device serves several narrative purposes. Among them, parallel universes have been used to allow stories with elements that would ordinarily violate the laws of nature, to enable characters to meet and interact with alternative versions of themselves or others from their home universe, thus enabling further character development,[1] and to serve as a starting point for speculative fiction, particularly alternate history. One of the first science-fiction examples of a parallel universe is Murray Leinsters short story Sidewise in Time, published in 1934. Although Leinsters story was not the first example of parallel universes, it is credited with popularizing the concept.[2][3][4] The use of parallel universes as a device in superhero fiction was popularized with the publication of the 123rd issue of The Flash, Flash of Two Worlds, in 1961. In the issue, the Flashes of Earth-One and Earth-Two, Barry Allen and Jay Garrick, meet, establishing the concept of the DC Comics multiverse.[1] The multiverse has seen much usage in popular media in the late 2010s and early 2020s, particularly in superhero films, such as the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and the animated Spider-Verse franchise, as well as the 2022 film Everything Everywhere All at Once.[5][3] Some filmmakers and critics, including MCU director Joe Russo, have expressed concern that film studios may be embracing multiverse-centric plotlines to capitalize on characters and intellectual property with pre-existing popularity, ultimately to the detriment of originality and creativity in filmmaking.[3][6][7]
Knight.   A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity.[1][2] The concept of knighthood may have been inspired by the ancient Greek hippeis (ἱππεῖς) and Roman equites.[3] In the Early Middle Ages in Western Christian Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors.[4] During the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of petty nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior. Often, a knight was a vassal who served as an elite fighter or a bodyguard for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings.[5] The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback. In the Middle Ages, knighthood was closely linked with horsemanship (and especially the joust) from its origins in the 12th century until its final flowering as a fashion among the high nobility in the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, and related terms such as the French title of chevalier. In that sense, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors in Christendom finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Islamic world. The Crusades brought various military orders of knights to the forefront of defending Christian pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land.[6][unreliable source] In the Late Middle Ages, new methods of warfare – such as the introduction of the culverin as an anti-personnel, gunpowder-fired weapon – began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many countries. Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1459–1519) is often referred to as the last knight in this regard;[7][8][ISBN missing] however, some of the most iconic battles of the Knights Hospitaller, such as the Siege of Rhodes and the Great Siege of Malta, took place after his rule. The ideals of chivalry were popularized in medieval literature, particularly the literary cycles known as the Matter of France, relating to the legendary companions of Charlemagne and his men-at-arms, the paladins, and the Matter of Britain, relating to the legend of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table.
Jabberwocky (disambiguation). Jabberwocky is an 1872 nonsense poem by Lewis Carroll, about an encounter between a young boy and a monster called the Jabberwock. Jabberwocky or Jabberwock may also refer to:
International Union for Conservation of Nature.  The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.[3] Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to sustainable development in its projects. IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation. It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice and through building partnerships. The organization is best known to the wider public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.[4] IUCN has a membership of over 1,400 governmental and non-governmental organizations from over 170 countries. Some 16,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs over 900 full-time staff in more than 50 countries. Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.[4] Every four years, IUCN convenes for the IUCN World Conservation Congress where IUCN Members set the global conservation agenda by voting on recommendations and guide the secretariats work by passing resolutions and the IUCN Programme. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. In the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its closer relations with the business sector have caused controversy.[5][6]
Nonsense verse. Nonsense verse is a form of nonsense literature usually employing strong prosodic elements like rhythm and rhyme. It is often whimsical and humorous in tone and employs some of the techniques of nonsense literature. Limericks are probably the best known form of nonsense verse, although they tend nowadays to be used for straightforward humour, rather than having a nonsensical effect. Among writers in English noted for nonsense verse are Edward Lear,[1] Lewis Carroll, Mervyn Peake, Edward Gorey, Colin West, Dr. Seuss, and Spike Milligan. The Martian Poets and Ivor Cutler are considered by some to be in the nonsense tradition. In some cases, the humor of nonsense verse relies on the incompatibility of phrases which make grammatical sense but semantic nonsense – at least in certain interpretations – as in the traditional: I see said the blind man to his deaf and dumb daughter as he picked up his hammer and saw.
Marine protected area. A marine protected area (MPA) is a protected area of the worlds seas, oceans, estuaries or in the US, the Great Lakes.[2] These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities.[3] MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources.[4] Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. MPAs can provide economic benefits by supporting the fishing industry through the revival of fish stocks, as well as job creation and other market benefits via ecotourism.[5] The value of MPA to mobile species is unknown.[6] There are a number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around Hawaii, occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers.[7] The area is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds.[8] In 2017 the Cook Islands passed the Marae Moana Act designating the whole of the countrys marine exclusive economic zone, which has an area of 1.9 million square kilometers as a zone with the purpose of protecting and conserving the ecological, biodiversity and heritage values of the Cook Islands marine environment.[9]: 355  Other large marine conservation areas include those around Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension Island, and Brazil. As areas of protected marine biodiversity expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving marine resources.[10] In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of the global ocean area falls under a conservation designation.[11] This area is equivalent to 27 million square kilometres, equivalent to the land areas of Russia and Canada combined, although some argue that the effective conservation zones (ones with the strictest regulations) occupy only 5% of the ocean area (about equivalent to the land area of Russia alone). Marine conservation zones, as with their terrestrial equivalents, vary in terms of rules and regulations. Few zones rule out completely any sort of human activity within their area, as activities such as fishing, tourism, and transport of essential goods and services by ship, are part of the fabric of nation states. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as:[12][13] A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.
Swimming (sport).  Swimming is an individual or team racing sport that requires the use of ones entire body to move through water. The sport takes place in pools or open water (e.g., in a sea or lake). Competitive swimming is one of the most popular Olympic sports,[1] with varied distance events in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley. In addition to these individual events, four swimmers can take part in either a freestyle or medley relay. A medley relay consists of four swimmers who will each swim a different stroke, ordered as backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly and freestyle.[2] Swimming each stroke requires a set of specific techniques; in competition, there are distinct regulations concerning the acceptable form for each individual stroke.[3] There are also regulations on what types of swimsuits, caps, jewelry and injury tape that are allowed at competitions.[4] There are many health benefits to swimming, but it is possible for competitive swimmers to incur injuries such as tendinitis in the shoulders or knees. Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10,000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss–German professor of languages, wrote the earliest known complete book about swimming, Colymbetes, sive de arte natandi dialogus et festivus et iucundus lectu (The Swimmer, or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming and Joyful and Pleasant to Read).[5] Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St Georges Baths was opened to the public.[6] By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association was formed, there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country.[7]
Swimmer (disambiguation). Swimmer most commonly refers to a participant in: Swimmer, swimmers, The Swimmer, or the Swimmers may also refer to:
Protected area.  Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products, water, ...) is limited.[1] The term protected area also includes marine protected areas and transboundary protected areas across multiple borders. As of 2016, there are over 161,000 protected areas representing about 17 percent of the worlds land surface area (excluding Antarctica).[2][3][4][5][6] For waters under national jurisdiction beyond inland waters, there are 14,688 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), covering approximately 10.2% of coastal and marine areas and 4.12% of global ocean areas.[2] In contrast, only 0.25% of the worlds oceans beyond national jurisdiction are covered by MPAs.[2][7] In recent years, the 30 by 30 initiative has targeted to protect 30% of ocean territory and 30% of land territory worldwide by 2030; this has been adopted by the European Union in its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, Campaign for Nature which promoted the goal during the Convention on Biodiversitys COP15 Summit[8] and the G7.[9] In December 2022, Nations have reached an agreement with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the COP15,[10] which includes the 30 by 30 initiative.[7]
Looking-Glass world. The Looking-Glass world is the setting for Lewis Carrolls 1871 childrens novel Through the Looking-Glass. ... and a most curious country it was. The entire country is divided into squares by a series of little brooks with hedges growing perpendicular to them. The land is contested by two competing factions, the Reds and the Whites. Each side has its King and Queen, bishops, knights, armies, and castles. 
Swimming (disambiguation). Swimming is the self-propulsion of a human through water or another liquid, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Swimming may also refer to:
Aquatic locomotion. Aquatic locomotion or swimming is biologically propelled motion through a liquid medium. The simplest propulsive systems are composed of cilia and flagella. Swimming has evolved a number of times in a range of organisms including arthropods, fish, molluscs, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Swimming evolved a number of times in unrelated lineages. Supposed jellyfish fossils occur in the Ediacaran, but the first free-swimming animals appear in the Early to Middle Cambrian. These are mostly related to the arthropods, and include the Anomalocaridids, which swam by means of lateral lobes in a fashion reminiscent of todays cuttlefish. Cephalopods joined the ranks of the active swimmers (nekton) in the late Cambrian,[1] and chordates were probably swimming from the Early Cambrian.[2] Many terrestrial animals retain some capacity to swim, however some have returned to the water and developed the capacities for aquatic locomotion. Most apes (including humans), however, lost the swimming instinct.[3] In 2013 Pedro Renato Bender, a research fellow at the University of the Witwatersrands Institute for Human Evolution, proposed a theory to explain the loss of that instinct. Termed the Saci last common ancestor hypothesis (after Saci, a Brazilian folklore character who cannot cross water barriers), it holds that the loss of instinctive swimming ability in apes is best explained as a consequence of constraints related to the adaptation to an arboreal life in the last common ancestor of apes.[4] Bender hypothesized that the ancestral ape increasingly avoided deep-water bodies when the risks of being exposed to water were clearly higher than the advantages of crossing them.[4] A decreasing contact with water bodies then could have led to the disappearance of the doggy paddle instinct.[4] Microbial swimmers, sometimes called microswimmers, are microscopic entities that have the ability to move in fluid or aquatic environment.[5] Natural microswimmers are found everywhere in the natural world as biological microorganisms, such as bacteria, archaea, protists, sperm and microanimals. Ciliates use small flagella called cilia to move through the water. One ciliate will generally have hundreds to thousands of cilia that are densely packed together in arrays. During movement, an individual cilium deforms using a high-friction power stroke followed by a low-friction recovery stroke. Since there are multiple cilia packed together on an individual organism, they display collective behavior in a metachronal rhythm. This means the deformation of one cilium is in phase with the deformation of its neighbor, causing deformation waves that propagate along the surface of the organism. These propagating waves of cilia are what allow the organism to use the cilia in a coordinated manner to move. A typical example of a ciliated microorganism is the Paramecium, a one-celled, ciliated protozoan covered by thousands of cilia. The cilia beating together allow the Paramecium to propel through the water at speeds of 500 micrometers per second.[6]
The Plumb-pudding in danger.  The Plumb-pudding in danger, or, State Epicures taking un Petit Souper is an 1805 editorial cartoon by the English artist James Gillray.  The popular print depicts caricatures of the British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger and the newly-crowned Emperor of France Napoleon, both wearing military uniforms, carving up a terrestrial globe into spheres of influence.  It was published as a hand-coloured print and has been described by the National Portrait Gallery as probably Gillrays most famous print and by the British Library as one of Gillrays most famous satires dealing with the Napoleonic wars. Gillrays print is a satire on the overtures made by Napoleon in January 1805 for a reconciliation with Britain during the War of the Third Coalition.  The short-lived Peace of Amiens, a treaty between Britain and France, had ended in 1803, and Napoleon was threatening to invade Britain with his Grande Armée based at Boulogne. The peace overtures came to nothing: before the end of the year, a combined Franco-Spanish fleet would be decisively defeated by the Royal Navy at the Battle of Trafalgar, giving Britain unrivalled control of the seas, but Napoleon would establish a dominant position in Europe by first defeating an Austrian army through manoeuvre in the Ulm Campaign, and then winning a great victory over a combined Russian-Austrian army at the Battle of Austerlitz, ending the Third Coalition with the 1805 Peace of Pressburg. Pitt and Napoleon are seated on opposite sides of a dining table, each using a carving knife and carving fork to cut pieces from a large spherical plum pudding bearing a map of the world, with the British Isles at the centre between them.  The scene is replete with iconography referring to the contemporary political situation the Napoleonic Wars.
Secondary sector. In economics, the secondary sector is the economic sector which comprises manufacturing, encompassing industries that produce a finished, usable product or are involved in construction. This sector generally takes the output of the primary sector (i.e. raw materials like metals, wood) and creates finished goods suitable for sale to domestic businesses or consumers and for export (via distribution through the tertiary sector). Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy, require factories and use machinery; they are often classified as light or heavy based on such quantities. This also produces waste materials and waste heat that may cause environmental problems or pollution (see negative externalities). Examples include textile production, car manufacturing, and handicraft.[1] Manufacturing is an important activity in promoting economic growth and development. Nations that export manufactured products tend to generate higher marginal GDP growth, which supports higher incomes and therefore marginal tax revenue needed to fund such government expenditures as health care and infrastructure. Among developed countries, it is an important source of well-paying jobs for the middle class (e.g., engineering) to facilitate greater social mobility for successive generations on the economy. Currently,[when?] an estimated 20% of the labor force in the United States is involved in the secondary industry.[2] The secondary sector depends on the primary sector for the raw materials necessary for production. Countries that primarily produce agricultural and other raw materials. The value added through the transformation of raw materials into finished goods reliably generates greater profitability, which underlies the faster growth of developed economies. The twenty largest countries by industrial output (in PPP terms) at peak level as of 2020, according to the IMF and CIA World Factbook.[citation needed]
Sphere of influence. In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. While there may be a formal alliance or other treaty obligations between the influenced and influencer, such formal arrangements are not necessary and the influence can often be more of an example of soft power. Similarly, a formal alliance does not necessarily mean that one country lies within anothers sphere of influence. High levels of exclusivity have historically been associated with higher levels of conflict. In more extreme cases, a country within the sphere of influence of another may become a subsidiary of that state and serve in effect as a satellite state or de facto colony. This was the case with the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc after World War II. The system of spheres of influence by which powerful nations intervene in the affairs of others continues to the present. It is often analyzed in terms of superpowers, great powers, and/or middle powers. Sometimes portions of a single country can fall into two distinct spheres of influence. In the 19th century, the buffer states of Iran and Thailand, lying between the empires of Britain, France and Russia, were divided between the spheres of influence of those three international powers. Likewise, after World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones, three of which later consolidated into West Germany and the remaining one became East Germany, the former a member of NATO and the latter a member of the Warsaw Pact. Before modern international relations were established in Europe, many powerful states had subordinate tributary states,  in which the less powerful states or kingdoms submit to the payment of tribute in order to maintain a degree of independence.[1]
Martin Rowson.  Martin Rowson (/ˈroʊsən/ ROH-sən; born 15 February 1959) is a British editorial cartoonist and writer. His genre is political satire and his style is scathing and graphic. He characterises his work as visual journalism.[1] His cartoons appear frequently in The Guardian and the Daily Mirror. He also contributes freelance cartoons to other publications, such as Tribune, Index on Censorship and the Morning Star. He is chair of the British Cartoonists Association.[2] Rowson was adopted as a child,[3] and educated at the independent Merchant Taylors School in Northwood in north-west London, followed by Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he studied English Literature. In the late 1990s, Rowson was resident Cult Books Expert on Mark Radcliffe’s late-night Radio 1 show, a role, which he took over from his friend Will Self.[citation needed] Rowsons own books include graphic adaptations of The Waste Land and Tristram Shandy. His novel Snatches, published in 2006 (ISBN 0-224-07604-3), is a comic journey through history, focusing on the stories of the worst decisions the human race has ever made. Stuff (2007), his next novel, is part autobiography, part history of his family and upbringing. He also drew original cartoons for the title sequence of the film Pride and Prejudice and Zombies.[4] In 2008, he published The Dog Allusion: Gods, Pets and How to Be Human, arguing that religion is a complete waste of time and money — much like keeping pets. (The title is itself an allusion to the Richard Dawkins book The God Delusion.) In 2014, The Coalition Book, containing a collection of cartoons, and a written account, of the four years of the coalition government, was published by Self Made Hero. Rowson is an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society[5] and a distinguished supporter and board member of Humanists UK.[6]
ABC Region. 23°39′57″S 46°32′30″W / 23.66583°S 46.54167°W / -23.66583; -46.54167 The ABC Region is an industrial region in Greater São Paulo, Brazil. The name refers to three smaller cities south of São Paulo, capital of the Brazilian state of the same name. Originally, these three cities were Santo André, São Bernardo do Campo, and São Caetano do Sul. Later, the region became known as the ABCD, with the addition of the city of Diadema,[1] and sometimes even as ABCDMRR, with the addition of Mauá, Ribeirão Pires, and Rio Grande da Serra.[2] The ABC region is widely known in Brazil and abroad because of the great number of international companies, particularly car manufacturers, in its area. National media and organizations consider ABC a powerful industrial pole and birthplace of the labor union movement that fought against dictatorship in the 1970s and 1980s. In this region the Workers Party (PT) was formed, whose activities and popularity launched Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, or simply Lula, to the presidency of Brazil in 2002. In 2006, the Federal University of ABC was established as a research and higher learning institution, with two campi and centers for Engineering, Modeling and Applied Social Sciences (CECS), for Mathematics, Computing and Cognition (CMCC) and for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH).[3] Although they do not contribute to the original acronym, Mauá, Ribeirão Pires, Rio Grande da Serra (as they were an extension of the municipality of Santo André, before the division) and Diadema are also part of the region. The Billings Reservoir bathes 6 of the 7 municipalities in the region, except São Caetano do Sul. The 7 municipalities together make up an area of 825 km², and have a population of over 2.5 million inhabitants (IBGE estimate for 2007).[4] (2010)
Region. In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earths surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their imprecisely defined, and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national borders are defined in law. More confined or well bounded portions are called locations or places. Apart from the global continental regions, there are also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the oceans, and discrete climates above the land and water masses of the planet. The land and water global regions are divided into subregions geographically bounded by large geological features that influence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features. As a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and widely used among the many branches of geography, each of which can describe areas in regional terms.  For example, ecoregion is a term used in environmental geography, cultural region in cultural geography, bioregion in biogeography, and so on.  The field of geography that studies regions themselves is called regional geography. Regions are an area or division, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries. In the fields of physical geography, ecology, biogeography, zoogeography, and environmental geography, regions tend to be based on natural features such as ecosystems or biotopes, biomes, drainage basins, natural regions, mountain ranges, soil types. Where human geography is concerned, the regions and subregions are described by the discipline of ethnography. Global regions are distinguishable from space, and are therefore clearly distinguished by the two basic terrestrial environments, land and water. However, they have been generally recognized as such much earlier by terrestrial cartography because of their impact on human geography. They are divided into the largest of land regions, known as continents and the largest of water regions known as oceans. There are also significant regions that do not belong to either classification, such as archipelago regions that are littoral regions, or earthquake regions that are defined in geology.
Swimming (sport).  Swimming is an individual or team racing sport that requires the use of ones entire body to move through water. The sport takes place in pools or open water (e.g., in a sea or lake). Competitive swimming is one of the most popular Olympic sports,[1] with varied distance events in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley. In addition to these individual events, four swimmers can take part in either a freestyle or medley relay. A medley relay consists of four swimmers who will each swim a different stroke, ordered as backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly and freestyle.[2] Swimming each stroke requires a set of specific techniques; in competition, there are distinct regulations concerning the acceptable form for each individual stroke.[3] There are also regulations on what types of swimsuits, caps, jewelry and injury tape that are allowed at competitions.[4] There are many health benefits to swimming, but it is possible for competitive swimmers to incur injuries such as tendinitis in the shoulders or knees. Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10,000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss–German professor of languages, wrote the earliest known complete book about swimming, Colymbetes, sive de arte natandi dialogus et festivus et iucundus lectu (The Swimmer, or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming and Joyful and Pleasant to Read).[5] Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St Georges Baths was opened to the public.[6] By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association was formed, there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country.[7]
Ordnance Survey National Grid.  The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system (OSGB), also known as British National Grid (BNG),[1][2] is a system of geographic grid references, distinct from latitude and longitude, whereby any location in Great Britain can be described in terms of its distance from the origin (0, 0), which lies to the west of the Isles of Scilly.[3] The Ordnance Survey (OS) devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in its survey data, and in maps based on those surveys, whether published by the Ordnance Survey or by commercial map producers. Grid references are also commonly quoted in other publications and data sources, such as guide books and government planning documents. A number of different systems exist that can provide grid references for locations within the British Isles: this article describes the system created solely for Great Britain and its outlying islands (including the Isle of Man). The Irish grid reference system is a similar system created by the Ordnance Survey of Ireland and the Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland for the island of Ireland. The Irish Transverse Mercator (ITM) coordinate reference system was adopted in 2001 and is now the preferred coordinate reference system across Ireland. ITM is based on the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (UTM), used to provide grid references for worldwide locations, and this is the system commonly used for the Channel Islands. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), or variants of it. The first letter of the British National Grid is derived from a larger set of 25 squares of size 500 km by 500 km, labelled A to Z, omitting one letter (I) (refer diagram below), previously used as a military grid.[4] Four of these largest squares contain significant land area within Great Britain: S, T, N and H.  The O square contains a tiny area of North Yorkshire, Beast Cliff at OV 0000, almost all of which lies below mean high tide.[5] For the second letter, each 500 km square is subdivided into 25 squares of size 100 km by 100 km, each with a letter code from A to Z (again omitting I) starting with A in the north-west corner to Z in the south-east corner. These squares are outlined in light grey on the 100km squares map, with those containing land lettered. The central (2° W) meridian is shown in red.
Urbanization.  Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin to live and work in central areas.[2] Although the two concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, urbanization should be distinguished from urban growth. Urbanization refers to the proportion of the total national population living in areas classified as urban, whereas urban growth strictly refers to the absolute number of people living in those areas.[3] It is predicted that by 2050, about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized. This is predicted to generate artificial scarcities of land, lack of drinking water, playgrounds and other essential resources for most urban dwellers.[4] The predicted urban population growth is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia.[5] Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will take place in cities, with about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 10 years.[6] In the long term, urbanization is expected to significantly impact the quality of life in negative ways.[7][8] Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including urban planning, geography, sociology, architecture, economics, education, statistics, and public health. The phenomenon has been closely linked to globalization, modernization, industrialization,  marketization,  administrative/institutional power, and the sociological process of rationalization.[9][10][11] Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns), or as an increase in that condition over time. Therefore, urbanization can be quantified either in terms of the level of urban development relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental challenges, which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the potential to use resources much less or more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems. However, current urbanization trends have shown that massive urbanization has led to unsustainable ways of living.[5] Developing urban resilience and urban sustainability in the face of increased urbanization is at the centre of international policy in Sustainable Development Goal 11 Sustainable cities and communities. Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousands of years ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behaviour, whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behaviour. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago. As a result, the world urban population growth curve has up till recently followed a quadratic-hyperbolic pattern.[12]
William Pitt the Younger. William Pitt (28 May 1759 – 23 January 1806) was a British statesman who served as the last prime minister of Great Britain from 1783 until the Acts of Union 1800, and the first prime minister of the United Kingdom from January 1801. He left office in March 1801, but served as prime minister again from 1804 until his death. He was also Chancellor of the Exchequer for all his time as prime minister. He is known as Pitt the Younger to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt the Elder, who had also previously served as prime minister. Pitts premierships, which came during the reign of King George III, were dominated by major political events in Europe, including the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Pitt, although often referred to as a Tory, or new Tory, called himself an independent Whig and was generally opposed to the development of a strict partisan political system. Pitt was regarded as an outstanding administrator who worked for efficiency and reform, bringing in a new generation of competent administrators. He increased taxes to pay for the great war against France and cracked down on radicalism. To counter the threat of Irish support for France, he engineered the Acts of Union 1800 and tried (but failed) to secure Catholic emancipation as part of the Union. He created the new Toryism, which revived the Tory Party and enabled it to stay in power for the next quarter of a century. The historian Asa Briggs argues that his personality did not endear itself to the British mind, for Pitt was too solitary and too colourless, and too often exuded an attitude of superiority. His greatness came in the war with France. Pitt reacted to become what Lord Minto called the Atlas of our reeling globe. William Wilberforce said, For personal purity, disinterestedness and love of this country, I have never known his equal.[1] The historian Charles Petrie concludes that he was one of the greatest prime ministers if on no other ground than that he enabled the country to pass from the old order to the new without any violent upheaval ... He understood the new Britain.[2] For this he is ranked highly amongst all British prime ministers in multiple surveys.[3][4] Pitt served as prime minister for a total of eighteen years, 343 days, making him the second-longest-serving British prime minister after Robert Walpole. Having entered office at the age of 24, Pitt is the youngest prime minister in both British and world history.[5][6][7]
Districts of England.  The districts of England (officially, local authority districts, abbreviated LADs) are a level of subnational division of England used for the purposes of local government.[1] As the structure of local government in England is not uniform, there are currently four principal types of district-level subdivision. There are a total of 296 districts made up of 36 metropolitan boroughs, 32 London boroughs, 164 two-tier non-metropolitan districts and 62 unitary authorities, as well as the City of London and the Isles of Scilly which are also districts but do not correspond to any of these other categories. Some districts are styled as cities, boroughs or royal boroughs; these are purely honorific titles and do not alter the status of the district or the powers of their councils. All boroughs and cities (and a few districts) are led by a mayor who in most cases is a ceremonial figure elected by the district council, but—after local government reform—is occasionally a directly elected mayor who makes most of the policy decisions instead of the council. Before the establishment of districts in the 1890s, the basic unit of local government in England was the parish, overseen by the parish church vestry committee. Vestries dealt with the administration of both parochial and secular governmental matters. Parishes were the successors of the manorial system and historically had been grouped into hundreds, which had exercised some supervising administrative function. However, these powers ebbed away as more and more civic and judicial powers were centred on county towns.[2] From 1834 these parishes were grouped into Poor Law Unions, creating areas for administration of the Poor Law. These areas were later used for census registration and as the basis for sanitary provision. In 1894, based on these earlier subdivisions, the Local Government Act 1894 created urban districts and rural districts as sub-divisions of administrative counties, which had been created in 1889. At the same time, parish-level local government administration was transferred to civil parishes. Another reform in 1900 created 28 metropolitan boroughs as sub-divisions of the County of London. The setting-down of the current structure of districts in England began in 1965, when Greater London and its 32 London boroughs were created. They are the oldest type of district still in use. In 1974, metropolitan counties and non-metropolitan counties (also known as shire counties) were created across the rest of England and were split into metropolitan districts and non-metropolitan districts. The status of the London boroughs and metropolitan districts changed in 1986, when they absorbed the functions and some of the powers of the metropolitan county councils and the Greater London Council, which were abolished. Since 2000, powers are again shared (on a different basis) with the Greater London Authority.
Ceremonial counties of England.  Ceremonial counties,[2] formally known as counties for the purposes of the lieutenancies,[3] are areas of England to which lord-lieutenants are appointed.  A lord-lieutenant is the monarchs representative in an area.[4] Shrieval counties have the same boundaries and serve a similar purpose, being the areas to which high sheriffs are appointed. High sheriffs are the monarchs judicial representative in an area.[5] The ceremonial counties are defined in the Lieutenancies Act 1997, and the shrieval counties in the Sheriffs Act 1887. Both are defined as groups of counties used for local government. The historic counties of England were originally used as areas for administering justice and organising the militia, overseen by a sheriff. From Tudor times onwards a lord-lieutenant was appointed to oversee the militia, taking some of the sheriffs functions.[6]
Edo River. The Edo River (江戸川, Edo-gawa) is a river in the Kantō region of Japan. It splits from the Tone River at the northernmost tip of Noda City in the Sekiyado district, crosses through Nagareyama and Matsudo, and empties into Tokyo Bay at Ichikawa, Chiba Prefecture. The Edo forms the borders between Tokyo, Chiba, and Saitama prefectures. The Edo River is 59.5 kilometres (37.0 mi) long.[1][2][3] The course of the Edo River was originally the lower course of the Tone River. The Tone was diverted in 1654 by the Tokugawa shogunate to protect the city of Edo from flooding. The Edo was used to connect the north and east of the Kantō region to the capital at Edo, specifically to transport large amounts of cargo from Chōshi and other cities on the Pacific Ocean coast inland to the capital.[3] Before the industrialization of the Tokyo region the river was also used to cultivate lotus roots.[1] Inland transportation ended in the early 20th century due to the development of an extensive rail cargo network in the Kantō region, but the Edo River remains an important source of water for industrial production as well as drainage for the densely populated areas of metropolitan Tokyo. Tokyo Disneyland is located on landfill adjacent to a diverted branch of the Edo River known as the Kyū Edo River which empties into Tokyo Bay between Urayasu, Chiba and the Minamikasai district of Edogawa, Tokyo. The Edo river has distance markers at every 250 meters that mark the distance from the river mouth that meets with the Tokyo Bay. 35°40′14″N 139°57′02″E / 35.670687°N 139.950556°E / 35.670687; 139.950556 (mouth)
Tokyo Bay (novel). Tokyo Bay is a 1996 historical-romance novel by Anthony Grey.[1] Grey said that he spent four years doing research for the book.[2] Set in 1853 during the Perry Expedition, it portrays the events that follow when a US Navy officer disobeys orders and jumps ship to gather information about the Japanese. A fleet of two American steam-powered ships and a few conventional vessels enter Edo Bay, setting off panic among a people who have been sealed off from the rest of the world for over 200 years. Navy lieutenant Robert Eden, an idealistic New Englander, fears that the imperial intentions of his technologically advanced nation may ignite a violent conflict. Eden jumps ship with his loyal Japanese sidekick, Sentaro, who was rescued years earlier at sea by Americans. The lieutenant finds himself plunged into an entirely new world of menacing warriors, agitated Japanese who view Americans as monsters, and a geisha whos escaping from her job serving Japanese men of power. The two meet at a waterfall late at night and Eden saves her. They end up having sex and proclaiming their love for each other the first night. The rest of the novel deals with their romance and the unfolding events involving the American navy and officials representing the shogun.
Arakawa River (Kantō). The Arakawa River or Ara River (Japanese: 荒川, Hepburn: Arakawa; kawa (川) already means river) is a 173-kilometre (107 mi) long river that flows through Saitama Prefecture and Tokyo.[1] Its average flow in 2002 was 30 m3/s. It originates on Mount Kobushi in Saitama Prefecture, and empties into Tokyo Bay.[2] It has a total catchment area of 2,940 km2 (1,140 sq mi). The river is one of Tokyos major sources of tap water, and together with the Tone River, accounts for around 80% of Tokyos water supply as of 2018.[3] The Okubo water purification plant takes water from the river. Attempts to control flooding of the Arakawa River have been made since the area that is now Tokyo became the de facto capital of Japan during the Edo period. Following a major flood in 1910 that damaged a large part of central Tokyo, a 22-kilometre (14 mi) long drainage canal was constructed between 1911 and 1924. In 1996 an agreement was signed to make it a sister river of the Potomac River in the eastern United States.[2] This means that officials and volunteers from both river areas collaborate with each other.[4] This river is also depicted in many anime such as Toaru Kagaku no Railgun and Arakawa Under the Bridge, which is set on the riverbank.
Childrens Literature (journal).  Childrens Literature is an academic journal and annual publication of the Modern Language Association and the Childrens Literature Association Division on Childrens Literature. The journal was founded in 1972 by Francelia Butler and promotes a scholarly approach to the study of childrens literature by printing theoretical articles and essays, as well as book reviews. The publication is currently edited by Amanda Cockrell, of Hollins University in Roanoke, Virginia. The current editor in chief is R. H. W. Dillard. Childrens Literature is published annually in May by the Johns Hopkins University Press. Each issue has an average length of 300 pages.
2011 United Kingdom census. A census of the population of the United Kingdom is taken every ten years. The 2011 census was held in all countries of the UK on 27 March 2011. It was the first UK census which could be completed online via the Internet.[1] The Office for National Statistics (ONS) is responsible for the census in England and Wales, the General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) is responsible for the census in Scotland, and the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) is responsible for the census in Northern Ireland. The Office for National Statistics is the executive office of the UK Statistics Authority, a non-ministerial department formed in 2008 and which reports directly to Parliament. ONS is the UK Governments single largest statistical producer of independent statistics on the UKs economy and society, used to assist the planning and allocation of resources, policy-making and decision-making.[2] ONS designs, manages and runs the census in England and Wales. In its capacity as the national statistics office for the United Kingdom, ONS also compiles and releases census tables for the United Kingdom when the data from England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are complete. In the run-up to the census both the main UK political parties expressed concerns about the increasing cost and the value for money of the census, and it was suggested that the 2011 census might be the last decennial census to be taken.[3] The first results from the 2011 census, age and sex, and occupied households estimates for England and Wales and Northern Ireland, were released on 16 July 2012.[4] The first results for Scotland,[5] and the first UK-wide results, were published on 17 December 2012.[6] More detailed and specialised data were published from 2013. The Registrar General John Rickman conducted the first census of Great Britains population, and was responsible for the ten-yearly reports published between 1801 and 1831. During the first 100 years of census-taking the population of England and Wales grew more than threefold, to around 32 million, and that of Scotland, where a separate census has been carried out since 1861, to about 4.5 million.
Borough of Halton.  The Borough of Halton (/hɒltən/) is a local authority district with borough status in the ceremonial county of Cheshire, North West England. It is administered by Halton Borough Council, a unitary authority since 1998.[5] The borough contains the towns of Runcorn and Widnes and the civil parishes of Daresbury, Hale, Halebank, Moore, Preston Brook, and Sandymoor.[6] Since 2014, it has been part of the Liverpool City Region and the council is a member of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority. The neighbouring districts (clockwise from west) are Liverpool, Knowsley and St Helens, which are fellow boroughs of the Liverpool City Region, and Warrington and Cheshire West and Chester in Cheshire. The River Mersey marks the boundary of the historic counties of Lancashire (to the north) and Cheshire (to the south). Before 1974, Widnes was administered by the Municipal Borough of Widnes in Lancashire, and Runcorn by Runcorn Urban District Council in Cheshire. The 1969 Redcliffe-Maud Report recommended reforms to local government in England, including the abolition of all existing local government areas. They were to be replaced by mostly unitary authorities with the exception of three two-tier metropolitan areas to be called Merseyside, SELNEC (an acronym of South East Lancashire & North East Cheshire), and West Midlands. Runcorn and Widnes would form part of the new Merseyside Metropolitan Area under a district called St Helens-Widnes.[7]
The Childrens Book.  The Childrens Book is a 2009 novel by British writer A. S. Byatt. It follows the adventures of several inter-related families, adults and children, from 1895 through World War I.  Loosely based upon the life of childrens writer E. Nesbit[1] there are secrets slowly revealed that show that the families are much more creatively formed than first guessed.  It was shortlisted for the 2009 Booker Prize.[1] The Wellwood family (Olive, Humphry, Olives sister Violet, and many children) are Fabians, living in a world of artists, writers, and craftsmen, all moving into new ways to express art, and living an artful life, before the horrors and loss of the Great War.  While the central character of Olive is a writer of childrens literature, supporting her large family with her writing, the title of the book refers to the children in the book: Tom, Julian, Philip, Elsie, Dorothy, Hedda, Griselda, Florence, Charles/Karl, Phyllis, and others, following each as they approach adulthood and the terrors of war.[2] In an interview with The Guardian Byatt says: I started with the idea that writing childrens books isnt good for the writers own children. There are some dreadful stories. Christopher Robin at least lived. Kenneth Grahames son put himself across a railway line and waited for the train. Then theres J. M. Barrie. One of the boys that Barrie adopted almost certainly drowned himself. This struck me as something that needed investigating. And the second thing was, I was interested in the structure of E. Nesbits family—how they all seemed to be Fabians and fairy-story writers.
Population density.  Population density (in agriculture: standing stock or plant density) is a measurement of population per unit land area. It is mostly applied to humans, but sometimes to other living organisms too. It is a key geographical term.[1] Population density is population divided by total land area, sometimes including seas and oceans, as appropriate.[1] Low densities may cause an extinction vortex and further reduce fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the causes of reduced fertility in low population densities are:[2] Population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually transcribed as per square kilometre or square mile, and which may include or exclude, for example, areas of water or glaciers. Commonly this is calculated for a county, city, country, another territory or the entire world.
Napoleon.  Napoleon Bonaparte[b] (born Napoleone di Buonaparte;[1][c] 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led a series of military campaigns across Europe during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1796 to 1815. He led the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, then ruled the French Empire as Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815. He was King of Italy from 1805 to 1814 and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine from 1806 to 1813. Born on the island of Corsica to a family of Italian origin, Napoleon moved to mainland France in 1779 and was commissioned as an officer in the French Royal Army in 1785. He supported the French Revolution in 1789 and promoted its cause in Corsica. He rose rapidly through the ranks after winning the siege of Toulon in 1793 and defeating royalist insurgents in Paris on 13 Vendémiaire in 1795. In 1796 he commanded a military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies in the War of the First Coalition, scoring decisive victories and becoming a national hero. He led an invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798 which served as a springboard to political power. In November 1799 Napoleon engineered the Coup of 18 Brumaire against the French Directory and became First Consul of the Republic. He won the Battle of Marengo in 1800, which secured Frances victory in the War of the Second Coalition, and in 1803 he sold the territory of Louisiana to the United States. In December 1804 Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French, further expanding his power. The breakdown of the Treaty of Amiens led to the War of the Third Coalition by 1805. Napoleon shattered the coalition with a decisive victory at the Battle of Austerlitz, which led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. In the War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806, marched his Grande Armée into Eastern Europe, and defeated the Russians in 1807 at the Battle of Friedland. Seeking to extend his trade embargo against Britain, Napoleon invaded the Iberian Peninsula and installed his brother Joseph as King of Spain in 1808, provoking the Peninsular War. In 1809 the Austrians again challenged France in the War of the Fifth Coalition, in which Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after winning the Battle of Wagram. In the summer of 1812 he launched an invasion of Russia, briefly occupying Moscow before conducting a catastrophic retreat of his army that winter. In 1813 Prussia and Austria joined Russia in the War of the Sixth Coalition, in which Napoleon was decisively defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. The coalition invaded France and captured Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April 1814. They exiled him to the Mediterranean island of Elba and restored the Bourbons to power. Ten months later, Napoleon escaped from Elba on a brig, landed in France with a thousand men, and marched on Paris, again taking control of the country. His opponents responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died of stomach cancer in 1821, aged 51. Napoleon is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history, and Napoleonic tactics are still studied at military schools worldwide. His legacy endures through the modernizing legal and administrative reforms he enacted in France and Western Europe, embodied in the Napoleonic Code. He established a system of public education,[2] abolished the vestiges of feudalism,[3] emancipated Jews and other religious minorities,[4] abolished the Spanish Inquisition,[5] enacted the principle of equality before the law for an emerging middle class,[6] and centralized state power at the expense of religious authorities.[7] His conquests acted as a catalyst for political change and the development of nation states. However, he is controversial because of his role in wars which devastated Europe, his looting of conquered territories, and his mixed record on civil rights. He abolished the free press, ended directly elected representative government, exiled and jailed critics of his regime, reinstated slavery in Frances colonies except for Haiti, banned the entry of black people and mulattos into France, reduced the civil rights of women and children in France, reintroduced a hereditary monarchy and nobility,[8][9][10] and violently repressed popular uprisings against his rule.[11]
Jessie Willcox Smith.  Jessie Willcox Smith (September 6, 1863 – May 3, 1935) was an American illustrator during the Golden Age of American illustration.[2] She was considered one of the greatest pure illustrators.[3] A contributor to books and magazines during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Smith illustrated stories and articles for clients such as Century, Colliers, Leslies Weekly, Harpers, McClures, Scribners, and the Ladies Home Journal. She had an ongoing relationship with Good Housekeeping, which included a long-running Mother Goose series of illustrations and also the creation of all the Good Housekeeping covers from December 1917 to 1933. Smith illustrated over sixty books, including notable works like Louisa May Alcotts Little Women and An Old-Fashioned Girl, Henry Wadsworth Longfellows Evangeline, and Robert Louis Stevensons A Childs Garden of Verses. Jessie Willcox Smith was born on September 6, 1863, in the Mount Airy neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She was the youngest daughter of Charles Henry Smith, an investment broker, and Katherine DeWitt Willcox Smith.[4][5] Jessie attended private elementary schools. At sixteen, she was sent to Cincinnati, Ohio, to live with her cousins and finish her education. She trained to be a teacher and taught kindergarten in 1883. However, Smith found that the physical demands of working with children were too strenuous for her.[6][7] She struggled to bend down to their level because of her back problems.[5] Smith discovered her talent for drawing after being persuaded to attend an art lesson taught by her cousin.[7] In 1884, Smith attended the Philadelphia School of Design for Women (now Moore College of Art and Design) and in 1885 attended the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (PAFA) in Philadelphia under Thomas Eakins and Thomas Anshutz supervision. It was under Eakins that Smith began to use photography as a resource in her illustrations.[7] Although Eakins demeanor could be difficult, particularly with female students, he became one of her first major influences.[8] Smiths illustration Three Little Maidens All in a Row was published in the St. Nicholas Magazine in May 1888, while she was still a student at the Pennsylvania Academy.[9] Illustration was one artistic avenue through which women could earn a living at the time.[5] Creating illustrations for childrens books or of family life was considered an appropriate career for woman artists because it drew upon maternal instincts. Alternatively, fine art that included life drawing was not deemed ladylike.[10] Illustration partly became viable as a result of improved color printing processes and a resurgence of book design in England.[11] Smith graduated from PAFA in June 1888.[9] The same year, she was hired for an entry-level position in the advertising department of the Ladies Home Journal. Smiths responsibilities included finishing rough sketches, designing borders, and preparing advertising art for the magazine.[9][12] In this role, she illustrated Mary Wiley Stavers 1892 poetry collection New and True.[9]
Childrens Story. Childrens Story is a song by British-American rapper Slick Rick, released on April 4, 1989 by Def Jam and Columbia as the second single from his debut album The Great Adventures of Slick Rick (1989). The song, written by Rick, tells a cautionary tale warning about the dangers of a life of crime. The most successful single of The Great Adventures of Slick Rick, Childrens Story was a top-five hit on both the Billboard Hot Black Singles and Hot Rap Singles charts, staying on the former chart for nineteen weeks and the latter for eleven. The song was also critically acclaimed, with reviewers praising its storytelling and musical tone. Since its release, it has become one of the most sampled rap songs of all time. Childrens Story uses a piano interpolation of the bassline of Bob James 1974 instrumental Nautilus.[1][2] In an 2018 interview with Rolling Stone, Rick stated that he chose to interpolate the song due to its gritty city edge, stating: it was big in urban communities before rap records, right? When they used to have street concerts, picnics, barbecues, whatever when they play outside and stuff like that — like the Cold Crush Brothers, like Flash and them before they made records. After developing the beat, Rick began working on the lyrics.[1] Originally, the song was about a fairytale, but later in the albums development, Rick changed the subject matter into a cautionary story about criminal behavior.[3] Although Rick wanted Childrens Story to be the first single of The Great Adventures of Slick Rick, Def Jam chose to release Teenage Love first.[4] As a result, Childrens Story was released as the second single from the album on April 4, 1989,[5][6] although the original demo of the song was already in rotation on rap/R&B radio stations and MTV prior to its release.[3] Henry Adaso of LiveAbout ranked it #44 on his list of the 100 greatest rap songs, stating that it was a masterfully woven narrative ... by hip-hops greatest storyteller.[7] Jesse Ducker, writing for Albumism, stated that the song was on many a shortlist for greatest hip-hop songs of all time, noting how it was a classic tale of the perils of getting caught up in the street life, whose musical tone manages to be both dark and upbeat, making it a timeless club staple.[5] Christopher Weingarten of Rolling Stone called it the epic yarn that defines storytelling rap, stating that it was a casually spit tale of cops and robbers, rise and fall, hubris and dread.[1] The Los Angeles Times called it a violent, clever bedtime tale.[8]
Lithography.  Lithography (from Ancient Greek  λίθος (líthos) stone and  γράφω (gráphō) to write)[1] is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water.[2] The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German author and actor Alois Senefelder and was initially used mostly for musical scores and maps.[3][4] Lithography can be used to print text or images onto paper or other suitable material.[5] A lithograph is something printed by lithography, but this term is only used for fine art prints and some other, mostly older, types of printed matter, not for those made by modern commercial lithography. Traditionally, the image to be printed was drawn with a greasy substance, such as oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth and flat limestone plate. The stone was then treated with a mixture of weak acid and gum arabic (etch) that made the parts of the stones surface that were not protected by the grease more hydrophilic (water attracting). For printing, the stone was first moistened. The water adhered only to the etched, hydrophilic areas, making them even more oil-repellant.  An oil-based ink was then applied, and would stick only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a blank sheet of paper, producing a printed page.  This traditional technique is still used for fine art printmaking.[6] In modern commercial lithography, the image is transferred or created as a patterned polymer coating applied to a flexible plastic or metal plate.[7]  The printing plates, made of stone or metal, can be created by a photographic process, a method that may be referred to as photolithography (although the term usually refers to a vaguely similar microelectronics manufacturing process).[8][9] Offset printing or offset lithography is an elaboration of lithography in which the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper indirectly by means of a rubber plate or cylinder, rather than by direct contact.  This technique keeps the paper dry and allows fully automated high-speed operation.  It has mostly replaced traditional lithography for medium- and high-volume printing: since the 1960s, most books and magazines, especially when illustrated in colour, are printed with offset lithography from photographically created metal plates. As a printing technology, lithography is different from intaglio printing (gravure), wherein a plate is engraved, etched, or stippled to score cavities to contain the printing ink; and woodblock printing or letterpress printing, wherein ink is applied to the raised surfaces of letters or images.
Tokyo Disney Resort.  The Tokyo Disney Resort (東京ディズニーリゾート) (local nickname TDR[1]) is a theme park and vacation resort located in Urayasu, Chiba, Japan, just east of Tokyo. The resort is owned and operated by the Oriental Land Co., a subsidiary of the Keisei Electric Railway, under a license from The Walt Disney Company, which designed and constructed the resort and its various attractions through its Imagineering research & development arm. The resort opened on April 15, 1983, as a single theme park (Tokyo Disneyland), later developing into a resort with a second theme park (Tokyo DisneySea), six Disney themed hotels, six non-Disney hotels and a shopping complex (Ikspiari). Tokyo Disneyland was the first Disney theme park to open outside the United States and the complex is the only Disney resort in the world not owned or operated by Disney Experiences in any capacity. Tokyo Disney Resort consists of Tokyo Disneyland, Tokyo DisneySea, and Ikspiari, which is a variation of the Downtown Disney and Disney Springs shopping, dining, and entertainment areas found at the Disney resorts in Anaheim and Lake Buena Vista respectively. It also contains Bon Voyage!, a large Disney goods specialty shop. Like other Disney resorts, the Tokyo Disney Resort includes several Disney-branded hotels; the resorts three Deluxe Hotels are the Disney Ambassador Hotel, the Tokyo DisneySea Hotel MiraCosta and the Tokyo Disneyland Hotel. The Resort also includes the Moderate type Tokyo Disney Resort Toy Story Hotel and the Value type Tokyo Disney Resort Celebration Hotel. There are six other hotels located on the Tokyo Disney Resort property. These, however, are not Disney-branded hotels and are owned by other companies, similar to the Hotel Plaza Boulevard hotels at Walt Disney World.
Surfing (disambiguation). Surfing is a surface water sport in which the rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or deep face of a moving wave. Related activities include: Surfing may also refer to:
North Korea.  North Korea,[a] officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK),[b] is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and borders China and Russia to the north at the Yalu (Amnok) and Tumen rivers, and South Korea to the south at the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).[c] The countrys western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eastern border is defined by the Sea of Japan. North Korea, like South Korea, claims to be the sole legitimate government of the entire peninsula and adjacent islands. Pyongyang is the capital and largest city. The Korean Peninsula was first inhabited as early as the Lower Paleolithic period. Its first kingdom was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century BCE. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea into Silla and Balhae in the late 7th century, Korea was ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). The succeeding Korean Empire (1897–1910) was annexed in 1910 into the Empire of Japan. In 1945, after the Japanese surrender at the end of World War II, Korea was divided into two zones along the 38th parallel, with the north occupied by the Soviet Union and the south occupied by the United States. In 1948, separate governments were formed in Korea: the socialist and Soviet-aligned Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, and the capitalist, Western-aligned Republic of Korea in the south. The North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950 started the Korean War. In 1953, the Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire and established a demilitarized zone (DMZ), but no formal peace treaty has ever been signed. Post-war North Korea benefited greatly from economic aid and expertise provided by other Eastern Bloc countries. However, Kim Il Sung, North Koreas first leader, promoted his personal philosophy of Juche as the state ideology. Pyongyangs international isolation sharply accelerated from the 1980s onwards as the Cold War came to an end. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 then brought about a sharp decline to the North Korean economy. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered a famine with the population continuing to suffer from malnutrition. In 2024, the DPRK formally abandoned efforts to reunify Korea.[12] North Korea is a totalitarian dictatorship with a comprehensive cult of personality around the Kim family. Officially, North Korea is a communist state that self-designates as an independent socialist state[d] which holds democratic elections. The Workers Party of Korea (WPK) is the sole ruling party of North Korea. According to Article 3 of the constitution, Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism is the official ideology of North Korea. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises and collectivized farms. Most services—such as healthcare, education, housing, and food production—are subsidized or state-funded. North Korea follows Songun, a military first policy which prioritizes the Korean Peoples Army in state affairs and the allocation of resources. It possesses nuclear weapons. Its active-duty army of 1.28 million soldiers is the fourth-largest in the world. In addition to being a member of the United Nations since 1991, North Korea is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the G77, and the ASEAN Regional Forum.
Surfer (disambiguation). A surfer takes part in the sport of surfing. Surfer may also refer to:
Ginkgo biloba.  Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as ginkgo (/ˈɡɪŋkoʊ, ˈɡɪŋkɡoʊ/ GINK-oh, -⁠goh),[5][6] also known as the maidenhair tree,[7] and often misspelled gingko (but see #Etymology below) is a species of gymnosperm tree native to East Asia. It is the last living species in the order Ginkgoales, which first appeared over 290 million years ago. Fossils similar to the living species, belonging to the genus Ginkgo, extend back to the Middle Jurassic epoch approximately 170 million years ago.[2] The tree was cultivated early in human history, remains commonly planted, and is widely regarded as a living fossil. G. biloba is a long-lived, disease-resistant, dioecious tree with unique fan-shaped leaves, capable of clonal reproduction, and known for its striking yellow autumn foliage and resilience in disturbed environments. It was known historically as silver fruit or white fruit in Chinese and called “ginkgo” due to a centuries-old transcription error. It is closely related to cycads and characterized by unique seeds that resemble apricots but are not true fruits. G. biloba, once widespread but thought extinct in the wild for centuries, is now commonly cultivated in East Asia, with some genetically diverse populations possibly representing rare wild survivors in southwestern China’s mountainous regions. Some G. biloba trees have survived extreme events like the Hiroshima atomic bomb and others showcasing extreme longevity; G. biloba specimens have been measured in excess of 1,600 years, and the largest living trees are estimated to exceed 3,500 years.[8][9][10] Today it is widely planted in cities worldwide for its pollution tolerance and ornamental value. G. biloba can pose health risks including potential carcinogenicity, allergic reactions, poisoning from seeds due to ginkgotoxin, drug interactions, and adverse effects such as bleeding and neurological symptoms, especially with excessive or improper use. G. biloba wood is valued for its durability and used in crafts and sake-making, while its seeds are popular in Asian cuisine despite health risks.  While widely marketed for cognitive benefits, clinical research shows limited medical effectiveness except possibly for dementia, with approval in the European Union but not by the United States Food and Drug Administration.
Surfers Paradise, Queensland.  Download coordinates as: Surfers Paradise (colloquially known as Surfers) is a central suburb of the City of Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.[2][3] In the 2021 census, Surfers Paradise had a population of 26,412 people.[1] Colloquially known as Surfers, the suburb has many high-rise apartment buildings and a wide surf beach. The feature of the heart of the suburb is Cavill Mall, which runs through the shopping and entertainment  precinct. Cavill Avenue, named after Jim Cavill, an early hotel owner, is one of the busiest shopping strips in Queensland, and the centre of activity for night life.  One of the features of the area is the Surfers Paradise Meter Maids designed to build goodwill with tourists. Surfers Paradise is the Gold Coasts main entertainment and tourism centre and the suburbs many high-rise buildings are the best known feature of the citys skyline.
Peninsula. A peninsula[1][2] is a landform that extends from a mainland, is connected to the mainland on only one side, and is mostly surrounded by water.[3][4] Peninsulas exist on each continent.[2][5] The largest peninsula in the world is the Arabian Peninsula.[6][7] The word peninsula derives from Latin  paeninsula, from  paene almost and  insula island. The word entered English in the 16th century.[3] A peninsula is generally defined as a piece of land surrounded on most sides by water.[8][9] A peninsula may be bordered by more than one body of water, and the body of water does not have to be an ocean or a sea.[10] A piece of land on a very tight river bend or one between two rivers is sometimes said to form a peninsula, for example in the New Barbadoes Neck in New Jersey, United States.[8] A peninsula may be connected to the mainland via an isthmus; for example, the Isthmus of Corinth connects to the Peloponnese peninsula.[11] Peninsulas can be formed by continental drift, glacial erosion, glacial meltwater, glacial deposition, marine sediment, marine transgressions, volcanoes, divergent boundaries or river sedimentation.[12] More than one factor may contribute to the formation of a peninsula. For example, in the case of Florida, continental drift, marine sediment, and marine transgressions  all contributed to its shape.[13]
Mount Atago (Minamibōsō, Chiba). Mount Atago (愛宕山, Atago-yama) is a mountain on the border of the cities of Minamibōsō and Kamogawa in Chiba Prefecture, Japan with an altitude of 408.2 m (1,339 ft). It is the highest point in Chiba Prefecture. Mount Atago is at the west of the Mineoka Mountain District of the Bōsō Hill Range. The kanji for Mount Atago, 愛 and 宕, mean love and cave respectively. The mountain is also known as Mineoka Atago-yama as several other hills and mountains share the same name in Japan, most notably Mount Atago in the Tamba Mountains to the northwest of Kyōto.[1] Mount Atago was located in the historical Awa Province, which occupied the southern tip of the Bōsō Peninsula. Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199), founder and first shōgun of the Kamakura shogunate, visited Awa Province shortly before his return to Kyōto and the establishment of the shogunate. He visited Mount Atago, dedicated a Jizō Bosatsu statue at the summit of the mountain, and vowed to return to the area. Mount Atago is now home to the JASDF Mineokayama Sub-Base, an air defence radar installation of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF).[2] The summit was confiscated by the United States Air Force in 1955, then later transferred to the JASDF. Construction on the radar facility began in 1978 and is considered to be strategically important to the defense of Japan. The mountain is also home to a triangulation station and the Atago Shrine. Mount Atago is open to the public only by permission of the JASDF. Hiking requires permission, at least a week in advance, from the JASDF Mineokayama Sub-Base. Permission is not always granted. Photography of the radar facility is not permitted.[3] Access to the triangulation station is not allowed. The summit of Mount Atago is the highest in Japan not open to the public.
Futsu. Futsu (布津町, Futsu-chō) was a town located in Minamitakaki District, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 4,788 and a density of 455.13 persons per km2. The total area was 10.52 km2. On March 31, 2006, Futsu, along with the towns of Arie, Fukae, Kazusa, Kitaarima, Kuchinotsu, Minamiarima and Nishiarie (all from Minamitakaki District), was merged to create the city of Minamishimabara.[1][2] This Nagasaki Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Sports governing body. A sports governing body is a sports organization that has a regulatory or sanctioning function. Sports governing bodies come in various forms and have a variety of regulatory functions, including disciplinary procedure for rule infractions and deciding on rule changes in the sport that they govern. Governing bodies have different scopes. They may cover a range of sport at an internationally acceptable level, such as the International Olympic Committee and the International Paralympic Committee, or only a single sport at a national level, such as the Rugby Football League. National bodies will largely have to be affiliated with international bodies for the same sport. The first international federations were formed at the end of the 19th century. Every sport has a different governing body that can define the way that the sport operates through its affiliated clubs and societies. This is because sports have different levels of difficulty and skill, so they can try to organize the people playing their sport by ability and by age. There are several different types of sport governing bodies. International sports federations are non-governmental non-profit organizations for a given sport (or a group of similar sport disciplines, such as aquatics or skiing) and administers its sport at the highest level.[1] These federations work to create a common set of rules, promote their sport, and organize international competitions. International sports federations represent their sport at the Olympic level where applicable. About 30 international sport federations are located in Switzerland, with about 20 or so in the Lausanne area, where the International Olympic Committee is located.[1]
Obitsu River. 35°24′31″N 139°53′54″E / 35.40861°N 139.89833°E / 35.40861; 139.89833 The Obitsu River (小櫃川, Obitsu-gawa) is a river in Kimitsu, Kisarazu, and Sodegaura, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. The river is 88 kilometers (55 mi) in length and has a drainage area of 273.2 square kilometers (105.5 sq mi). The Obitsu emerges from the densely forested valleys around Mount Motokiyosumi (344 meters (1,129 ft)) in the Bōsō Hill Range[1] and empties into Tokyo Bay. It is the second largest river in Chiba Prefecture after the Tone River (322 kilometers (200 mi)).[1] The upper reaches of the Obitsu meander through Kimitsu, the middle of the river runs more directly through Kisarazu, and the lower reaches form and estuary and a triangular delta in Sodegaura, an area known as the Banzu Tidal Flats. The Obitsu then turns briefly west back into Kisarazu to empty into Tokyo Bay.[1] The tidal flats of the Obitsu host numerous species of birds and crustaceans. In 2012 an IUCN Red List endangered species crab, Uca lactea lactea, was discovered at the mouth of the river, and may be the northernmost habitat of the crab in Japan.[2] The Koito River, similarly to the Obitsu, emerges from Mount Motokiyosumi, flows east across Bōsō Peninsula, and empties into Tokyo Bay. The two rivers are the longest in the western region of the peninsula.[3] The Kamegawa Dam was built near the Kazusa-Kameyama Station on the JR East Kururi Line on the upper part of the Obitsu River in 1979.[1] The dam forms an artificial lake, Lake Kameyama. The lake is the largest reservoir in Chiba Prefecture with a diameter of 35 kilometers (22 mi).[4]
Kantō region.  The Kantō region (関東地方, Kantō Chihō; IPA: [kaꜜn.toː, kan.toː tɕiꜜ.hoː, kan.toː tɕi̥.hoꜜː]) is a geographical region of Honshu, the largest island of Japan.[2] In a common definition, the region includes the Greater Tokyo Area and encompasses seven prefectures: Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, Tochigi, and Tokyo. Slightly more than 45 percent of the land area within its boundaries is the Kantō Plain. The rest consists of the hills and mountains that form land borders with other regions of Japan. As the Kantō region contains Tokyo, the capital and largest city of Japan, the region is considered the center of Japans politics and economy. According to the official census on October 1, 2010 by the Statistics Bureau of Japan, the population was 42,607,376,[3] amounting to approximately one third of the total population of Japan. The Kantō regional governors association (関東地方知事会, Kantō chihō chijikai) assembles the prefectural governors of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamanashi, Nagano, and Shizuoka.[4][5] The Kantō Regional Development Bureau (関東地方整備局, Kantō chihō seibi-kyoku) of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in the national government is responsible for eight prefectures generally (Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Yamanashi) and parts of the waterways in two others (Nagano and Shizuoka).[6]
Tone River. The Tone River (利根川, Tone-gawa; Japanese pronunciation: [to.ne.ɡa.wa, -ŋa.wa], locally [to.neꜜ.ɡa.wa, -ŋa.wa][1]) is a river in the Kantō region of Japan. It is 322 kilometers (200 mi) in length (the second longest in Japan after the Shinano River) and has a drainage area of 16,840 square kilometers (6,500 sq mi) (the largest in Japan). It is nicknamed Bandō Tarō (坂東太郎); Bandō is an obsolete alias of the Kantō Region, and Tarō is a popular given name for an oldest son.[2] It is regarded as one of the Three Greatest Rivers of Japan, the others being the Shinano River in northeastern Honshu and the Ishikari River in Hokkaido. The source of the Tone River is at Mount Ōminakami [Wikidata] (大水上山) (1,831 meters (6,007 ft)) in the Echigo Mountains, which straddle the border between Gunma and Niigata Prefectures in Jōshinetsu Kōgen National Park.[2] The Tone gathers tributaries and pours into the Pacific Ocean at Cape Inubō, Choshi in Chiba Prefecture.[3] Major tributaries of the Tone River include the Agatsuma, Watarase, Kinu, Omoi, and the Kokai River [Wikidata]. The Edo River branches away from the river and flows into Tokyo Bay. The Tone River was once known for its uncontrollable nature, and its route changed whenever floods occurred. It is hard to trace its ancient route, but it originally flowed into Tokyo Bay along the route of the present-day Edo River, and tributaries like the Watarase and Kinu had independent river systems. For the sake of water transportation and flood control, extensive construction began in the 17th century during the Tokugawa shogunate, when the Kantō region became the political center of Japan.[4] The course of the river was significantly changed, and the present route of the river was determined during the Meiji period,[5] with the assistance of Dutch civil engineer Anthonie Rouwenhorst Mulder.[6] Its vast watershed is thus largely artificial. Two ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy were named after the river, one of World War I vintage and another from World War II, the lead ship of its class. A third modern ship currently in service with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is also named after the river.
Mount Nokogiri (Chiba). Mount Nokogiri (鋸山, Nokogiri-yama) literally saw mountain is a low mountain on the Bōsō Peninsula on Honshu, Japan. It lies on the southern border of the city of Futtsu and the town Kyonan in Awa District in Chiba Prefecture. The mountain runs east to west, having the characteristic sawtoothed profile of a Japanese saw (鋸, nokogiri). It falls steeply into Tokyo Bay on its western side, where it is pierced by two road tunnels and a rail tunnel, carrying the Uchibo Line south from Futtsu to Tateyama.  Both features are due in part to the mountains history as a stone quarry in the Edo period, the marks of which are still picturesquely evident. The western side of the mountain is also the site of the sprawling Nihon-ji temple complex, which is the home of two Daibutsu sculptures - a huge seated carving of Yakushi Nyorai that at 31.05 metres (101.9 ft) tall[1] is the largest pre-modern, stone-carved Daibutsu in Japan, and the Hundred-shaku Kannon, a tall relief image of Kannon carved into one of the quarry walls - as well as 1500 hand-carved arhat sculptures, which combined with the spectacular scenery of the Bōsō Hills and Tokyo Bay, make Mount Nokogiri a popular tourism destination. The temple is accessible by road and by a cable car, the Nokogiriyama Ropeway, which runs from Hamakanaya Station on the JR Uchibo Line to a lookout deck near the top of the temple precinct.[2] The western end of the mountain falls precipitously into Tokyo Bay, where Cape Myōgane (Japanese: 明鐘岬) is a good place to watch large ships pass through Uraga Channel at sunset.
Futtsu Power Station.  The Futtsu Power Station (富津火力発電所) is the fourth largest gas-fired power station in the world, located in Futtsu, Japan.  The power station operates at 5,040 MW by utilizing four groups of units, with 14 combined cycle units, 4 advanced combined cycle units, and 3 more advanced combined cycle units (high temperature combined cycle).[2][3] All four units run on natural gas. The facility is owned by Tepco.[4][5]  This article about a Japanese power station is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
World Surf League.  The World Surf League (WSL)[1] is the governing body for professional surfers and is dedicated to showcasing the worlds best talent in a variety of progressive formats.[2] The WSL was originally known as International Professional Surfing (IPS), founded by Fred Hemmings and Randy Rarick in 1976. IPS created the first world circuit of pro surfing events. In 1983, the Association of Surfing Pros (ASP) took over management of the world circuit. In 2013, the ASP was acquired by ZoSea, backed by Paul Speaker, Terry Hardy, and Dirk Ziff.[3] At the start of the 2015 season, the ASP changed its name to the World Surf League.[4] As of December 2017, the WSL had more than 6.5 million Facebook fans, surpassing more established sports such as the National Hockey League, the Association of Tennis Professionals and Major League Soccer. Sports Business Journal reported that 28 million hours of WSL digital video content were consumed during the 2017 season, making WSL the third most watched sport online in the United States behind NFL and NBA.[5] In January 2018, Forbes reported that the WSL had signed an exclusive deal for digital broadcast rights, with Facebook, worth $30 million over two years.[5] Sophie Goldschmidt was appointed as WSL CEO on 19 July 2017.[6] Paul Speaker had stepped down as CEO on 11 January 2017,[7] and Dirk Ziff acted as the interim WSL CEO until Goldschmidts appointment. Erik Logan, former Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN) president and executive vice president at Harpo Studios, was appointed as WSL CEO on 14 January 2020.[8] Logan exited his position as CEO on 29 June 2023.[9] On 11 April 2024, Ryan Crosby was announced as CEO, effective 13 May 2024.[10] The predecessors of the WSL relates to what organization predominantly represented individual professional surfers at that time. This is an important point because the International Surfing Federation (ISF) still functions to this day as the International Surfing Association (ISA) and also refers to competition winners as world champions (or variants thereof).[11][12]
Tokyo Bay Fortress. Tokyo Bay Fortress (東京湾要塞, Tokyo-wan yosai) was the name of a group of coastal fortifications built to guard the entrance to Tokyo Bay and thus the city of Tokyo from attack from the sea. These gun batteries and fortifications ceased to be used after the end of World War II. A series of six island fortresses (daiba) constructed in 1853 by Egawa Hidetatsu for the Tokugawa shogunate in order to protect Edo from attack by sea, the primary threat being Commodore Matthew Perrys Black Ships which had arrived in the same year to force Japan to end its centuries-old national isolation policy[1] Of the originally planned 11 batteries, seven were started construction but only six were ever finished, one of which was the artificial island of Odaiba.[2] After the Meiji restoration, the primary threats to the new Empire of Japan were perceived to be Qing Chinas Beiyang fleet, followed by the Russian Empires Pacific Fleet. The Meiji government ordered the construction of a new set of coastal fortifications starting in 1884. The main facilities were constructed on the western coast of the Boso Peninsula from Cape Susaki in Tateyama to Cape Futtsu in Futtsu, Chiba Prefecture and from Jogashima at the southern tip of the Miura Peninsula to the Uraga Channel at the mouth of Tokyo Bay and extending to Natsushima in the city of Yokosuka in Kanagawa Prefecture. The Tokyo Bay Garrison Command was established in 1894. It was renamed the Tokyo Bay Fortress Command in 1895 and was headquartered at Yokosuka. Many of the 28-cm howitzers installed in the gun emplacements around Tokyo Bay Fortress were removed during the Russo-Japanese War and were deployed to the Siege of Port Arthur, where they were deployed to devastating effect against the Russian Pacific Fleet. From the 1920s and 1930s, many surplus guns of the Imperial Japanese Navy, such as the 12-in main battery of the battleship Aki which had been made available due to the reduction of capital warships per the London Naval Treaty and the Washington Naval Treaty, were reused in these coastal artillery installations. An important feature of the Tokyo Bay Fortress was a series of three artificial islands built between Cape Futtsu and Cape Kannonzaki at the entrance to Tokyo Bay in the 1910s.  Equipped with 15-cm guns, this enabled the Tokyo Bay Fortress to cover the entire span of Tokyo Bay within firing ranges and provided a second line of defense against any ships which might have breached the gun emplacements at the entrance to Tokyo Bay. The third of these islands (the one closest to Cape Kannonzaki) was rendered unusable by land subsidence caused by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. It remnants posed an ongoing threat to navigation, and were removed from 2000 to 2007.
Bookers Tower.  Bookers Tower (also Bookers Tower) is a Grade II-listed four-storey octagonal tower built in the 19th century, in the Gothic style.[1] It is in Guildford, Surrey, to the west of the town centre on Beech Lane. It is adjacent to the Mount Cemetery, the resting place of Lewis Carroll.[2][3] Built on high ground to the west of Guildford town centre, it was commissioned by the then Mayor of Guildford, Charles Booker in memory of his sons, Charles and Henry, who had both died at the age of 15. The structure was completed in 1839 and was constructed by a local builder, John Mason, in Bargate stone with ashlar and brick dressings.[1][4] At the opening celebration in 1840, the tower was dedicated to mark the marriage of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert. The ceremony involved the ringing of bells and the lighting of cannons and fireworks. Booker subsequently entertained friends at the tower and invited guests to view the construction of the railway lines to Woking and Guildford from the top.[4] In later years Bookers Tower was used by the Victorian scientist and Guildford resident, John Rand Capron, to observe astronomical phenomena.[5] He is also thought to have conducted experiments involving lightning at the site.[2]
North Downs.  The North Downs are a ridge of chalk hills and an area of downland in south-east England, that stretch from Farnham in Surrey to the White Cliffs of Dover in Kent.[1] Much of the North Downs comprises two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs): the Surrey Hills and the Kent Downs. The North Downs Way National Trail runs along the North Downs from Farnham to Dover. The highest point in the North Downs is Botley Hill, Surrey (270 metres (890 ft) above sea level). The County Top of Kent is  Betsoms Hill (251 m (823 ft) above sea level), which is less than 1 km from Westerham Heights, Bromley, the highest point in Greater London at an elevation of 245 m (804 ft). This term is used to describe the characteristic landscape of elevated rolling grassy hills in southern England, where chalk and limestone is exposed at the surface, acquiring this sense around the 14th century.[2] The name downs is derived from the Celtic word dun, meaning fort or fastness (and by extension fortified settlement, from which it entered English as town, similar to Germanic burg/burough), though the original meaning would have been hill, as early forts were commonly hillforts - compare Germanic burg (fort) and berg (mountain).[3] These hills are prefixed North to distinguish them from a similar range of hills – the South Downs – which runs roughly parallel to them but some 50 km (31 mi) away on the southern edge of the Weald that divides the two ranges of hills. The narrow spine of the Hogs Back between Farnham and Guildford forms the western extremity of the North Downs, whilst the cliffs between Folkestone and Deal terminate the ridge in the east. The North Downs cuesta has a steep south-facing scarp slope and a more gentle north-facing dip slope. Its southern boundary is defined by the low-lying Vale of Holmesdale at the foot of the escarpment, in which the underlying stratum is primarily gault clay. The northern boundary is less apparent but occurs where the chalk submerges below the more recent Paleocene deposits.[1]
Kawasaki, Kanagawa.  Kawasaki[a], officially Kawasaki City[b], is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, one of the main cities of the Greater Tokyo Area and Keihin Industrial Area. It is the second most populated city in Kanagawa Prefecture after Yokohama, and the eighth most populated city in Japan (including the Tokyo Metropolitan Area).[1] As of October 1, 2017[update], the city has an estimated population of 1,503,690, with 716,470 households,[1] and a population density of 10,000 persons per km2. Kawasaki is the only city in Japan with more than one million inhabitants that is not a prefectural capital. The total area is 142.70 km2 (55.10 sq mi). Archaeological evidence from the Japanese Paleolithic and Jōmon period can only be found in the northwest Tama Hills. The course of the Tama and the coast of the Bay of Tokyo have also changed in historical times, so that large parts of the urban area are geologically young. With the introduction of the Ritsuryō legal system, the area came to the Musashi Province in the 7th century. In the Nara period, the center of the Tachibana district was probably in the area of todays Takatsu district. Since the Heian period, the domain of the Inage clan has expanded here. Around the Heiken-ji Buddhist temple (better known as Kawasaki-Daishi), founded in 1128, a monzen-machi, a busy district for the supply of pilgrims, soon emerged. Between the Kamakura period and Sengoku period, smaller feudal lords ruled the area until it finally came under the control of the Later Hōjō clan.
Capital City. Capital City or Capitol City or variants, may refer to:
Saitama (city). Saitama (さいたま市, Saitama-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [saꜜi.ta.ma, sai.ta.maꜜ.ɕi][1]) is the capital and largest city of Saitama Prefecture, Japan. Its area incorporates the former cities of Urawa, Ōmiya, Yono and Iwatsuki. It is a city designated by government ordinance. As of 1 February 2021[update], the city had an estimated population of 1,324,854, and a population density of 6,093 people per km2 (15,781 people per sq mi). Its total area is 217.43 square kilometres (83.95 sq mi).[2] The name Saitama originally comes from the Sakitama District (埼玉郡) of what is now the city of Gyōda in the northern part of what is now known as Saitama Prefecture. Sakitama has an ancient history and is mentioned in the famous 8th century poetry anthology Manyōshū. The pronunciation has changed from Sakitama to Saitama over the years. With the 2001 merger of Urawa, Ōmiya, and Yono, it was decided that a new name, one fitting for this newly created prefectural capital, was needed. The prefectural name Saitama (埼玉県) was changed from kanji into hiragana, thus Saitama City (さいたま市) was born. It is the only prefectural capital in Japan whose name is always written in hiragana, and belongs to the list of hiragana cities. However, Saitama written in hiragana (さいたま市) actually finished in second place in public polling to Saitama written in kanji (埼玉市). Despite this, government officials decided to name the new city Saitama in hiragana, not kanji. In third place in the poll was Ōmiya (大宮市). In fourth was Saitama (彩玉市), written with an alternative kanji for sai (彩) which means colorful. The sai (埼) used in the prefectural name is a rare form of a common character (崎) that means cape or promontory. The city is located 20 to 30 km north of central Tokyo, roughly at the center of the Kantō Plain. Situated in the southeast of Saitama Prefecture, the city is topographically comprised by lowlands and plateaus, at mostly less than 20 m above sea level, with no mountain ranges or hills within the city boundaries. The western portion of the city lies on the lowland created by the Arakawa River along with those created by small rivers such as the Moto-Arakawa River, Shiba River, and Ayase River. The rest of the area mostly resides on the Ōmiya Plateau lying in the north-south direction. Dispersed in this region, major rivers flow southward, almost paralleling to one another.
County seat. A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is in use in six countries: Canada, China, Hungary, Romania, Taiwan, and the United States. An equivalent term, shire town, is used in the U.S. state of Vermont and in several other English-speaking jurisdictions.[1] In Canada, the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia have counties as an administrative division of government below the provincial level, and thus county seats. In the provinces of Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, the term shire town is used in place of county seat.[2][3] County seats in China are the administrative centers of the counties in the Peoples Republic of China. They have existed since the Warring States period and were set up nationwide by the Qin dynasty.[4][5] The number of counties in China proper gradually increased from dynasty to dynasty. As Qin Shi Huang reorganized the counties after his unification, there were about 1,000. Under the Eastern Han dynasty, the number of counties increased to above 1,000. About 1400 existed when the Sui dynasty abolished the commandery level (郡 jùn), which was the level just above counties, and demoted some commanderies to counties. In Imperial China, the county was a significant administrative unit because it marked the lowest level of the imperial bureaucratic structure;[6] in other words, it was the lowest level that the government reached. Government below the county level was often undertaken through informal non-bureaucratic means, varying between dynasties. The head of a county was the magistrate, who oversaw both the day-to-day operations of the county as well as civil and criminal cases. The current number of counties mostly resembled that of the later years of the Qing dynasty. Changes of location and names of counties in Chinese history have been a major field of research in Chinese historical geography, especially from the 1960s to the 1980s. There are 1,355 counties in Mainland China out of a total of 2,851 county-level divisions.
Hogs Back.  The Hogs Back is a hilly ridge, part of the North Downs in Surrey, England. It runs between Farnham in the west and Guildford in the east. Compared with the main part of the Downs to the east of it, it is a narrow elongated ridge, hence its name. Jane Austen, in a letter to her sister Cassandra dated Thursday 20 May 1813 from her brothers house in Sloane Street, wrote of her journey to London in a curricle via the Hogs-back This shows that it was known as the Hogs Back by Jane Austens time.  However, the medieval name for the ridge was Guildown (recorded first in 1035 where it was the site of the abduction of Prince Alfred of Wessex by Earl Godwin and then in the Pipe Rolls for 1190 and onwards) but this name is no longer in use.  However, the name Guildown is evoked by Guildown Road, a residential road that climbs the southern side of the ridge on the southwestern fringes of Guildford.
Kawaguchi, Saitama.  Kawaguchi (川口市, Kawaguchi-shi[b]) is a city located in southeastern Saitama Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 April 2025[update], the city had an estimated population of 595,011 in 293,582 households and a population density of 9605 persons per km².[2] The total area of the city is 61.95 square kilometres (23.92 sq mi). It is the Greater Tokyo Areas 8th most populated city (after passing Hachioji), and second largest in Saitama Prefecture, after eponymous Saitama. Kawaguchi is located near the center of the Kantō Plain in southwestern Saitama Prefecture in east-central Honshu, and is bordered by the Tokyo wards of Kita-ku and Adachi-ku to the south. The city area is mostly flat and mainly residential except for the Omiya tableland, which occupies part of the north and east area. The Arakawa River runs across the border with Kita-ku to the south.[3] Saitama Prefecture[4] Tokyo Metropolis[4]
Cemetery.  A cemetery, burial ground, gravesite, graveyard, or a green space called a memorial park or memorial garden, is a place where the remains of many dead people are buried or otherwise entombed. The word cemetery (from Greek κοιμητήριον sleeping place)[1][2] implies that the land is specifically designated as a burial ground and originally applied to the Roman catacombs.[3] The term graveyard is often used interchangeably with cemetery, but a graveyard primarily refers to a burial ground within a churchyard.[4][5] The intact or cremated remains of people may be interred in a grave, commonly referred to as burial, or in a tomb, an above-ground grave (resembling a sarcophagus), a mausoleum, a columbarium, a niche, or another edifice. In Western cultures, funeral ceremonies are often observed in cemeteries. These ceremonies or rites of passage differ according to cultural practices and religious beliefs. Modern cemeteries often include crematoria, and some grounds previously used for both continue as crematoria as a principal use long after the interment areas have been filled. The Taforalt cave in Morocco is possibly the oldest known cemetery in the world. It was the resting place of at least 34 Iberomaurusian individuals, the bulk of whom have been dated to 15,100 to 14,000 years ago.[6] Neolithic cemeteries are sometimes referred to by the term grave field. They are one of the chief sources of information on ancient and prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age.[1]
Stroke order (disambiguation). Stroke order refers to the order in which the strokes of a Chinese character are written. Stroke order may also refer to:
Cherry blossom.  The cherry blossom, or sakura, is the flower of trees in Prunus subgenus Cerasus. Sakura usually refers to flowers of ornamental cherry trees, such as cultivars of Prunus serrulata, not trees grown for their fruit[1]: 14–18 [2] (although these also have blossoms). Cherry blossoms have been described as having a vanilla-like smell, which is mainly attributed to coumarin. Wild species of cherry tree are widely distributed, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere.[3][4][5] They are common in East Asia,  especially in Japan, where they have been cultivated, producing many varieties.[6]: 40–42, 160–161 Most of the ornamental cherry trees planted in parks and other places for viewing are cultivars developed for ornamental purposes from various wild species. In order to create a cultivar suitable for viewing, a wild species with characteristics suitable for viewing is needed. Prunus speciosa (Oshima cherry), which is endemic to Japan, produces many large flowers, is fragrant, easily mutates into double flowers and grows rapidly. As a result, various cultivars, known as the Cerasus Sato-zakura Group, have been produced since the 14th century and continue to contribute greatly to the development of hanami (flower viewing) culture.[1]: 27, 89–91 [6]: 160–161  From the modern period, cultivars are mainly propagated by grafting, which quickly produces cherry trees with the same genetic characteristics as the original individuals, and which are excellent to look at.[6]: 89–91 The Japanese word sakura (桜; Japanese pronunciation: [sa.kɯ.ɾa][7]) can mean either the tree or its flowers (see 桜).[8] The cherry blossom is considered the national flower of Japan, and is central to the custom of hanami.[9]
Municipality.  A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term municipality may also mean the governing body of a given municipality.[1] A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The English word is derived from French municipalité, which in turn derives from the Latin municipalis,[2] based on the word for social contract (municipium), referring originally to the Latin communities that supplied Rome with troops in exchange for their own incorporation into the Roman state (granting Roman citizenship to the inhabitants) while permitting the communities to retain their own local governments (a limited autonomy). A municipality can be any political jurisdiction, from a sovereign state such as the Principality of Monaco, to a small village such as West Hampton Dunes, New York.
Yokohama.  Yokohama (Japanese: 横浜; pronounced [jokohama] ⓘ) is the second-largest city in Japan by population[1] as well as by area, and the countrys most populous municipality.[a] It is the capital and most populous city in Kanagawa Prefecture, with a population of 3.7 million in 2023. It lies on Tokyo Bay, south of Tokyo, in the Kantō region of the main island of Honshu. Yokohama is also the major economic, cultural, and commercial hub of the Greater Tokyo Area along the Keihin Industrial Zone. Yokohama was one of the cities to open for trade with the West following the 1859 end of the policy of seclusion and has since been known as a cosmopolitan port city, after Kobe opened in 1853. Yokohama is the home of many Japans firsts in the Meiji era, including the first foreign trading port and Chinatown (1859), European-style sport venues (1860s), English-language newspaper (1861), confectionery and beer manufacturing (1865), daily newspaper (1870), gas-powered street lamps (1870s), railway station (1872), and power plant (1882). Yokohama developed rapidly as Japans prominent port city following the end of Japans relative isolation in the mid-19th century and is today one of its major ports along with Kobe, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Tokyo and Chiba. Yokohama is the largest port city and high tech industrial hub in the Greater Tokyo Area and the Kantō region. The city proper is headquarters to companies such as Isuzu, Nissan, JVCKenwood, Keikyu, Koei Tecmo, Sotetsu and Bank of Yokohama. Famous landmarks in Yokohama include Minato Mirai 21, Nippon Maru Memorial Park, Yokohama Chinatown, Motomachi Shopping Street, Yokohama Marine Tower, Yamashita Park, and Ōsanbashi Pier. Yokohama (横浜) means horizontal beach.[2] The current area surrounded by Maita Park, the Ōoka River and the Nakamura River have been a gulf divided by a sandbar from the open sea. This sandbar was the original Yokohama fishing village. Since the sandbar protruded perpendicularly from the land, or horizontally when viewed from the sea, it was called a horizontal beach.[3]
Hanja.  Hanja (Korean: 한자; Hanja: 漢字; IPA: [ha(ː)ntɕ͈a]), alternatively spelled Hancha, are Chinese characters used to write the Korean language.[a] After characters were introduced to Korea to write Literary Chinese, they were adapted to write Korean as early as the Gojoseon period. Hanjaeo (한자어; 漢字語) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, which can be written with Hanja, and hanmun (한문; 漢文) refers to Classical Chinese writing, although Hanja is also sometimes used to encompass both concepts. Because Hanja characters have never undergone any major reforms, they more closely resemble Kangxi form traditional Chinese and traditional Japanese characters, although the stroke orders for certain characters are slightly different. Such examples are the characters 教 and 敎, as well as 研 and 硏.[2] Only a small number of Hanja characters were modified or are unique to Korean, with the rest being identical to the traditional Chinese characters. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding Hanja characters. Until the contemporary period, Korean documents, history, literature and records were written primarily in Literary Chinese using Hanja as its primary script. As early as 1446, King Sejong the Great promulgated Hangul (also known as Chosŏngŭl in North Korea) through the Hunminjeongeum. It did not come into widespread official use until the late 19th and early 20th century.[3][4] Proficiency in Chinese characters is, therefore, necessary to study Korean history. Etymology of Sino-Korean words is reflected in Hanja.[5] Hanja were once used to write native Korean words, in a variety of systems collectively known as idu, but, by the 20th century, Koreans used hanja only for writing Sino-Korean words, while writing native vocabulary and loanwords from other languages in Hangul, a system known as mixed script. By the 21st century, even Sino-Korean words are usually written in the Hangul alphabet, with the corresponding Chinese character sometimes written next to it to prevent confusion if there are other characters or words with the same Hangul spelling. According to the Standard Korean Language Dictionary published by the National Institute of Korean Language (NIKL), approximately half (50%) of Korean words are Sino-Korean, mostly in academic fields (science, government, and society).[6] Other dictionaries, such as the Urimal Keun Sajeon, claim this number might be as low as roughly 30%.[7][8]
List of largest cities.   The United Nations uses three definitions for what constitutes a city, as not all cities in all jurisdictions are classified using the same criteria. Cities may be defined as the cities proper, the extent of their urban area, or their metropolitan regions. A city can be defined by its administrative boundaries, otherwise known as city proper. UNICEF defines city proper as, the population living within the administrative boundaries of a city or controlled directly from the city by a single authority. A city proper is a locality defined according to legal or political boundaries and an administratively recognised urban status that is usually characterised by some form of local government.[1][2][3] Cities proper and their boundaries and population data may not include suburbs.[4] The use of city proper as defined by administrative boundaries may not include suburban areas where an important proportion of the population working or studying in the city lives.[4] Because of this definition, the city proper population figure may differ greatly from the urban area population figure, as many cities are amalgamations of smaller municipalities (Australia), and conversely, many Chinese cities govern territories that extend well beyond the core urban area into suburban and rural areas.[5] The Chinese municipality of Chongqing, which is the largest city proper in the world by population, comprises a huge administrative area of 82,403 km2, around the size of Austria. However, more than 70% of its 30-million population are agricultural workers living in a rural setting.[6][7]
Cheshire (disambiguation). Cheshire is a county in the northwest of England. Cheshire may also refer to:
Cheshire Plain.  The Cheshire Plain is a relatively flat expanse of lowland within the county of Cheshire in North West England but extending south into Shropshire. It extends from the Mersey Valley in the north to the Shropshire Hills in the south, bounded by the hills of North Wales to the west and the foothills of the Pennines to the north-east.[1] The Wirral Peninsula lies to the north-west whilst the plain merges with the South Lancashire Plain in the embayment occupied by Manchester to the north. In detail, the plain comprises two areas with distinct characters, the one to the west of the Mid Cheshire Ridge and the other, larger part, to its east. The plain is the surface expression of the Cheshire Basin, a deep sedimentary basin that extends north into Lancashire and south into Shropshire. It assumed its current form as the ice-sheets of the last glacial period melted away between 20,000 and 15,000 years ago leaving behind a thick cover of glacial till and extensive tracts of glacio-fluvial sand and gravel. The primary agricultural use of the Cheshire Plain is dairy farming, creating the general appearance of enclosed hedgerow fields. Meteorologists use the term Cheshire Gap when referring to the lowlands of the Cheshire Plain, providing as they do a passage between the Clwydian Hills, in Wales on the one hand and the Peak District and South Pennines on the other. Weather systems are often guided down this gap, penetrating much further inland than elsewhere along the coast of the Irish Sea.[2]
Chinese family of scripts. The Chinese family of scripts includes writing systems used to write various East Asian languages, that ultimately descend from the oracle bone script invented in the Yellow River valley during the Shang dynasty. These include written Chinese itself, as well as adaptations of it for other languages, such as Japanese kanji, Korean hanja, Vietnamese chữ Hán and chữ Nôm, Zhuang sawndip, and Bai bowen. More divergent are the Tangut script, Khitan large script, Khitan small script and its offspring, the Jurchen script, as well as the Yi script, Sui script, and Geba syllabary, which were inspired by written Chinese but not descended directly from it. While written Chinese and many of its descendant scripts are  logographic, others are phonetic, including the kana, Nüshu, and Lisu syllabaries, as well as the bopomofo semi-syllabary.[1] These scripts are written in various styles, principally seal script, clerical script, regular script, semi-cursive script, and cursive script. Adaptations range from the conservative, as in Korean, which used Chinese characters in their standard form with only a few local coinages, and relatively conservative Japanese, which has coined a few hundred new characters and used traditional character forms until the mid-20th century, to the extensive adaptations of Zhuang and Vietnamese, each coining over 10,000 new characters by Chinese formation principles, to the highly divergent Tangut script, which formed over 5,000 new characters by its own principles. The earliest known examples of Chinese writing are oracle bone inscriptions made c. 1200 BC at Yin (near modern Anyang), the site of the final capital of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC). These inscriptions were carved into ox scapulae and tortoise plastrons, and recorded the results of official divinations conducted by the Shang royal house.[2] The script shows extensive simplification and linearization, believed by most researchers to indicate an extensive development of the script prior to the oldest samples.[3] While various symbols inscribed on pieces of pottery, jade, and bone have been found at Neolithic sites across China, there is no clear evidence of any relation to Shang oracle bone script.[4] Inscriptions on bronze vessels using a developed form of the Shang script dating to c. 1100 BC have also been discovered, and have provided a richer corpus.[5] Each character of the early script represents an Old Chinese word, which were uniformly monosyllabic at that time.[3] Characters are traditionally classified according to a system of six categories (六書; liùshū; six writings) according to the apparent strategy used to create them. This system was first made popular by the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary (c. 100 AD). Three of these categories involved a representation of the meaning of the word: Characters directly descendant of these forms remain still among the most commonly used today.[6]
Eastgate, Chester.  Eastgate is a permanently open gate through the Chester city walls, on the site of the original entrance to the Roman fortress of Deva Victrix in Chester, Cheshire, England.  It is a prominent landmark in the city of Chester and the Eastgate clock on top of it is said to be the most photographed clock in England after Big Ben. The original gate was guarded by a timber tower which was replaced by a stone tower in the 2nd century, and this in turn was replaced probably in the 14th century.  The present gateway dates from 1768 and is a three-arched sandstone structure which carries the walkway forming part of Chester city walls.  In 1899 a clock was added to the top of the gateway to celebrate the diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria two years earlier.  It is carried on openwork iron pylons, has a clock face on all four sides, and a copper ogee cupola.  The clock was designed by the Chester architect John Douglas.  The whole structure, gateway and clock, was designated as a Grade I listed building on 28 July 1955.[1] Chester was first established as a Roman fortress and town, known as Deva Victrix, in about AD 74 or 75.  The fortress was in the shape of a rectangle with rounded corners.  This was protected by a turf and earth rampart on which was a timber palisade, and outside this was a V-shaped ditch.  On each of the sides was a gate; the gate on the east side has survived as the Eastgate.  It was defended by a timber tower.  The road running through the gate led to Manchester, then across the Pennines to York.  It is thought that outside the fortress this road was lined by timber buildings that were used as shops or for other kinds of commercial activities.  Just outside the gate, to the north, was a large open area used as a parade ground.[2]  From about AD 100 the defences of the fortress were reinforced by a sandstone wall and at this time the gates and their towers were rebuilt in stone.[3] In 907 the Saxon kings of Wessex refounded Chester as a burh.  It is likely that at this time the Roman Eastgate was still present.[4]  By the medieval period the Eastgate was the most important entrance to the city. The Roman Eastgate had been replaced but the date of the replacement is not known.  Its design was possibly influenced by Caernarvon Castle, which makes the early 14th century the most likely date for its construction. It consisted of a tall rectangular tower with octagonal corner turrets.  At its flanks were lower towers that also had octagonal turrets.  During an excavation in 1971 a portion of the northern flanking turret was found, consisting of cream-coloured sandstone (in contrast to the red sandstone normally used in Chester).[5]
Beeston Castle.  Beeston Castle is a former Royal castle in Beeston, Cheshire, England (grid reference SJ537593), perched on a rocky sandstone crag 350 feet (107 m)[1] above the Cheshire Plain. It was built in the 1220s by Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester (1170–1232), on his return from the Crusades. In 1237, Henry III took over the ownership of Beeston, and it was kept in good repair until the 16th century, when it was considered to be of no further military use, although it was pressed into service again in 1643, during the English Civil War. The castle was slighted (partly demolished) in 1646, in accordance with Cromwells destruction order, to prevent its further use as a bastion. During the 18th century, parts of the site were used as a quarry. The castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument owned and managed by English Heritage.[2] The walls of the outer bailey and the gatehouse and curtain walls of the inner bailey are recorded separately in the National Heritage List for England as designated Grade I listed buildings.[3][4] A legend states that the royal treasure of Richard II was buried in the castle grounds but many searches have failed to discover the hoard. The castle is built on Beeston Crag, which is in the southerly part of the Mid Cheshire Ridge, a chain of low sandstone hills that stretches from the River Mersey down to the central region of the Cheshire Plain. The low-lying area between the southerly and the northern ranges of the ridge is known as the Beeston Gap. It was formed by a meltwater channel at the end of the Ice age.[5] The crag, just like the neighbouring Peckforton Hills, is part of a thicker sequence known as the New Red Sandstone. It was formed from easterly dipping layers of Triassic sandstone. The lower slopes are formed from Wilmslow Sandstone Formation while the upper strata are part of the Helsby Sandstone Formation, which is around 245 million years old. The hillock is capped by a small outcrop of sandstones assigned to the Tarporley Siltstone Formation (and formerly known as the Keuper Waterstones).[6] Both types of sandstones were once quarried at multiple sites within the castle grounds.
Jinmeiyō kanji. The jinmeiyō kanji (人名用漢字; Japanese pronunciation: [dʑimmeːjoːkaꜜɲdʑi], lit. kanji for use in personal names) are a set of 863 Chinese characters known as name kanji in English. They are a supplementary list of characters that can legally be used in registered personal names in Japan, despite not being in the official list of commonly used characters (jōyō kanji). Jinmeiyō kanji is sometimes used to refer to the characters in both the jinmeiyō and jōyō lists because some Japanese names do not require the specified jinmeiyō kanji and are written entirely in jōyō kanji. Hence, jōyō kanji can also be viewed as a subset of jinmeiyō kanji.[citation needed] A ministerial decree of 1946 limited the number of officially sanctioned kanji for public use to the 1,850 tōyō kanji. Only kanji on this list were acceptable as registered names, despite the fact that the list excluded many kanji frequently used in names up to that point. However, on May 25, 1951, the cabinet extended the set of characters usable in names by specifying the first 90 jinmeiyō kanji. Over the years, the Minister of Justice has increased the number of name kanji, and has a plan for further addition in response to requests from parents. As of April 30, 2009, there were 985 jinmeiyō kanji, but this number was reduced to 861 in late 2010 when 129 jinmeiyō characters were transferred to the jōyō kanji list, and 5 characters were transferred from the jōyō kanji list to jinmeiyō characters. In 2015 and 2017, 2 kanji in total were added to the jinmeiyō list, making the total number 863. In Japan, name kanji are taught at the junior-high level.[citation needed] Below is a list of changes made to the jinmeiyō kanji list since its creation in 1951.
Hyōgai kanji. Hyōgaiji (表外字; translated to characters from outside the table/chart), also known as hyōgai kanji (表外漢字), is a term for Japanese kanji outside the two major lists of jōyō kanji, which are taught in primary and secondary school, and the jinmeiyō kanji, which are additional kanji that are officially allowed for use in personal names. The term jōyōgai kanji (常用外漢字) is also encountered, but it designates all the kanji outside the list of jōyō kanji, including the jinmeiyō kanji. Because hyōgaiji is a catch-all category for all unlisted kanji, there is no comprehensive list, nor is there a definitive count of how many hyōgaiji exist. The highest level of the Kanji kentei (test of kanji aptitude) tests approximately 6,000 characters, of which half are hyōgaiji and 2,999 are from the official lists (2,136 jōyō kanji and 863 jinmeiyō kanji). While in principle any Chinese character or newly coined variant may be used as hyōgaiji, the Kangxi Dictionary and the 20th century Dai Kan-Wa jiten, both extremely comprehensive, contain about 47,000 and 50,000 characters, respectively, of which over 40,000 would be classed as hyōgaiji or non-standard variants if used in Japanese. While many jōyō kanji are printed using simplified forms (shinjitai, in opposition to traditional forms, kyūjitai), hyōgaiji are officially printed with traditional forms such as 臍, even if some simplified variants are officially recognized in print, such as the simplified 唖, from the traditional 啞 as well as 内 from 內.[1] The jinmeiyō kanji list (used for names) recognizes in most cases the traditional form along with the simplified form (when one exists). However, other unofficial simplified forms exist, known as extended shinjitai (拡張新字体, kakuchō shinjitai) – these come by applying the same simplification processes as in the development of shinjitai. The newspaper The Asahi Shimbun developed its own simplified characters, known as Asahi characters, and they have their own Unicode code points. Some of these simplifications are part of the standard JIS X 0208 and later versions. Among extended shinjitai, only a few are de facto frequently used, including 填, 頬 (extended shinjitai for the jōyō kanji 塡, 頰) or 涜, 掴 (extended shinjitai for the hyōgaiji 瀆, 摑).
Surrey (disambiguation). Surrey is a county in South East England. Surrey may also refer to:
Written Chinese. Written Chinese is a writing system that uses Chinese characters and other symbols to represent the Chinese languages. Chinese characters do not directly represent pronunciation, unlike letters in an alphabet or syllabograms in a syllabary. Rather, the writing system is morphosyllabic: characters are one spoken syllable in length, but generally correspond to morphemes in the language, which may either be independent words, or part of a polysyllabic word. Most characters are constructed from smaller components that may reflect the characters meaning or pronunciation.[1] Literacy requires the memorization of thousands of characters; college-educated Chinese speakers know approximately 4,000.[2][3] This has led in part to the adoption of complementary transliteration systems (generally Pinyin)[4] as a means of representing the pronunciation of Chinese.[5] Chinese writing is first attested during the late Shang dynasty (c. 1250 – c. 1050 BCE),[6][7][8] but the process of creating characters is thought to have begun centuries earlier during the Late Neolithic and early Bronze Age (c. 2500–2000 BCE).[9] After a period of variation and evolution, Chinese characters were standardized under the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE).[10] Over the millennia, these characters have evolved into well-developed styles of Chinese calligraphy.[11] As the varieties of Chinese diverged, a situation of diglossia developed, with speakers of mutually unintelligible varieties able to communicate through writing using Literary Chinese.[12] In the early 20th century, Literary Chinese was replaced in large part with written vernacular Chinese, largely corresponding to Standard Chinese, a form based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Although most other varieties of Chinese are not written, there are traditions of written Cantonese, written Shanghainese and written Hokkien, among others. Written Chinese is not based on an alphabet or syllabary.[13] Most characters can be analyzed as compounds of smaller components, which may be assembled according to several different principles. Characters and components may reflect aspects of meaning or pronunciation. The best known exposition of Chinese character composition is the Shuowen Jiezi, compiled by Xu Shen c. 100 CE. Xu did not have access to the earliest forms of Chinese characters, and his analysis is not considered to fully capture the nature of the writing system.[14] Nevertheless, no later work has supplanted the Shuowen Jiezi in terms of breadth, and it is still relevant to etymological research today.[15] According to the Shuowen Jiezi, Chinese characters are developed on six basic principles.[16] (These principles, though popularized by the Shuowen Jiezi, were developed earlier; the oldest known mention of them is in the Rites of Zhou, a text from c. 150 BCE.[17]) The first two principles produce simple characters, known as 文 (wén):[16] The remaining four principles produce complex characters historically called 字 (zì), though this term is now generally used to refer to all characters, whether simple or complex. Of these four, two construct characters from simpler parts:[16]
Guildford Cathedral.  The Cathedral Church of the Holy Spirit, Guildford, commonly known as Guildford Cathedral, is the Anglican cathedral in Guildford, Surrey, England. Earl Onslow donated the first 6 acres (2.4 ha) of land on which the cathedral stands, with Viscount Bennett, a former Prime Minister of Canada, purchasing the remaining land and donating it to the cathedral in 1947. Designed by Edward Maufe and built between 1936 and 1961, it is the seat of the Bishop of Guildford. The cathedral was listed as Grade II* by Historic England in 1981.[1] It was the last Church of England cathedral to be consecrated on a new site, and one of only three to be built in the 20th-century, the others being Liverpool and Coventry Cathedral.[2] The Diocese of Guildford was created in 1927, covering most of Surrey. Guildfords restored Georgian Holy Trinity Church served as pro-cathedral, but was considered too small to become the cathedral.[3] In 1932, a design competition was held, with a brief that the construction costs should be £250,000.[3] 183 architects took part, from whom the Cathedral Committee chose Edward Maufe (later Sir Edward Maufe) as its architect.[4][3] In 1933, Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow donated land at the top of Stag Hill as a site for the cathedral.[3]
Cape (disambiguation). A cape is a sleeveless outer garment, which drapes the wearers back and fastens at the neck. Cape, the Cape, or CAPE may also refer to:
Tōyō kanji. The tōyō kanji (当用漢字; lit. general-use kanji) are those kanji listed on the Tōyō kanji hyō (当用漢字表; literally list of general-use kanji), which was released by the Japanese Ministry of Education (文部省) on 16 November 1946, following a reform of kanji characters of Chinese origin in the Japanese language. The intention of the tōyō list was to declare which kanji could be used in official government documents. The 1,850-character list was not meant to be exhaustive, as many characters that were in common use at the time, and are today, were not included. It was meant as a baseline for satisfactory functional literacy in Japanese at a secondary education level, as all of the listed characters were to be taught nationwide in compulsory education.[1] They were replaced in 1981 by the jōyō kanji, which initially included 1,945 characters, but was expanded to 2,136 characters in 2010 following several revisions.[citation needed] Thousands of kanji characters were in use in various writing systems, leading to great difficulties for those learning written Japanese. Additionally, several characters had identical meanings but were written differently from each other, further increasing complexity. After World War II, the Ministry of Education decided to minimize the number of kanji by choosing the most commonly used kanji, along with simplified kanji (see Shinjitai) commonly appearing in contemporary literature, to form the tōyō kanji. This was an integral part of the postwar reform of Japanese national writing.
Cape Tisan. Cape Tisan is a headland on the Mediterranean Sea coast of Mersin Province, Turkey. Τhe name is a distorted form of Ἀφροδισιᾶν (Aphrodisian; as many ancient names of places in Turkish from the accusative of the Greek name Ἀφροδίσιας). The cape is near to Yeşilovacık town in Silifke district of Mersin Province. It is at 36°08′N 33°41′E / 36.133°N 33.683°E / 36.133; 33.683 The distance to Silifke is 52 kilometres (32 mi) and to Mersin is 135 kilometres (84 mi). The cape is actually the southernmost point of a circular spit of roughly 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) diameter connected to the mainland by an isthmus. The spit is famous for being home to Aphrodisias of Cilicia and the isthmus has a pair of bays one in each side. In the Middle Ages the east bay was named Limni Aphrodisias and the west bay was named Limni Etheros.[1] Modern popular names are Cleopatras bay for the east bay and Pirates bay (Turkish: Korsan koyu) for the west bay. Both bays are popular beaches and in fact the cape is named after a site of marine resorts just north of the isthmus. However owing to dominant lodos winds of the Mediterranean coast, the Pirates bay is not as sheltered as the Cleopatras bay.
Kyōiku kanji. The kyōiku kanji (教育漢字; literally education kanji) are kanji which Japanese elementary school students should learn from first through sixth grade.[1] Also known as gakushū kanji (学習漢字; literally learning kanji), these kanji are listed on the Gakunenbetsu kanji haitō hyō (学年別漢字配当表(ja); literally table of kanji by school year).[2] The table is developed and maintained by the Japanese Ministry of Education (MEXT). Although the list is designed for Japanese students, it can also be used as a sequence of learning characters by non-native speakers as a means of focusing on the most commonly used kanji. Kyōiku kanji are a subset (1,026) of the 2,136 characters of jōyō kanji.[1] 一丁七万三上下不世両並中丸主久乗九乱乳予争事二五井亡交京人仁今仏仕他付代令以仮仲件任休会伝似位低住佐体何余作使例供価便係保信修俳俵倉個倍候借値停健側備傷働像億優元兄兆先光児党入全八公六共兵具典内円冊再写冬冷処出刀分切刊列初判別利制刷券刻則前副割創劇力功加助努労効勇勉動務勝勢勤包化北区医十千午半卒協南単博印危卵厚原厳去参友反収取受口古句可台史右号司各合同名后向君否吸告周味呼命和品員唱商問善喜営器四回因団困囲図固国園土圧在地坂均垂型城域基埼堂報場塩境墓増士声売変夏夕外多夜夢大天太夫央失奈奏奮女好妹妻姉始委姿婦媛子字存孝季学孫宅宇守安完宗官宙定宝実客宣室宮害家容宿寄密富寒察寸寺対専射将尊導小少就尺局居届屋展属層山岐岡岩岸島崎川州巣工左差己巻市布希師席帯帰帳常幕干平年幸幹幼庁広序底店府度座庫庭康延建弁式弓引弟弱張強当形役往径待律後徒従得復徳心必志忘応忠快念思急性恩息悪悲情想意愛感態慣憲成我戦戸所手才打批承技投折担招拝拡拾持指挙捨授採探接推提揮損操支改放政故救敗教散敬数整敵文料断新方旅族旗日旧早明易昔星映春昨昭昼時晩景晴暑暖暗暮暴曜曲書最月有服朗望朝期木未末本札机材村束条来東松板林枚果枝染柱査栃栄校株根格案桜梅梨械棒森植検業極楽構様標模権横樹橋機欠次欲歌止正武歩歯歴死残段殺母毎毒比毛氏民気水氷永求池決汽沖河油治沿泉法波泣注泳洋洗活派流浅浴海消液深混清済減温測港湖湯満源準滋漁演漢潔潟潮激火灯灰災炭点無然焼照熊熟熱燃父片版牛牧物特犬犯状独率玉王班現球理生産用田由申男町画界畑留略番異疑病痛発登白百的皇皮皿益盛盟目直相省看県真眼着矢知短石砂研破確磁示礼社祖祝神票祭禁福私秋科秒秘移程税種穀積穴究空窓立章童競竹笑笛第筆等筋答策算管箱節築簡米粉精糖糸系紀約紅納純紙級素細終組経結給統絵絶絹続綿総緑線編練縄縦縮績織罪置署羊美群義羽翌習老考者耕耳聖聞職肉肥育肺胃背胸能脈脳腸腹臓臣臨自至興舌舎航船良色花芸芽若苦英茨茶草荷菜落葉著蒸蔵薬虫蚕血衆行術街衛衣表裁装裏補製複西要見規視覚覧親観角解言計討訓記訪設許訳証評詞試詩話誌認誕語誠誤説読課調談論諸講謝識警議護谷豆豊象貝負財貧貨責貯貴買貸費貿賀賃資賛賞質赤走起足路身車軍転軽輪輸辞農辺近返述迷追退送逆通速造連週進遊運過道達遠適選遺郡部郵郷都配酒酸里重野量金針鉄鉱銀銅銭鋼録鏡長門閉開間関閣阜阪防降限陛院除陸険陽隊階際障集雑難雨雪雲電青静非面革音頂順預領頭題額顔願類風飛食飯飲飼養館首香馬駅験骨高魚鳥鳴鹿麦黄黒鼻 日人一大年本中出時行事分会上生国者合自間方見手前場月子地学後入目部長発同新高社的作内動下用代言立定理明体業度通気関対家力表当金実全思物最外話現書名小意性市成来連今文回開法以戦所化女記主問三道不世取要多知機二野数第持教山心相画使集経正選報民考先期近情員利加面点水無在変次公初決安原品結解政東活語題保特信向車別私受平界海重引議付続真能元強田都組感電調指制少身和治何校男産口有説十楽示切約円県直確番川送交際空進得神売件務勝権食設運認必参位過町式置料流広北天可論共五支果氏終味計線聞死店始村万反島常木様半投状容放院予格着土住美屋台四応区判形転団基朝総白音役係工葉由西足他改伝軍止風起質仕配育張告資術声好親構頭府落優供士京済八義求検然石打価門再良乗局任古種光観注営映両限想帰読夫色号残態案達職追字存写演断査米愛南急消命提側統商球科建備首族条登研象呼早千九太図病路造悪馬技協個害念待収例増去各護官等派究規夜験館歩非細母像型割器返難試室証歌史録戸客助単視勢医素比火移党識準師花失段王域武量争満除福六井差製宮降類州殺若歴百編望守買独周園値負英評処系右七銀深横談防走接速管兵座策根境父異黒友復程率申衛青末警赤展働答領笑顔左挙松鉄算紙毎減察修導低辺駅退覚費春景帯疑旅極宅完版未曲担階週省専賞装著材寄飛姿補効労谷隊習農橋株具居委源船久述整将城財夏席願児精競故健佐興織絶波適積熱紀級革秋敗薬破標休苦囲温節岡洋税森背芸便遠険庫幸宿蔵巻探額星裁許司富授軽激推並従午遺香血順課林給板略訪雑陸角寺港留丸印玉君志短属静崎模豊遊服因清余河圧酒拡康障息列危密盛皇街照冷講飲央肉章逆刻喜責老泉草散我布旧絵輪裏庭衆昨植焼養訳博劇妻曜候針夢婦罪亡阪諸築練善創鳥仲堂幹茶似就雨徒航討承典岩誌禁採乱否令測油傷厳固犯岸忘輸幕陽納欲宇複筆辞徳困則永痛秘池筋宗札貴延益里簡停枚倍己脳羽昭勤敵票染暴片刊混易季底功坂群祭希折射夕閉快暮層厚億樹竹欠暗弱閣庁奈倉卒雪弟毛批宣賀兄栄救績純副骨仮聖晴券魚覧礼届操憲仏律署束沖迷宝飯損丁犬盟災吸冬鹿頂貨郷至均悲借謝縮郵歯腹荷包臣湯洗衣翌燃牛臨昼窓舎黄幼童砂誤鳴郡眼奏菜昔誕酸胸乳貸沿宙雲縄皮塩秒耳詩努祖賛液招勉箱梅揮句姉矢敬捨浅慣看漢浴熊忠緑桜尊虫豆祝妹旗泣賃訓紅寒勇干湖才銭穴毒潮柱詞鏡誠仁唱帳孫漁俳臓貧枝畑炭拝預晩岐牧序灯飼刀暖冊械孝鼻粉往棒氷卵熟刷墓糸貯縦泳潟脈肥貿麦弁兆糖梨垂朗恩埼暑蒸奮巣拾銅鉱径綿舌寸磁灰茨芽耕鋼潔皿肺腸阜貝胃班弓滋栃羊机尺后笛俵穀媛陛汽絹蚕[4] Kokuji are characters originally created in Japan; two of them are kyōiku kanji: 働 (Grade 4) and 畑 (Grade 3). There are also 8 kokuji within the secondary-school kanji and 16 within the jinmeiyō kanji. The character 働 and some others are also used in Chinese now, but most kokuji are unknown outside Japan.
Legal (disambiguation). Legal matters relate to the system of law governing a society. Legal also may refer to:
Surrey, British Columbia.  Surrey is a city in British Columbia, Canada. It is located south of the Fraser River on the Canada–United States border. It is a member municipality of the Metro Vancouver regional district and metropolitan area. Mainly a suburban city, Surrey is the provinces second-largest by population after Vancouver and the third-largest by area after Abbotsford and Prince George. Seven neighbourhoods in Surrey are designated town centres: Cloverdale, Fleetwood, Guildford, Newton, South Surrey, and City Centre encompassed by Whalley.[8] Surrey was incorporated in 1879 and sits upon the lands of a number of Indigenous nations, namely the Katzie and the Kwantlen (who speak hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓) and the Semiahmoo (who speak the North Straits Salish language, similar to the W̱SÁNEĆ).[9] When Englishman H.J. Brewer looked across the Fraser River from New Westminster and saw it was reminiscent of his native County of Surrey in England, the settlement of Surrey was placed on the map.[10] The area then comprised forests of Douglas fir, fir, red cedar, hemlock, blackberry bushes, and cranberry bogs. A portion of present-day Whalley (named after Harry Whalley, who owned and operated a gas bar at the bend in King George Blvd, (formerly King George Highway) at 108 Avenue, Whalleys Corner) was used as a burial ground by the Kwantlen (or Qwontlen) Nation. Settlers arrived first in Cloverdale and parts of South Surrey, mostly to farm, fish, harvest oysters, or set up small stores. Once the Pattullo Bridge was erected in 1937, the way was open for Surrey to expand. In the post-war 1950s, North Surreys neighbourhoods filled with single-family homes and Surrey (not yet a city) became a bedroom community, absorbing commuters who worked in Burnaby or Vancouver. In the 1980s and 1990s, the city witnessed unprecedented growth, as people from different parts of Canada and the world, particularly Asia, began to make the municipality their home. In 2013, it was projected to surpass the city of Vancouver as the most populous city in BC within the following 10 to 12 years.[11]
Pringle Bay. Pringle Bay (Afrikaans: Pringlebaai) is a small, coastal village in the Overberg region of the Western Cape, in South Africa. It is situated at the foot of Hangklip, on the opposite side of False Bay from Cape Point. The town and surrounds are part of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO Heritage Site. The bay is named after Rear-Admiral Thomas Pringle, of the Royal Navy, who commanded the naval station at the Cape in the late 1790s.[2] Situated between Bettys Bay and Gordons Bay, many of the houses in the small community are only used as holiday houses by their owners. It is accessed by the R44, which connects it to the N2. Pringle Bay is well known for the Hangklip (hanging rock) that leans out to sea and marks the eastern end of False Bay. The Hangklip Mountain at 484m above sea level is packed with numerous natural caves, and was once a refuge for bandits and slaves escaping their Dutch masters, hence the mountain cave being named Drostersgat - Deserters Cave. [3]
Law (disambiguation). Law is a system of rules that regulate behavior. Law, the law, LAW, laws or similar variants may also refer to:
Non-metropolitan county.  A non-metropolitan county, or colloquially, shire county, is a subdivision of England used for local government.[1] The non-metropolitan counties were originally created in 1974 as part of a reform of local government in England and Wales, and were the top tier of a two-tier system of counties and districts. 21 non-metropolitan counties still use a two-tier system; 56 are unitary authorities, in which the functions of a county and district council have been combined in a single body. Berkshire has a unique structure. Non-metropolitan counties cover the majority of England with the exception of Greater London, the Isles of Scilly, and the six metropolitan counties: Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands and West Yorkshire. The non-metropolitan counties are all part of ceremonial counties. Some ceremonial counties, such as Norfolk, contain a single non-metropolitan county, but many contain more than one and it is also common for ceremonial counties and non-metropolitan counties to share a name. Lancashire, for example, contains the non-metropolitan counties of Lancashire, Blackpool, and Blackburn with Darwen.
Cape of Good Hope.  The Cape of Good Hope (Afrikaans: Kaap die Goeie Hoop [ˌkɑːp di ˌχujə ˈɦuəp])[a] is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa. A common misconception is that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Africa, based on the misbelief that the Cape was the dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In fact, the southernmost point of Africa is Cape Agulhas about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east-southeast.[1] The currents of the two oceans meet at the point where the warm-water Agulhas current meets the cold-water Benguela current and turns back on itself. That oceanic meeting point fluctuates between Cape Agulhas and Cape Point (about 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) east of the Cape of Good Hope). When following the western side of the African coastline from the equator, however, the Cape of Good Hope marks the point where a ship begins to travel more eastward than southward. Thus, the first modern rounding of the cape in 1487 by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was a milestone in the attempts by the Portuguese to establish direct trade relations with the Far East (although Herodotus mentioned a claim that the Phoenicians had done so far earlier).[2] Dias called the cape Cabo das Tormentas (Cape of Storms; Dutch: Stormkaap), which was the original name of the cape.[3] As one of the great capes of the South Atlantic Ocean, it has long been of special significance to sailors, many of whom refer to it simply as the Cape.[4] It is a waypoint on the Cape Route and the clipper route followed by clipper ships to the Far East and Australia, and still followed by several offshore yacht races.
Legal history.  Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilizations[1] and operates in the wider context of social history. Certain jurists and historians of legal process have seen legal history as the recording of the evolution of laws and the technical explanation of how these laws have evolved with the view of better understanding the origins of various legal concepts; some consider legal history a branch of intellectual history. Twentieth-century historians viewed legal history in a more contextualised manner – more in line with the thinking of social historians.[2] They have looked at legal institutions as complex systems of rules, players and symbols and have seen these elements interact with society to change, adapt, resist or promote certain aspects of civil society. Such legal historians have tended to analyze case histories from the parameters of social-science inquiry, using statistical methods, analysing class distinctions among litigants, petitioners and other players in various legal processes. By analyzing case outcomes, transaction costs, and the number of settled cases, they have begun examining legal institutions, practices, procedures, and briefs offering a more nuanced picture of law and society than traditional legal studies of jurisprudence, case law and civil codes can achieve.[3] Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, was based on the concept of Maat, and was characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality.[4] By the 22nd century BC, Ur-Nammu, an ancient Sumerian ruler, formulated the first extant law code, consisting of casuistic statements (if... then...). Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, German and French. Ancient Greek has no single word for law as an abstract concept,[5] retaining instead the distinction between divine law (thémis), human decree (nómos) and custom (díkē).[6] Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy.[7] Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and had historically independent schools of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, dating from the 400 BC, and the Manusmriti from 100 BCE[8] were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance.[9] Manus central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across South East Asia.[10] During the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, sharia was established by the Muslim sultanates and empires, most notably Mughal Empires Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, compiled by emperor Aurangzeb and various scholars of Islam.[11][12] After British colonialism, Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was  supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire.[13] Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law. The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences.[14] Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French, but mostly the German Civil Code.[15] This partly reflected Germanys status as a rising power in the late nineteenth century. Similarly, traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Qing dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law.[16] Today Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between Chiang Kai-sheks nationalists, who fled there, and Mao Zedongs communists who won control of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the Peoples Republic of China was heavily influenced by soviet Socialist law, which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law  rights.[17] Today, however, because of rapid industrialisation China has been reforming, at least in terms of economic (if not social and political) rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a turn away from administrative domination.[18] Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organization.[19]
Mersin Province. Mersin Province (Turkish: Mersin ili), formerly İçel Province (İçel ili), is a province and metropolitan municipality in southern Turkey, on the Mediterranean coast between Antalya and Adana. Its area is 16,010 km2,[3] and its population is 1,916,432 (2022).[2] The provincial capital and the biggest city in the province is Mersin, which is composed of four municipalities and district governorates: Akdeniz, Mezitli, Toroslar and Yenişehir. Next largest is Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul the Apostle. The province is considered to be a part of the geographical, economical and cultural region of Çukurova, which covers the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye and Hatay.  The province is named after its biggest city Mersin. Mersin was named after the aromatic plant genus Myrsine (Greek: Μυρσίνη, Turkish: mersin) in the family Primulaceae, a myrtle that grows in abundance in the area. The 17th-century Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi has recorded in his Seyahatnâme that there was also a clan named Mersinoğulları in the area.[4] Ninth biggest province of Turkey by land area, Mersin consists 2,02% of Turkey.[6] 87% of the land area is mountain, leading up to the rocky heights of the central Taurus Mountains, the highest peak is Medetsiz (3,584 m) in the Bolkar range, and there are a number of important passes over to central Anatolia. There are many high meadows and small plains between 700 and 1500m. The coastal strip has many large areas of flatland, formed from soil brought down by rivers and streams running off the mountains. This is fertile land, the largest area being the plain of Tarsus. The largest rivers are the Göksu and the Berdan (Göksu Calycadnus and  Berdan Cydnus of antiquity), but there are many small streams running into lakes, reservoirs or the Mediterranean sea. Mersin has 321 km of coastline, much of it sandy beach. The climate is typical of the Mediterranean; very hot and rainless in summer, mild and wet in winter. The winter rains can be very heavy and flooding is a problem in many areas, but it never snows on the coast, only in the mountainous areas.
Jurisprudence.  Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values; and the relationship between law and other fields of study, including economics, ethics, history, sociology, and political philosophy. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists. Jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered: The terms philosophy of law and jurisprudence are often used interchangeably, though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms of reasoning that fit into economics or sociology. Whereas lawyers are interested in what the law is on a specific issue in a specific jurisdiction, analytical philosophers of law are interested in identifying the features of law shared across cultures, times, and places. Taken together, these foundational features of law offer the kind of universal definition philosophers are after. The general approach allows philosophers to ask questions about, for example, what separates law from morality, politics, or practical reason.[1] While the field has traditionally focused on giving an account of laws nature, some scholars have begun to examine the nature of domains within law, e.g. tort law, contract law, or criminal law. These scholars focus on what makes certain domains of law distinctive and how one domain differs from another. A particularly fecund area of research has been the distinction between tort law and criminal law, which more generally bears on the difference between civil and criminal law.[2]
London (disambiguation). London is the capital city and largest metropolitan region of both England and the United Kingdom. London may also refer to: 
Southwark.  Southwark (/ˈsʌðərk/ ⓘ SUDH-ərk)[1] is a district of Central London situated on the south bank of the River Thames, forming the north-western part of the wider modern London Borough of Southwark. The district, which is the oldest part of South London, developed due to its position at the southern end of the early versions of London Bridge, for centuries the only dry crossing on the river. Around 43 AD, engineers of the Roman Empire found the geographic features of the south bank here suitable for the placement and construction of the first bridge.[2] Londons historic core, the City of London, lay north of the bridge and for centuries the area of Southwark just south of the bridge was partially governed by the City, while other areas of the district were more loosely governed. The section known as Liberty of the Clink became a place of entertainment. By the 12th century Southwark had been incorporated as an ancient borough, and this historic status is reflected in the alternative name of the area, as Borough.  The ancient borough of Southwarks river frontage extended from the modern borough boundary, just to the west of the Oxo Tower, to St Saviours Dock (originally the mouth of the River Neckinger) in the east. In the 16th century, parts of Southwark near London Bridge became a formal City ward, Bridge Without. The urban area expanded over the years and Southwark was completely separated administratively from the now small City in 1900, although some remnants of City administration remain in the Guildable Manor. Like other parts of London, it now falls under the Mayor of London and London Assembly in addition to its Burough authority. Local points of interest include Southwark Cathedral, Borough Market, Shakespeares Globe theatre, The Shard, Tower Bridge, Butlers Wharf and the Tate Modern museum. The name Suthriganaweorc[3] or Suthringa geweorche[4] is recorded for the area in the 10th-century Anglo-Saxon document known as the Burghal Hidage[4] and means fort of the men of Surrey[3] or the defensive work of the men of Surrey.[4] Southwark is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as Sudweca. The name means southern defensive work and is formed from the Old English sūþ (south) and weorc (work). The southern location is in reference to the City of London to the north, Southwark being at the southern end of London Bridge. In Old English, Surrey means southern district (or the men of the southern district),[5] so the change from southern district work to the latter southern work may be an evolution based on the elision of the single syllable ge element, meaning district.
Ruby character. Ruby characters or rubi characters (Japanese: ルビ; rōmaji: rubi; Korean: 루비; romaja: rubi) are small, annotative glosses that are usually placed above or to the right of logographic characters of languages in the East Asian cultural sphere, such as Chinese hanzi, Japanese kanji, and Korean hanja, to show the logographs pronunciation; these were formerly also used for Vietnamese chữ Hán and chữ Nôm, and may still occasionally be seen in that context when reading archaic texts. Typically called just ruby or rubi, such annotations are most commonly used as pronunciation guides for characters that are likely to be unfamiliar to the reader. Here is an example of Japanese ruby characters (called furigana) for Tokyo (東京): Most furigana are written with the hiragana syllabary, but katakana and romaji are also occasionally used. Alternatively, sometimes foreign words (usually English) are printed with furigana to provide the meaning, and vice versa. Textbooks sometimes render on-readings with katakana and kun-readings with hiragana. Here is an example of ruby characters for Beijing (北京) in Zhuyin (a.k.a. Bopomofo), Xiaoerjing, and Pinyin. In Taiwan, the main syllabary used for Chinese ruby characters is Zhuyin fuhao (also known as Bopomofo); in mainland China pinyin is mainly used. Typically, unlike the example shown above, zhuyin is used with a vertical traditional writing and zhuyin is written on the right side of the characters. In mainland China, horizontal script is used and ruby characters (pinyin) are written above the Chinese characters.
Jurisprudence.  Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values; and the relationship between law and other fields of study, including economics, ethics, history, sociology, and political philosophy. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists. Jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered: The terms philosophy of law and jurisprudence are often used interchangeably, though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms of reasoning that fit into economics or sociology. Whereas lawyers are interested in what the law is on a specific issue in a specific jurisdiction, analytical philosophers of law are interested in identifying the features of law shared across cultures, times, and places. Taken together, these foundational features of law offer the kind of universal definition philosophers are after. The general approach allows philosophers to ask questions about, for example, what separates law from morality, politics, or practical reason.[1] While the field has traditionally focused on giving an account of laws nature, some scholars have begun to examine the nature of domains within law, e.g. tort law, contract law, or criminal law. These scholars focus on what makes certain domains of law distinctive and how one domain differs from another. A particularly fecund area of research has been the distinction between tort law and criminal law, which more generally bears on the difference between civil and criminal law.[2]
Inuboh Station.  Inuboh Station (犬吠駅, Inubō-eki) is a railway station on the privately operated Chōshi Electric Railway Line in Chōshi, Chiba, Japan. Inuboh Station is served by the 6.4 km (4.0 mi) Chōshi Electric Railway Line from Chōshi to Tokawa. It is located between Kimigahama and Tokawa stations, and is a distance of 5.5 km from Chōshi Station.[1] The station is staffed during the daytime, and consists of one side platform serving a single track.[1] Nure senbei (moist senbei rice crackers) are made and sold inside the large Portuguese-style station building.[2] Former Choshi Electric Railway DeHa 501 EMU car was sectioned and grounded in front of the station together with former Sagami Railway 2000 series EMU car MoNi 2022. These were used as shop and restaurant facilities until they were cut up on-site in July 2012 due to their increasingly poor structural condition.[3][4]
Inubōsaki Lighthouse. Inubōsaki Lighthouse (犬吠埼燈台, Inubōsaki tōdai) is a lighthouse on Cape Inubō, in the city of Chōshi, Chiba Prefecture Japan.  It is notable as one of the few lighthouses whose original lens was a first order Fresnel lens, the strongest type of Fresnel lens.  It is a Registered Tangible Cultural Property of Japan. The lighthouse is located within the borders of the Suigo-Tsukuba Quasi-National Park. Although not one of eight lighthouses to be built in Meiji period Japan under the provisions of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce of 1858, signed by the Bakumatsu period Tokugawa Shogunate, the need for a lighthouse at Cape Inubō for the safety of vessels on the northeastern approaches to Tokyo was recognized at an early time after Japan was opened to the West.  The wreck of the Tokugawa navy warship Mikaho in a typhoon on the rocks of Cape Inubō with the loss of 13 lives on October 6, 1868 further emphasized the need for a lighthouse. The lighthouse was designed and constructed by British engineer Richard Henry Brunton, born 1841 in Kincardineshire, Scotland, who was under contract by the new Meiji government. Brunton constructed another 25 lighthouses from far northern Hokkaidō to southern Kyūshū during his career in Japan. Work began on the start of 1872.[4] The Inubōsaki Lighthouse was lit on November 15, 1874. The structure consisted of a cylindrical tower made from the first domestically-produced red bricks in Japan. Brunton supervised the construction of a brick factory in Tomioka Village in what is now part of Narita City, which produced 193,000 bricks for the project.[5] However, Brunton was uncertain of the mechanical strength of the Japanese bricks, so he constructed the tower using a double thickness for the walls. The tower, at 31.5 meters, is also the second tallest brick lighthouse in Japan, surpassed only by the Shiriyazaki Lighthouse (also built by Brunton) in Higashidōri, Aomori Prefecture. Repairs for historical preservation and improvements in earthquake safety were made in 1977.[1] The Inubōsaki Lighthouse is currently open to the public, who may visit a small museum at its base, and climb to the top for a panoramic view over the Pacific Ocean. It is registered with the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities as one of the “One Hundred Most Important Lighthouses in the World.The lighthouse is currently maintained by the Japan Coast Guard. Furthermore, in 2020, it was registatered on Important Cultural Property (Japan).[6]
Byōbugaura. Byōbugaura (屏風ヶ浦, Byōbugaura) is an inlet on the northeast coast of Chiba Prefecture that ranges from Cape Inubō in Chōshi to Cape Gyōbumi in Asahi. Byōbugaura is an important part of the coastal area in Chiba Prefecture, as it connects the northern point of the Pacific Ocean coast at Chōshi to Kujūkuri Beach, which covers a large portion of the western side of the prefecture.[1][2] The name of the inlet is formed from the word byōbu, the Japanese-style folding screen, and ura, meaning an inlet. Byōbugaura resembles the White Cliffs of Dover on the English Channel. For this reason the inlet is sometimes called Tōyō no Dōbā (東洋のドーバー), or Dover of the East.[3] Byōbugaura is known for its long history of marine erosion. Byōbugaura spans approximately 10 m (33 ft), with precipitous cliffs that reach an altitude of 60 m (197 ft). Three strata are clearly visible on the cliffs of the inlet: the reddish Kantō Loam Stratum at the top, the Katori Statum in the middle, the chalky-white Iioka Stratum prominently on the cliff face, and the Naarai Stratum at the base. The Kantō Loam Stratum is red and is composed of material from volcanic eruptions of Mount Fuji and Mount Hakone, and the white portions of the cliff face consist of easily  eroded clay.[2] Byōbugaura is noted in Japan for its historical and ongoing marine erosion due to the geological character of the inlet and the near-constant violent waves of the Pacific Ocean in the area.[4] About 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of land has been lost to erosion in the past 700 years.[5] In modern times, in the 63 years between 1888 and 1951 30 metres (98 ft) of land have been lost.[6] Tetrapods have been extensively installed at Byōbugaura to establish breakwaters, and have softened the retreat of land.[1] The area of Byōbugaura on the border of Chōshi features marine caves, but most have also been lost due to marine erosion. Byōbugaura was used as a defensive position overlooking the Pacific Ocean as early as the Kamakura period (1185–1333). Tsuneharu Kataoka (fl. 12th century), a grandson of the regional leader Taira no Tadatsune, used an area 100 metres (330 ft) in front of the present-day location of Iioka Lighthouse on Cape Gyōbumi to build Sanuki Castle. Kataoka plotted against the first Kamakura shōgun Minamoto no Yoritomo, and Kataoka, his family, and local supporters were defeated and killed at Sanuki Castle by members of the Chiba clan. The remains of the castle have been lost out to sea due to marine erosion.[5][7] Byōbugaura makes up the southernmost part of Suigō-Tsukuba Quasi-National Park,[4] but because of the danger of violent waves off the inlet there are few recreational facilities built in the area. Byōbugaura, due to its dramatic coastal scenery and location near Tokyo, has been extensively used as a filming location for television dramas, commercials, and film. The precinct of the Tokai Shrine, above the inlet in Chōshi, has an important old-growth forest featuring the tabu species of laurel, castanopsis, and camellia, and is a Designated Natural Area of Chiba Prefecture.[1][8][9] The areas above the inlet are also used for agricultural. The headland around Cape Inubō is cultivated for cabbage production.
Guildford Guildhall.  The Guildford Guildhall is a Guildhall located on the High Street of the town of Guildford, Surrey. It is a Grade I listed building.[1] The Guildhall, which initially accommodated a market hall on the ground floor and a courtroom on the first floor, was built around 1550.[1] It was substantially remodelled with a new facade and a new council chamber being installed on the first floor in 1683.[2][3] The external design involved three doors on the ground floor, three mullion windows flanked by Ionic order pilasters augmented by a balcony with iron railings on the first floor and an ornamental cupola on the roof.[1] The projecting clock, erected at that time, was presented to the council by a London clockmaker, John Aylward, in return for being allowed to trade in the borough.[2][4] The interior design involved a courtroom on the ground floor and a council chamber on the first floor.[3] The panelling in the council chamber was taken from Stoughton Manor House shortly before it was demolished in the late 17th century.[2] The ornamental cupola was replaced in 1882.[1] During much of the 20th century the town hall served as the meeting place of the Municipal Borough of Guildford but it ceased to be the local seat of government in 1974, when the amalgamation of the municipal borough of Guildford and Guildford Rural District to form Guildford Borough Council took place; the amalgamated Borough Council decided to hold its meetings at Millmead House.[5]
Guildford (disambiguation). Guildford is a town in Surrey, England. It gives its name to the Borough of Guildford, the Diocese of Guildford and the Parliamentary constituency of Guildford. Guildford, Guilford, or Gildford may also refer to:
Orthography.  An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, punctuation, word boundaries, capitalization, hyphenation, and emphasis. Most national and international languages have an established writing system that has undergone substantial standardization, thus exhibiting less dialect variation than the spoken language.[1][2] These processes can fossilize pronunciation patterns that are no longer routinely observed in speech (e.g. would and should); they can also reflect deliberate efforts to introduce variability for the sake of national identity, as seen in Noah Websters efforts to introduce easily noticeable differences between American and British spelling (e.g. honor and honour). Orthographic norms develop through social and political influence at various levels, such as encounters with print in education, the workplace, and the state. Some nations have established language academies in an attempt to regulate aspects of the national language, including its orthography—such as the Académie Française in France and the Royal Spanish Academy in Spain. No such authority exists for most languages, including English. Some non-state organizations, such as newspapers of record and academic journals, choose greater orthographic homogeneity by enforcing a particular style guide or spelling standard such as Oxford spelling. The English word orthography is first attested in the 15th century, ultimately from Ancient Greek: ὀρθός (orthós correct) and γράφειν (gráphein to write).[3]
Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts.  Many East Asian scripts can be written horizontally or vertically. Chinese characters, Korean hangul, and Japanese kana may be oriented along either axis, as they consist mainly of disconnected logographic or syllabic units, each occupying a square block of space, thus allowing for flexibility for which direction texts can be written, be it horizontally from left-to-right, horizontally from right-to-left, vertically from top-to-bottom, and even vertically from bottom-to-top. Traditionally, written Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese are written vertically in columns going from top to bottom and ordered from right to left, with each new column starting to the left of the preceding one. The stroke order and stroke direction of Chinese characters, Vietnamese chữ Nôm, Korean hangul, and kana all facilitate writing in this manner.[why?] In addition, writing in vertical columns from right to left facilitated writing with a brush in the right hand while continually unrolling the sheet of paper or scroll with the left. Since the nineteenth century, it has become increasingly common for these languages to be written horizontally, from left to right, with successive rows going from top to bottom, under the influence of European languages such as English, although vertical writing is still frequently used in Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Macau, and Taiwan. Chinese characters, Japanese kana, Vietnamese chữ Nôm and Korean hangul can be written horizontally or vertically. There are some small differences in orthography. In horizontal writing it is more common to use Arabic numerals, whereas Chinese numerals are more common in vertical text. In these scripts, the positions of punctuation marks, for example the relative position of commas and full stops (periods), differ between horizontal and vertical writing. Punctuation such as the parentheses, quotation marks, book title marks (Chinese), ellipsis mark, dash, wavy dash (Japanese), proper noun mark (Chinese), wavy book title mark (Chinese), emphasis mark, and chōon mark (Japanese) are all rotated 90 degrees when switching between horizontal and vertical text.
The Shard.  The Shard,[a] also referred to as the Shard London Bridge[13] and formerly London Bridge Tower,[14] is a 72-storey mixed-use development supertall pyramid-shaped skyscraper, designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano, in Southwark, London, that forms part of The Shard Quarter development. Standing 309.6 metres (1,016 feet) high, The Shard is the tallest building in the United Kingdom, the seventh-tallest building in Europe, and the second-tallest outside Russia behind the Varso Tower in Warsaw, which beats the Shard by less than half a metre.[15] The Shard replaced Southwark Towers, a 24-storey office block built on the site in 1975. The Shards construction began in March 2009; it was topped out on 30 March 2012 and inaugurated on 5 July 2012. Practical completion was achieved in November 2012. The towers privately operated observation deck, The View from The Shard, was opened to the public on 1 February 2013. The glass-clad pyramidal tower has 72 habitable floors, with a viewing gallery and open-air observation deck on the 72nd floor, at a height of 244 metres (801 ft). The Shard was developed by Sellar Property Group on behalf of LBQ Ltd and is jointly owned by Sellar Property (5%) and the State of Qatar (95%). In 1998, London-based entrepreneur Irvine Sellar and his partners decided to redevelop the 1970s-era Southwark Towers following a UK government white paper encouraging the development of tall buildings at major transport hubs. Sellar flew to Berlin in the spring of 2000 to meet the Italian architect Renzo Piano for lunch. According to Sellar, Piano spoke of his contempt for conventional tall buildings during the meal, before flipping over the restaurants menu and sketching a spire-like sculpture emerging from the River Thames.[16] In July 2002, the Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, ordered a planning inquiry after the development plans for the Shard were opposed by the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment and several heritage bodies, including the Royal Parks Foundation and English Heritage.[17][18] The inquiry took place in April and May 2003,[14][19] and on 19 November 2003, the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister announced that planning consent had been approved.[20] The government stated that:
Guildford railway station.  Guildford railway station is at one of three main railway junctions on the Portsmouth Direct Line and serves the town of Guildford, in Surrey, England. It is 30 miles 27 chains (30.34 mi; 48.8 km) down the line from London Waterloo via Woking.[1] It provides an interchange station for two other railway lines: the North Downs Line northwards towards Reading, which has a connection to Aldershot, and eastwards to Redhill; and the New Guildford Line, the alternative route to London Waterloo, via Cobham or Epsom. Guildford station is the larger, more frequently and more diversely served of the two stations in Guildford town centre, the other being London Road (Guildford) on the New Guildford Line. The station was opened by the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) on 5 May 1845,[2] but was substantially enlarged and rebuilt in 1880.
Logogram. In a written language, a logogram (from Ancient Greek logos word, and gramma that which is drawn or written), also logograph or lexigraph, is a written character that represents a semantic component of a language, such as a word or morpheme. Chinese characters as used in Chinese as well as other languages are logograms, as are Egyptian hieroglyphs and characters in cuneiform script. A writing system that primarily uses logograms is called a logography. Non-logographic writing systems, such as alphabets and syllabaries, are phonemic: their individual symbols represent sounds directly and lack any inherent meaning. However, all known logographies have some phonetic component, generally based on the rebus principle, and the addition of a phonetic component to pure ideographs is considered to be a key innovation in enabling the writing system to adequately encode human language. Some of the earliest recorded writing systems are logographic; the first historical civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and Mesoamerica all used some form of logographic writing.[1][2] All logographic scripts ever used for natural languages rely on the rebus principle to extend a relatively limited set of logograms: A subset of characters is used for their phonetic values, either consonantal or syllabic. The term logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the phonetic domain is the syllable. In Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cholti, and in Chinese, there has been the additional development of determinatives, which are combined with logograms to narrow down their possible meaning. In Chinese, they are fused with logographic elements used phonetically; such radical and phonetic characters make up the bulk of the script. Ancient Egyptian and Chinese relegated the active use of rebus to the spelling of foreign and dialectical words. Logoconsonantal scripts have graphemes that may be extended phonetically according to the consonants of the words they represent, ignoring the vowels. For example, Egyptian was used to write both sȝ duck and sȝ son, though it is likely that these words were not pronounced the same except for their consonants.  The primary examples of logoconsonantal scripts are Egyptian hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic: Ancient Egyptian.
Tower Bridge.   Tower Bridge is a Grade I listed combined bascule, suspension, and, until 1960, cantilever bridge[1] in London, built between 1886 and 1894, designed by Horace Jones and engineered by John Wolfe Barry with the help of Henry Marc Brunel.[2] It crosses the River Thames close to the Tower of London and is one of five London bridges owned and maintained by the City Bridge Foundation, a charitable trust founded in 1282. The bridge was constructed to connect the 39 per cent of Londons population that lived east of London Bridge, equivalent to the populations of Manchester on the one side, and Liverpool on the other,[3] while allowing shipping to access the Pool of London between the Tower of London and London Bridge. The bridge was opened by Edward, Prince of Wales, and Alexandra, Princess of Wales, on 30 June 1894. The bridge is 940 feet (290 m) in length including the abutments[4] and consists of two 213-foot (65 m) bridge towers connected at the upper level by two horizontal walkways, and a central pair of bascules that can open to allow shipping. Originally hydraulically powered, the operating mechanism was converted to an electro-hydraulic system in 1972. The bridge is part of the London Inner Ring Road and thus the boundary of the London congestion charge zone, and remains an important traffic route with 40,000 crossings every day. The bridge deck is freely accessible to both vehicles and pedestrians, whereas the bridges twin towers, high-level walkways, and Victorian engine rooms form part of the Tower Bridge Exhibition.
River Thames.  The River Thames (/tɛmz/ ⓘ TEMZ), known alternatively in parts as the River Isis, is a river that flows through southern England including London. At 215 miles (346 km), it is the longest river entirely in England and the second-longest in the United Kingdom, after the River Severn. The river rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire and flows into the North Sea near Tilbury, Essex and Gravesend, Kent, via the Thames Estuary. From the west, it flows through Oxford (where it is sometimes called the Isis), Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The Thames also drains the whole of Greater London.[1] The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its long tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. Its tidal section includes most of its London stretch and has a rise and fall of 23 ft (7 m). From Oxford to the estuary, the Thames drops by 55 metres (180 ft). Running through some of the drier parts of mainland Britain and heavily abstracted for drinking water, the Thames discharge is low considering its length and breadth: the Severn has a discharge almost twice as large on average despite having a smaller drainage basin. In Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the Thames average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs. Its catchment area covers a large part of south-eastern and a small part of western England; the river is fed by at least 50 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands. With its waters varying from freshwater to almost seawater, the Thames supports a variety of wildlife and has a number of adjoining Sites of Special Scientific Interest, with the largest being in the North Kent Marshes and covering 20.4 sq mi (5,289 ha).[2]
Video game producer. A video game producer is the top person in charge of overseeing  development of a video game.[1][2] The earliest documented use of the term producer in games was by Trip Hawkins, who established the position when he founded Electronic Arts in 1982: Producers basically manage the relationship with the artist. They find the talent, work out product deals, get contracts signed, manage them, and bring them to their conclusion. The producers do most of the things that a product manager does. They dont do the marketing, which in some cases product managers do. They dont make decisions about packaging and merchandising, but they do get involved ... theyre a little like book editors, a little bit like film producers, and a lot like product managers.[3] Sierra On-Lines 1982 computer game Time Zone may be the first to list credits for Producer and Executive Producer.[4] As of late 1983 Electronic Arts had five producers: A product marketer and two others from Hawkins former employer Apple (good at working with engineering people), one former IBM salesman and executive recruiter, and one product marketer from Automated Simulations;[3] it popularized the use of the title in the industry.[4] Hawkins vision—influenced by his relationship with Jerry Moss—was that producers would manage artists and repertoire in the same way as in the music business, and Hawkins brought in record producers from A&M Records to help train those first producers. Activision made Brad Fregger their first producer in April 1983. Although the term is an industry standard today, it was dismissed as imitation Hollywood by many game executives and press members at the time.  Over its entire history, the role of the video game producer has been defined in a wide range of ways by different companies and different teams, and there are a variety of positions within the industry referred to as producer.
Town.  A town is a type of a human settlement, generally larger than a village but smaller than a city.[1] The criteria for distinguishing a town vary globally, often depending on factors such as population size, economic character, administrative status, or historical significance. In some regions, towns are formally defined by legal charters or government designations, while in others, the term is used informally. Towns typically feature centralized services, infrastructure, and governance, such as municipal authorities, and serve as hubs for commerce, education, and cultural activities within their regions. The concept of a town varies culturally and legally. For example, in the United Kingdom, a town may historically derive its status from a market town designation or royal charter, while in the United States, the term is often loosely applied to incorporated municipalities. In some countries, such as Australia and Canada, distinctions between towns, cities, and rural areas are based on population thresholds. Globally, towns play diverse roles, ranging from agricultural service centers to suburban communities within metropolitan areas. The word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun (fence), the Dutch word tuin (garden, yard; fence, enclosure), and the Old Norse tún (enclosure, as for a homestead).[2] The original Proto-Germanic word, *tūną, is thought to be an early borrowing from *dūnom (cf. Old Irish dún, Welsh din).[3]
Video game design. Video game design is the process of designing the rules and content of video games in the pre-production stage[1] and designing the gameplay, environment, storyline and characters in the production stage. Some common video game design subdisciplines are world design, level design, system design, content design, and user interface design. Within the video game industry, video game design is usually just referred to as game design, which is a more general term elsewhere. The video game designer is like the director of a film; the designer is the visionary of the game and controls the artistic and technical elements of the game in fulfillment of their vision.[2] However, with complex games, such as MMORPGs or a big budget action or sports title, designers may number in the dozens. In these cases, there are generally one or two principal designers and multiple junior designers who specify subsets or subsystems of the game. As the industry has aged and embraced alternative production methodologies such as agile, the role of a principal game designer has begun to separate - some studios emphasizing the auteur model while others emphasizing a more team oriented model. In larger companies like Electronic Arts, each aspect of the game (control, level design) may have a separate producer, lead designer and several general designers. Video game design requires artistic and technical competence as well as sometimes including writing skills.[3] Historically, video game programmers have sometimes comprised the entire design team. This is the case of such noted designers as Sid Meier, John Romero, Chris Sawyer and Will Wright. A notable exception to this policy was Coleco, which from its very start separated the function of design and programming. As video games became more complex, computers and consoles became more powerful, the job of the game designer became separate from the lead programmer. Soon, game complexity demanded team members focused on game design. A number of early veterans chose the game design path eschewing programming and delegating those tasks to others. Video game design starts with an idea,[4][5][6][7] often a variation or modification on an existing concept.[4][8] The game idea will fall within one or several genres and designers will often experiment with mixing genres.[9][10] The game designer usually produces an initial game proposal document containing the concept, gameplay, feature list, setting and story, target audience, requirements and schedule, staff and budget estimates.[11] Multiple design decisions are made during the course of a games development; it is the responsibility of the designer to decide which elements should be implemented. For example, consistency with the games vision, budget or hardware limitations.[12] Design changes will have a significant impact on required resources.[13]
Game art design. Game art design is a subset of game development involving the process of creating the artistic aspects of video games. Video game art design begins in the pre-production phase of creating a video game. Video game artists are visual artists involved from the conception of the game who make rough sketches of the characters, setting, objects, etc.[1][2][3][4] These starting concept designs can also be created by the game designers before the game is moved into actualization. Sometimes, these concept designs are called programmer art.[5] After the rough sketches are completed and the game is ready to be moved forward, those artists or more artists are brought in to develop graphic designs based on the sketches. The art design of a game can involve anywhere from two people and up. Small gaming companies tend to not have as many artists on the team, meaning that their artist must be skilled in several types of art development, whereas the larger the company, although an artist can be skilled in several types of development, the roles each artist plays becomes more specialized.[6] A games artwork included in media, such as demos and screenshots, has a significant impact on customers, because artwork can be judged from previews, while gameplay cannot.[1][7] Artists work closely with designers on what is needed for the game.[8] Tools used for art design and production are known as art tools. These can range from pen and paper to full software packages for both 2D and 3D digital art.[9] A developer may employ a tools team responsible for art production applications. This includes using existing software packages and creating custom exporters and plug-ins for them.[10]
Privately held company. A privately held company (or simply a private company) is a company whose shares and related rights or obligations are not offered for public subscription or publicly negotiated in their respective listed markets. Instead, the companys stock is offered, owned, traded or exchanged privately, also known as over-the-counter. Related terms are unlisted organisation, unquoted company and private equity. Private companies are often less well-known than their publicly traded counterparts but still have major importance in the worlds economy. For example, in 2008, the 441 largest private companies in the United States accounted for $1.8 trillion in revenues and employed 6.2 million people, according to Forbes.[1] In general, all companies that are not owned by the government are classified as private enterprises. This definition encompasses both publicly traded and privately held companies, as their investors are individuals. Private ownership of productive assets differs from state ownership or collective ownership (as in worker-owned companies). This usage is often found in former Eastern Bloc countries to differentiate from former state-owned enterprises,[citation needed] but it may be used anywhere in contrast to a state-owned or a collectively owned company. In the United States, a privately held company refers to a business entity owned by private stakeholders, investors, or company founders, and its shares are not available for public purchase on stock exchanges. That contrasts with public companies, whose shares are publicly traded, which allows investing by the general public.
Philippine Sea.  The Philippine Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean east of the Philippine Archipelago (hence the name) and the largest sea in the world, occupying an estimated surface area of 5 million square kilometers (2×10^6 sq mi).[1] The Philippine Sea Plate forms the floor of the sea.[2] Its western border is the first island chain to the west, comprising the Ryukyu Islands in the northwest and Taiwan in the west. Its southwestern border comprises the Philippine islands of Luzon, Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. Its northern border comprises the Japanese islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyūshū. Its eastern border is the second island chain to the east, comprising the Bonin Islands and Iwo Jima in the northeast, the Mariana Islands (including Guam, Saipan, and Tinian) in the due east, and Halmahera, Palau, Yap and Ulithi (of the Caroline Islands) in the southeast. Its southern border is Indonesias Morotai Island.[3] The sea has a complex and diverse undersea relief.[4] The floor is formed into a structural basin by a series of geologic faults and fracture zones. Island arcs, which are actually extended ridges protruding above the ocean surface due to plate tectonic activity in the area, enclose the Philippine Sea to the north, east and south. The Philippine archipelago, Ryukyu Islands, and the Marianas are examples. Another prominent feature of the Philippine Sea is the presence of deep sea trenches, among them the Philippine Trench and the Mariana Trench, containing the deepest point on the planet. The Philippine Sea has the Philippines and Taiwan to the west, Japan to the north, the Marianas to the east and Palau to the south. Adjacent seas include the Celebes Sea which is separated by Mindanao and smaller islands to the south, the South China Sea which is separated by Philippines, and the East China Sea which is separated by the Ryukyu Islands. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Philippine Sea as that area of the North Pacific Ocean off the Eastern coasts of the Philippine Islands, bounded as follows:[5][failed verification]
Taiwanese yen. The Taiwanese yen (Japanese: 圓, Hepburn: en) was the currency of Japanese Taiwan from 1895 to 1946. It was on a par with and circulated alongside the Japanese yen. The yen was subdivided into 100 sen (錢). It was replaced by the Old Taiwan dollar in 1946, which in turn was replaced by the New Taiwan dollar in 1949. In 1895, as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War, Qing China ceded Taiwan to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The Japanese yen then became the currency of Taiwan, with distinct banknotes denominated in yen issued by the Bank of Taiwan from 1898. Only banknotes and stamp currency were issued. In 1945, after Japan was defeated in World War II, the Republic of China assumed the administration of Taiwan, took over the Bank of Taiwan within a year, and introduced the Old Taiwan dollar, which replaced the yen at par. In 1899, the Bank of Taiwan introduced 1 and 5 yen notes, followed by 50 yen notes in 1900 and 10 yen in 1901. 100 yen notes were introduced in 1937 and 1000 yen in 1945. The last notes issued were dated 1945. In 1917, stamp currency was issued in denominations of 5, 10, 20,  and 50 sen. 1, 3 and 5 sen stamp currency was issued in 1918. These issues consisted of postage stamps of the appropriate denomination fixed to forms called tokubetsu yubin kitte daishi (special postage stamp cards).
Video game development. Video game development (sometimes shortened to gamedev) is the process of creating a video game. It is a multidisciplinary practice, involving programming, design, art, audio, user interface, and writing. Each of those may be made up of more specialized skills; art includes 3D modeling of objects, character modeling, animation, visual effects, and so on. Development is supported by project management, production, and quality assurance. Teams can be many hundreds of people, a small group, or even a single person. Development of commercial video games is normally funded by a publisher and can take two to five years to reach completion. Game creation by small, self-funded teams is called independent development. The technology in a game may be written from scratch or use proprietary software specific to one company. As development has become more complex, it has become common for companies and independent developers alike to use off-the-shelf engines such as Unity, Unreal Engine or Godot.[1][2] Commercial game development began in the 1970s with the advent of arcade video games, first-generation video game consoles like the Atari 2600, and home computers like the Apple II. Into the 1980s, a lone programmer could develop a full and complete game such as Pitfall!. By the second and third generation of video game consoles in the late 1980s, the growing popularity of 3D graphics on personal computers, and higher expectations for visuals and quality, it became difficult for a single person to produce a mainstream video game. The average cost of producing a high-end (often called AAA) game slowly rose from US$1–4 million in 2000, to over $200 million and up by 2023. At the same time, independent game development has flourished. The best-selling video game of all time, Minecraft, was initially written by one person, then supported by a small team, before the company was acquired by Microsoft and greatly expanded. Mainstream commercial video games are generally developed in phases. A concept is developed which then moves to pre-production where prototypes are written and the plan for the entire game is created. This is followed by full-scale development or production, then sometimes a post-production period where the game is polished. It has become common for many developers, especially smaller developers, to publicly release games in an early access form, where iterative development takes place in tandem with feedback from actual players. Games are produced through the software development process.[3] Games are developed as a creative outlet[4] and to generate profit.[5] Game making is considered both art and science.[6][7] Development is normally funded by a publisher.[8] Well-made games bring profit more readily.[6] However, it is important to estimate a games financial requirements,[9] such as development costs of individual features.[10] Failing to provide clear implications of games expectations may result in exceeding allocated budget.[9] In fact, the majority of commercial games do not produce profit.[11][12][13] Most developers cannot afford to change their development schedule midway, and require estimating their capabilities with available resources before production.[14]
Japanese military currency (1937–1945).  Japanese military currency (Chinese and Japanese: 日本軍用手票, also 日本軍票 in short) was money issued to the soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces  as a salary.[citation needed] The military yen reached its peak during the Pacific War period, when the Japanese government excessively[clarification needed] issued it to all of its occupied territories. In Hong Kong, the military yen was forced upon the local population as the sole official currency of the territory.[1] Since the military yen was not backed by gold, and did not have a specific place of issuance, the military yen could not be exchanged for the Japanese yen. Forcing local populations to use the military yen officially was one of the ways the Japanese government could dominate the local economies. The territories controlled or occupied by Japan had many different currencies. Taiwan maintained its own banking system and bank notes after it came under Japanese sovereignty in 1895. The same is true for Korea post 1910. Between 1931 and 1945, large parts of China and South East Asia were occupied by Japan. Several types of currencies were put into circulation there during the occupation. In China, several puppet governments were created (e.g. Manchukuo), each issuing their own currency. In South East Asia, the Japanese military arranged for bank notes to be issued, denominated in the various currencies (rupees, pesos, dollars, etc.) that had been circulating there prior to the occupation. These latter are referred to as Japanese invasion money. In addition to these currencies, the Japanese military issued their own bank notes, denominated in yen –  this is the Japanese military yen. The military yen became the official currency in some occupied areas, e.g. Hong Kong. In the late 1930s there was an issue of military yen which was similar to the standard yen in terms of design, but with minor modifications. Generally, thick red lines were overprinted to cancel the name Bank of Japan (日本銀行) and any text promising to pay the bearer in gold or silver. Large red text instead indicated that the note was military currency (軍用手票) so as not to be confused with regular Japanese yen. Later series were less crude. In the early 1940s, the Japanese government issued military yen notes with a design prepared specifically for the military yen. These designs were not based on existing Japanese yen notes, but featured original designs such as Onagadori cocks and dragons. All later series featured the following text on the reverse of the note:[citation needed]
Lists of ISO 639 codes. ISO 639 is a set of standards by the International Organization for Standardization that is concerned with representation of names for languages and language groups. Lists of ISO 639 codes are:
Aichi Prefecture.  Aichi Prefecture (愛知県, Aichi-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [aꜜi.tɕi, ai.tɕi̥ꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshū.[3]: 11, 126  Aichi Prefecture has a population of 7,461,111 (as of 1 January 2025[update]) and a geographic area of 5,172.92 square kilometres (1,997.28 sq mi) with a population density of 1,442 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,730/sq mi). Aichi Prefecture borders Mie Prefecture to the west, Gifu Prefecture and Nagano Prefecture to the north, and Shizuoka Prefecture to the east. Nagoya is the capital and largest city of the prefecture. Nagoya is the capital and largest city of Aichi Prefecture, and the fourth-largest city in Japan. Other major cities include Toyota, Okazaki, and Ichinomiya. Aichi Prefecture and Nagoya form the core of the Chūkyō metropolitan area, the third-largest metropolitan area in Japan and one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world.[3]: 685  Aichi Prefecture is located on Japans Pacific Ocean coast and forms part of the Tōkai region, a subregion of the Chūbu region and Kansai region. Aichi Prefecture is home to the Toyota Motor Corporation. Aichi Prefecture had many locations with the Higashiyama Zoo and Botanical Gardens, The Chubu Centrair International Airport, and the Legoland Japan Resort. Located near the centre of the Japanese main island of Honshu, Aichi Prefecture faces the Ise and Mikawa Bays to the south and borders Shizuoka Prefecture to the east, Nagano Prefecture to the northeast, Gifu Prefecture to the north, and Mie Prefecture to the west. It measures 106 km (66 mi) east to west and 94 km (58 mi) south to north and forms a major portion of the Nōbi Plain. With an area of 5,172.48 square kilometres (1,997.11 sq mi) it accounts for approximately 1.36% of the total surface area of Japan. The highest spot is Chausuyama at 1,415 m (4,642 ft) above sea level. The western part of the prefecture is dominated by Nagoya, Japans third largest city, and its suburbs, while the eastern part is less densely populated but still contains several major industrial centres. Due to its robust economy, for the period from October 2005 to October 2006, Aichi was the fastest growing prefecture in terms of population, beating Tokyo, at 7.4% and around with after Saitama Prefecture.
Korean yen.  The yen was the currency of Korea, Empire of Japan between 1910 and 1945. It was equivalent to the Japanese yen and consisted of Japanese currency and banknotes issued specifically for Korea. The yen was subdivided into 100 sen. It replaced the Korean won at par and was replaced by the South Korean won and the North Korean won at par. From 1902 to 1910, banknotes were issued by Dai-Ichi Bank[1]. Denominations included 10 sen, 20 sen, 50 sen, 1 yen, 5 yen, and 10 yen. The sen notes were vertical and resembled the Japanese sen notes of 1872 and the Japanese military yen at the turn of the century. These notes were redeemable in Japanese Currency at any of its Branches in Korea. In 1909, the Bank of Korea (韓國銀行) was founded in Seoul as a central bank and began issuing currency of modern type. Following the establishment of the Bank of Korea, it would immediately begin to issue its own banknotes, these new banknotes were redeemable in gold or Nippon Ginko notes.[2] Most of the reserves held by the Bank of Korea at the time were banknotes issued by the Bank of Japan and commercial paper.[2] The banknotes issued by the Bank of Korea were only very slightly modified from the earlier Dai-Ichi Bank banknotes that had circulated in Korea, this was done to reduce any possible confusion during the transition period.[2] The name of the Bank of Korea was inserted and the royal plum crest of Korea replaced Dai-Ichi Banks 10-pointed star emblem, and the reverse sides of the 1 yen banknotes changed colour, but all the overall the changes were minute.[2]
Fukui Prefecture. Fukui Prefecture (福井県, Fukui-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [ɸɯ̥.kɯ(ꜜ)(.)i, -kɯ.iꜜ.keɴ, -kɯꜜi.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshū.[3] Fukui Prefecture has a population of 737,229 (1 January 2025) and has a geographic area of 4,190 km2 (1,617 sq mi). Fukui Prefecture borders Ishikawa Prefecture to the north, Gifu Prefecture to the east, Shiga Prefecture to the south, and Kyoto Prefecture to the southwest. Fukui is the capital and largest city of Fukui Prefecture, with other major cities including Sakai, Echizen, and Sabae.[4] Fukui Prefecture is located on the Sea of Japan coast and is part of the historic Hokuriku region of Japan. The Matsudaira clan, a powerful samurai clan during the Edo period that became a component of the Japanese nobility after the Meiji Restoration, was headquartered at Fukui Castle on the site of the modern prefectural offices. Fukui Prefecture is home to the Kitadani Formation and Kitadani Family, the Ichijōdani Asakura Family Historic Ruins, and the Tōjinbō cliff range. The Kitadani Dinosaur Quarry, on the Sugiyama River within the city limits of Katsuyama, has yielded animals such as Fukuiraptor, Fukuisaurus, Nipponosaurus, Koshisaurus, Fukuivenator, Fukuititan, and Tambatitanis,  as well as an unnamed dromaeosaurid. Fukui originally consisted of the old provinces of Wakasa and Echizen, before the prefecture was formed in 1871.[5] During the Edo period, the daimyō of the region was surnamed Matsudaira, and was a descendant of Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Yen and yuan sign. The yen and yuan sign (¥) is a currency sign used for the Japanese yen and the Chinese yuan currencies when writing in Latin scripts. This character resembles a capital letter Y with a single or double horizontal stroke. The symbol is usually placed before the value it represents, for example: ¥50, or JP¥50 and CN¥50 when disambiguation is needed.[a] When writing in Japanese and Chinese, the Japanese kanji or Chinese character is written following the amount, for example 50円 in Japan, and 50元 or 50圆 in China. After the institution of Japans New Currency Act, from 1871 through the early 20th century, the yen was either referred to (in documents printed in Latin script) by its full name yen, or abbreviated with a capital Y.[citation needed] One of the earliest uses of ¥ can be found in J. Twizell Wawns Japanese Municipal Government With an Account of the Administration of the City of Kobe,[1] published in 1899. Usage of the sign increased in the early 20th century, primarily in Western English-speaking countries, but has become commonly used in Japan as well. The Unicode code point is U+00A5 ¥ YEN SIGN (&yen;). Additionally, there is a full width character, ￥, at code point U+FFE5 ￥ FULLWIDTH YEN SIGN[b] for use with wide fonts, especially East Asian fonts. There was no code-point for any ¥ symbol in the original (7-bit) US-ASCII and consequently many early systems reassigned 5C (allocated to the backslash (\) in ASCII) to the yen sign. With the arrival of 8-bit encoding, the ISO/IEC 8859-1 (ISO Latin 1) character set assigned code point A5 to the ¥ in 1985; Unicode continues this encoding. In JIS X 0201, of which Shift JIS is an extension, assigns code point 0x5C to the Latin-script yen sign: as noted above, this is the code used for the backslash in ASCII and also subsequently in Unicode. The JIS X 0201 standard was widely adopted in Japan.
Video game industry.  The video game industry is the tertiary and quaternary sectors of the entertainment industry that specialize in the development, marketing, distribution, monetization, and consumer feedback of video games. The industry encompasses dozens of job disciplines and thousands of jobs worldwide.[1] The video game industry has grown from niche to mainstream.[2] As of July 2018[update], video games generated US$134.9 billion annually in global sales.[3] In the US, the industry earned about $9.5 billion in 2007, $11.7 billion in 2008, and US$25.1 billion in[update] 2010,[4] according to the ESA annual report. Research from Ampere Analysis indicated three points: the sector has consistently grown since at least 2015 and expanded 26% from 2019 to 2021, to a record $191 billion; the global games and services market is forecast to shrink 1.2% annually to $188 billion in 2022.[5] The industry has influenced the technological advancement of personal computers through sound cards, graphics cards and 3D graphic accelerators, CPUs, and co-processors like PhysX.[citation needed] Sound cards, for example, were originally developed for games and then improved for adoption by the music industry.[6] In 2017 in the United States, which represented about a third of the global video game market, the Entertainment Software Association estimated that there were over 2,300 development companies and over 525 publishing companies, including in hardware and software manufacturing, service providers, and distributors. These companies in total have nearly 66,000 direct employees. When including indirect employment, such as a developer using the services of a graphics design package from a different firm, the total number of employees involved in the video game industry rises above 220,000.[7]
Yan (surname). Yan is a surname in several languages and the pinyin romanization for several Chinese surnames, including 严 (嚴), 晏 (晏), 偃 (偃), 颜 (顏), 言 (言), 燕 (燕), 阎 (閻), 闫 (閆), 鄢 (鄢) in simplified (traditional) form. These characters are romanised as Yen in the Wade–Giles romanization system which was commonly used before the early 80s. As such, individuals and institutions who had to romanize their Chinese names prior to that time, such as when having their books translated or publishing manuscripts outside of China, used Yen instead of Yan. Such examples include Yenching University and the Harvard-Yenching Institute. The Yan surname in Taiwan is mostly spelled as Yen since only until recently has the government approved the use of pinyin romanization of names. The Cantonese romanization of these surnames is Yim. As such, most people from Hong Kong and Chinese diaspora that emigrated prior to 1949 from Guangdong use the name Yim. On many occasions, the surname 甄 (甄) is also romanized as Yan in Cantonese.  This name in Mandarin is romanized as Zhēn, see Zhen (surname). Yan is also an alternative spelling of the Breton name Yann. Yan (simplified Chinese: 闫; traditional Chinese: 閆), pinyin Yán, originated as a variant of the surname 閻.
Kangxi radicals.   The Kangxi radicals (Chinese: 康熙部首; pinyin: Kāngxī bùshǒu), also known as Zihui radicals, are a set of 214 radicals that were collated in the 18th-century Kangxi Dictionary to aid categorization of Chinese characters. They are primarily sorted by stroke count. They are the most popular system of radicals for dictionaries that order characters by radical and stroke count. They are encoded in Unicode alongside other CJK characters, under the block Kangxi radicals, while graphical variants are included in the block CJK Radicals Supplement. Originally introduced in the Zihui dictionary of 1615, they are more commonly referred to in relation to the 1716 Kangxi Dictionary—Kangxi being the commissioning emperors era name. The 1915 encyclopedic word dictionary Ciyuan also uses this system. In modern times, many dictionaries that list Traditional Chinese head characters continue to use this system, for example the Wang Li Character Dictionary of Ancient Chinese (2000). The system of 214 Kangxi radicals is based on the older system of 540 radicals used in the Han-era Shuowen Jiezi. Since 2009, the Chinese government has promoted a 201-radical system (Table of Han Character Radicals) called the Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components, as a national standard for use with simplified characters. The Kangxi dictionary lists a total of 47,035 characters divided among the 214 radicals, for an average of 220 characters per radical; however, the distribution is unequal, with the median number of characters per radical being 64, the maximum number being 1,902 (for radical 140 艸), and the minimum being 5 (for radical 138 艮). The radicals have between one and 17 strokes, with a median of 5 strokes and an average of slightly below 5.7 strokes.
Chinese character radicals.  A radical (Chinese: 部首; pinyin: bùshǒu; lit. section header), or indexing component, is a visually prominent component of a Chinese character under which the character is traditionally listed in a Chinese dictionary. The radical for a character is typically a semantic component, but it can also be another structural component or an artificially extracted portion of the character. In some cases, the original semantic or phonological connection has become obscure, owing to changes in the meaning or pronunciation of the character over time. The use of the English term radical is based on an analogy between the structure of Chinese characters and the inflection of words in European languages.[a] Radicals are also sometimes called classifiers, but this name is more commonly applied to the grammatical measure words in Chinese.[2] In the earliest Chinese dictionaries, such as the Erya (3rd century BC), characters were grouped together in broad semantic categories. Because the vast majority of characters are phono-semantic compounds, combining a semantic component with a phonetic component, each semantic component tended to recur within a particular section of the dictionary. In the 2nd century AD, the Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen organized his etymological dictionary Shuowen Jiezi by selecting 540 recurring graphic elements he called bù (部; categories).[3] Most were common semantic components, but they also included shared graphic elements such as a dot or horizontal stroke. Some were even artificially extracted groups of strokes, termed glyphs by Serruys,[4] which never had an independent existence other than being listed in Shuowen. Each character was listed under only one element, which is then referred to as the radical for that character. For example, characters containing 女; nǚ; female or 木; mù; tree, wood are often grouped together in the sections for those radicals. Mei Yingzuos 1615 dictionary Zihui made two further innovations. He reduced the list of radicals to 214 and arranged characters under each radical in increasing order of the number of additional strokes—the radical-and-stroke method still used in the vast majority of present-day Chinese dictionaries. These innovations were also adopted by the more famous Kangxi Dictionary of 1716. Thus the standard 214 radicals introduced in the Zihui are usually known as the Kangxi radicals. These were first called bùshǒu (部首; section header) in the Kangxi Dictionary.[3] Although there is some variation in such lists – depending primarily on what secondary radicals are also indexed – these canonical 214 radicals of the Kangxi Dictionary still serve as the basis for most modern Chinese dictionaries. Some of the graphically similar radicals are combined in many dictionaries, such as 月; yuè; moon and the 月 form (⺼) of 肉; ròu; meat, flesh.
Latent image. A latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a photosensitive material such as photographic film. When photographic film is developed, the area that was exposed darkens and forms a visible image. In the early days of photography, the nature of the invisible change in the silver halide crystals of the films emulsion coating was unknown, so the image was said to be latent until the film was treated with photographic developer. In more physical terms, a latent image is a small cluster of metallic silver atoms formed in or on a silver halide crystal due to reduction of interstitial silver ions by photoelectrons (a photolytic silver cluster). If intense exposure continues, such photolytic silver clusters grow to visible sizes. This is called printing out the image. On the other hand, the formation of a visible image by the action of photographic developer is called developing out the image. The size of a silver cluster in the latent image can be as small as a few silver atoms. However, in order to act as an effective latent image center, at least four silver atoms are necessary. On the other hand, a developed silver grain can have billions of silver atoms. Therefore, photographic developer acting on the latent image is a chemical amplifier with a gain factor up to several billion. The development system was the most important technology that increased the photographic sensitivity in the history of photography. The action of the light on the silver halide grains within the emulsion forms sites of metallic silver in the grains. The basic mechanism by which this happens was first proposed by R. W. Gurney and N. F. Mott in 1938. The incoming photon liberates an electron, called a photoelectron, from a silver halide crystal. Photoelectrons migrate to a shallow electron trap site (a sensitivity site), where the electrons reduce silver ions to form a metallic silver speck. A positive hole must also be generated, but it is largely ignored. Subsequent work has slightly modified this picture, so that hole trapping is also considered (Mitchell, 1957). Since then, understanding of the mechanism of sensitivity and latent image formation has been greatly improved. A latent image is formed when light changes the charge atoms in the molecule. Taking bromine as a halide for this example, when light hits a silver halide molecule, the halide is changed from a negative charge to a neutral one, releasing an electron that then changes the charge of the silver from a positive one to a neutral one.[1]
Marketing.   Marketing is the act of acquiring, satisfying and retaining customers.[3][4] It is one of the primary components of business management and commerce.[5] Marketing is usually conducted by the seller, typically a retailer or manufacturer. Products can be marketed to other businesses (B2B) or directly to consumers (B2C).[6] Sometimes tasks are contracted to dedicated marketing firms, like a media, market research, or advertising agency. Sometimes, a trade association or government agency (such as the Agricultural Marketing Service) advertises on behalf of an entire industry or locality, often a specific type of food (e.g. Got Milk?), food from a specific area, or a city or region as a tourism destination. Market orientations are philosophies concerning the factors that should go into market planning.[7] The marketing mix, which outlines the specifics of the product and how it will be sold, including the channels that will be used to advertise the product,[8][9] is affected by the environment surrounding the product,[10] the results of marketing research and market research,[11][12] and the characteristics of the products target market.[13] Once these factors are determined, marketers must then decide what methods of promoting the product,[6] including use of coupons and other price inducements.[14]
Intaglio (printmaking). Intaglio (/ɪnˈtæli.oʊ, -ˈtɑːli-/ in-TAL-ee-oh, -⁠TAH-lee-;[1] Italian: [inˈtaʎʎo]) is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink.[2] It is the direct opposite of a relief print where the parts of the matrix that make the image stand above the main surface. Normally copper, or in recent times zinc, sheets called plates are used as a surface or matrix, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint, often in combination.[3] Collagraphs may also be printed as intaglio plates.[4] After the decline of the main relief technique of woodcut around 1550, the intaglio techniques dominated both artistic printmaking as well as most types of illustration and popular prints until the mid 19th century. The word intaglio describes prints created from plates where the ink-bearing regions are recessed beneath the plates surface. Though brass, zinc, and other materials are occasionally utilized, copper is the most common material for the plates.[5] In intaglio printing, the lines to be printed are cut into a metal (e.g. copper) plate by means either of a cutting tool called a burin, held in the hand—in which case the process is called engraving; or through the corrosive action of acid—in which case the process is known as etching.[6][7]
Bimetallism.  Bimetallism,[a] also known as the bimetallic standard, is a monetary standard in which the value of the monetary unit is defined as equivalent to certain quantities of two metals, creating a fixed rate of exchange between them.[3] In all known historical cases, the metals are gold and silver. For scholarly purposes, proper bimetallism is sometimes distinguished as permitting that both gold and silver money are legal tender in unlimited amounts and that gold and silver may be taken to be coined by the government mints in unlimited quantities.[4] This distinguishes it from limping standard bimetallism, where both gold and silver are legal tender but only one is freely coined (e.g. the monies of France, Germany, and the United States after 1873), and from trade bimetallism, where both metals are freely coined but only one is legal tender and the other is used as trade money (e.g. most monies in western Europe from the 13th to 18th centuries). Economists also distinguish legal bimetallism, where the law guarantees these conditions, and de facto bimetallism, where gold and silver coins circulate at a fixed rate. During the 19th century there was a great deal of scholarly debate and political controversy regarding the use of bimetallism in place of a gold standard or silver standard (monometallism).[5][6] Bimetallism was intended to increase the supply of money, stabilize prices, and facilitate setting exchange rates.[7] Some scholars argued that bimetallism was inherently unstable owing to Greshams law, and that its replacement by a monometallic standard was inevitable. Other scholars claimed that in practice bimetallism had a stabilizing effect on economies. The controversy became largely moot after technological progress and the South African and Klondike Gold Rushes increased the supply of gold in circulation at the end of the century, ending most of the political pressure for greater use of silver. It became completely academic after the 1971 Nixon shock; since then, all of the worlds currencies have operated as more or less freely floating fiat money, unconnected to the value of silver or gold. Nonetheless, academics continue to debate, inconclusively, the relative use of the metallic standards.[b] From the 7th century BCE, Asia Minor, especially in the areas of Lydia and Ionia, is known to have created a coinage based on electrum, a natural occurring material that is a variable mix of gold and silver (with about 54% gold and 44% silver). Before Croesus, his father Alyattes had already started to mint various types of non-standardized electrum coins. They were in use in Lydia and surrounding areas for about 80 years.[1] The unpredictability of its composition implied that it had a variable value which was very hard to determine, which greatly hampered its development.[1]
Film.   A film, also known as a movie or motion picture,[a] is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, emotions, or atmosphere through the use of moving images that are generally, since the 1930s, synchronized with sound and some times using other sensory stimulations.[1] Films are produced by recording actual people and objects with cameras or by creating them using animation techniques and special effects. They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer. Flickering between frames is not seen due to an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion; a psychological effect identified as beta movement. Films are considered by many to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal power of communication. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue. Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.
Fantasia (musical form).  A fantasia (Italian: [fantaˈziːa]; also English: fantasy, fancy, fantazy, phantasy, German: Fantasie, Phantasie, French: fantaisie) is a musical composition with roots in improvisation. The fantasia, like the impromptu, seldom follows the textbook rules of any strict musical form. The term was first applied to music during the 16th century, at first to refer to the imaginative musical idea rather than to a particular compositional genre. Its earliest use as a title was in German keyboard manuscripts from before 1520, and by 1536 is found in printed tablatures from Spain, Italy, Germany, and France. From the outset, the fantasia had the sense of the play of imaginative invention, particularly in lute or vihuela composers such as Francesco Canova da Milano and Luis de Milán. Its form and style consequently ranges from the freely improvisatory to the strictly contrapuntal, and also encompasses more or less standard sectional forms.[1] One of the most important composers in the development of the fantasia was Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck. His greatest work in this style is the fantasia cromatica (a specific form called chromatic fantasia), which in many ways forms a link between the Renaissance and the Baroque. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Music, in the 16th century the instrumental fantasia was a strict imitation of the vocal motet.[2] Polyphonic solo fantasias were widely composed for the Lute & early keyboards. Composers such as William Byrd & Orlando Gibbons wrote many surviving keyboard fantasias, while also expanding the genre with outstanding examples for recorders & viols. In addition to Byrd & Gibbons, composers John Coprario, Alfonso Ferrabosco, Thomas Lupo, John Ward, and William White continued to expand the genre for viol consort while examples by William Lawes, John Jenkins, William Cranford, Matthew Locke, and Henry Purcell are regarded as highly exceptional from the late 17th-century. The form expanded in scope during the Baroque period with works ranging from J. S. Bachs Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, BWV 903, for harpsichord; Great Fantasia and Fugue in G minor, BWV 542, for organ; and Fantasia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 537, for organ are examples. Georg Philipp Telemann published Twelve Fantasias for Solo Flute in 1733, and Twelve Fantasias for Solo Violin and Twelve Fantasias for Viola da Gamba solo in 1735.
International Securities Identification Number.  An International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) is a code that uniquely identifies a security globally for the purposes of facilitating clearing, reporting and settlement of trades. Its structure is defined in ISO 6166. The ISIN code is a 12-character alphanumeric code that serves for uniform identification of a security through normalization of the assigned National Number, where one exists, at trading and settlement. ISINs were first used in 1981, but did not reach wide acceptance until 1989, when the G30 countries recommended adoption.[1] The ISIN was endorsed a year later by ISO with the ISO 6166 standard. Initially information was distributed via CD-ROMs and this was later replaced by distribution over the internet.[citation needed] ISINs slowly gained traction worldwide and became the most popular global securities identifier. Trading, clearing and settlement systems in many countries adopted ISINs as a secondary measure of identifying securities. Some countries, mainly in Europe, moved to using the ISIN as their primary means of identifying securities. European regulations such as Solvency II Directive 2009 increasingly require the ISIN to be reported.[2]
Numeral prefix. Numeral or number prefixes are prefixes derived from numerals or occasionally other numbers. In English and many other languages, they are used to coin numerous series of words. For example: In many European languages there are two principal systems, taken from Latin and Greek, each with several subsystems; in addition, Sanskrit occupies a marginal position.[B] There is also an international set of metric prefixes, which are used in the worlds standard measurement system. In the following prefixes, a final vowel is normally dropped before a root that begins with a vowel, with the exceptions of bi-, which is extended to bis- before a vowel; among the other monosyllables, du-, di-, dvi-, and tri-, never vary. Words in the cardinal category are cardinal numbers, such as the English one, two, three, which name the count of items in a sequence. The multiple category are adverbial numbers, like the English once, twice, thrice, that specify the number of events or instances of otherwise identical or similar items. Enumeration with the distributive category originally was meant to specify one each, two each or one by one, two by two, etc., giving how many items of each type are desired or had been found, although distinct word forms for that meaning are now mostly lost. The ordinal category are based on ordinal numbers such as the English first, second, third, which specify position of items in a sequence. In Latin and Greek, the ordinal forms are also used for fractions for amounts higher than 2; only the fraction ⁠ 1 / 2 ⁠ has special forms. The same suffix may be used with more than one category of number, as for example the ordinal numbers secondary and tertiary and the distributive numbers binary and ternary.
Alloy.  An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which in most cases at least one is a metallic element, although it is also sometimes used for mixtures of elements; herein only metallic alloys are described. Metallic alloys often have properties that differ from those of the pure elements from which they are made. The vast majority of metals used for commercial purposes are alloyed to improve their properties or behavior, such as increased strength, hardness or corrosion resistance. Metals may also be alloyed to reduce their overall cost, for instance alloys of gold and copper. A typical example of an alloy is 304 grade stainless steel which is commonly used for kitchen utensils, pans, knives and forks. Sometime also known as 18/8, it as an alloy consisting broadly of 74% iron, 18% chromium and 8% nickel. The chromium and nickel alloying elements add strength and hardness to the majority iron element, but their main function is to make it resistant to rust/corrosion. In an alloy, the atoms are joined by metallic bonding rather than by covalent bonds typically found in chemical compounds.[1] The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications, and in atomic fraction for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a microstructure of different crystals within the metal).
Watermark. A watermark is an identifying image or pattern in paper that appears as various shades of lightness/darkness when viewed by transmitted light (or when viewed by reflected light, atop a dark background), caused by thickness or density variations in the paper.[1] Watermarks have been used on postage stamps, currency, and other government documents to discourage counterfeiting. There are two main ways of producing watermarks in paper; the dandy roll process, and the more complex cylinder mould process. Watermarks vary greatly in their visibility; while some are obvious on casual inspection, others require some study to pick out. Various aids have been developed, such as watermark fluid that wets the paper without damaging it.  A watermark is very useful in the examination of paper because it can be used for dating documents and artworks, identifying sizes, mill trademarks and locations, and determining the quality of a sheet of paper. The word is also used for digital practices that share similarities with physical watermarks. In one case, overprint on computer-printed output may be used to identify output from an unlicensed trial version of a program. In another instance, identifying codes can be encoded as a digital watermark for a music, video, picture, or other file. Or an artist adding their identifying digital Signature, graphic, logo in their digital artworks as an identifier or anti-counterfeit measure . Watermarks were first introduced in Fabriano, Italy, in 1282.[2]  At the time, watermarks were created by changing the thickness of paper during a stage in the manufacturing process when it was still wet. Traditionally, a watermark was made by impressing a water-coated metal stamp onto the paper during manufacturing. The invention of the dandy roll in 1826 by John Marshall revolutionised the watermark process and made it easier for producers to watermark their paper. The dandy roll is a light roller covered by material similar to window screen that is embossed with a pattern. Faint lines are made by laid wires that run parallel to the axis of the dandy roll, and the bold lines are made by chain wires that run around the circumference to secure the laid wires to the roll from the outside. Because the chain wires are located on the outside of the laid wires, they have a greater influence on the impression in the pulp, hence their bolder appearance than the laid wire lines.
EURion constellation.  The EURion constellation (also known as Omron rings or doughnuts[1]) is a pattern of symbols incorporated into a number of secure documents such as banknotes, cheques, and ownership title certificate designs worldwide since about 1996. It is added to help imaging software detect the presence of such a document in a digital image. Such software can then block the user from reproducing such documents to prevent counterfeiting using colour photocopiers. The name EURion constellation was coined by security researcher Markus Kuhn, who uncovered the pattern on the 10-euro banknote in early 2002 while experimenting with a Xerox colour photocopier that refused to reproduce banknotes.[2] The pattern has never been mentioned officially; Kuhn named it the EURion constellation as it resembled the astronomical Orion constellation, and EUR is the ISO 4217 designation of the euro currency.[3] The EURion constellation first described by Kuhn consists of a pattern of five small yellow, green or orange circles, which is repeated across areas of the banknote at different orientations. The mere presence of five of these circles on a page is sufficient for some colour photocopiers to refuse processing. Some banks integrate the constellation tightly with the remaining design of the note. On 50 DM German banknotes, the EURion circles formed the innermost circles in a background pattern of fine concentric circles. On the front of former Bank of England Elgar £20 notes, they appear as green heads of musical notes; however, on the Smith £20 notes of 2007 the circles merely cluster around the £20 text. On some U.S. bills, they appear as the digit zero in small, yellow numbers matching the value of the note. On Japanese yen, these circles sometimes appear as flowers.
Aomori Prefecture. Aomori Prefecture (青森県, Aomori-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [a.oꜜ.mo.ɾʲi, a.o.mo.ɾʲiꜜ.keɴ]) (hiragana: あおもりけん)[3][4] is a prefecture of Japan in the Tōhoku region. The prefectures capital, largest city, and namesake is the city of Aomori. Aomori is the northernmost prefecture on Japans main island, Honshu, and is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east, Iwate Prefecture to the southeast, Akita Prefecture to the southwest, the Sea of Japan to the west, and Hokkaido across the Tsugaru Strait to the north. Aomori Prefecture is the 8th-largest prefecture, with an area of 9,645.64 km2 (3,724.20 sq mi), and the 31st-most populous prefecture, with more than 1.18 million people. Mount Iwaki, an active stratovolcano, is the prefectures highest point, at almost 1,624.7 m (5,330 ft). Aomori is the third-most populous prefecture in the Tōhoku region. Humans have inhabited the prefecture for at least 15,000 years, and the oldest evidence of pottery in Japan was discovered at the Jōmon period Odai Yamamoto I site. After centuries of rule by the Nanbu and Tsugaru clans, the prefecture was formed out of the northern part of Mutsu Province during the Meiji Restoration. The entire Tōhoku region, including Aomori Prefecture, experienced significant growth in population and economy until the late 20th century, when a significant population decline began. Though the prefecture remains dominated by primary sector industries, especially apple orchards, it also serves as a transportation and logistics hub due to its strategic location at the northern end of Honshu. Additionally, it is also the largest producer of the superfood, black garlic in Japan. Tourism is also a significant part of the prefectures economy because of its natural beauty and historical sites, especially the Jōmon Prehistoric Sites in Northern Japan and Shirakami-Sanchi World Heritage Sites. Aomori Prefecture has a distinctive subculture influenced by its location relative to the central government of Japan at the northern edge of Honshu and the regions long, snowy winters. It is the birthplace of the traditional Tsugaru-jamisen, a virtuosic style of playing shamisen. Embroidery, pottery, lacquerware, cabinetry, and iron working are also significant crafts in the prefecture. Various porridges and soups are distinctive to the area. Several festivals are held in Aomori Prefecture; the most noted of which is Aomori Nebuta Matsuri. The prefectures most significant writer is novelist Osamu Dazai. Tadamori Ōshima is a politician from the prefecture who held several high-level positions in the national government. Aomori Prefecture is home to several association football, baseball, basketball, and ice hockey teams. The prefectures religious beliefs are heavily rooted in Shinto and Buddhism and has uniqueness in its blind mediums and alleged tomb of Jesus. Aomori literally means blue forest, although it could possibly be translated as green forest. The name most likely refers to a small forest on a hill which existed near Aomori City, which was often used by fishermen as a landmark.[5][6][7][8] The oldest evidence of pottery in Japan was found at the Odai Yamamoto I site in the town of Sotogahama in the northwestern part of the prefecture. The relics found there suggest that the Jōmon period began about 15,000 years ago.[9] By 7,000 BCE, fishing cultures had developed along the shores of the prefecture which were three metres higher than the present day shoreline.[10] Around 3,900 BCE, the settlement at the Sannai-Maruyama Site in the present-day city of Aomori began.[11] The settlement shows evidence of the wide interaction between the sites inhabitants and people from across Jōmon period Japan, including Hokkaido and Kyushu.[9] The settlement of Sannai-Maruyama ended around 2300 BCE for unknown reasons. Its abandonment was likely due to the populations subsistence economy being unable to result in sustained growth, with its end being spurred on by the reduced amount of natural resources during the neoglaciation.[12] The Jōmon period continued up to 300 BCE in present-day Aomori Prefecture at the Kamegaoka site in the city of Tsugaru where the Shakōkidogū was found.[9]
TOPIX. The Tokyo Stock Price Index (東証株価指数, Tōshō Kabuka shisū), commonly known as the TOPIX, is an important stock market index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE) in Japan, along with the Nikkei 225. The TOPIX tracks the entire market of domestic companies and covers most stocks in the Prime market and some stocks in the Standard market. It is calculated and published by the TSE. As of January 2025, there are planned to be 1,716 companies listed on the TSE, since about 400 stocks with low liquidity were phased out after the TSE reform in 2022. The index transitioned from a system where a companys weighting is based on the total number of shares outstanding to a weighting based on the number of shares available for trading (called the free float). This transition started in October 2005 and was completed in June 2006. Although the change is a technicality, it had a significant effect on the weighting of many companies in the index, because many companies in Japan hold a significant number of shares of their business partners as a part of intricate business alliances, and such shares are no longer included in calculating the weight of companies in the index. The TOPIX index is traded as a future on the Osaka Exchange under the ticker symbol JTPX.[1] The CQG contract specifications for the TOPIX Index are listed below. TSE currently calculates and distributes TOPIX every second and further plans to launch a new High-Speed Index dissemination service provided at the millisecond level starting from February 28, 2011.[needs update] 
Fashion.  Fashion is a term used interchangeably to describe the creation of clothing, footwear, accessories, cosmetics, and jewellery of different cultural aesthetics and their mix and match into outfits that depict distinctive ways of dressing (styles and trends) as signifiers of social status, self-expression, and group belonging. As a multifaceted term, fashion describes an industry, designs, aesthetics, and trends. The term fashion originates from the Latin word Facere, which means to make, and describes the manufacturing, mixing, and wearing of outfits adorned with specific cultural aesthetics, patterns, motifs, shapes, and cuts, allowing people to showcase their group belongings, values, meanings, beliefs, and ways of life. Given the rise in mass production of commodities and clothing at lower prices and global reach, reducing fashions environmental impact and improving sustainability has become an urgent issue among politicians, brands, and consumers.[1][2] The French word mode, meaning fashion, dates as far back as 1482, while the English word denoting something in style dates only to the 16th century. Other words exist related to concepts of style and appeal that precede mode. In the 12th and 13th century Old French the concept of elegance begins to appear in the context of aristocratic preferences to enhance beauty and display refinement, and cointerie, the idea of making oneself more attractive to others by style or artifice in grooming and dress, appears in a 13th-century poem by Guillaume de Lorris advising men that handsome clothes and handsome accessories improve a man a great deal.[3] Fashion scholar Susan B. Kaiser states that everyone is forced to appear, unmediated before others.[4] Everyone is evaluated by their attire, and evaluation includes the consideration of colors, materials, silhouette, and how garments appear on the body. Garments identical in style and material also appear different depending on the wearers body shape, or whether the garment has been washed, folded, mended, or is new.
Holography.  Holography is a technique that allows a wavefront to be recorded and later reconstructed. It is best known as a method of generating three-dimensional images, and has a wide range of other uses, including data storage, microscopy, and interferometry. In principle, it is possible to make a hologram for any type of wave. A hologram is a recording of an interference pattern that can reproduce a 3D light field using diffraction. In general usage, a hologram is a recording of any type of wavefront in the form of an interference pattern. It can be created by capturing light from a real scene, or it can be generated by a computer, in which case it is known as a computer-generated hologram, which can show virtual objects or scenes. Optical holography needs a laser light to record the light field. The reproduced light field can generate an image that has the depth and parallax of the original scene.[1] A hologram is usually unintelligible when viewed under diffuse ambient light. When suitably lit, the interference pattern diffracts the light into an accurate reproduction of the original light field, and the objects that were in it exhibit visual depth cues such as parallax and perspective that change realistically with the different angles of viewing. That is, the view of the image from different angles shows the subject viewed from similar angles. A hologram is traditionally generated by overlaying a second wavefront, known as the reference beam, onto a wavefront of interest. This generates an interference pattern, which is then captured on a physical medium. When the recorded interference pattern is later illuminated by the second wavefront, it is diffracted to recreate the original wavefront.[2] The 3D image from a hologram can often be viewed with non-laser light. However, in common practice, major image quality compromises are made to remove the need for laser illumination to view the hologram. A computer-generated hologram is created by digitally modeling and combining two wavefronts to generate an interference pattern image. This image can then be printed onto a mask or film and illuminated with an appropriate light source to reconstruct the desired wavefront.[2] Alternatively, the interference pattern image can be directly displayed on a dynamic holographic display.[3]
Fantasie (Widmann).  Fantasie for Solo Clarinet is a solo instrumental work by Jörg Widmann and was composed in 1993. It has a Harlequin spirit.[2] The Three Pieces for Solo Clarinet and Dialogue de lombre double were used as the basis.[3] The piece was premiered  by the composer on 1 March 1994 at Bayerischer Rundfunk in Munich.[1] The work is an expression of virtuoso flourishes and youthful exuberance.[4] The composer cites The Rite of Spring in Fantasie.[5] Sections:[6]
Fantasie in C (Schumann). The Fantasie in C, Op. 17, was written by Robert Schumann in 1836. It was revised prior to publication in 1839, when it was dedicated to Franz Liszt. It is generally described as one of Schumanns greatest works for solo piano, and is one of the central works of the early Romantic period. It is often called by the Italian version, fantasia; the word Fantasie is the German spelling. The Fantasie is in loose sonata form. Its three movements are headed: The first movement is rhapsodic and passionate; the middle movement is a grandiose rondo based on a majestic march, with episodes that recall the emotion of the first movement; and the finale is slow and meditative. The piece has its origin in early 1836, when Schumann composed a piece entitled Ruines expressing his distress at being parted from his beloved Clara Wieck (later to become his wife). This later became the first movement of the Fantasy.[1]  Later that year, he wrote two more movements to create a work intended as a contribution to the appeal for funds to erect a monument to Beethoven in his birthplace, Bonn. Schumann offered the work to the publisher Kirstner, suggesting that 100 presentation copies could be sold to raise money for the monument. Other contributions to the Beethoven monument fund included Mendelssohns Variations sérieuses.[2] The original title of Schumanns work was Obolen auf Beethovens Monument: Ruinen, Trophaen, Palmen, Grosse Sonate f.d. Piano f. Für Beethovens Denkmal.  Kirstner refused, and Schumann tried offering the piece to Haslinger in January 1837.  When Haslinger also refused, he offered it to Breitkopf & Härtel in May 1837.  The movements subtitles (Ruins, Trophies, Palms) became Ruins, Triumphal Arch, and Constellation, and were then removed altogether before Breitkopf & Härtel eventually issued the Fantasie in May 1839.[3]
Coin. A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. The faces of coins or medals are sometimes called the obverse and the reverse, referring to the front and back sides, respectively. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as tails. The first metal coins – invented in the ancient Greek world and disseminated during the Hellenistic period – were precious metal–based, and were invented in order to simplify and regularize the task of measuring and weighing bullion (bulk metal) carried around for the purpose of transactions. They carried their value within the coins themselves, but the stampings also induced manipulations, such as the clipping of coins to remove some of the precious metal.[1] Most modern coinage metals are base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money — the value of the coin is established by law. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Greshams law). Currently coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. Coins are usually more efficient than banknotes because they last longer: banknotes last only about four years, compared with 30 years for a coin.[2][3] Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value currently occur for bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. While the Eagle and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not. Commemorative coins usually serve as collectors items only, although some countries also issue commemorative coins for regular circulation, such as the 2€ commemorative coins and U.S. America the Beautiful quarters. Early metal coinage came into use about the time of the Axial Age in West Asia, in the Greek world, in northern India, and in China.[4]
Fantasy (group).  Fantasy is an urban pop vocal group based in New York City who scored several hits on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart, including Youre Too Late, which hit number one in 1981.[1] Group members included Ken Roberson, Tamm E Hunt, Rufus Jackson and Carolyn Edwards. The groups producer, Tony Valor, continued to use the name in 1985 when they released an Italo disco-influenced single called Hes My Number One. Youre Too Late was a number-one dance hit in the United States. It had a five-week reign at the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart in early 1981.[1] It also reached the top 30 on the Soul Singles chart.[2] In 1982, the band released a pop-soul number entitled Hold On Tight, which peaked at number 35 on the Dance Club chart, and #1 on the 1982 Billboard Year End Award followed by Live the Life I Love, boogie song that had reached number 41 on the same chart by 1983.
Metal.  A metal (from Ancient Greek  μέταλλον (métallon) mine, quarry, metal) is a material that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. These properties are all associated with having electrons available at the Fermi level, as against nonmetallic materials which do not.[1]: Chpt 8 & 19 [2]: Chpt 7 & 8  Metals are typically ductile (can be drawn into a wire) and malleable (can be shaped via hammering or pressing).[3] A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride.[4] The general science of metals is called metallurgy, a subtopic of materials science; aspects of the electronic and thermal properties are also within the scope of condensed matter physics and solid-state chemistry, it is a multidisciplinary topic. In colloquial use materials such as steel alloys are referred to as metals, while others such as polymers, wood or ceramics are nonmetallic materials. A metal conducts electricity at a temperature of absolute zero,[5] which is a consequence of delocalized states at the Fermi energy.[1][2] Many elements and compounds become metallic under high pressures, for example, iodine gradually becomes a metal at a pressure of between 40 and 170 thousand times atmospheric pressure. When discussing the periodic table and some chemical properties, the term metal is often used to denote those elements which in pure form and at standard conditions are metals in the sense of electrical conduction mentioned above. The related term metallic may also be used for types of dopant atoms or alloying elements.
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (Romanian: Principatele Unite ale Moldovei și Țării Românești),[2] commonly called United Principalities or Wallachia and Moldavia, was the personal union of the Principality of Moldavia and the Principality of Wallachia. The union was formed on 5 February [O.S. 24 January] 1859 when Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected as the Domnitor (Ruling Prince) of both principalities. Their separate autonomous vassalage in the Ottoman Empire continued with the unification of both principalities. On 3 February [O.S. 22 January] 1862, Moldavia and Wallachia formally united to create the Romanian United Principalities, the core of the Romanian nation state.[3][4] In February 1866, Prince Cuza was forced to abdicate and go into exile by a political coalition led by the Liberals; the German prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Throne and, on 22 May [O.S. 10 May] 1866 he entered Bucharest for the first time. In July the same year, a new constitution came into effect, giving the country the name of Romania; internationally, this name was used only after 1877, since at the time it shared a common foreign policy with the Ottoman Empire. Nominally, the new state remained a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. However, by this time the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte had become a legal fiction. Romania had its own flag and anthem; after 1867, it had its own currency as well. On 21 May [O.S. 9 May] 1877, Romania proclaimed itself fully independent; the proclamation was sanctioned by the Domnitor the following day. Four years later, on 22 May [O.S. 10 May] 1881, the 1866 constitution was modified and Romania became a kingdom,  and Domnitor Carol I was crowned as the first king of Romania. After the First World War, Transylvania and other territories were also included. For its triple symbolic meaning, the date of May 10 was celebrated as Romanias National Day until 1948, when the Communist regime installed the republic. As a historical term designating the pre-Union Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, sometimes including the Principality of Transylvania, the term Romanian Principalities dates back to the beginnings of modern Romanian history in the mid-19th century.[citation needed][5] It was subsequently used by Romanian historians as an alternative to the much older term Romanian Lands. English use of Romanian Principalities is documented from the second half of the 19th century.
Ioan Slavici.  Ioan Slavici (Romanian pronunciation: [iˈo̯an ˈslavitʃʲ]; 18 January 1848 – 17 August 1925) was a Romanian writer and journalist from Austria-Hungary, later Romania. He made his debut in Convorbiri literare (Literary Conversations) (1871), with the comedy Fata de birău (The Mayors Daughter). Alongside Mihai Eminescu he founded the Young Romania Social and Literary Academic Society and organized, in 1871, the Putna Celebration of the Romanian Students from Romania and from abroad. At the end of 1874, he settled in Bucharest, where he became secretary of the Hurmuzachi Collection Committee, then he became a professor, and then an editor of the newspaper Timpul (The Time). Alongside Ion Luca Caragiale and George Coșbuc, he edited the Vatra (The Hearth) magazine. During World War I, he collaborated at the newspapers Ziua (The Day) and Gazeta Bucureștilor (The Bucharest Gazette). He was awarded the Romanian Academy Award (1903). Slavici was born in the village of Világos (today Șiria, Romania), near Arad, in 1848 to Sava and Elena Slavici. Slavici studied at the local Orthodox school in Șiria and various other institutions in Transylvania, taught in either Hungarian or German and becomes a member of the Romania Lecture Society.[1] After finishing his studies, Slavici first enrolles to study law in Budapest in 1868, and in Vienna, in 1869. But shortly after due to financial difficulties he is forced to return to Cumlaus and take a job as a notary public.[2] Throughout his employment, Slavici saved the money that would help him continue his studies in Vienna.
Convorbiri Literare.  Convorbiri Literare (lit. Literary Talks) is a Romanian literary magazine published in Romania. It is among the most important journals of the nineteenth-century Romania.[1] Convorbiri Literare was founded by Titu Maiorescu in 1867.[2][3][4] The magazine was the organ of the Junimea group, a literary society which was established in 1864.[4][5] The group included aristocratic Moldovans except for Titu Maiorescu.[4] The magazine was first headquartered in Iaşi and later moved to Bucharest.[5] Convorbiri Literare is published monthly[4] by Convorbiri Literare publishing house.[6] The magazine covered art reviews[7] and translations of literary work.[3] From 1906 the magazine also featured articles on plastic arts.[7] The contributors included Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș and Apcar Baltazar among others.[7] The other significant contributors were Mihai Eminescu, Ion Creangă and Ion Luca Caragiale.[8] Convorbiri Literare has a conservative stance,[5] and its literary rival was socialist Contemporanul during the communist regime in Romania.[4]
Fantasy Records. Fantasy Records is an American independent record label company founded by brothers Max and Sol Stanley Weiss in 1949. The early years of the company were dedicated to issuing recordings by jazz pianist Dave Brubeck, who was also one of its investors, but in more recent years the label has been known for its recordings of comedian Lenny Bruce, jazz pianist Vince Guaraldi, the last recordings made on the Wurlitzer organ in the San Francisco Fox Theatre before the theatre was demolished, organist Korla Pandit, the 1960s rock band Creedence Clearwater Revival,[1] bandleader Woody Herman, and disco and R&B singer Sylvester. In 1949, Jack Sheedy, owner of a San Francisco-based record label called Coronet, was talked into making the first recording of an octet and a trio featuring Dave Brubeck (not to be confused with either the Australian Coronet Records or the New York City-based Coronet Records of the late 1950s). Sheedys Coronet Records had recorded area Dixieland bands. But he was unable to pay his bills, and in 1949 he turned his masters over to a pressing company, the Circle Record Company, which was owned by Max and Sol Weiss.[2] The Weiss brothers changed the name of their business to Fantasy Records and met an increasing demand for Brubecks music by recording and issuing new records. The company was soon shipping 40,000 to 50,000 copies of Brubeck records per quarter.[3] When Brubeck signed with Fantasy, he believed he had 50 percent interest in the company. He worked as an unofficial artists and repertoire (A&R) assistant, encouraging the Weiss brothers to sign Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker, and Red Norvo. When he discovered that all he owned was 50 percent of his own recordings, he signed with Columbia Records.[4] Fantasy was known for its unique colored-vinyl pressings. Monaural records were pressed in red vinyl while stereo pressings were pressed in blue. Later stereo pressings were red vinyl with a blue label. Eventually the company switched to black vinyl for all pressings and the label design went through several revisions as well. In 1955, Saul Zaentz joined the company. Jazz musician Charles Mingus gave Debut Records to Zaentz as a wedding gift; at the time, Zaentz was marrying Minguss ex-wife, Celia, who had helped found Debut with Mingus and musician Max Roach. After an unsuccessful attempt by Audio Fidelity Records to buy Fantasy,[5] Zaentz became president in 1967. He and a group of investors bought Fantasy from the Weiss brothers that year.[6] He then acquired Prestige Records (1971), Riverside (1972), and Milestone (1972).[1][7]
Moros intrepidus.  Moros is a genus of small tyrannosauroid theropod dinosaur that lived during the Late Cretaceous period in what is now Utah. It contains a single species, M. intrepidus.[1] Moros represents one of the earliest known diagnostic tyrannosauroid material from North America.[1] Moros was first discovered at the Stormy Theropod site located in Emery County in the U.S. state of Utah. Palaeontologists had been researching the area for ten years when, in 2013, limb bones were seen jutting out of a hillside, prompting the excavation.[2] The bones were described as of a new species in February, 2019.[3] The type species, Moros intrepidus, was named and described by Lindsay E. Zanno, Ryan T. Tucker, Aurore Canoville, Haviv M. Avrahami, Terry A. Gates, and Peter J. Makovicky. The generic name is derived from the Greek term Moros (an embodiment of impending doom), in reference to the establishment of the tyrannosauroid lineage in North America that would soon dominate the continent by the end of the Cretaceous. The specific name is the Latin word intrepidus (intrepid), referring to the hypothesized dispersal of tyrannosauroids from Asia throughout North America following the arrival of Moros.[1] The holotype specimen, NCSM 33392, was found in the lower Mussentuchit Member of the Cedar Mountain Formation dating from the Cenomanian age. The layer has a maximimum age of 96.4 million years. The holotype consists of a right leg, specifically the thighbone, shinbone, second and fourth metatarsal, and the third and fourth phalanx of the fourth toe. Lines of arrested growth, or LAGs, indicate that it represents a subadult individual of six or seven years old, nearing its maximum size. Additionally, two premaxillary teeth were referred to the species, specimens NCSM 33393 and NCSM 33276.[1] Moros was a small-bodied, cursorial tyrannosauroid with an estimated leg length of 1.2 m (3.9 ft) and a body mass of 78 kg (172 lb).[1] The foot bones of Moros were extremely slender, with metatarsal proportions found to be more similar to ornithomimids than to other Late Cretaceous tyrannosauroids.[1]
Morus (plant).   See text. Morus, a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, consists of 19 species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions.[1][2][3][4] Generally, the genus has 64 subordinate taxa,[5] though the three most common are referred to as white, red, and black, originating from the color of their dormant buds and not necessarily the fruit color (Morus alba, M. rubra, and M. nigra, respectively), with numerous cultivars and some taxa currently unchecked and awaiting taxonomic scrutiny.[6][5] M. alba is native to South Asia, but is widely distributed across Europe, Southern Africa, South America, and North America.[2] M. alba is also the species most preferred by the silkworm. It is regarded as an invasive species in Brazil, the United States and some states of Australia.[2][7] The closely related genus Broussonetia is also commonly known as mulberry, notably the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera).[8]
Gannet (disambiguation). The gannet is a seabird. It may also refer to:
Early Miocene. The Early Miocene (also known as Lower Miocene) is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages: the Aquitanian and Burdigalian stages.[2][3] The sub-epoch lasted from 23.03 ± 0.05 Ma to 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma (million years ago). It was preceded by the Oligocene epoch. As the climate started to get cooler, the landscape started to change. New mammals evolved to replace the extinct animals of the Oligocene epoch. The first members of the hyena and weasel family started to evolve to replace the extinct Hyaenodon, entelodonts and bear-dogs. The chalicotheres survived the Oligocene epoch. A new genus of entelodont called Daeodon evolved in order to adapt to the new habitats and hunt the new prey animals of the Early Miocene epoch; it quickly became the top predator of North America. But it became extinct due to competition from Amphicyon, a newcomer from Eurasia. Amphicyon bested Daeodon because the bear-dogs larger brain, sharper teeth and longer legs built for longer chases helped it to overcome its prey.  This geochronology article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima Prefecture (広島県, Hiroshima-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [çi.ɾo.ɕi.ma, -maꜜ.keɴ][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region of Honshu.[3] Hiroshima Prefecture has a population of 2,811,410 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 8,479 km2 (3,274 sq mi). Hiroshima Prefecture borders Okayama Prefecture to the east, Tottori Prefecture to the northeast, Shimane Prefecture to the north, and Yamaguchi Prefecture to the southwest. Hiroshima Prefecture also borders Ehime Prefecture for 74 metres (243 ft) on Hyōtanjima.[4] Hiroshima is the capital and largest city of Hiroshima Prefecture, and the largest city in the Chūgoku region, with other major cities including Fukuyama, Kure, and Higashihiroshima.[5] Hiroshima Prefecture is located on the Seto Inland Sea across from the island of Shikoku, and is bounded to the north by the Chūgoku Mountains. Hiroshima Prefecture is one of the three prefectures of Japan with more than one UNESCO World Heritage Site. The area around Hiroshima was formerly divided into Bingo Province and Aki Province.[6] This location has been a center of trade and culture since the beginning of Japans recorded history. Hiroshima is a traditional center of the Chūgoku region and was the seat of the Mōri clan until the Battle of Sekigahara. Together with Nara and Tokyo, Hiroshima is one of the three prefectures with more than one UNESCO World Heritage Site. The two such sites in Hiroshima Prefecture are: Hiroshima prefecture lies in the middle of Japan. Most of the prefecture consists of mountains leading towards Shimane Prefecture; and rivers produce rich plains near the coast.
500 yen note. The 500 yen note (五百円紙幣) is a discontinued denomination of Japanese yen issued from 1951 to 1994 in paper form. Crudely made notes were first made in an unsuccessful attempt to curb inflation at the time, and the series as a whole is broken down into three different types of note. Only the last two have a known design which feature Iwakura Tomomi on the obverse, and Mount Fuji on the reverse. Starting in 1982, new 500 yen coins began to be minted which eventually replaced their paper counterparts.[1] While the production of 500 yen notes continued until 1984, all of the notes issued were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1994. Five hundred yen notes were allowed to retain their legal tender status, but they are now worth more on the collectors market in numismatic value than they are at their face value.[2][3][4] The first series of 500 yen notes (called series B) were released on April 2, 1951 with improved security features such as watermarks. This time these new notes appeared to have been more successful, as they were issued for almost 20 years until finally being withdrawn on January 4, 1971.[2][5] The final 500 yen notes are referred to as series C notes, and were issued starting on November 1, 1969 with new watermarks to enhance security. The issue came to an end on April 1, 1994 when 500 yen notes were withdrawn from circulation.
Moros. In Greek mythology, Moros /ˈmɔːrɒs/ or Morus /ˈmɔːrəs/ (Ancient Greek: Μόρος means doom, fate[1]) is the personified spirit of impending doom,[2] who drives mortals to their deadly fate. It was also said that Moros gave people the ability to foresee their death. His Roman equivalent was Fatum. Moros is the offspring of Nyx, the primordial goddess of the night. It is suggested by Roman authors that Moros was son of Erebus, primordial god of darkness.[3] However, in Hesiods Theogony it is suggested that Nyx bore him by herself, along with several of her other children. Regardless of the presence or absence of Moros father, this would make him the brother of the Moirai, or the Fates. Among his other siblings are Thanatos and the Keres, death spirits who represented the physical aspects of death—Keres being the bringers of violent death and terminal sickness, while Thanatos represents a more peaceful passing. In Prometheus Bound, the titular Titan suggests that he gave humanity the spirit Elpis, the personification of hope, in order to help them ignore the inevitability of Moros.[4] He is also referred to as the all-destroying god, who, even in the realm of Death, does not set his victim free,[5] further supporting his image as representative of the inevitability of death and suffering. Aeschylus, Fragment 199 (from Plutarch, Life and Poety of Homer 157) (trans. Weir Smyth):
Chūgoku region. The Chūgoku region (Japanese: 中国地方, Hepburn: Chūgoku-chihō; [tɕɯꜜː.ɡo.kɯ, -ŋo.kɯ, tɕɯː.ɡo.kɯ̥ tɕiꜜ.hoː, -ŋo.kɯ̥-][3][a]), also known as the Sanin-Sanyō (山陰山陽地方, Sanin-Sanyō-chihō) region, is the westernmost region of Honshū, the largest island of Japan. It consists of the prefectures of Hiroshima, Okayama, Shimane, Tottori and Yamaguchi.[4] As of the 2020 census, it has a population of 7,328,339. Chūgoku literally means middle country, but the origin of the name is unclear. Historically, Japan was divided into a number of provinces called koku, which were in turn classified according to both their power and their distances from the administrative center in Kansai. Under the latter classification, most provinces are divided into near countries (近国, kingoku), middle countries (中国, chūgoku), and far countries (遠国, ongoku). Therefore, one explanation is that Chūgoku was originally used to refer to the collection of middle countries to the west of the capital. However, only five (fewer than half) of the provinces normally considered part of Chūgoku region were in fact classified as middle countries, and the term never applied to the many middle countries to the east of Kansai. Therefore, an alternative explanation is that Chūgoku referred to provinces between Kansai and Kyūshū, which was historically important as the link between Japan and mainland Asia. Historically, Chūgoku referred to the 16 provinces of Sanindō (山陰道) and Sanyōdō (山陽道), which led to the regions alternative name described below. However, because some of the easternmost provinces were later subsumed into prefectures based primarily in Kansai, those areas are, strictly speaking, not part of the Chūgoku region in modern usage. In Japanese, the characters 中国 and the reading Chūgoku are also used to mean China. The same characters are used in Chinese to refer to China, but pronounced Zhōngguó in Mandarin, lit. Middle Kingdom or Middle Country (Wade Giles: Chung1-kuo2). It is similar to the use of the West Country in English for a region of England. However, before the end of the Second World War, China was more commonly called shina (支那/シナ; which shares the same etymology of the word China in English) in order to avoid confusing the Chūgoku region. Due to the extensive use of this word during the Sino-Japanese War, the term shina has become an offensive word and was abandoned thereafter, and Chūgoku has since then been used instead of shina. In modern times, primarily in the tourism industry, for the same purpose, the Chūgoku region is also called the Sanin‐Sanyō region. Sanin (yin of the mountains) is the northern part facing the Sea of Japan. Sanyō (yang of the mountains) is the southern part facing the Seto Inland Sea. These names were created using the yin and yang‐based place‐naming scheme. The city of Hiroshima, the capital of the Chūgoku region, was rebuilt after being destroyed by an atomic bomb in 1945, and is now an industrial metropolis of more than one million people.
Yamaguchi Prefecture. Yamaguchi Prefecture (山口県, Yamaguchi-ken[a]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region of Honshu.[3] Yamaguchi Prefecture has a population of 1,377,631 (1 February 2018) and has a geographic area of 6,112 km2 (2,359 sq mi). Yamaguchi Prefecture borders Shimane Prefecture to the north and Hiroshima Prefecture to the northeast. Yamaguchi is the capital and Shimonoseki is the largest city of Yamaguchi Prefecture, with other major cities including Ube, Shūnan, and Iwakuni.[4] Yamaguchi Prefecture is located at the western tip of Honshu with coastlines on the Sea of Japan and Seto Inland Sea, and separated from the island of Kyushu by the Kanmon Straits. Yamaguchi Prefecture was created by the merger of the provinces of Suō and Nagato.[5] During the rise of the samurai class during the Heian and Kamakura Periods (794–1333), the Ouchi family of Suō Province and the Koto family of Nagato Province gained influence as powerful warrior clans. In the Muromachi period (1336—1573), Ouchi Hiroyo, the 24th ruler of the Ouchi family conquered both areas of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The Ouchi clan imitated the city planning of Kyoto. They gained great wealth through cultural imports from the continent and trade with Korea and Ming Dynasty China. As a result, Yamaguchi came to be known as the Kyoto of the West, and Ouchi culture flourished. Sue Harutaka defeated the 31st ruler of the Ouchi clan. The Sue clan was then defeated by Mōri Motonari, and the Mōri family gained control of the Chūgoku region. Yamaguchi was ruled as part of the Mōri clan domain during the Sengoku period. Mōri Terumoto was then defeated by Tokugawa Ieyasu in the battle of Sekigahara in 1600. He was forced to give up all his land except for the Suō and Nagato areas (current-day Yamaguchi Prefecture), where he built his castle in Hagi. Mōri sought to strengthen the economic base of the region and increase local production with his Three Whites campaign (salt, rice, and paper). After Commodore Matthew Perrys opening of Japan, clans from Nagato (also called Chōshū) played a key role in the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate and the establishment of the new imperial government. Four years after the Edo Shogunate was overthrown and the Meiji government formed in 1868, the present Yamaguchi Prefecture was established. The Meiji government brought in many new systems and modern policies, and promoted the introduction of modern industry, though the prefecture was still centered on agriculture during this period. In the Taishō period, from 1912 to 1926, shipbuilding, chemical, machinery, and metal working plants were built in Yamaguchis harbors in the Seto Inland Sea area. During the post-World War II Shōwa Period, Yamaguchi developed into one of the most industrialized prefectures in the country due to the establishment of petrochemical complexes.[6] As of April 1, 2012, 7% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Setonaikai National Park; Akiyoshidai, Kita-Nagato Kaigan, and Nishi-Chūgoku Sanchi Quasi-National Parks; and Chōmonkyō, Iwakiyama, Rakanzan, and Toyota Prefectural Natural Parks.[7]
500 yen coin (commemorative). The 500 yen coin (五百円硬貨, Gohyaku-en kōka) is a denomination of the Japanese yen. In addition to being used as circulating currency, this denomination has also been used to make commemorative coins struck by the Japan Mint. These coins are intended for collectors only and were never issued for circulation. Throughout the coins history, the Japan Mint has issued 500 yen coins commemorating the various subjects of Japans history. Early commemorative coins minted under the Shōwa era have their dates of reign written in Kanji script. This practice was later replaced by adding Arabic numerals to reflect the current Emperors year of reign.
Romanian language.  Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian; endonym: limba română [ˈlimba roˈmɨnə] ⓘ, or românește [romɨˈneʃte], lit. in Romanian) is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova. Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages, a linguistic group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin which separated from the Western Romance languages in the course of the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries.[12] To distinguish it within the Eastern Romance languages, in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. It is also spoken as a minority language by stable communities in the countries surrounding Romania (Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Ukraine), and by the large Romanian diaspora. In total, it is spoken by 25 million people as a first language.[1] Romanian was also known as Moldovan in Moldova, although the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled in 2013 that the official language of Moldova is Romanian.[c] On 16 March 2023, the Moldovan Parliament approved a law on referring to the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. On 22 March, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu, promulgated the law.[13] The history of the Romanian language started in the Roman provinces north of the Jireček Line in Classical antiquity but there are 3 main hypotheses about its exact territory: the autochthony thesis (it developed in left-Danube Dacia only), the discontinuation thesis (it developed in right-Danube provinces only), and the as-well-as thesis that supports the language development on both sides of the Danube.[14] Between the 6th and 8th century, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from the vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from native dialects, and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian. This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian, and Daco-Romanian.[15][16] Due to limited attestation between the 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are re-constructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits.[17] From the 12th or 13th century, official documents and religious texts were written in Old Church Slavonic, a language that had a similar role to Medieval Latin in Western Europe. The oldest dated text in Romanian is a letter written in 1521 with Cyrillic letters, and until late 18th century, including during the development of printing, the same alphabet was used. The period after 1780, starting with the writing of its first grammar books, represents the modern age of the language, during which time the Latin alphabet became official, the literary language was standardized, and a large number of words from Modern Latin and other Romance languages entered the lexis.
Ginza. Ginza (/ˈɡɪnzə/ GHIN-zə; Japanese: 銀座 [ɡindza]) is a district of Chūō, Tokyo, located south of Yaesu and Kyōbashi, west of Tsukiji, east of Yūrakuchō and Uchisaiwaichō, and north of Shinbashi. It is a popular upscale shopping area of Tokyo, with numerous internationally renowned department stores, boutiques, restaurants and coffeehouses located in its vicinity. Ginza was a part of the old Kyobashi ward of Tokyo City, which, together with Nihonbashi and Kanda, formed the core of Shitamachi,[1] the original downtown center of Edo (Tokyo). Ginza was built upon a former swamp that was filled in during the 16th century. The name Ginza comes after the establishment of a silver-coin mint established there in 1612, during the Edo period.[2] After a devastating fire in 1872 burned down most of the area,[2] the Meiji government designated the Ginza area as a model of modernization. The government planned the construction of fireproof brick buildings and larger, better streets connecting Shimbashi Station all the way to the foreign concession in Tsukiji. Soon after the fire, redevelopment schemes were prepared by Colin Alexander McVean[3] a chief surveyor of the Public Works under direction of Yamao Yozo, but execution designs were provided by the Irish-born engineer Thomas Waters;[2] the Bureau of Construction of the Ministry of Finance was in charge of construction. The following year, a Western-style shopping promenade on the street from the Shinbashi bridge to the Kyōbashi bridge in the southwestern part of Chūō with two- and three-story Georgian brick buildings was completed.
John Raymond science fiction magazines.  Between 1952 and 1954, John Raymond published four digest-size science fiction and fantasy magazines.  Raymond was an American publisher of mens magazines who knew little about science fiction, but the fields rapid growth and a distributors recommendation prompted him to pursue the genre.  Raymond consulted and then hired Lester del Rey to edit the first magazine, Space Science Fiction, which appeared in May 1952.  Following a second distributors suggestion that year, Raymond launched Science Fiction Adventures, which del Rey again edited, but under an alias.  In 1953, Raymond gave del Rey two more magazines to edit: Rocket Stories, which targeted a younger audience, and Fantasy Magazine, which published fantasy rather than science fiction. All four magazines were profitable, but Raymond did not reinvest the profits in improving the magazines and was late in paying contributors.  Del Rey persuaded Raymond to invest some of the profits back into the magazines, but nothing came of this and, when del Rey discovered that Raymond was planning to cut rates instead, he resigned.  Two of the magazines continued for a short time with Harry Harrison as editor, but by the end of 1954 all four magazines had ceased publication. The magazines are well regarded by science fiction historians.  They carried fiction by many names well known in the field or who later became famous, including Isaac Asimov, Philip K. Dick, Robert E. Howard, and John Jakes. American science fiction magazines first appeared in the 1920s with the launch of Amazing Stories, a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback. World War II and its attendant paper shortages interrupted the expanding market for the genre, but by the late 1940s the market began to recover again.[1]  In October 1950, the first issue of Galaxy Science Fiction appeared; it reached a circulation of 100,000 within a year, and its success encouraged other publishers to enter the field.[2]  John Raymond, at that time primarily a publisher of mens magazines, was told by his distributor that science fiction was a growing field; Raymond knew nothing about science fiction so he asked Lester del Rey for advice, and then offered del Rey the job of editor on the new magazine.  Del Rey was initially hesitant, but eventually agreed to become the editor of Space Science Fiction; the first issue was dated May 1952.  When another distributor approached Raymond to ask if he would be interested in publishing a science fiction title, he suggested to del Rey that this second magazine should focus on action stories.  The result was Science Fiction Adventures, which appeared in November that year.  Raymond decided to expand further, launching Fantasy Magazine in March 1953, and Rocket Stories, which like Science Fiction Adventures was aimed at a juvenile readership, the following month.  Ziff-Davis had launched Fantastic, a rival fantasy magazine, in 1952, and once Fantasy Magazine appeared, they threatened to sue Raymond because of the similarity of the titles, so Raymond renamed the magazine Fantasy Fiction from the second issue onwards.[3]
Chuo University. Chuo University (中央大学, Chūō Daigaku), commonly referred to as Chuo (中央) or Chu-Dai (中大), is a private research university in Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan. The university finds its roots in a school called Igirisu Hōritsu Gakkō [ja] (English Law School), which was founded in 1885, and became a university in 1920.[2] The university operates four campuses in Tokyo: the largest in Hachiōji (Tama campus), one in Bunkyō (Korakuen campus), and two others in Shinjuku (Ichigaya and Ichigaya-Tamachi campuses). Chuo is organized into six faculties, ten graduate schools, and nine research institutes. There are also four affiliated high schools and two affiliated junior high schools. When written in Chinese characters, Chuo University shares the same name with National Central University in Taiwan and Chung-Ang University in South Korea. Chuo was founded as the English Law School (英吉利法律学校, Igirisu Hōritsu Gakkō) in 1885 at Kanda in Tokyo by Rokuichiro Masujima together with some group of 18 young lawyers led by him.[3][4] Before 1889, the school moved and was renamed to Tokyo College of Law (Tōkyō Hōgakuin). The curriculum was changed to reflect the government reform of Japanese law and creation of a new civil code.[4] Opposition to the implementation of new civil code resulted in the government shuttering of the campus journal and the subsequent creation of the Chuo Law Review (Hōgaku Shinpō), which has been regularly published since then.[4] The university was burnt down in the Great Kanda Fire that occurred in 1892, but was able to hold temporary classes. Before 1903, the school was promoted to Tokyo University of Law (Tokyo Hōgakuin Daigaku) and in 1905, the school expanded itself with the department of economics and renamed itself Chuo University. The origin of its name Chuo has not been certain. However, many founders of the university were once students of the Middle Temple, London, United Kingdom before they completed their training and became qualified as Barristers.  This is one of the reasons why the university was renamed to Chuo, which literally means middle, center or central.
Nara (city).  Nara (奈良市, Nara-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [naꜜ.ɾa, na.ɾaꜜ.ɕi] ⓘ[2]) is the capital city of Nara Prefecture, Japan. As of 2022[update], Nara has an estimated population of 367,353 according to World Population Review, making it the largest city in Nara Prefecture and sixth-largest in the Kansai region of Honshu. Nara is a core city located in the northern part of Nara Prefecture bordering the Kyoto Prefecture. Nara was the capital of Japan during the Nara period from 710 to 784 as the seat of the Emperor before the capital was moved to Nagaoka-kyō, except for the years 740 to 745, when the capital was placed in Kuni-kyō, Naniwa-kyō and Shigaraki Palace. Nara is home to eight major historic temples, shrines, and heritage sites, specifically Tōdai-ji, Saidai-ji, Kōfuku-ji, Kasuga Shrine, Gangō-ji, Yakushi-ji, Tōshōdai-ji, and the Heijō Palace, together with Kasugayama Primeval Forest, collectively form the Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. By the Heian period, a variety of different characters had been used to represent the name Nara: 乃楽, 乃羅, 平, 平城, 名良, 奈良, 奈羅, 常, 那良, 那楽, 那羅, 楢, 諾良, 諾楽, 寧, 寧楽 and 儺羅. A number of theories for the origin of the name Nara have been proposed, and some of the better-known ones are listed here. The second theory in the list, from the notable folklorist Kunio Yanagita (1875–1962), is most widely accepted at present.
SIX Group. SIX is a key financial market infrastructure company in Switzerland. The company provides services relating to securities transactions, the processing of financial information, payment transactions and is building a digital infrastructure. The company name SIX is an abbreviation and stands for Swiss Infrastructure and Exchange. SIX is globally active, with its headquarters in Zurich.[3] Ticker AG in Zurich was founded with the purpose of transmitting stock market prices.[4] It was the predecessor of Telekurs AG, which later merged with other companies to form SIX.[5][6] With the opening of the new exchange, the ticker system also began to broadcast.[4] This stock exchange ticker, one of the first on the European continent and a special application of the local telegraph, transmitted the Zurich stock exchange prices, the closing prices of other Swiss and important foreign stock exchanges in italics on a narrow strip of paper to any number of recipients.[4] Ticker AG introduced the first stock exchange television ever and aroused media interest with this novelty: The prices of up to ninety stocks could be followed on screen.[5] The Neue Zürcher Zeitung described stock exchange television as a world first and devoted a technology supplement to this technical development.[7] Ticker AG changed its name to Telekurs AG.[8]
Waseda University.  Waseda University (Japanese: 早稲田大学), abbreviated as Waseda (早稲田) or Sōdai (早大), is a private research university in Shinjuku, Tokyo. Founded in 1882 as the Tōkyō Professional School [ja] by Ōkuma Shigenobu, the eighth and eleventh prime minister of Japan, the school was formally renamed Waseda University in 1902.[6] Waseda is organized into 36 departments: 13 undergraduate schools and 23 graduate schools. As of 2023, there are 38,776 undergraduate students and 8,490 graduate students. In addition to a central campus in Shinjuku (Waseda Campus and Nishiwaseda Campus), the university operates campuses in Chūō, Nishitōkyō, Tokorozawa, Honjō, and Kitakyūshū. Waseda also operates 21 research institutes at its main Shinjuku campus.[7] The universitys faculty and alumni include eight prime ministers of Japan[8]; three prime ministers of Korea[9][10][11]; founders of leading Japanese and Korean companies such as Sony, UNIQLO, Samsung,Lotte, and POSCO; a number of important figures of Japanese literature, including Haruki Murakami, Yoko Ogawa, and Yoko Tawada. Waseda was founded as Tōkyō Professional School (東京專門學校, Tōkyō Senmon Gakkō) on 21 October 1882 by samurai scholar and Meiji-era politician and former prime minister Ōkuma Shigenobu. Before the name Waseda was selected, it was known variously as Waseda Gakkō (早稲田学校) or Totsuka Gakkō (戸塚学校) after the location of the founders villa in Waseda Village and the schools location in Totsuka Village, respectively. It was renamed Waseda University (早稲田大学, Waseda-daigaku) on 2 September 1902, upon acquiring university status. It started as a college with three departments under the old Japanese system of higher education.
Mike Ashley (writer).  Michael Raymond Donald Ashley  (born 1948) is a British bibliographer, author and editor of science fiction, mystery, and fantasy. Ashley has published over 100 nonfiction books and anthologies. He edits the long-running Mammoth Book series of short story anthologies, each arranged around a particular theme in mystery, fantasy, or science fiction. He has a special interest in fiction magazines and has published a multi-volume History of the Science Fiction Magazine and a study of British fiction magazines, The Age of the Storytellers. Ashley won the Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Critical/Biographical Work for The Mammoth Encyclopedia of Modern Crime Fiction in 2003 and the Bram Stoker Award for Best Non-Fiction for The Supernatural Index in 1995. He received the Pilgrim Award for lifetime achievement in science fiction scholarship from the Science Fiction Research Association in 2002. He was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Related Work for Transformations: The Story of the Science Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970 in 2006. In addition to the books listed below, Ashley edited and prepared for publication the novel The Enchantresses (1997) by Vera Chapman. He has contributed to The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (as contributing editor), The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (as contributing editor of the third edition), and other reference works. He wrote the books to accompany British Library exhibitions Taking Liberties in 2008 and Out of This World: Science Fiction But Not As You Know It in 2011.
Irvin S. Cobb. Irvin Shrewsbury Cobb (June 23, 1876 – March 11, 1944) was an American author, humorist, editor and columnist from Paducah, Kentucky, who relocated to New York in 1904, living there for the remainder of his life. He wrote for the New York World, Joseph Pulitzers newspaper, as the highest paid staff reporter in the United States. Cobb also wrote more than 60 books and 300 short stories. Some of his works were adapted for silent movies. Several of his Judge Priest short stories were adapted in the 1930s for two feature films directed by John Ford. Cobb was the second of four children born to Kentucky natives in Paducah, Kentucky. His maternal grandfather, Reuben Saunders, M.D., is credited with discovering in 1873 that injections of morphine-atropine were useful in treating cholera. Cobb was raised in Paducah, and the events and people of his childhood became the basis for much of his later works.[1] Later in life, Cobb was nicknamed Duke of Paducah.[2] Cobb was educated in public and private elementary schools, and then entered William A. Cades Academy intending to pursue a law career. When Cobb was 16, his father became an alcoholic, after the death of his grandfather. Forced to quit school and find work, Cobb began his writing career. Cobb started in journalism with the Paducah Daily News at age seventeen, and became the nations youngest managing news editor at age nineteen. He later worked at the Louisville Evening Post for a year and a half.
Argosy (magazine).  Argosy was an American magazine, founded in 1882 as The Golden Argosy, a childrens weekly, edited by Frank Munsey and published by E. G. Rideout.  Munsey took over as publisher when Rideout went bankrupt in 1883, and after many struggles made the magazine profitable.  He shortened the title to The Argosy in 1888 and targeted an audience of men and boys with adventure stories.  In 1894 he switched it to a monthly schedule and in 1896 he eliminated all non-fiction and started using cheap pulp paper, making it the first pulp magazine.  Circulation had reached half a million by 1907, and remained strong until the 1930s.  The name was changed to Argosy All-Story Weekly in 1920 after the magazine merged with All-Story Weekly, another Munsey pulp, and from 1929 it became just Argosy. In 1925 Munsey died, and the publisher, the Frank A. Munsey Company, was purchased by William Dewart, who had worked for Munsey.  By 1942 circulation had fallen to no more than 50,000, and after a failed effort to revive the magazine by including sensational non-fiction, it was sold that year to Popular Publications, another pulp magazine publisher.  Popular converted it from pulp to slick format, and initially attempted to make it a fiction-only magazine, but gave up on this within a year.  Instead it became a mens magazine, carrying fiction and feature articles aimed at men.  Circulation soared and by the early 1950s was well over one million. Early contributors included Horatio Alger, Oliver Optic, and G. A. Henty.  During the pulp era, many famous writers appeared in Argosy, including O. Henry, James Branch Cabell, Albert Payson Terhune, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Erle Stanley Gardner, Zane Grey, Robert E. Howard, and Max Brand.  Argosy was regarded as one of the most prestigious publications in the pulp market, along with Blue Book, Adventure and Short Stories.  After the transition to slick format it continued to publish fiction, including science fiction by Robert Heinlein, Arthur Clarke, and Ray Bradbury.  From 1948 to 1958 it published a series by Gardner called The Court of Last Resort which examined the cases of dozens of convicts who maintained their innocence, and succeeding in overturning many of the convictions.  NBC adapted the series for television in 1957. Popular sold Argosy to David Geller in 1972, and in 1978 Geller sold it to the Filipacchi Group, which closed it at the end of the year. The magazine has been revived several times, most recently in 2016.
Copper.  Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement. Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable, unalloyed metallic form. This means that copper is a native metal. This led to very early human use in several regions, from c. 8000 BC. Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, c. 5000 BC; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC.[11] Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite, malachite, and turquoise, and have been used widely and historically as pigments. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green patina of compounds called verdigris. Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives.
Swiss Association for Standardization.  The Swiss Association for Standardization (SNV, German: Schweizerische Normen-Vereinigung, French: Association Suisse de Normalisation) is in charge of Switzerlands international cooperation and acceptance in the field of standardization. It is a founding member of both ISO and CEN. The Swiss Association for Standardization liaises between experts of standardization and users of standards. This article about an organisation in Switzerland is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Higashiyamanashi District, Yamanashi. Higashiyamanashi (東山梨郡, Higashiyamanashi-gun) was a district located in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. As of 2004, the district had an estimated population of 10,701 persons with a density of 135 persons per km2. The total area was 79.27 km2. Prior to its dissolution, the district consisted of three towns: 
International Organization for Standardization.  The International Organization for Standardization (ISO /ˈaɪsoʊ/;[3] French: Organisation internationale de normalisation; Russian: Международная организация по стандартизации) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries.[4][5] Membership requirements are given in Article 3 of the ISO Statutes.[6] ISO was founded on 23 February 1947, and (as of July 2024[update]) it has published over 25,000 international standards covering almost all aspects of technology and manufacturing. It has over 800 technical committees (TCs) and subcommittees (SCs) to take care of standards development.[7] The organization develops and publishes international standards in technical and nontechnical fields, including everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, transport, IT, agriculture, and healthcare.[7][8][9][10] More specialized topics like electrical and electronic engineering are instead handled by the International Electrotechnical Commission.[11] It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.[7] The three official languages of ISO are English, French, and Russian.[2]
Zinc.  Zinc is a chemical element; it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic table. In some respects, zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size.[b] Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning). Zinc is an essential trace element for humans,[8][9][10] animals,[11] plants[12] and for microorganisms[13] and is necessary for prenatal and postnatal development.[14] It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron, an important cofactor for many enzymes, and the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[12][10] Zinc is also an essential nutrient element for coral growth.[15] Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases.[16] In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, and diarrhea.[14] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans.[17] Consumption of excess zinc may cause ataxia, lethargy, and copper deficiency. In marine biomes, notably within polar regions, a deficit of zinc can compromise the vitality of primary algal communities, potentially destabilizing the intricate marine trophic structures and consequently impacting biodiversity.[18] Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc in various proportions, was used as early as the third millennium BC in the Aegean area and the region which currently includes Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia. In the second millennium BC it was used in the regions currently including West India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq, and Israel.[19][20][21] Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India, though it was known to the ancient Romans and Greeks.[22] The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC.[23] The oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.[24] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow.
Sensationalism. In journalism and mass media, sensationalism is a type of editorial tactic. Events and topics in news stories are selected and worded to excite the greatest number of readers and viewers. This style of news reporting encourages biased or emotionally loaded impressions of events rather than neutrality, and may cause a manipulation to the truth of a story.[1][better source needed] Sensationalism may rely on reports about generally insignificant matters and portray them as a major influence on society, or biased presentations of newsworthy topics, in a trivial, or tabloid manner, contrary to general assumptions of professional journalistic standards.[2][3] Some tactics include being deliberately obtuse,[4] appealing to emotions,[5][better source needed] being controversial, intentionally omitting facts and information,[6][better source needed] being loud and self-centered, and acting to obtain attention.[5][better source needed] Trivial information and events are sometimes misrepresented and exaggerated as important or significant, and often include stories about the actions of individuals and small groups of people,[1][better source needed] the content of which is often insignificant and irrelevant to the macro-level day-to-day events occurring globally. In A History of News, Mitchell Stephens notes sensationalism can be found in the Ancient Roman gazette Acta Diurna, where official notices and announcements were presented daily on public message boards, the perceived content of which spread with enthusiasm in illiterate societies.[2] Sensationalism was used in books of the 16th and 17th century, to teach moral lessons. According to Stephens, sensationalism brought the news to a new audience when it became aimed at the lower class, who had less of a need to accurately understand politics and the economy, to occupy them in other matters. Through sensationalism, he claims, the audience was further educated and encouraged to take more interest in the news.[2] The more modern forms of sensationalism developed in the course of the nineteenth century in parallel with the expansion of print culture in industrialized nations. A genre of British literature, sensation novels, became in the 1860s an example of how the publishing industry could capitalize on surprising narrative to market serialized fiction in periodicals.[citation needed] The attention-grasping rhetorical techniques found in sensation fiction were also employed in articles on science, modern technology, finance, and in historical accounts of contemporary events.[7] Sensationalism in nineteenth century could be found in popular culture, literature, performance, art history, theory, pre-cinema, and early cinema.[8] In the Soviet Union, strong censorship resulted in only positive occurrences being reported on, with the news looking significantly different than in the West.[9][additional citation(s) needed]
Kawabe District, Akita. Kawabe District (河辺郡, Kawabe-gun) was a former rural district located in southern Akita, Japan. On October 1, 2005, its remaining components, the towns of Kawabe and Yūwa merged into the city of Akita, upon which Kawabe District was dissolved and ceased to exist as an administrative unit. As of 2003 (before the merger), the district had an estimated population of 18,264 and a population density of 40.99 persons per km2. The total area was 445.57 km2. The area of Kawabe District was formerly part of Dewa Province, which was divided into the provinces of Ugo Province and Uzen Province following the Meiji restoration on January 19, 1869, with the area of Kawabe becoming part of Ugo Province. At the time, the area consisted of 59 villages all of which were formerly under the control of Kubota Domain. Akita Prefecture was founded on December 13, 1871. With the establishment of the municipality system on April 1, 1889, Kawabe District, with 14 villages was established. Ushijima and Araya were raised to town status in 1896, but Ushijima was annexed by the city of Akita in 1924. Wada was raised to town status in 1935, but Araya was absorbed into the city of Akita in 1941. On April 1, 1948 - Kawabe District acquired the village of Taishodera (from Yuri District). Kawabe was raised to town status on March 31, 1955, followed by Yūwa on April 1, 1972. On January 11, 2005, the towns of Kawabe and Yūwa were merged into the expanded city of Akita. Kawabe District was dissolved as a result of this merger.
Nickel.  Nickel is a chemical element; it has symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is a hard and ductile transition metal. Pure nickel is chemically reactive, but large pieces are slow to react with air under standard conditions because a passivation layer of nickel oxide  that prevents further corrosion forms on the surface. Even so, pure native nickel is found in Earths crust only in tiny amounts, usually in ultramafic rocks,[10][11] and in the interiors of larger nickel–iron meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen when outside Earths atmosphere. Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earths outer and inner cores.[12] Use of nickel (as natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as an element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral, in the cobalt mines of Los, Hälsingland, Sweden. The elements name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick). Nickel minerals can be green, like copper ores, and were known as kupfernickel – Nickels copper – because they produced no copper. Although most nickel in the earths crust exists as oxides, economically more important nickel ores are sulfides, especially pentlandite. Major production sites include Sulawesi, Indonesia, the Sudbury region, Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric origin), New Caledonia in the Pacific, Western Australia, and Norilsk, Russia.[13]
Meiji-mura. Meiji-mura (博物館明治村, Hakubutsukan Meiji-mura; Meiji Village Museum) is an open-air architectural museum/theme park in Inuyama, near Nagoya in Aichi prefecture, Japan. It was opened on March 18, 1965. The museum preserves historic buildings from Japans Meiji (1867–1912), Taishō (1912–1926), and early Shōwa (1926–1945) periods. Over 60 historical buildings have been moved and reconstructed onto 1 square kilometre (250 acres) of rolling hills alongside Lake Iruka. The most noteworthy building there is the reconstructed main entrance and lobby of Frank Lloyd Wrights landmark Imperial Hotel, which originally stood in Tokyo from 1923 to 1967, when the main structure was demolished to make way for a new, larger version of the hotel.[1] The Meiji era was a period of rapid change in Japan. After centuries of isolation, Japan began to incorporate ideas from the west, including building styles and construction techniques. Meiji-mura was started by Yoshirō Taniguchi (谷口 吉郎 Taniguchi Yoshirō 1904–79), an architect, and Motoo Tsuchikawa (土川元夫 Tsuchikawa Moto-o, 1903–74), then vice president and later president of Nagoya Railroad (Meitetsu). While riding the Yamanote line in Tokyo, Taniguchi lamented the sight of the demolition of the Rokumeikan, a symbol of Meiji era architecture. He appealed to his college classmate Tsuchikawa to join him in working to preserve western style Meiji era buildings of cultural or historical importance. On July 16, 1962 they formed a foundation for this purpose, with Nagoya Railroad providing the funding. Meiji-mura was opened on March 18, 1965 on the banks of the Lake Iruka reservoir, operated under Nagoya Railroad with Taniguchi as museum director, with 15 buildings. Meiji-muras goal is to preserve these historic early examples of western architecture mixed with Japanese construction techniques and materials. Incidentally, many of the buildings were saved from demolition during the post World War II period, another time of transition and rapid progress in Japanese history. Though it is still operated by Nagoya Railroad, a subsidiary company was created in 2003 to oversee it and nearby Little World. Due to the recent financial declines with Nagoya Railroad the future of the park is in question. While renovations had been put on hold for a time, work on moving the Shibakawa Yashiki from Nishinomiya, Hyōgo was begun in January 2005.
Bank.  A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans.[1] Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets.[2] As banks play an important role in financial stability and the economy of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalized a system known as fractional-reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities.[3] In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, the Basel Accords.[4] Banking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but, in many ways, functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties –  notably, the Medicis, the Pazzi, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs, and the Rothschilds –  have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena (founded in 1472), while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank (founded in 1590). Banking as an archaic activity (or quasi-banking[5][6]) is thought to have begun as early as the end of the 4th millennium BCE,[7] to the 3rd millennia BCE.[8][9]
Okayama (disambiguation). Okayama is the capital city of Okayama Prefecture in the Chūgoku region of Japan. Okayama may also refer to:
Shōō. Shōō (勝央町, Shōō-chō) is a town located in Katsuta District, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 September 2022[update], the town had an estimated population of 10,900 in 4713 households and a population density of 83 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the town is 54.05 square kilometres (20.87 sq mi). Shōō is said to be the place where Kintarō died.[citation needed] Shōō is located in the northeastern part of Okayama Prefecture. Located on the southern side of the Chugoku Mountains, it is mostly hills and forests. Okayama Prefecture Shōō has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with moderate snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Shōō is 14.0 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1501 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in January, at around 25.9 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.4 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Shōō has been as follows.
Katsuta, Okayama. Katsuta (勝田町, Katsuta-chō) was a town located in Katsuta District, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 3,660 and a density of 41.93 persons per km2. The total area was 87.29 km2. On March 31, 2005, Katsuta, along with the towns of Mimasaka (former), Aida, Ōhara and Sakutō, and the village of Higashiawakura (all from Aida District), was merged to create the city of Mimasaka.[1][2] This Okayama Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Fukuoka (disambiguation). Fukuoka is the capital city of Fukuoka Prefecture. Fukuoka may also refer to:
Shōboku, Okayama. Shōboku (勝北町, Shōboku-chō) was a town located in Katsuta District, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 7,494 and a density of 166.90 persons per km2. The total area was 44.90 km2. On February 28, 2005, Shōboku, along with the town of Kamo, the village of Aba (both from Tomata District), and the town of Kume (from Kume District), was merged into the expanded city of Tsuyama and no longer exists as an independent municipality.[1] This Okayama Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
List of villages in Japan.  A village (村, mura, son)[a] is a local administrative unit in Japan.[1] It is a local public body along with prefecture (県, ken; or other equivalents), city (市, shi), and town (町, chō, machi). Geographically, a villages extent is contained within a prefecture. Villages are larger than a local settlement; each is a subdivision of rural district (郡, gun), which are subdivided into towns and villages with no overlap and no uncovered area. As a result of mergers and elevation to higher statuses, the number of villages in Japan is decreasing. As of 2006, 13 prefectures no longer have any villages: Tochigi (since March 20, 2006), Fukui (since March 3, 2006), Ishikawa (since March 1, 2005), Shizuoka (since July 1, 2005), Hyōgo (since April 1, 1999), Mie (since November 1, 2005), Shiga (since January 1, 2005), Hiroshima (since November 5, 2004), Yamaguchi (since March 20, 2006), Ehime (since January 16, 2005), Kagawa (since April 1, 1999), Nagasaki (since October 1, 2005), and Saga (since March 20, 2006). 村 can have the reading of mura or son, but with the exception of Tottori, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Tokushima, Miyazaki and Okinawa, most prefectures use the mura reading.
Kibi dango (Okayama). A Kibi dango (吉備団子, きびだんご; Kibi Province dumpling) is a type of wagashi sweet or snack with an eponymous reference to Kibi-no-kuni, an old province roughly coincident with todays Okayama Prefecture. It is made by forming gyūhi, a sort of soft mochi, into flat round cakes.[1][2][3] Glutinous rice, starch, syrup and sugar are the basic ingredients.[1] It is manufactured by some fifteen confectioners based in Okayama City.[4] While perhaps originally made from kibi (proso millet),[5] the modern recipe uses little or no millet,[a] and substantively differs from kibi dango (黍団子, millet dumpling) of yore, famous from the Japanese heroic folk tale of Momotarō or Peach Boy; nevertheless, Kibi dango continues to be represented as being the same as the folk hero Peach Boys dumpling.[6] The simplistic, and widely disseminated notion regarding its invention is that it was developed in the early Ansei era (c. 1856) by the confectioner Kōeidō,[2][3] but a local historian has traced a more elaborate multi-phased history in which the founding of this wagashi shop and the development of the modern recipe is pushed to a number of years later. Some hypotheses trace its pre-history to the dumpling (or some other food item) served at the Kibitsu Shrine in Okayama. The resident deity of this shrine, Kibitsuhiko, is a legendary ogre-slayer, claimed to be the true identity of Momotarō, especially by Okayama locals. The theory originated in the 1930s, and since then there has been concerted effort in the region to promote the folk hero Momotarō as a local of Kibi Province, and his dumplings as Kibi dango by default.[7] There are irreconcilably differing accounts of the dates and sequences of events regarding the invention. The standard curt explanation is that this specialty dessert was first invented by the confectioner Kōeidō (廣榮堂) during the early Ansei era (1854–).[3] This purveyor later split into two brands, Kōeidō Honten (廣榮堂本店) and Kōeidō Takeda (広栄堂武田),[8] which remain to this day. Takeda is the family name of the original business. The current proprietors give a more complex account of the first origins, but local historians uncovered an even more convoluted history. The official line version, endorsed by the Kōeidō Honten, is that the family ran a ceramics merchant named Hirose-ya (廣瀬屋) for 7 generations running, until it switched business to that of a confectioner in 1856, changing the shop name to Kōeidō. According to this scenario, around 1856,[b] Takeda Hanzō (半蔵), the retired predecessor of the family ceramics shop, was one of the three Okayama townsmen who collectively devised the new recipe that was somehow an improvement over the steamed millet dumpling rectangularly shaped like kakimochi, which did not keep well, and was eaten with red bean paste or with sauce poured on top, which was a common staple wherever the crop was harvested.[9]
Administrative divisions of Japan.   Naruhito  Fumihito
Okayama Castle. Okayama Castle (岡山城, Okayama-jō) is a Japanese castle in the city of Okayama in Okayama Prefecture in Japan.  The main tower was completed in 1597,[1] destroyed in 1945 and replicated in concrete in 1966.  Two of the watch towers survived the bombing of 1945 and are now listed by the national Agency for Cultural Affairs as Important Cultural Properties. In stark contrast to the white Egret Castle of neighboring Himeji, Okayama Castle has a black exterior, earning it the nickname Crow Castle (烏城, U-jō) or castle of the black bird. (The black castle of Matsumoto in Nagano is also known as Crow Castle, but it is karasu-jō in Japanese.) Today, only a few parts of Okayama Castles roof (including the fish-shaped-gargoyles) are gilded, but prior to the Battle of Sekigahara the main keep also featured gilded roof tiles, earning it the nickname Golden Crow Castle (金烏城, Kin U-jō). In 1570, Ukita Naoie killed castle lord Kanemitsu Munetaka and started remodeling the castle[2] and completed by his son Hideie in 1597.  Three years later, Hideie sided with the ill-fated Toyotomi Clan at the Battle of Sekigahara, was captured by the Tokugawa Clan and exiled to the island prison of Hachijo.  The castle and surrounding fiefdoms were given to Kobayakawa Hideaki as spoils of war. Kobayakawa died just two years later without leaving an heir, and the castle (and fiefdom) was given to the Ikeda Clan, who later added Kōraku-en as a private garden. In 1869 the castle became the property of the Meiji governments Hyōbu-shō (Ministry of War), who saw the samurai era castles as archaic and unnecessary.   Like many other castles throughout Japan, the outer moats were filled in, most castle buildings were dismantled and the old castle walls gradually disappeared underneath the city.  On June 29, 1945, allied bombers burnt the main keep, and an adjacent gate, to the ground, leaving only two turrets and some of the stone walls remaining.  Reconstruction work on the keep and gate began in 1964 and was completed in 1966.  In 1996 the rooftop gargoyles were gilded as part of the 400th anniversary celebrations.
Animation studio. An animation studio is a company producing animated media. The broadest such companies conceive of products to produce, own the physical equipment for production, employ operators for that equipment, and hold a major stake in the sales or rentals of the media produced. They also own rights over merchandising and creative rights for characters created/held by the company, much like authors holding copyrights. In some early cases, they also held patent rights over methods of animation used in certain studios that were used for boosting productivity. Overall, they are business concerns and can function as such in legal terms. The idea of a studio dedicated to animating cartoons was spearheaded by Raoul Barré and his studio, Barré Studio, co-founded with Bill Nolan, beating out the studio created by J.R. Bray, Bray Productions, to the honor of the first studio dedicated to animation.[1] Though beaten to the post of being the first studio, Brays studio employee, Earl Hurd, came up with patents designed for mass-producing the output for the studio. As Hurd did not file for these patents under his own name but handed them to Bray, they would go on to form the Bray-Hurd Patent Company and sold these techniques for royalties to other animation studios of the time.[2] The biggest name in animation studios during this early time was Disney Brothers Animation Studio (now known as Walt Disney Animation Studios), co-founded by Walt and Roy O. Disney. Started on October 16, 1923, the studio went on to make its first animated short, Steamboat Willie in 1928, to much critical success,[3] though the real breakthrough was in 1937, when the studio was able to produce a full-length animated feature film i.e. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which laid the foundation for other studios to try to make full-length movies.[4] In 1932 Flowers and Trees, a production by Walt Disney Productions and United Artists, won the first Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.[5] This period, from the 1920s to the 1950s or sometimes considered from 1911 to the death of Walt Disney in 1966, is commonly known as the Golden Age of American Animation as it included the growth of Disney, as well as the rise of Warner Bros. Cartoons and the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio as prominent animation studios.[6] Disney continued to lead in technical prowess among studios for a long time afterwards, as can be seen with their achievements. In 1941, Otto Messmer created the first animated television commercials for Botany Tie ads/weather reports. They were shown on NBC-TV in New York until 1949.[2] This marked the first forays of animation designed for the smaller screen and was to be followed by the first animated series specifically made for television, Crusader Rabbit, in 1948.[7][better source needed] Its creator, Alex Anderson, had to create the studio Television Arts Productions specifically for the purpose of creating this series as his old studio, Terrytoons, refused to make a series for television. Since Crusader Rabbit, however, many studios have seen this as a profitable enterprise and many have entered the made for television market since, with Joseph Barbera and William Hanna refining the production process for television animation on their show Ruff and Reddy. It was in 1958 that The Huckleberry Hound Show claimed the title of being the first all-new half-hour cartoon show. This, along with their previous success with the series Tom and Jerry, elevated their animation studio, H.B. Enterprises (later Hanna-Barbera Productions), to dominate the North American television animation market during the latter half of the 20th century.[8] In 2002, Shrek, produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images won the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.[9] Since then, Disney/Pixar have produced the most number of movies either to win or be nominated for the award.[10]
Kōraku-en.  Kōraku-en (後楽園, Kōrakuen) is a Japanese garden located in Okayama, Okayama Prefecture. It is one of the Three Great Gardens of Japan, along with Kenroku-en and Kairaku-en. Korakuen was built in 1700 by Ikeda Tsunamasa, lord of Okayama. The garden reached its modern form in 1863.[1] Zhu Zhiyu, one of the greatest scholars of Confucianism in the Ming dynasty and Edo Japan, helped to redesign the garden.[2] In 1687, the daimyō Ikeda Tsunamasa ordered Tsuda Nagatada to begin construction of the garden. It was completed in 1700 and has retained its original appearance to the present day, except for a few changes by various daimyōs. The garden was originally called Kōen (後園  later garden) because it was built after Okayama Castle.  However, since the garden was built in the spirit of senyukoraku (先憂後楽 grieve earlier than others, enjoy later than others), the name was changed to Kōrakuen (後楽園) in 1871. The Korakuen is one of the few daimyō gardens in the provinces where historical change can be observed, thanks to the many Edo period paintings and Ikeda family records and documents left behind. The garden was used as a place for entertaining important guests and also as a spa of sorts for daimyōs, although regular folk could visit on certain days.
Ōhori Park. Ōhori Park (大濠公園, Ōhori-kōen) is a park in Chūō-ku, Fukuoka, Japan and a registered Place of Scenic Beauty.[1] The name Ōhori means a large moat and it derives from the fact that Kuroda Nagamasa, the old lord of Fukuoka, reclaimed the northern half of a cove or an inlet called Kusagae which was facing Hakata Bay and made a moat for the Fukuoka Castle.  At the same time the Hii (Tajima) River, which was flowing into the cove, was diverted from its course to the west.[citation needed] The present park was reconstructed by Fukuoka City, modeled on the West Lake of China, and opened in 1929. A fireworks festival is held here every August.[citation needed] The Fukuoka Art Museum and the United States Consulate are nearby.[citation needed] Heiwadai Stadium also used to stand near Ohori Park. Opened in 1949 and closed in 1997 and demolished the following year, this baseball stadium was home to 3 NPB franchises. The Nishi Nippon Pirates only stayed in Heiwadai for their only year of operation in 1950. The Nishitetsu Clippers/Lions (now Saitama Seibu Lions) played their entire time in Heiwadai during their tenure in Fukuoka from 1950-1978 before moving to Saitama. The last team to call Heiwadai home was the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks (now Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks) for their first 3 years from 1989-1992. The stadium was eventually replaced with the Fukuoka PayPay Dome. During a renovation to Heiwadai in 1987, underneath the bleachers of the stadium, ruins of an ancient facility were found. When the stadium was demolished in 1997, the outfield bleachers were left as archeological work continued until these bleachers were also demolished in 2008 due to concerns over safety. It can be said that the reason why there were ruins found under the bleachers in Heiwadai was because it was built over the ruins of Fukuoka Castle.[citation needed]
Hakozaki Shrine. Hakozaki Shrine (筥崎宮, Hakozaki-gū) is a Shintō shrine in Fukuoka .[1] Hakozaki Shrine was founded in 923 (1102 years ago) (923), with the transfer of the spirit[citation needed] of the kami Hachiman from Daibu Hachiman Shrine in what is Honami Commandry, Chikuzen Province in Kyūshū. During the first Mongol invasion on November 19, 1274 (Bunei 11, 20th day of the 10th month), the Japanese defenders were pushed back from the several landing sites.[3] In the ensuing skirmishes, the shrine was burned to the ground.[4] When the shrine was reconstructed, a calligraphy Tekikoku kōfuku (敵国降伏; surrender of the enemy nation) was put on the tower gate.  The calligraphy was written by Emperor Daigo, dedicated by Emperor Daijo Kameyama as a supplication to Hachiman to defeat invaders. The shrine is highly ranked among the many shrines in Japan. It was listed in Engishiki-jinmyōchō (延喜式神名帳) edited in 927. In 11th or 12th century, the shrine was ranked as Ichinomiya (一宮; first shrine) of Chikuzen Province. From 1871 to 1946, Hakozaki was officially designated a Kanpei-taisha (官幣大社), in the first rank of government supported shrines. Other similar Hachiman shrines were Iwashimizu Hachimangū of Yawata in Kyoto Prefecture and Usa Shrine of Usa in Ōita Prefecture.[5]
Kibitsu Shrine (Bitchū).  Kibitsu Jinja (吉備津神社) is a Shinto shrine in the Kibitsu neighborhood of Kita-ku, Okayama in Okayama Prefecture, Japan. It is the ichinomiya (first shrine) of former Bitchū Province. The shrine’s main festivals are held on the second Sunday in May and October 15th each year.[1] The Kibitsu Jinja is located in the western part of Okayama city within walking distance of Kibitsu Station. The shrine faces north at the northwestern foot of Mount Kibi no Nakayama (吉備の中山; elevation: 175 meters) on the border between former Bizen Province and Bitchū Province.[2][3][4][5] The mountain has been worshipped as a sacred mountain from ancient times. Kibitsu Jinja was originally the general guardian of Kibi Province, but due to the division of Kibi Province into three provinces, it became the ichinomiya of Bitchū, and bunrei from this shrine created the ichinomiya of Bizen Province (Kibitsuhiko Jinja) and Bingo Province (Kibitsu Shrine). The Honden-Haiden, which was re-built by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, is a National Treasure and the sole exemplar of the kibitsu-zukuri style of architecture, although the Soshidō of Hokekyō-ji is now believed to have been modeled thereon.[6][7] In addition, the three shrine buildings are designated as National Important Cultural Properties, and a special Shinto ritual Narukama Shinji is famous. The Shrine has a unique dual worship of Sorei or ancestral spirits alongside Mizuko kuyō[8]: 239  or cults of miscarried babies.
Marine World Uminonakamichi. Marine World Uminonakamichi (マリンワールド海の中道, Marin-wārudō-Uminonakamichi) is a public aquarium in Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan.[3] It is a member of the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums (JAZA), and the aquarium is accredited as a Museum-equivalent facilities by the Museum Act from Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.[4] It opened in April 1989 and was renovated and expanded in April 1995.[5] Since 2000, it has been open at night mainly during the summer vacation. A formalin specimen of a megamouth (female) that was washed ashore in Hakata Bay in 1994 is on display.[5] Water park is located on the site of Uminonakamichi Seaside Park located in Sandbar called Uminonakamichi. Surrounded by the sea and parks, it is in an environment rich in nature, away from the hustle and bustle of the city, although it is in Fukuoka city. The building with a seashell motif has a semi-circular design, which is a characteristic appearance of a tent-shaped roof fixed with wires. The mascot character is Mega Tot with the motif of Megamouth. The character design is Norio Hikone designed by Uncle Carl.[3] The entire building was closed from October 3, 2016 and reopened on April 12, 2017 in order to carry out a major renovation to replace 90% of the aquarium.[6][7]　The new exhibition theme is Kyushu Sea.[8] The aquarium focuses on the aquatic life of Tsushimas warm current and is made up of a total of 70 tanks. The three largest contain 2,000 m3 (530,000 US gal), 1,400 m3 (370,000 US gal) and 720 m3 (190,000 US gal) respectively. The largest is used for dolphin and sea lion shows, the middle contains more than 120 sharks of 20 species, while the last is for dolphins.[1]you can see 20,000 fish of 350 types from tropical to temperate and boreal zones as they are. In addition to fish, dolphins, harbor seals, sea otters, and sea turtles are on display in the museum. The highlights are the dolphin and sea lion show and the large panoramic tanks where giant sand tiger sharks swim.
Pictorialism. Pictorialism is an international style and aesthetic movement that dominated photography during the later 19th and early 20th centuries. There is no standard definition of the term, but in general it refers to a style in which the photographer has somehow manipulated what would otherwise be a straightforward photograph as a means of creating an image rather than simply recording it. Typically, a pictorial photograph appears to lack a sharp focus (some more so than others), is printed in one or more colors other than black-and-white (ranging from warm brown to deep blue) and may have visible brush strokes or other manipulation of the surface. For the pictorialist, a photograph, like a painting, drawing or engraving, was a way of projecting an emotional intent into the viewers realm of imagination.[1] Pictorialism as a movement thrived from about 1885 to 1915, although it was still being promoted by some as late as the 1940s. It began in response to claims that a photograph was nothing more than a simple record of reality, and transformed into a movement to advance the status of all photography as a true art form. For more than three decades painters, photographers and art critics debated opposing artistic philosophies, ultimately culminating in the acquisition of photographs by several major art museums. Pictorialism gradually declined in popularity after 1920, although it did not fade out of popularity until the end of World War II. During this period the new style of photographic Modernism came into vogue, and the publics interest shifted to more sharply focused images such as seen in the work of Ansel Adams. Several important 20th-century photographers began their careers in a pictorialist style but transitioned into sharply focused photography by the 1930s. Photography as a technical process involving the development of film and prints in a darkroom originated in the early 19th century, with the forerunners of traditional photographic prints coming into prominence around 1838 to 1840. Not long after the new medium was established, photographers, painters and others began to argue about the relationship between the scientific and artistic aspects of the medium. As early as 1853, English painter William John Newton proposed that the camera could produce artistic results if the photographer would keep an image slightly out of focus.[2] Others vehemently believed that a photograph was equivalent to the visual record of a chemistry experiment. Photography historian Naomi Rosenblum points out that the dual character of the medium—its capacity to produce both art and document—[was] demonstrated soon after its discovery ... Nevertheless, a good part of the nineteenth century was spent debating which of these directions was the mediums true function.[3] These debates reached their peak during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, culminating in the creation of a movement that is usually characterized as a particular style of photography: pictorialism. This style is defined first by a distinctly personal expression that emphasizes photographys ability to create visual beauty rather than simply record facts.[4] However, recently historians have recognized that pictorialism is more than just a visual style. It evolved in direct context with the changing social and cultural attitudes of the time, and, as such, it should not be characterized simply as a visual trend. One writer has noted that pictorialism was simultaneously a movement, a philosophy, an aesthetic and a style.[5]
Shoji Ueda Museum of Photography. The Shoji Ueda Museum of Photography, is a museum in Hōki, Tottori, Japan that is solely dedicated to exhibiting and archiving the work of the photographer Shoji Ueda. The museum was founded in 1995.[1] The collection consists of over 12,000 works by Shoji Ueda.[2] The building was designed by Shin Takamatsu.[3] The architectural relationships between volumetric solids and voids (as scaled incisions in the volume) function to frame Mount Daisen.[4] Cerver, Francisco Asenio. Shoji Ueda Museum of Photography in The Architecture of Museums, pgs. 162-170, University of Michigan Press, 1997. ISBN 9780823061310 35°23′24″N 133°26′09″E / 35.3899°N 133.4358°E / 35.3899; 133.4358 
Fukuoka Castle. Fukuoka Castle (福岡城, Fukuoka-jō) is a Japanese castle located in Chūō-ku, Fukuoka, Japan. It is also known as Maizuru Castle (舞鶴城 Maizuru-jō) or Seki Castle (石城 Seki-jō). Completed in the early Edo period for tozama daimyō Kuroda Nagamasa, it has been decreed a historic site by the Japanese government. The castle lies in the centre of Fukuoka, on top of Fukusaki hill. The Naka River (那珂), Naka-gawa in Japanese, acts as a natural moat on the eastern side of the castle, while the western side uses a mudflat as a natural moat. Hakata, a ward with a bustling port, is located on the opposite side of the Naka River to the east. The castle town was established on the northern side, facing the sea. Much of the castle grounds has been converted to Maizuru Park, which houses several sports facilities, a courthouse, and an art museum. Heiwadai Baseball Stadium, the past home field of the Nishitetsu Lions and the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks, was also located on the castle grounds. Some of the castles gates as well as its towers and turrets, known as yaguras, are preserved inside the park, one of which has been marked as an important historical artifact by the Japanese government. The remnants of a korokan (鴻臚館), an ancient guest house for foreign diplomats, were discovered under the castle grounds in 1987, showing that the castle was a vital geographical checkpoint even into the Heian period. This is the only korokan remnant found in all of Japan. In 1600, Kuroda Nagamasa received huge rewards in the form of land in Chikuzen Province for his contributions during the Battle of Sekigahara and moved into Najima Castle (名島城 Najima-jō) to form the Fukuoka han. Najima Castle had been created by Tachibana Akitoshi and was expanded by Kobayakawa Takakage, but was much too small to accommodate a large han, leading to the selection of Fukusaki hill as a new castle site.
Sakaiminato, Tottori. Sakaiminato (境港市, Sakaiminato-shi) is a city in Tottori Prefecture, Japan. As of 31 December 2021[update], the city had an estimated population of 32,012 in 13178 households and a population density of 1110 persons per km².[1] The total area of the city is 272.06 square kilometres (105.04 sq mi). Sakaiminato is located in far western Tottori Prefecture, at the northern end of the Yumigahama Peninsula. It is surrounded on three sides by Lake Nakaumi, the Sea of Japan, and the Sakai Channel, which connects them. Across the Sakai Channel or across the Eshima Ohashi Bridge, it borders the city of Matsue in Shimane Prefecture. Sakaiminato is located on a sandbar, and the land is very flat, with an average elevation of two meters above sea level. Tottori Prefecture Shimane Prefecture Sakaiminato has a Humid climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm, wet summers and cold winters with heavy snowfall. The average annual temperature in Sakaiminato is 15.5 °C (59.9 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,903.3 mm (74.93 in) with July as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.3 °C (81.1 °F), and lowest in January, at around 4.9 °C (40.8 °F).[2] Its record high is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F), reached on 22 August 2018, and its record low is −9.7 °C (14.5 °F), reached on 27 January 1904.[3]
University of San Diego.  The University of San Diego (USD) is a private Catholic research university in San Diego, California, United States. Chartered in 1949 as the independent San Diego College for Women and San Diego University (comprising the College for Men and School of Law), the two institutions merged in 1972.[4] The university includes the College of Arts and Sciences, Hahn School of Nursing and Health Science, Joan B. Kroc School of Peace Studies, Division of Professional and Continuing Education, Knauss School of Business, School of Law, School of Leadership and Education Services (SOLES), and the Shiley-Marcos School of Engineering.[5] USD has 89 undergraduate and graduate programs, and enrolls approximately 9,073 undergraduate, paralegal, graduate and law students. It is classified among R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity.[6] The San Diego Toreros compete in NCAA Division I (FCS) as a member of the West Coast Conference. Charters were granted in 1949 for the San Diego College for Women and San Diego University, which included the College for Men and School of Law.[7][8][9] The College for Women opened its doors to its first class of students in 1952. The Most Reverend Charles F. Buddy, D.D., then bishop of the Diocese of San Diego and Reverend Mother Rosalie Hill, RSCJ, a Superior Vicaress of the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, chartered the institution from resources drawn from their respective organizations on a stretch of land known as Alcalá Park, named for Didacus of Alcalá. In 1954, the College for Men and the School of Law opened.[10] These two schools originally occupied Bogue Hall on the same site of University High School, which would later become the home of the University of San Diego High School. Starting in 1954, Alcalá Park also served as the diocesan chancery office and housed the episcopal offices, until the diocese moved to a vacated Benedictine convent that was converted to a pastoral center. In 1957, Immaculate Heart Major Seminary and St. Francis Minor Seminary were moved into their newly completed facility, now known as Maher Hall. The Immaculata Chapel, now no longer affiliated with USD, also opened that year as part of the seminary facilities. For nearly two decades, these schools co-existed on Alcalá Park. Immaculate Heart closed at the end of 1968, when its building was renamed De Sales Hall; St. Francis remained open until 1970, when it was transferred to another location on campus, leaving all of the newly named Bishop Leo T. Maher Hall to the newly merged co-educational University of San Diego in 1972.
Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence and Security.  The under secretary of defense for intelligence and security or USD(I&S) is a high-ranking civilian position in the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) within the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) that acts as the principal civilian advisor and deputy to the secretary of defense (SecDef) and deputy secretary of defense (DepSecDef) on matters relating to military intelligence and security. The under secretary is appointed as a civilian by the president and confirmed by the Senate to serve at the pleasure of the president.[1] In 2019, Congress renamed the office from Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence (USD(I)) to Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence and Security as part of the FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act.[2][3] The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence and Security (OUSD(I&S)) is the principal staff element of the DoD for all matters regarding intelligence, counterintelligence, security, sensitive activities, and other intelligence- and security-related matters. As the SecDefs representative, the USD(I&S) exercises oversight over, among others, the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), the National Security Agency (NSA), and the Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency (DCSA). In addition, the under secretary is also dual-hatted, serving as the Director of Defense Intelligence (DDI) under the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI);[4] in this capacity, the under secretary is the principal defense intelligence and security advisor to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI).[3] With the rank of under secretary, the USD(I&S) is a Defense Intelligence Senior Executive Service (DISES) Level III position within the Executive Schedule. Since January 2024, the annual rate of pay for Level III is $204,000. The position of Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence was originally created by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003 in the aftermath of the September 11 terror attacks to better coordinate Department-wide intelligence and security activities. It also became second in the line of succession for the secretary of defense, after the deputy secretary of defense, following an executive order by President George W. Bush on 22 December 2005. When it was created, the legislation described it as taking precedence in the Department behind the under secretary for personnel and readiness (USD (P&R)).[1][5]
Unified school district. A unified school district (in the states of Arizona, California, Kansas and Oregon) or unit school district (in Illinois), in the United States of America, is a school district that generally includes and operates both primary schools (kindergarten through middle school or junior high) and high schools (grades 9–12) under the same district control. This distinction is predominant in states where elementary school districts and high school districts are, or were, generally separate. The Los Angeles Unified School District is a major example of a unified school district in California.   In California and Illinois, and possibly other states, unified or unit school districts are not the same as consolidated or union school districts, which are generally formed by the consolidation of multiple school districts of the same type. In Kansas, the unified school districts developed after legislation was passed in 1962 that was intended to reduce the number of rural school districts. After the laws passage, the number of districts in Kansas dropped dramatically. In 1947, there were over 3,000 districts. After the unification law and establishment of unified school districts, their number dropped to under 400.[1] In Arizona, unified school districts elect 5 school board members.[2] Common school districts have elected boards consisting of 3 members. Some states use the term unified school district to refer to different characteristics. For example:
University of South Dakota.  The University of South Dakota (USD) is a public research university in Vermillion, South Dakota, United States. Established by the Dakota Territory legislature in 1862, 27 years before the establishment of the state of South Dakota,[5] USD is the flagship university of South Dakota and the states oldest public university.[6] It occupies a 274 acres (1.11 km2) campus[3] located in southeastern South Dakota, approximately 63 miles (101 km) southwest of Sioux Falls, 39 miles (63 km) northwest of Sioux City, Iowa, and north of the Missouri River. The university is home to South Dakotas only medical school and law school.[7] It is also home to the National Music Museum, with over 15,000 American, European, and non-Western instruments.[8] USD is governed by the South Dakota Board of Regents, and its president is Sheila Gestring. The university has been accredited by the North Central Association of College and Schools since 1913. It is classified among R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity.[9] University of South Dakotas alumni include a total of 17 Truman Scholars, 12 Rhodes Scholars,[10] and 1 Nobel Laureate (Ernest Lawrence 1922, 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics). The athletic teams compete in the NCAAs Division I as members of The Summit League, except football, which competes in the Missouri Valley Football Conference. The University of South Dakota was founded in 1862 by the Dakota Territorial Legislature which authorized the establishment of the University at Vermillion. The authorization was unfunded, however, and classes did not begin until 20 years later under the auspices of the privately incorporated University of Dakota, created with support from the citizens of Clay County. Ephraim Epstein served as the first president and primary faculty member in the institution that opened in loaned space in downtown Vermillion. Before 1883 ended, the university had moved into Old Main, and the first public board was appointed to govern the institution.
Federal Reserve Bank Note. Federal Reserve Bank Notes are legal tender banknotes in the United States that were issued between 1915 and 1934, together with United States Notes, Silver Certificates, Gold Certificates, National Bank Notes and Federal Reserve Notes.[1] They were specified in the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 and had the same value as other kinds of notes of the same denomination. Federal Reserve Bank Notes are different from Federal Reserve Notes in that they are backed by one of the twelve Federal Reserve Banks, rather than by all collectively. Federal Reserve Bank Notes were envisioned as a replacement for National Bank Notes, but that did not prove to be the case.[2] They were backed in a similar way to National Bank Notes, using U.S. bonds, but issued by Federal Reserve banks instead of by chartered National banks. Federal Reserve Bank Notes are no longer issued; the only U.S. banknotes still in production since 1971 are the Federal Reserve Notes. Large size Federal Reserve Bank Notes were first issued in 1915 in denominations of $5, $10, and $20, using a design that shared elements with both the National Bank Notes and the Federal Reserve Notes of the time. Additional denominations of $1, $2, and $50 were issued in 1918 as an emergency replacement for Silver Certificates, which were temporarily removed from circulation under the Pittman Act.[3] Small size Federal Reserve Bank Notes were printed as an emergency issue in 1933 using the same paper stock as 1929 National Bank Notes. They were printed in denominations of $5 through $100. The wording, Or by like deposit of other securities was added after the phrase, Secured by United States bonds deposited with the Treasurer of the United States of America.[4] This emergency issue of notes was prompted by the public hoarding of cash due to many bank failures happening at the time. This also limited the ability of the National Banks to issue notes of their own. Small size Federal Reserve Bank Notes were discontinued in 1934 and have not been available from banks since 1945. As small size notes, they have brown seals and serial numbers, as do National Bank Notes of the era. But while they look very similar, and both have the words, National Currency across the top of the obverse, they had different issuers and are considered to be distinctly different types of bills.
Bureau of Engraving and Printing.  The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) is a government agency within the United States Department of the Treasury that designs and produces a variety of security products for the United States government, most notable of which is Federal Reserve Notes (paper money) for the Federal Reserve, the nations central bank.  In addition to paper currency, the BEP produces Treasury securities; military commissions and award certificates; invitations and admission cards; and many different types of identification cards, forms, and other special security documents for a variety of government agencies. The BEPs role as printer of paper currency makes it one of two Treasury Department agencies involved in currency production. The other is the United States Mint, which mints coinage. With production facilities in Washington, D.C., and Fort Worth, Texas, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is the largest producer of government security documents in the United States. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing has its origins in legislation enacted to help fund the Civil War.  In July 1861, Congress authorized the secretary of the treasury to issue paper currency in lieu of coins due to the lack of funds needed to support the conflict. The paper notes were essentially government IOUs and were called Demand Notes because they were payable on demand in coin at certain Treasury facilities. At this time the government had no facility for the production of paper money so the American Bank Note Company and National Bank Note Company produced the Demand Notes in sheets of four. These sheets were then sent to the Treasury Department where dozens of clerks signed the notes and scores of workers cut the sheets and trimmed the notes by hand. The Second Legal Tender Act (July 11, 1862; 12 Stat. 532) authorized the Treasury Secretary to engrave and print notes at the Treasury Department; the design of which incorporates fine-line engraving, intricate geometric lathe work patterns, a Treasury seal, and engraved signatures to aid in counterfeit deterrence.[2] Initially, the currency processing operations in the Treasury were not formally organized. When Congress created the Office of Comptroller of the Currency and National Currency Bureau in 1863, currency-processing operations were nominally subordinated to that agency and designated the First Division, National Currency Bureau.  For years, however, the currency operations were known by various semi-official labels, such as the Printing Bureau, Small Note Bureau, Currency Department, and Small Note Room.  It was not until 1874 that the Bureau of Engraving and Printing was officially recognized in congressional legislation with a specific allocation of operating funds for the fiscal year of 1875. From almost the very beginning of its operations, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing designed and printed a variety of products in addition to currency. As early as 1864, the offices which would later become the BEP made passports for the State Department and money orders for the Post Office Department. Passports are now produced by the Government Publishing Office. Other early items produced by the BEP included various government debt instruments, such as interest-bearing notes, refunding certificates, compound interest Treasury notes, and bonds. The production of postage stamps began in 1894, and for almost the next century the BEP was the sole producer of postage stamps in the country.
Mangrove.  A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water.  Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen and remove salt, allowing them to tolerate conditions that kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse due to convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator.[1][2] Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.[2] Mangroves are salt-tolerant (halophytic) and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and  wave action. They are adapted to the low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud,[3] but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone.[4] The mangrove biome, often called the mangrove forest or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangrove forests serve as vital habitats for a diverse array of aquatic species, offering a unique ecosystem that supports the intricate interplay of marine life and terrestrial vegetation. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity).[5][6] Beginning in 2010, remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around the world.[7][1][2] In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km2 (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories.[2][7] A 2022 study on losses and gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km2 (1,400 sq mi) net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999 to 2019.[8] Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with a global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern.[2]
Currency Symbols (Unicode block). Currency Symbols is a Unicode block containing characters for representing unique monetary signs. Many currency signs can be found in other Unicode blocks, especially when the currency symbol is unique to a country that uses a script not generally used outside that country. The display of Unicode currency symbols among various typefaces is inconsistent, more so than other characters in the repertoire. The French franc sign (U+20A3) is typically displayed as a struck-through F, but various versions of Garamond display it as an Fr ligature. The peseta sign (U+20A7), inherited from code page 437, is usually displayed as a Pts ligature, but Roboto displays it as a Pt ligature and Arial Unicode MS displays it as a partially struck-through P. The rupee sign (U+20A8) is usually displayed as an Rs digraph, but Microsoft Sans Serif uses the quantity-neutral Rp digraph instead. The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Currency Symbols block:
Banknotes of the United States dollar.  From 1775 to 1779, the Continental Congress issued Continental currency banknotes. Then there was a period when the United States just used gold and silver, rather than paper currency. In 1812, the US began issuing Treasury Notes, although the motivation behind their issuance was funding federal expenditures rather than the provision of a circulating medium. In 1861, the US began issuing Demand Notes, which were the first paper money issued by the United States whose main purpose was to circulate. And since 1914, the US has issued Federal Reserve Notes. Since 1971, Federal Reserves Notes have been the only banknotes of the United States dollar that have been issued. But at some points in the past, the United States had multiple different types of banknotes, such as United States Notes (1862–1971), Interest bearing notes (1863-1865), and Gold certificates (1865–1934). Federal Reserve Notes were first issued in 1914,[1] and are liabilities of the Federal Reserve System. They were redeemable in gold until 1933.[2] After that date they stopped to be redeemable in anything, much like United States Notes (which later led to the halting of the production of United States Notes). They switched to small size in 1929 and are the only type of currency in circulation today in the United States. They were originally printed in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000. The $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 denominations were last printed in 1945 and discontinued in 1969, making the $100 bill the largest denomination banknote in circulation. A $1 note was added in 1963 to replace the $1 Silver Certificate after that type of currency had been discontinued. Since United States Notes were discontinued in 1971, Federal Reserve Notes are the only type of currency circulating in the US. In 1976, a $2 note was added, 10 years after the $2 denomination of United States Note was officially discontinued. The denomination proved to be unpopular and is now treated as a curiosity, although it is still being printed. Starting 1996, all notes except $1 and $2 were redesigned to have a larger portrait of the people depicted on them. Since 2004, all notes (except $1 and $2) were progressively changed to have different colors to make them more easily distinguishable from each other, until the last such note was introduced in 2013 (the $100). Before the American Revolution, every one of the Thirteen Colonies had issued its own paper money, most often denominated in British pounds, shillings and pence. In 1776, the newly created United States issued currency which was bought by people who wanted to support the war (it was promised that the currency could be redeemed for Spanish milled dollars once the war would end). At first, the banknotes circulated at par with the stated value, however after a few months they started depreciating until they became almost worthless. The United States agreed to redeem the notes for treasury bonds at 1% of the face value. The issued denominations ranged from $1/6 to $80.
United States one-dollar bill.  The United States one-dollar bill (US$1), sometimes referred to as a single, has been the lowest value denomination of United States paper currency since the discontinuation of U.S. fractional currency notes in 1876. An image of the first U.S. president (1789–1797), George Washington, based on the Athenaeum Portrait, a 1796 painting by Gilbert Stuart, is currently featured on the obverse, and the Great Seal of the United States is featured on the reverse. The one-dollar bill has the oldest overall design of all U.S. currency currently in use. The reverse design of the present dollar debuted in 1935, and the obverse in 1963 when it was first issued as a Federal Reserve Note (previously, one-dollar bills were Silver Certificates). The current US two-dollar bill has the oldest obverse design, dating from 1928. A dollar bill is composed of 25% linen and 75% cotton. That blend makes the notes more difficult to counterfeit compared to paper (as well as increasing its durability).[4]  As of December 31, 2018[update], the average life of a dollar bill in circulation is 6.6 years before it is replaced due to wear.[5] Approximately 42% of all U.S. currency produced in 2009 were one-dollar bills.[6] As of December 31, 2019[update], there were 12.7 billion one-dollar bills in circulation worldwide.[7] An engraver at the US Bureau of Engraving and Printing, George Frederick Cumming Smillie, made an etching of a painting of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart which was used on multiple banknotes. A vignette of the portrait appears on the one dollar bill of 1899, and the one dollar note of (1918 to 2023). United States one-dollar bills featured the image for decades (1918 to 2023).[8] (approximately 7+3⁄8 in × 3+1⁄8 in or 187 mm × 79 mm) (6.14 length × 2.61 width × 0.0043 in thickness = 156 × 66.3 × 0.11 mm)
United States dollar.  The United States dollar (symbol: $; currency code: USD[a]) is the official currency of the United States and several other countries. The Coinage Act of 1792 introduced the U.S. dollar at par with the Spanish silver dollar, divided it into 100 cents, and authorized the minting of coins denominated in dollars and cents. U.S. banknotes are issued in the form of Federal Reserve Notes, popularly called greenbacks due to their predominantly green color. The U.S. dollar was originally defined under a bimetallic standard of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) (0.7734375 troy ounces) fine silver or, from 1834,[2] 23.22 grains (1.505 g) fine gold, or $20.67 per troy ounce. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 linked the dollar solely to gold. From 1934, its equivalence to gold was revised to $35 per troy ounce. In 1971 all links to gold were repealed.[3] The U.S. dollar became an important international reserve currency after the First World War, and displaced the pound sterling as the worlds primary reserve currency by the Bretton Woods Agreement towards the end of the Second World War. The dollar is the most widely used currency in international transactions,[4] and a free-floating currency. It is also the official currency in several countries and the de facto currency in many others,[5][6] with Federal Reserve Notes (and, in a few cases, U.S. coins) used in circulation. The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, which acts as the nations central bank. As of February 10, 2021, currency in circulation amounted to US$2.10 trillion, $2.05 trillion of which is in Federal Reserve Notes (the remaining $50 billion is in the form of coins and older-style United States Notes).[7][failed verification] As of January 1, 2025, the Federal Reserve estimated that the total amount of currency in circulation was approximately US$2.37 trillion.[8] Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution provides that Congress has the power to coin money.[9] Laws implementing this power are currently codified in Title 31 of the U.S. Code, under Section 5112, which prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued.[10] These coins are both designated in the section as legal tender in payment of debts.[11] The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, in contrast to the American Silver Eagle which is pure silver. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins, which have values ranging from one cent (U.S. Penny) to 100 dollars.[11] These other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar.
Asakusa. Asakusa (浅草; Japanese: [asakɯ̥ꜜsa] ⓘ) is a district in Taitō, Tokyo, Japan. It is known for Sensō-ji, a Buddhist temple dedicated to the bodhisattva Kannon. There are several other temples in Asakusa, as well as various festivals, such as Sanja Matsuri. The development of Asakusa as an entertainment district during the Edo period came about in part because of the neighboring district, Kuramae. Kuramae was a district of storehouses for rice, which was then used as payment for servants of the feudal government. The keepers (fudasashi) of these storage houses initially stored the rice for a small fee, but over the years began exchanging the rice for money or selling it to local shopkeepers at a margin.[1] Through such trading, many fudasashi came to have a considerable amount of disposable income and as result theaters and geisha houses began to spring up in nearby Asakusa. For most of the 20th century, Asakusa remained a major entertainment district in Tokyo.  The rokku or Sixth District was in particular famous as a theater district, featuring famous cinemas such as the Denkikan. The golden years of Asakusa are vividly portrayed in Yasunari Kawabatas novel The Scarlet Gang of Asakusa (1930). The area was heavily damaged by US bombing raids during World War II, particularly the 10 March 1945 firebombing of Tokyo. The area was rebuilt after the war, but has now been surpassed by Shinjuku and other colorful areas in the city in its role as a pleasure district. Asakusa was a ward of Tokyo City. In 1947, when the city was transformed into a metropolis, it was merged with Shitaya to form the modern Taito ward. The former ward encompassed 19 neighborhoods in the eastern half of Taitō. Asakusa is on the north-east fringe of central Tokyo, at the eastern end of the Tokyo Metro Ginza Line subway, approximately one mile east of the major Ueno railway/subway interchange. It is central to the area colloquially referred to as Shitamachi, which literally means low city, referring to the low elevation of this old part of Tokyo, on the banks of the Sumida River. As the name suggests, the area has a more traditionally Japanese atmosphere than some other neighborhoods in Tokyo do.
Specials (Unicode block). Specials is a short Unicode block of characters allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF, containing these code points: U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE>  and U+FFFF <noncharacter-FFFF>  are noncharacters, meaning they are reserved but do not cause ill-formed Unicode text. Versions of the Unicode standard from 3.1.0 to 6.3.0 claimed that these characters should never be interchanged, leading some applications to use them to guess text encoding by interpreting the presence of either as a sign that the text is not Unicode. However, Corrigendum #9 later specified that noncharacters are not illegal and so this method of checking text encoding is incorrect.[3] An example of an internal usage of U+FFFE is the CLDR algorithm; this extended Unicode algorithm maps the noncharacter to a minimal, unique primary weight.[4] Unicodes U+FEFF  ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE character can be inserted at the beginning of a Unicode text as a byte order mark to signal its endianness: a program reading a text encoded in for example UTF-16 and encountering U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> would then know that it should switch the byte order for all the following characters. Its block name in Unicode 1.0 was Special.[5] The replacement character � (often displayed as a black rhombus with a white question mark) is a symbol found in the Unicode standard at code point U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to correct symbols.[6]
Reserve currency.  A reserve currency is a foreign currency that is held by governments, central banks or other monetary authorities as part of their foreign exchange reserves.[1] The reserve currency can be used in international transactions, international investments and all aspects of the global economy. It is often considered a hard currency or safe-haven currency. The United Kingdoms pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.[2] However, by the middle of the 20th century, the United States dollar had become the worlds dominant reserve currency.[3] Reserve currencies have come and gone with the evolution of the world’s geopolitical order. International currencies in the past have (in addition to those discussed below) included the Greek drachma, coined in the fifth century BC, the Roman denarius, the Byzantine solidus, the Islamic dinar of the Middle Ages, and the French franc. The Venetian ducat and the Florentine florin was the gold-based currency of choice between Europe and the Arab world from the 13th to the 16th centuries, since gold was easier than silver to mint in standard sizes and transport over long distances. It was the Spanish silver dollar, however, which created the first true global reserve currency recognized in Europe, Asia and the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries due to abundant silver supplies from Spanish America.[4]
Currency.  A currency[a] is a standardization of money in any form, in use or circulation as a medium of exchange, for example banknotes and coins.[1][2] A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use within a specific environment over time, especially for people in a nation state.[3] Under this definition, the Pound sterling (£), euro (€), Japanese yen (¥), and U.S. dollars (US$) are examples of (government-issued) fiat currencies. Currencies may act as stores of value and be traded between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies.[4] Currencies in this sense are either chosen by users or decreed by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance; i.e., legal tender laws may require a particular unit of account for payments to government agencies. Other definitions of the term currency appear in the respective synonymous articles: banknote, coin, and money. This article uses the definition which focuses on the currency systems of countries (fiat currencies). One can classify currencies into three monetary systems: fiat money, commodity money, and representative money, depending on what guarantees a currencys value (the economy at large vs. the governments precious metal reserves). Some currencies function as legal tender in certain jurisdictions, or for specific purposes, such as payment to a government (taxes), or government agencies (fees, fines). Others simply get traded for their economic value. Originally, currency was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia and in Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities. This formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. A trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military. By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrain in the southeast. It is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that oxhide-shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency.
Art name. An art name (pseudonym or pen name), also known by its native names hào (in Mandarin Chinese), gō (in Japanese), ho (in Korean), and tên hiệu (in Vietnamese), is a professional name used by artists, poets and writers in the Sinosphere. The word and the concept originated in China, where it was used as nicknames for the educated, then became popular in other East Asian countries (especially in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and the former Kingdom of Ryukyu). In some cases, artists adopted different pseudonyms at different stages of their career, usually to mark significant changes in their life. Extreme practitioners of this tendency were Tang Yin of the Ming dynasty, who had more than ten hao, Hokusai of Japan, who in the period 1798 to 1806 alone used no fewer than six, and Kim Chŏnghŭi of the Joseon Dynasty who had up to 503.[1] In Chinese culture, Hao refers to honorific names made by oneself or given by others when one is in middle age. After ones gaining the Hao, other persons may then call such a person by ones Hao even without such a person being presented.[note 1] Hao usually is made by a person oneself, but sometimes is given by a high-ranked official or even is bestowed by the monarch.[2] The use of this name as a nom de plume or artistic name, however, appears to have begun only during the Six Dynasties period, with Tao Yuanming and Ge Hong among the first literati to have given themselves Hao.[citation needed] Art names came into vogue during the Tang dynasty, during which time they could either be coined by the persons themselves, or given to them as a name by others. Most Hao can be placed within a few categories: [citation needed]
Painting.  Painting is a visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called matrix[1] or support).[2] The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush. Other implements, such as palette knives, sponges, airbrushes, the artists fingers, or even a dripping technique that uses gravity may be used. One who produces paintings is called a painter. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action (the final work is called a painting). The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate other materials, in single or multiple form, including sand, clay, paper, cardboard, newspaper, plaster, gold leaf, and even entire objects. Painting is an important form of visual art, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture, narration, and abstraction.[3] Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in portraits, still life and landscape painting--though these genres can also be abstract), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolist (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism) or political in nature (as in Artivism). A significant share of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha (or other images of Eastern religious origin).
Tide.  Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon (and to a much lesser extent, the Sun) and are also caused by the Earth and Moon orbiting one another. Tide tables can be used for any given locale to find the predicted times and amplitude (or tidal range).  The predictions are influenced by many factors including the alignment of the Sun and Moon, the phase and amplitude of the tide (pattern of tides in the deep ocean), the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry (see Timing). They are however only predictions, and the actual time and height of the tide is affected by wind and atmospheric pressure. Many shorelines experience semi-diurnal tides—two nearly equal high and low tides each day. Other locations have a diurnal tide—one high and low tide each day. A mixed tide—two uneven magnitude tides a day—is a third regular category.[1][2][a] Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors, which determine the lunitidal interval. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time. Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the reference (or datum) level usually called mean sea level.[3] While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations, sea levels are also subject to change from thermal expansion, wind, and barometric pressure changes, resulting in storm surges, especially in shallow seas and near coasts.
Agency for Cultural Affairs. The Agency for Cultural Affairs (Japanese: 文化庁, Hepburn: Bunka-chō) is a special body of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). It was set up in 1968 to promote Japanese arts and culture. The agencys budget for FY 2018 rose to ¥107.7 billion.[3] The agencys Cultural Affairs Division disseminates information about the arts within Japan and internationally, and the Cultural Properties Protection Division protects the nations cultural heritage. The Cultural Affairs Division is concerned with such areas as art and culture promotion, art copyrights, and improvements in the national language. It also supports both national and local arts and cultural festivals, and it funds traveling cultural events in music, theater, dance, art exhibitions, and film-making. Special prizes are offered to encourage young artists and established practitioners, and some grants are given each year to enable them to train abroad. The agency funds national museums of modern art in Kyoto and Tokyo and The National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, which exhibit both Japanese and international shows. The agency also supports the Japan Art Academy, which honors eminent persons of arts and letters, appointing them to membership and offering ¥3.5 million in prize money. Awards are made in the presence of the Emperor, who personally bestows the highest accolade, the Order of Culture. In 1989, for the first time two women—a writer and a costume designer—were nominated for the Order of Cultural Merit, another official honor carrying the same stipend. The Cultural Properties Protection Division originally was established to oversee restorations after World War II. As of April 2018,[update] it was responsible for 1,805 historic sites, including the ancient capitals of Asuka, Heijokyo, and Fujiwara, 410 scenic places, and 1,027 national monuments, and for such indigenous fauna as ibis and storks. In addition, over 10,000 items had the lesser designation of Important Cultural Properties, with fine arts and crafts accounting for the largest share, with over 10,000 so designated.[3] The government protects buried properties, of which some 300,000 had been identified. During the 1980s, many important prehistoric and historic sites were investigated by the archaeological institutes that the agency funded, resulting in about 2,000 excavations in 1989. The wealth of material unearthed shed new light on the controversial period of the formation of the Japanese state.
Sankei-en. Sankei-en (三溪園, Three Creeks Garden) is a traditional Japanese-style garden in Naka Ward, Yokohama, Japan, which opened in 1906.[1] Sankei-en was designed and built by Tomitaro Hara (原富太郎) (1868–1939), known by the pseudonym Sankei Hara, who was a silk trader.[1] Almost all of its buildings are historically significant structures bought by Hara himself in locations all over the country, among them Tokyo, Kyoto, Kamakura, Gifu Prefecture, and Wakayama Prefecture.[1] Ten have been declared Important Cultural Property, and three more are Tangible Cultural Properties of Japan designated by the City of Yokohama.[1] Badly damaged during World War II, the garden was donated in 1953 to the City of Yokohama, which entrusted it to the Sankeien Hoshōkai Foundation (三溪園保勝会, Sankeien Hoshōkai). Sankei-en was then restored almost to its pre-war condition.[1] Sankei-en has a total surface of 175 thousand square meters and features ponds, streams, and undulating paths designed by Sankei Hara himself, plus many historic buildings, such as Tōmyō-ji former three-story pagoda (旧燈明寺三重塔), originally constructed in Kyoto in 1457 and relocated in 1914, and the Former Yanohara House (旧矢箆原家住宅), originally the private residence of the Yanohara family.[1] Work on the garden started in 1902 and ended in 1908, two years after it was opened to the public. During Haras own lifetime, the place became an aggregation point for Meiji period artists. World War II caused great damage to the buildings. In 1953 the garden was donated by the Hara family to the City of Yokohama, which created the Sankeien Hoshōkai Foundation for its repair and maintenance. The Foundation started the restoration in 1953 and, five years later, the garden was back almost to its original form and reopened to the public.[1] The Japanese government has designated ten structures in Sankei-en as Important Cultural Properties, while three more are Tangible Cultural Properties designated by the City of Yokohama.[1] The garden is popular for its cherry blossoms, ume blossoms, and the changing leaves in autumn. Next to the entrance, the Kakushōkaku (鶴翔閣) was formerly the private residence of the Hara family. Today it can be rented by the public and used for meetings and parties. It is one of the three buildings on the premises designated as Tangible Cultural Properties by the City of Yokohama. Only during the summer, the Kakushōkaku is open to the public.[1]
Human rights group. A human rights group, or human rights organization, is a non-governmental organization which advocates for human rights through identification of their violation, collecting incident data, its analysis and publication, promotion of public awareness while conducting institutional advocacy, and lobbying to halt these violations. Like other NGOs, human rights groups are defined in their characteristics by legal, including taxation, constraints under which they operate, such as[1] What distinguishes a human rights group from other political elements of any given society is that while political advocates usually seeking to protect only the rights of their own constituents, a human rights group seeks to defend the same rights for all members of that or any other society.[2] Unlike political groups which seek to advance their own discrete interests or programs a human rights group attempts to keep the political process open to all legitimate participants in the societal conflicts where such human rights violations occur. This generally independent focus distinguishes human rights groups from sectarian and partisan groups such as for example trades unions, whose primary goal is to protect the interests of the members of unions. Human rights groups are sometimes confused with humanitarian organizations and groups representing lobbies focused on specific issue lobbies, while most seek to distinguishing themselves from political movements involved in the conflicts that are often causes of the human rights abuses. Often human rights groups claim expert knowledge on the issue or issues it surveys through human rights observers as field researchers. One of the best known international human rights groups is Amnesty International. However it, like many other groups, has stretched the definition of a human rights group because aside from not being a single-issue advocate it has also ventured into issues that are not clearly human rights.[3] There are some governmental organisations that are also named human rights group, such as the UKs All-Party Parliamentary Group on Human Rights, but which are primarily reporting groups for the purpose of policy design.
Crown of thorns. According to the New Testament, a woven crown of thorns (Ancient Greek: στέφανος ἐξ ἀκανθῶν, romanized: stephanos ex akanthōn or ἀκάνθινος στέφανος, akanthinos stephanos) was placed on the head of Jesus during the events leading up to his crucifixion. It was one of the instruments of the Passion, employed by Jesus captors both to cause him pain and to mock his claim of authority. It is mentioned in the gospels of Matthew (Matthew 27:29),[1] Mark (Mark 15:17)[2] and John (John 19:2, 19:5),[3] and is often alluded to by the early Church Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen and others, along with being referenced in the apocryphal Gospel of Peter.[4] Since around 400 AD, a relic has been venerated as the crown of thorns. Louis IX acquired it in 1239 from the emperor Baldwin Il, who was financially in debt due to heavy military expenses. Louis IX built the Sainte-Chapelle as a monumental reliquary to house the relic. Transferred to the French National Library during the Revolution of the 18th century, the crown of thorns has been displayed at Notre-Dame de Paris since 1804. The crown is made of reeds, formed into a circle and attached with reed fasteners. On 15 April 2019, it was rescued from a fire and moved to the Louvre Museum.[6] In December of 2024, a ceremony marking the relics return to Notre Dame Cathedral was led by a procession attended by members of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre.[7]. Veneration of the crown of thorns takes place every first Friday of the month from 3 pm to 5 pm.[8] Numerous other relics are purported to be from the original crown of thorns.[9] Both the authenticity of the relics and the practice of venerating them have been criticized by some Christians, including by Protestant reformer John Calvin.[10] Many theologians interpret the crown of thorns placed on Jesus during his crucifixion as symbolically linked to the curse pronounced in the Book of Genesis. In Genesis 3:17–18, thorns are introduced as part of the punishment for humanitys disobedience: The Gospels describe Roman soldiers placing a crown of thorns on Jesus’ head as a form of mockery (Matthew 27:29; John 19:2). While intended as humiliation, many Christian theologians interpret this act as rich in symbolic meaning—Christ bearing the physical sign of the Fall’s curse.
Tangible Cultural Property (Japan).  A Tangible Cultural Property (有形文化財, yūkei bunkazai) as defined by the Japanese governments Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties is a part of the Cultural Properties[note 1] of high historical or artistic value such as structures, paintings, sculptures, handicrafts, calligraphic works, ancient books, historic documents, archeological artifacts and other such items created in Japan.[note 2] All objects which are not structures are called works of fine arts and crafts.[1] Considered by the Japanese government to be, like all Cultural Properties, a precious legacy of the Japanese people, they are protected in various ways, and their export is either controlled or forbidden. Tangible Cultural Properties can be Designated or Registered. The two terms imply different terms of protection under the law. To protect Japans cultural heritage,  the countrys government has established with the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties a designation system (指定制度, shitei seido) under which it selects important items and designates them as Cultural Properties, imposing restrictions to their alteration, repair and export.
Buraku Liberation League. The Buraku Liberation League (部落解放同盟, Buraku Kaihō Dōmei), or BLL, is one of Japans largest human rights advocacy groups, dedicated to the liberation of the Burakumin, a minority group historically subject to discrimination. The BLLs origins trace back to the pre-war Suiheisha (Levellers Association), and it was officially formed in 1955 after its predecessor, the National Buraku Liberation Committee, changed its name at its tenth conference.[1] Its long-time leader was the politician and businessman Matsumoto Jiichirō, who funded much of the movements activities.[5] Closely aligned with the Japan Socialist Party and influenced by Marxist ideology in its early post-war years, the BLL initially framed the Buraku issue as a remnant of feudalism. It employed confrontational tactics such as denunciation (kyūdan) to combat individual acts of discrimination and administrative struggle (gyōsei tōsō) to pressure the state.[2] A major turning point came in the 1960s with the governments 1965 Dōwa Policy Council Report, which led to the passage of the Special Measures Law in 1969. This development caused a schism in the liberation movement between the BLL and the Japanese Communist Party (JCP), with the BLLs centre of power shifting from Kyoto to Osaka under the leadership of Asada Zennosuke.[6] Since the 1980s, the BLL has undergone a significant ideological transformation, broadening its focus from a specific struggle for Buraku liberation to a wider campaign for human rights culture (jinken bunka).[7] This shift has involved addressing other forms of discrimination, building international solidarity, and establishing cultural institutions like the Liberty Osaka Human Rights Museum.[8] Following the conclusion of the national Special Measures Law projects in 2002, the BLL has continued to advocate for comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation and to address issues such as access to family registers (koseki).[9] The roots of the Buraku Liberation League lie in the pre-war Suiheisha (Levellers Association), a grassroots movement founded on 3 March 1922 in Kyoto.[10] The Suiheisha established three fundamental principles: total liberation by its members own efforts, freedom of occupation and economic freedom, and awakening to human nature to march towards the perfection of mankind.[10] A key tactic of the Suiheisha was public denunciation (kyūdan), in which individuals or institutions thought to have engaged in discriminatory practices were publicly confronted and censured.[2][10] Led by figures such as Matsumoto Jiichirō, the Suiheisha movement was integrated into the states war effort during the 1930s and ultimately disbanded in 1942, with some activists publicly burning their flags as a demonstration of their abandonment of left-wing thought.[11][12] After World War II, the movement was resurrected.[2] On 19 January 1946, the National Buraku Liberation Committee (部落解放全国委員会, Buraku Kaihō Zenkoku Iinkai), also known as the BKI, was formally launched in Kyoto.[4] The committees proclamation announcing its formation borrowed heavily from the original 1922 Suiheisha Declaration, signalling a continuation of the pre-war struggle.[13] Matsumoto Jiichirō was elected its chairman.[4] The new committee was closely aligned with Marxist ideology and welcomed members from all pre-war Buraku organizations, as well as non-Buraku people.[14] In 1948, it established a research arm, the Research Institute for the Buraku Problem (RIBP), to consult with Marxist academics like Inoue Kiyoshi on ideological direction.[15]
President (corporate title).  A president is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university, country or other group.[1][2] The relationship between a president and a chief executive officer varies, depending on the structure of the specific organization. In a similar vein to a chief operating officer, the title of corporate president as a separate position (as opposed to being combined with a C-suite designation, such as president and chief executive officer or president and chief operating officer) is also loosely defined; the president is usually the legally recognized highest rank of corporate officer, ranking above the various vice presidents (including senior vice president and executive vice president), but on its own generally considered subordinate, in practice, to the CEO. The powers of a president vary widely across organizations and such powers come from specific authorization in the bylaws like Roberts Rules of Order (e.g. the president can make an executive decision only if the bylaws allow for it).[3] Originally, the term president was used in the same way that foreman or overseer is used now (the term is still used in that sense today).[4][5] It has now also come to mean chief officer in terms of administrative or executive duties. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations. In some organizations the president has the authority to hire staff and make financial decisions, while in others the president only makes recommendations to a board of directors, and still others the president has no executive powers and is mainly a spokesperson for the organization. The amount of power given to the president depends on the type of organization, its structure, and the rules it has created for itself.[6] In addition to administrative or executive duties in organizations, a president has the duties of presiding over meetings.[7] Such duties at meetings include:
Unicode.  Unicode (also known as The Unicode Standard and TUS[1][2]) is a character encoding standard maintained by the Unicode Consortium designed to support the use of text in all of the worlds writing systems that can be digitized. Version 17.0[A] defines 159,801 characters and 172 scripts[3] used in various ordinary, literary, academic, and technical contexts. Unicode has largely supplanted the previous environment of myriad incompatible character sets used within different locales and on different computer architectures. The entire repertoire of these sets, plus many additional characters, were merged into the single Unicode set. Unicode is used to encode the vast majority of text on the Internet, including most web pages, and relevant Unicode support has become a common consideration in contemporary software development. Unicode is ultimately capable of encoding more than 1.1 million characters. The Unicode character repertoire is synchronized with ISO/IEC 10646, each being code-for-code identical with one another. However, The Unicode Standard is more than just a repertoire within which characters are assigned. To aid developers and designers, the standard also provides charts and reference data, as well as annexes explaining concepts germane to various scripts, providing guidance for their implementation. Topics covered by these annexes include character normalization, character composition and decomposition, collation, and directionality.[4] Unicode encodes 3,790 emoji, with the continued development thereof conducted by the Consortium as a part of the standard.[5] The widespread adoption of Unicode was in large part responsible for the initial popularization of emoji outside of Japan.[citation needed]
George Washington.  George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February 11, 1731][a] – December 14, 1799) was a Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War against the British Empire. He is commonly known as the Father of the Nation for his role in bringing about American independence. Born in the Colony of Virginia, Washington became the commander of the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War (1754–1763). He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, and opposed the perceived oppression of the American colonists by the British Crown. When the American Revolutionary War against the British began in 1775, Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. He directed a poorly organized and equipped force against disciplined British troops. Washington and his army achieved an early victory at the Siege of Boston in March 1776 but were forced to retreat from New York City in November. Washington crossed the Delaware River and won the battles of Trenton in late 1776 and of Princeton in early 1777, then lost the battles of Brandywine and of Germantown later that year. He faced criticism of his command, low troop morale, and a lack of provisions for his forces as the war continued. Ultimately Washington led a combined French and American force to a decisive victory over the British at Yorktown in 1781. In the resulting Treaty of Paris in 1783, the British acknowledged the sovereign independence of the United States. Washington then served as president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which drafted the current Constitution of the United States. Washington was unanimously elected the first U.S. president by the Electoral College in 1788 and 1792. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in the fierce rivalry that emerged within his cabinet between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while supporting the Jay Treaty with Britain. Washington set enduring precedents for the office of president, including republicanism, a peaceful transfer of power, the use of the title Mr. President, and the two-term tradition. His 1796 farewell address became a preeminent statement on republicanism: Washington wrote about the importance of national unity and the dangers that regionalism, partisanship, and foreign influence pose to it. As a planter of tobacco and wheat at Mount Vernon, Washington owned many slaves. He began opposing slavery near the end of his life, and provided in his will for the eventual manumission of his slaves. Washingtons image is an icon of American culture and he has been extensively memorialized. His namesakes include the national capital and the State of Washington. In both popular and scholarly polls, he is consistently considered one of the greatest presidents in American history.
Sunrise (studio). Sunrise (Japanese: サンライズ, Hepburn: Sanraizu; often stylized in all caps) is a Japanese animation studio, serving as the flagship division and the trade name for the IP Production Group unit of Bandai Namco Filmworks,[1] a subsidiary of Bandai Namco Holdings. The division is responsible for the Sunrise label, focusing on animation production. Prior to 2022, Sunrise operated as a separate company with its production offices being under one roof. Sunrise started its operations as a company in September 1972 under the Sunrise Studio name. After its split from Shoeisha and Tohokushinsha in 1977, it was rebranded to Nippon Sunrise and took its current name in 1987. After 22 years as an independent studio, it was acquired by Bandai in 1994. The studio has been involved in many critically acclaimed anime television series from original works to manga adaptations, including the Gundam series, the Mashin Hero Wataru series, the Brave and Eldran series, the Mashin Hero Wataru series, the City Hunter series, The Vision of Escaflowne, Aura Battler Dunbine, Blue Comet SPT Layzner, the Inuyasha series, the Love Live! series and the Crest of the Stars series among others. Following the formation of Bandai Namco Filmworks in 2022, the Sunrise name was regulated to a division of the company (officially known as a brand), focusing on animation production while the general production offices were consolidated under BNFW.[2] According to an interview with Sunrise members, the studio was founded by former members of Mushi Production in September 1972 as Sunrise Studio. Rather than having anime production revolve around a single creator (like Mushi, headed by Osamu Tezuka), Sunrise decided that production should focus on the producers. The market for mainstream anime (such as manga adaptations, sports shows, and adaptations of popular childrens stories) was already dominated by existing companies, so Sunrise decided to focus on robot (mecha) anime, known to be more difficult to animate but which could be used to sell toys.[3] The founding members of Sunrise were seven people from Mushi Productions production and sales department: Yoshinori Kishimoto, Masanori Ito, Eiji Yamamoto, Yasuo Shibue, Masami Iwasaki, Kiyomi Numamoto, and Yasuhiko Yoneyama. However, when the anime production studio  lacked funds for the new anime studio, Sunrise Studio sought investment from Japanese recording studio, film distributor & production company Tohokushinsha Film and planning and production company Shoeisha.[4]
Taishō era. The Taishō era (大正時代, Taishō jidai; [taiɕoː dʑidai] ⓘ) was a period in the history of Japan dating from July 30th, 1912 to December 25th, 1926, coinciding with the reign of Emperor Taishō.[1] The new emperor was a sickly man, which prompted the shift in political power from the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō) to the Imperial Diet of Japan and the democratic parties. Thus, the era is considered the time of the liberal movement known as Taishō Democracy; it is usually distinguished from the preceding chaotic Meiji era and the following militaristic-driven first part of the Shōwa era.[2] The two kanji characters in Taishō (大正) were from a passage of the Classical Chinese I Ching: 大亨以正 天之道也 (translated: Great prevalence is achieved through rectitude, and this is the Dao of Heaven.)[3] The term could be roughly understood as meaning great rectitude, or great righteousness. On 30 July 1912, Emperor Meiji died and Crown Prince Yoshihito succeeded to the throne as Emperor of Japan. In his coronation address, the newly enthroned Emperor announced his reigns nengō (era name) Taishō, meaning great righteousness.[4] The end of the Meiji period was marked by huge government, domestic, and overseas investments and defense programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign reserves to pay debts. The influence of Western culture experienced in the Meiji period also continued. Notable artists, such as Kobayashi Kiyochika, adopted Western painting styles while continuing to work in ukiyo-e; others, such as Okakura Kakuzō, kept an interest in traditional Japanese painting. Authors such as Mori Ōgai studied in the West, bringing back with them to Japan different insights on human life influenced by developments in the West. The events following the Meiji Restoration in 1868 had seen not only the fulfillment of many domestic and foreign economic and political objectives—without Japan suffering the colonial fate of other Asian nations—but also a new intellectual ferment, in a time when there was worldwide interest in communism and socialism and an urban proletariat was developing. Universal male suffrage, social welfare, workers rights, and nonviolent protests were ideals of the early leftist movement.[citation needed] Government suppression of leftist activities, however, led to more radical leftist action and even more suppression, resulting in the dissolution of the Japan Socialist Party (日本社会党, Nihon Shakaitō) only a year after its founding and general failure of the socialist movement in 1906.[citation needed]
Bandai Namco Entertainment.  Bandai Namco Entertainment Inc.[a] is a Japanese multinational video game publisher, and the video game branch of the wider Bandai Namco Holdings group. Founded in 2006 as Namco Bandai Games Inc.,[b] it is the successor to Namcos home and arcade video game business, as well as Bandais former equivalent division.[3] Development operations were spun off into a new company in 2012, Namco Bandai Studios, now called Bandai Namco Studios. Bandai Namco Entertainment owns several multi-million video game franchises, including Pac-Man,  Tekken, Soulcalibur, Tales, Ace Combat, Taiko no Tatsujin, The Idolmaster, Elden Ring, Ridge Racer and Dark Souls. Pac-Man himself serves as the official mascot of the company. The company also owns the licenses to several Japanese media franchises, such as Shonen Jump, Gundam, Kamen Rider, Super Sentai, Sword Art Online, and the Ultra Series. On January 4, 2006, Namco Hometek and Bandai Games, the North American consumer game divisions of the former companies, merged to form Namco Bandai Games America Inc., with them absorbing Namcos American subsidiaries which was housed within Namco Hometeks former premises and completing Namco and Bandais merge in North America.[4] On January 11, Bandai Namco Holdings Inc. announced that the Japanese video game divisions of Namco and Bandai would merge into Namco Bandai Games Inc. in March 2006. The merger would form together the home console game content, arcade game, and mobile content business under one roof.[2] Both companies in a joint statement cited Japans decreasing birth rates and advancements in technology as the reason for the merge, and to increase their relevance to newer audiences. Both companies worked independently under the newly formed Bandai Namco Holdings until 31 March 2006, when their video game operations were merged to form Namco Bandai Games.[1] On October 30, the European divisions of Namco and Bandai would merge as well, forming Namco Bandai Games Europe S.A.S.[5] In November 2007, Namco Bandai Games announced the absorption of Banpresto (which had been purchased in 2006) and will take over Banprestos video game software and amusement equipment businesses (which had been traded independently) and will fold it into Namco Bandai Games as they started taken over Banprestos video game publishing activities which had began one year later on April 1, 2008, whilst Banprestos prize business including development and sales of prizes such as UFO catchers was taken over by a new company under the Banpresto name.[6] In August 2008, it was announced that Bandai Networks, Namco Bandais mobile phone business, would also be merged into Namco Bandai Games on April 1, 2009 and folded.[7]
Suginami. Suginami (杉並区, Suginami-ku) is a special ward in the Tokyo Metropolis in Japan. The ward refers to itself as Suginami City in English. As of June 1, 2022, Suginami has an estimated population of 588,354 and a population density of 17,274 persons per km2.[1] The total area is 34.06 km2. Suginami occupies the western part of the ward area of Tokyo. Its neighbors include these special wards: to the east, Shibuya and Nakano; to the north, Nerima; and to the south, Setagaya. Its western neighbors are the cities of Mitaka and Musashino. The Kanda River passes through Suginami. The Zenpukuji river originates from Zenpukuji Park in western Suginami, and the Myōshōji River originates in Myōshōji Park, to the north of Ogikubo station. The name Suginami dates back to the early Edo period and is a shortened version of Suginamiki (avenue of cedars). This name came about when an early land baron, Lord Tadayoshi Okabe, planted a row of cedar trees to mark the bounds of his property.[2]
Social movement. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon  · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias A social movement is either a loosely or carefully organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one.[1][2] This may be to carry out a social change, or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations, or both.[3] Social movements have been described as organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites.[4] They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations.[4] On the other hand, some social movements do not aim to make society more egalitarian, but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships. For example, scholars have described fascism as a social movement.[5] Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements.[6] For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties[7] as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics.[8] Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame.[9] Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature) and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies.[10] It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent.[11] Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements.[12] Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S.[12] and Canada[13] use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.[14]
Burakumin.  The burakumin (部落民, hamlet/village people) are a social grouping of Japanese people descended from members of the feudal class associated with kegare (穢れ, impurity), mainly those with occupations related to death such as executioners, gravediggers, slaughterhouse workers, butchers, and tanners. Burakumin are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese but have historically been regarded as a socially distinct group. When identified, they are often subject to discrimination and prejudice. As of 2000[update], there were an estimated 3 million burakumin living in the country, mostly in western Japan.[citation needed] During Japans feudal era, these occupations acquired a hereditary status of oppression, and later became a formal class within the class system of the Edo period (1603–1868). The stratum immediately below merchants comprised the hinin (literally non-persons), and below them the eta (great filth), who were together known as the senmin (base people). They were subject to various legal restrictions, such as being forced to live in separate villages or neighborhoods. In 1871, the new Meiji government legally abolished the feudal classes, but stigma against the former hinin and eta continued. The term burakumin came into use to refer to these people and their descendants. Some reports indicate that discrimination against burakumin in marriage and employment persists in certain regions. They are more likely to work a low-paying job, live in poverty, or be associated with the yakuza. A movement for burakumin rights began in the 1920s, and the Buraku Liberation League was founded in 1946; it has achieved some of its legal goals, including securing restrictions on third-party access to family registries. Notable burakumin include writer Kenji Nakagami and politician Hiromu Nonaka. The term burakumin is derived from buraku (部落), a Japanese term which refers literally to a small, generally rural, commune or hamlet. In the regions of Japan where the burakumin issue is much less publicly prominent, such as Hokkaido and Okinawa, buraku is still used in a non-pejorative sense to refer to any hamlet.[2] Historically, the term buraku was used for an outcast community that was discriminated against officially and formally.[citation needed] A term used much for buraku settlements is dōwa chiku (同和地区, assimilation districts), an official term for districts designated for government and local authority assimilation projects from 1969 to 2002.[citation needed]
Government of Japan.  Naruhito  Fumihito 
Subsidiary. A subsidiary, subsidiary company, or daughter company[1][2][3] is a company completely or partially owned or controlled by another company, called the parent company or holding company, which has legal and financial control over the subsidiary company.[4][5] Unlike regional branches or divisions, subsidiaries are considered to be distinct entities from their parent companies; they are required to follow the laws of where they are incorporated, and they maintain their own executive leadership. Two or more subsidiaries primarily controlled by the same entity/group are considered to be sister companies of each other. Subsidiaries are a common feature of modern business, and most multinational corporations organize their operations via the creation and purchase of subsidiary companies.[6] Examples of holding companies are Berkshire Hathaway,[7] Jefferies Financial Group, The Walt Disney Company, Warner Bros. Discovery, and Citigroup, which have subsidiaries involved in many different fields. More focused companies include IBM, Xerox, and Microsoft; they and their subsidiaries primarily operate within the tech sector. These, and others, organize their businesses into national and functional subsidiaries, often with multiple levels of subsidiaries. Subsidiaries are separate, distinct legal entities for the purposes of taxation, regulation and liability. For this reason, they differ from divisions which are businesses fully integrated within the main company, and not legally or otherwise distinct from it.[8] In other words, a subsidiary can sue and be sued separately from its parent and its obligations will not normally be the obligations of its parent. However, creditors of an insolvent subsidiary may be able to obtain a judgment against the parent if they can pierce the corporate veil and prove that the parent and subsidiary are mere alter egos of one another. Thus any copyrights, trademarks, and patents remain with the subsidiary until the parent shuts down the subsidiary. Ownership of a subsidiary is usually achieved by owning a majority of its shares. This gives the parent the necessary votes to elect their nominees as directors of the subsidiary, and so exercise control. This gives rise to the common presumption that 50% plus one share is enough to create a subsidiary. There are, however, other ways that control can come about, and the exact rules both as to what control is needed, and how it is achieved, can be complex (see below). A subsidiary may itself have subsidiaries, and these, in turn, may have subsidiaries of their own. A parent and all its subsidiaries together are called a corporate, although this term can also apply to cooperating companies and their subsidiaries with varying degrees of shared ownership. A parent company does not have to be the larger or more powerful entity; it is possible for the parent company to be smaller than a subsidiary, such as DanJaq, a closely held family company, which controls Eon Productions, the large corporation which manages the James Bond franchise. Conversely, the parent may be larger than some or all of its subsidiaries (if it has more than one), as the relationship is defined by control of ownership shares, not the number of employees.
Video game.  A video game,[a] computer game,[b] or simply game, is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface or input device (such as a joystick, controller, keyboard, or motion sensing device) to generate visual feedback from a display device, most commonly shown in a video format on a television set, computer monitor, flat-panel display or touchscreen on handheld devices, or a virtual reality headset. Most modern video games are audiovisual, with audio complement delivered through speakers or headphones, and sometimes also with other types of sensory feedback (e.g., haptic technology that provides tactile sensations). Some video games also allow microphone and webcam inputs for in-game chatting and livestreaming. Video games are typically categorized according to their hardware platform, which traditionally includes arcade video games, console games, and computer games (which includes LAN games, online games, and browser games). More recently, the video game industry has expanded onto mobile gaming through mobile devices (such as smartphones and tablet computers), virtual and augmented reality systems, and remote cloud gaming. Video games are also classified into a wide range of genres based on their style of gameplay and target audience. The first video game prototypes in the 1950s and 1960s were simple extensions of electronic games using video-like output from large, room-sized mainframe computers. The first consumer video game was the arcade video game Computer Space in 1971, which took inspiration from the earlier 1962 computer game Spacewar!. In 1972 came the now-iconic video game Pong and the first home console, the Magnavox Odyssey. The industry grew quickly during the golden age of arcade video games from the late 1970s to early 1980s but suffered from the crash of the North American video game market in 1983 due to loss of publishing control and saturation of the market. Following the crash, the industry matured, was dominated by Japanese companies such as Nintendo, Sega, and Sony, and established practices and methods around the development and distribution of video games to prevent a similar crash in the future, many of which continue to be followed. In the 2000s, the core industry centered on AAA games, leaving little room for riskier experimental games. Coupled with the availability of the Internet and digital distribution, this gave room for independent video game development (or indie games) to gain prominence into the 2010s. Since then, the commercial importance of the video game industry has been increasing. The emerging Asian markets and proliferation of smartphone games in particular are altering player demographics towards casual and cozy gaming, and increasing monetization by incorporating games as a service. Today, video game development requires numerous skills, vision, teamwork, and liaisons between different parties, including developers, publishers, distributors, retailers, hardware manufacturers, and other marketers, to successfully bring a game to its consumers. As of 2020[update], the global video game market had estimated annual revenues of US$159 billion across hardware, software, and services, which is three times the size of the global music industry and four times that of the film industry in 2019,[1] making it a formidable heavyweight across the modern entertainment industry. The video game market is also a major influence behind the electronics industry, where personal computer component, console, and peripheral sales, as well as consumer demands for better game performance, have been powerful driving factors for hardware design and innovation.
Film distribution. Film distribution, also called film exhibition or film distribution and exhibition, is the process of making a film available for viewing to an audience. This is normally the task of a professional film distributor, who would determine the marketing and release strategy for the film, the media by which a film is to be exhibited or made available for viewing and other matters. The film may be exhibited directly to the public either through a movie theater, physical media (DVD, Blu-ray), digital download/transactional video on demand (VOD) (sale or rental), subscription VOD (e.g. Amazon Prime Video, Apple TV+, Disney+, Netflix) or television programs through broadcast syndication. For commercial projects, film distribution is usually accompanied by film promotion. Initially, all mass-marketed feature films were made to be shown in movie theaters. The identity of the first theater designed specifically for cinema is a matter of debate; candidates include Tallys Electric Theatre, established 1902 in Los Angeles,[1] and Pittsburghs Nickelodeon, established 1905.[2] Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years.[3] In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents). Distributors license films to theaters granting the right to show the film for a theatrical rental rental fee. The movie theater pays an average of about 50-55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as film rental fees.[5] The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that and decreases as the duration of a films showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, todays barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews.[citation needed] According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).[5] Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or feature film). Before the 1970s, there were double features; typically, a high-quality A picture rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a lower-quality B picture rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature film consists of previews for upcoming movies (also known as trailers) and paid advertisements. The development of television has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. [citation needed] In 1971 U-Matic became the first magnetic format in which movies could be enjoyed in institutions outside the theatre. Later that year, the first videocassettes of movies became available to consumers to watch in their own homes.[6] Recording technology has since enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on home media such as VHS, DVD or Blu-ray. Older formats include Betamax, LaserDisc, Video CD, and other video disc formats. Internet downloads are also revenue sources for film production companies.
Home entertainment. Home entertainment refers to media, equipment, and methods used for delivery and enjoyment of various forms of entertainment in the home, and may refer to:
Iwasa Matabē. Iwasa Matabē (岩佐 又兵衛); original name Araki Katsumochi [1] 1578 – July 20, 1650) was a Japanese artist of the early Tokugawa period,[2] who specialized in genre scenes of historical events and illustrations of classical Japanese and Chinese literature, as well as portraits. He was the son of Araki Murashige, a prominent daimyō of the Sengoku period who had been made to commit suicide, leaving Matabei to be raised with his mothers family name, Iwasa.[3][4] Matabeis work was noted for its distinctive figures, with large heads and delicately drawn features, and he was effective both in colour and monochrome ink-wash painting, using an individual brush technique combining Tosa and Kanō elements.[5]  Although trained by Kanō Naizen of the Kanō school, he was more influenced by the traditions of the Tosa school, and signed a late series of portraits of the Thirty-six Poetry Immortals (1640) commissioned by the shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu for a temple as the artist Matabei of the later current from Tosa Mitsunobu.[6] The works of Matabei have an affinity with the early paintings of ukiyo-e, but there is a disagreement among scholars as to whether they are ukiyo-e themselves or not.[7] In Japan, it is common to regard Matabei as the originator of ukiyo-e.[8][9][10] On the other hand, there is a theory that Matabei is not the source of ukiyo-e, but rather an independent painter of the Tosa school, because his patrons were from high social classes. According to this theory, he is misunderstood as the source of ukiyo-e only because he is confused with the ukiyo-e painter of the same name (Ōtsu no Matabei) who appears in Chikamatsus plays.[11] His son Katsushige (d. 1673) was also a painter, known for dancing figures in a style like that of his father.[12] The only work by Iwasa Matabei that has been designated a National Treasure is Rakuchu Rakugai Zu Byōbu (Funaki Version) (洛中洛外図屏風 (舟木本)), which is held by the Tokyo National Museum. The term Rakuchu Rakugai Zu (洛中洛外図) refers to byōbu (folding screens) depicting the scenery and customs of the urban and suburban areas of Kyoto. Numerous works were created from the Sengoku period to the Edo period, and only two works by Iwasa Matabei and Kanō Eitoku have been designated as National Treasures. Matabeis work depicts the Kyoto landscape around 1615 and is known as the Funaki version because it was owned by the Funaki family. It shows the Nijō Castle of the Tokugawa clan on the left and the Hōkō-ji Great Buddha Hall, symbolizing the Toyotomi clan, on the right.[13]
Museum.  A museum is an institution dedicated to displaying or preserving culturally or scientifically significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private collections that are used by researchers and specialists. Museums host a much wider range of objects than a library, and they usually focus on a specific theme, such as the arts, science, natural history or local history. Public museums that host exhibitions and interactive demonstrations are often tourist attractions, and many draw large numbers of visitors from outside of their host country, with the most visited museums in the world attracting millions of visitors annually. Since the establishment of the earliest known museum in ancient times, museums have been associated with academia and the preservation of rare items. Museums originated as private collections of interesting items, and not until much later did the emphasis on educating the public take root. The English word museum comes from Latin, and is pluralized as museums (or rarely, musea). It is originally from the Ancient Greek Μουσεῖον (mouseion), which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the muses (the patron divinities in Greek mythology of the arts), and hence was a building set apart for study and the arts,[1] especially the Musaeum (institute) for philosophy and research at Alexandria, built under Ptolemy I Soter about 280 BC.[2] Museums serve to collect, preserve, interpret, and display objects of cultural, historical, or scientific significance. Their primary functions include safeguarding heritage for future generations and facilitating education through exhibitions and programs aligned with academic curricula.[3][4]
Alexandre Cabanel. Alexandre Cabanel (French: [kabanɛl]; 28 September 1823 – 23 January 1889) was a French painter. He painted historical, classical and religious subjects in the academic style.[1] He was also well known as a portrait painter. He was Napoleon IIIs preferred painter[2] and, with Gérôme and Meissonier, was one of the three most successful artists of the Second Empire.[3] Cabanel was the son of a modest carpenter, and he began his apprenticeship at the Montpellier School of Fine Arts in the class of Charles Matet, curator of the Musée Fabre. Equipped with a scholarship, he moved to Paris in 1839. Cabanel entered the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris at the age of seventeen, in 1840, where he studied with François-Édouard Picot. After two failures, with the paintings Cincinnatus receiving the ambassadors of Rome, in 1843, and Christ in the Garden of Olives, in 1844, he won the Prix de Rome scholarship, in 1845 at the age of 22.[4] He would be a resident of the Villa Medici until 1850. Cabanel was both a history painter and a genre painter, and he evolved over the years towards romantic themes, like Albaydé (1848), inspired by Les Orientales, by Victor Hugo (1829).
Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation.  Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation (株式会社三井住友銀行, Kabushiki-gaisha Mitsui Sumitomo Ginkō; SMBC) is a Japanese multinational banking financial services institution owned by the Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group, which is also known as the SMBC Group. It is headquartered in the same building as SMBC Group in Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan.[6] SMBC was established in 2001 through the merger of The Sakura Bank, which originated from the Mitsui zaibatsu and was founded as Mitsui Bank in 1876, and The Sumitomo Bank, which originated from the Sumitomo zaibatsu and was founded in 1895. An IC cash card is a single cash card that can be used with three method of identification: biometric authentication, IC chip or magnetic stripe, by setting the limit and registering biometric information (finger vein pattern). With this cash card, the security of usage improved since transactions relies on IC chip recording data and the pattern of past transactions that combined IC chip recording data and biometric authentication.[7] As of 2017, SMBC issued IC cash cards at the banks counters (only applicable to ordinary design deposit cash cards; cards of other designs and non-savings accounts are not eligible for immediate issuance).[7]
Margaret Hughes.  Margaret Hughes (29 May 1630 – 1 October 1719), also Peg Hughes or Margaret Hewes, was an English actress who is often credited as the first professional actress on the English stage, as a result of her appearance on 8 December 1660. [nt 1]  Hughes was the mistress of the English Civil War general Prince Rupert of the Rhine. Hughes became an actress during a period of great change in English drama which had suffered greatly during the English Civil War and the Interregnum, being banned by the Puritan Long Parliament in 1642.[1] This ban was finally lifted upon the Restoration of King Charles II. Charles was a keen theatre-goer, and promptly gave two royal patents to Sir Thomas Killigrew and Sir William Davenant.[1] During the Renaissance women did not appear as actresses on the English stage; instead, male actors played female roles. There were also concerns over this practice encouraging unnatural vice, i.e. homosexuality, which reinforced Charles in his decision in 1662 to issue a royal warrant declaring that all female roles should be played only by actresses.[2] Killigrew and Davenant began casting women almost immediately following the Restoration[2] and, once women began appearing professionally on the stage in the early 1660s, they won quick acceptance. Killigrew staged an all-female-cast production of his own play The Parsons Wedding in 1664 and again in 1672. At the age of 30, Hughes made theatre history by becoming the first woman known to perform on an English stage,[3][4] when on 8 December 1660, she played the role of Desdemona in William Shakespeares play Othello, in a production by Thomas Killigrews new Kings Company at their Vere Street theatre.[5] Some historians identify Anne Marshall as the first actress to step onto the English stage.[6] However, there has been much analysis of the early recollections of John Downes, whose memories of the 1660s form a key part of Hughes claim in this regard.[7] Hughes was famous for her charms as an actress; diarist Samuel Pepys considered her a mighty pretty woman,[8] and she was said to be a great beauty, with dark ringletted hair, a fine figure, and particularly good legs.[9] Pepys suggested that she was a lover of Sir Charles Sedley, a noted dramatist and famous fop, in the 1660s; she was reportedly also involved with Charles II himself, if only briefly.[8] It is believed that Hughes had an illegitimate son named Arthur, but there is no conclusive evidence of this.[9]
Desdemona (disambiguation). Desdemona is a character in William Shakespeares play Othello. Desdemona may also refer to:
Watercolor painting.  Watercolor (American English) or watercolour (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), also aquarelle (French: [akwaʁɛl]; from Italian diminutive of Latin aqua water),[1] is a painting method[2] in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based[3] solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork. Aquarelles painted with water-soluble colored ink instead of modern water colors are called aquarellum atramento (Latin for aquarelle made with ink) by experts. However, this term has now tended to pass out of use.[4][5] The conventional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is watercolor paper. Other supports or substrates include stone, ivory, silk, reed, papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, and watercolor canvas (coated with a gesso that is specially formulated for use with watercolors). Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton.[6][7] This gives the surface the appropriate texture and minimizes distortion when wet.[8] Watercolor papers are usually cold-pressed papers that provide better texture and appearance. Transparency is the main characteristic of watercolors. It consists of a mixture of pigments, binders such as gum arabic and humectants such as glycerin, which together with other components, allow the color pigment to join and form the paint paste, which we know as watercolor. With regard to the colors, the quality of the pigments and their degree of concentration, it is what determines how good the watercolor is and also its price. A paint that has a high concentration of pigment, professional type, allows us to use it with a large amount of water without losing the intensity of color.[9] Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white. This is not a method to be used in true watercolor (traditional).[10] Watercolor paint is an ancient form of painting, if not the most ancient form of art itself.[2] In East Asia, watercolor painting[11] with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting[12] it has been the dominant medium, often in monochrome black or browns, often using inkstick or other pigments. India, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Many Western artists, especially in the early 19th century, used watercolor primarily as a sketching tool in preparation for the finished work in oil or engraving.[13] Until the end of the eighteenth century, traditional watercolors were known as tinted drawings.[14]
Tsubaki Chinzan. Tsubaki Chinzan, originally Tasuku (Japanese:椿 椿山; 14 July 1801, Edo - 6 August 1854, Edo) was a Japanese painter in the nanga style. His other art names include Hekiin Sambō (壁陰 山房), Kyūan (休庵), Shikyūan (四休庵) and Takukadō (琢華堂). He was born in the Koishikawa district of Edo.[1] He was the son of a Samurai who was a retainer of the Shogunate and served as head of the Spear Corps. His father died when he was seven and, following the hereditary system, he was trained in martial arts and horsemanship. He was personally more inclined to an artistic career. However, to help supplement his meager income,  he began to study painting. His first lessons came from Kaneko Kinryō [ja], followed by  Tani Bunchō and, lastly, at the age of seventeen, with Watanabe Kazan; becoming his favorite student. In 1839, when Kazan was caught up in the Bansha no goku and imprisoned, Tsubaki was part of the team that rescued him. After Kazan committed seppuku in 1841, he helped raise his son, Shōka [ja], and gave him painting lessons. As a result of this affair, he resigned from the Samurai service. He painted portraits of many of his associates in the Japanese art world, which show some European influence. His other works, mostly flowers and birds, are firmly grounded in traditional styles. At the age of fifty, he designed two six piece screens (Byōbu). The second, featuring orchids and bamboo (蘭竹図屏風), is one of his most familiar works and is known as the Ranchiku Screen in English. It was said that he was very austere; refraining from alcohol, smoking and, until he was married, female companionship. He also slept little. In addition to painting, he wrote haiku, practiced the tea ceremony and played the shō. His son, Kakoku [ja], was also a talented painter, but died at the age of twenty-six, before his father.
Yōga, Tokyo. Yōga (用賀, Yōga) is a neighborhood in Setagaya, Tokyo.[1] Its name appears frequently in traffic reports because the junction between the Tōmei Expressway and the elevated Shibuya branch (#3) of the Metropolitan Expressway system is there.  There is also a stop, Yōga Station, on the Tōkyū Den-en-toshi line here.  There is also a bus services (Tokyu Bus) and possible access to the area with numbers of buses. Two traffic cameras on top of the SBS tower overlook the junction, the Yōga toll gate, and other parts of the neighborhood. In the Edo period, Yōga was a post-town on the Ōyama Kaidō, a road connecting Edo and Ōyama Mountain in Sagami Province.[1] The name comes from Sanskrit root of the word yoga.  The Buddhist temple Shinpuku-ji chose the Sanskrit-derived appellation Yuga-san.  The Sanskrit is also the root of the word yoga  (योग→瑜伽→用賀). Yōga is home to Kinuta Park, a broad green space established in 1957. The park is located 10 minutes from the Yōga Station and covers 39 hectares (96 acres). Kinuta Park has sports facilities, including baseball fields, a basketball court, and swimming pools (25m and 50m, also a small pool for kids and diving pool).[2] The Setagaya Art Museum, est. 1986, is located on a corner of Kinuta Park. The museum has a permanent collection with an emphasis on photography, particularly the works of Kineo Kuwabara and Kōji Morooka.[3]
Reminiscence of the Tempyō Era. Reminiscence of the Tempyō Era (天平の面影, Tempyō no omokage) is a 1902 painting by yōga artist Fujishima Takeji (1867–1943). Inspired by nostalgia for the Tempyō era[1] and, like his Butterflies and covers for the literary magazine Myōjō, an influential exemplar of Meiji romanticism, it has been designated an Important Cultural Property.[2][3][4] It is part of the collection of the Ishibashi Foundation.[2] Fujishima Takeji combines Japanese elements, such as the tall vertical format of a hanging scroll, the gold background, and the timeless subject of a sinuous beauty beneath a tree, with a classicizing horizontal band, a low wall with a sculpted frieze in relief, all executed in the western-derived medium of oil upon canvas. Beneath the angled branches of the vertical paulownia, the figure—according to one theory, the Empress Kōmyō herself[5]—stands barefooted, her weight on her right leg. Wearing a high striped skirt, her hair is bound high in a double top-knot, in the manner of noble ladies of the period known as ni-kei (二髻) or sō-kei (双髻).[5][6] She holds an ornately lacquered sixteen string kugo, modelled on one in the Shōsōin.[7][8] A contemporary review in the Miyako Shimbun highlights the air of mystery and imagination that accompanies her seemingly calm poise.[9] Art historian Harada Minoru writes of how, in this work, as in Butterflies, the artist has gone beyond the plein-air style that dominated his early paintings to create his own unique expression through delicacy of line and brushstroke, imaginative composition, and brilliant colour.[4] In the words of Ernest Fenollosa, we can know the material side of Tempyo [minutely] through the Shosoin Museum.[10] After the 1878 gift to the Imperial Household of 319 treasures from Hōryū-ji, to be placed at the new precursor to the Tokyo National Museum, and the early Meiji inventories of the Shōsōin, study and appreciation of early Japanese art grew apace, as reflected in the early moves for the preservation of cultural properties that culminated in the 1897 Ancient Temples and Shrines Preservation Law, supplementary provisions to which extended protection to treasures in their charge.[11][12] Part of the contemporary so-called Tempyō boom (「天平ブーム」),[8] the artists sketchbooks from this period include reworkings of the celebrated painted panels from a byōbu in the Shōsōin depicting a beauty under a tree, as well as of a lacquered kugo from the same repository of treasures; as in the 1895 replica, the original instrument instead features twenty-three strings. Other sketches include figures in long striped skirts, based on the Nara-period Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect, and studies of contemporary female hairstyles based on paintings and statues, such as that of the National Treasure Kichijōten at Yakushi-ji.[3][8][13] The painting was first exhibited at the Seventh Hakuba-kai (White Horse Society) Exhibition, held in September and October 1902 in Ueno Park, in one of the halls from the 1877 inaugural National Industrial Exhibition. There it appeared under the name Reminiscences of the Tempyō Period (天平時代の面影).[3] Subsequently, acquired by the Ishibashi Foundation, it was displayed at the Ishibashi Museum of Art, now the Kurume City Art Museum in Kurume, Fukuoka Prefecture, before being transferred to Tokyo with the 2016 changes to the museums management and ownership. Stored at the Ishibashi Foundation Art Research Center, it will be periodically displayed at the related Artizon Museum (formerly the Bridgestone Museum of Art).[2][14][15]
Tokyo.  Tokyo,[a] officially the Tokyo Metropolis,[b] is the capital and most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is one of the most populous urban areas in the world. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and parts of six neighboring prefectures, is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, with 41 million residents as of 2024[update]. Lying at the head of Tokyo Bay, Tokyo is part of the Kantō region, on the central coast of Honshu, Japans largest island. It is Japans economic center and the seat of the Japanese government and the Emperor of Japan. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government administers Tokyos central 23 special wards, which formerly made up Tokyo City; various commuter towns and suburbs in its western area; and two outlying island chains, the Tokyo Islands. Although most of the world recognizes Tokyo as a city, since 1943 its governing structure has been more akin to that of a prefecture, with an accompanying Governor and Assembly taking precedence over the smaller municipal governments that make up the metropolis. Special wards in Tokyo include Chiyoda, the site of the National Diet Building and the Tokyo Imperial Palace; Shinjuku, the citys administrative center; and Shibuya, a hub of commerce and business. Tokyo, originally known as Edo, rose to political prominence in 1603 when it became the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate, and by the mid-18th century, Edo had evolved from a small fishing village into one of the largest cities in the world, with a population surpassing one million. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the imperial capital in Kyoto was moved to Edo, and the city was renamed Tokyo (lit. Eastern Capital). Tokyo was greatly damaged by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and by allied bombing raids during World War II. From the late 1940s, Tokyo underwent rapid reconstruction and expansion, which fueled the Japanese economic miracle, in which Japans economy became the second-largest in the world at the time, behind that of the United States.[9] As of 2023[update], Tokyo is home to 29 of the worlds 500 largest companies, as listed in the annual Fortune Global 500—the second highest number of any city.[10] Tokyo was the first city in Asia to host the Summer Olympics and Paralympics, in 1964 and then in 2021. It also hosted three G7 summits, in 1979, 1986, and 1993. Tokyo is an international hub of research and development and an academic center, with several major universities, including the University of Tokyo, the top-ranking university in Japan.[11][12] Tokyo Station is the central hub for the Shinkansen, the countrys high-speed railway network; and the citys Shinjuku Station is the worlds busiest train station. Tokyo Skytree is the worlds tallest tower.[13] The Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, which opened in 1927, is the oldest underground metro line in Asia.[14]
Namsrayn Suvd. Namsrayn Suvd (born 21 December 1948) is a Mongolian actor. For her long career in film and the theatre, she was named as  People’s Actress of Mongolia (2009),  Mongolian  State Awardee(1989), a Mongolian Hero of Labour in 2021. Suvd was born in Ulaanbaatar. Her father was Ts. Namsray who was notable for his contribution to education and Mongolian culture.[2] In 1972 she graduated as an actor in the USSRs VGIK.[2] She began her stage career in Mongolia at the State Drama Academic Theater in 1973. Four years later the Ministry of Culture recognised her performance in a play titled Truth Will Win by giving her a Best Art Award which they repeated in 1984 after she played the eponymous role in Nora.[2] She has appeared in The Servant of Two Masters and in 1978 she played both Emily and Desdemona in Othello. She has appeared on stage in Hamlet and Macbeth and in 2020 she played Anna (Destiny) in Anna Karenina.[2]
National Diet Building.  The National Diet Building (国会議事堂, Kokkai-gijidō) is the building where both houses of the National Diet of Japan meet. It is located at Nagatachō 1-chome 7–1, Chiyoda, Tokyo. Sessions of the House of Representatives take place in the south wing and sessions of the House of Councillors in the north wing. The Diet Building was completed in 1936 and is constructed entirely of Japanese materials, with the exception of the stained glass, door locks, and pneumatic tube system. The construction of the building for the old Diet of Japan began in 1920; however, plans for the building date back to the late 1880s. The Diet met in temporary structures for the first fifty years of its existence because there was no agreement over what form its building should take.
Marunouchi. Marunouchi (丸の内) is an area in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan, located between Tokyo Station and the Imperial Palace. The name, meaning inside the circle, derives from its location within the palaces outer moat. Marunouchi is the core of Tokyos central business district as well as one of the main financial centres in Japan. 20 of the Fortune Global 500 companies are headquartered in the area as of 2021, while many other such companies based outside Japan have Asian or Japanese offices there.[2][3] Together with the neighbouring districts of Yūrakuchō (有楽町) and Ōtemachi (大手町), Marunouchi is part of a larger business district sometimes referred to as Daimaruyū (大丸有). In 1590, before shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu entered Edo Castle, the area now known as Marunouchi was an inlet of Tokyo Bay and had the name Hibiya. With the expansion of the castle, this inlet was filled, beginning in 1592. A new outer moat was constructed, and the earlier moat became the inner moat. The area took the name Okuruwauchi (within the enclosure). Daimyōs, particularly shinpan and fudai, constructed their mansions here, and with 24 such estates, the area also became known as daimyō kōji (daimyō alley). The offices of the North and South Magistrates, and that of the Finance Magistrate, were also here. Following the Meiji Restoration, Marunouchi came under control of the national government, which erected barracks and parade grounds for the Imperial Japanese Army. In 1890 Iwasaki Yanosuke, brother of the founder (and later the second leader) of Mitsubishi, purchased the land for 1.5 million yen. As the company developed the land, it came to be known as Mitsubishi-ga-hara (the Mitsubishi Fields). Much of the land remains under the control of Mitsubishi Estate Co., and the headquarters of many companies in the Mitsubishi Group are in Marunouchi.[4] The government of Tokyo constructed its headquarters on the site of the former Kōchi han in 1894. They moved it to the present Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building in Shinjuku in 1991, and the Tokyo International Forum and Toyota Tsusho Corporation now stands on the site. Nearly a quarter of Japans GDP is generated in this area. Tokyo Station opened in 1914, and the Marunouchi Building in 1923. Marunouchi was targeted in the 1974 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries bombing by the radical far-left terrorist organisation East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front. Tokyo Station reopened on 1 October 2012 after a 5 year refurbishment.[5] Calbee has its headquarters in the Marunouchi Trust Tower Main.[6] Konica Minolta has its headquarters in the Marunouchi Center Building in Marunouchi.[7]
Sarah Siddons.  Sarah Siddons (née Kemble; 5 July 1755 – 8 June 1831)[1] was a Welsh actress, the best-known tragedienne of the 18th century. Contemporaneous critic William Hazlitt dubbed Siddons as tragedy personified.[2][3] She was the elder sister of John Philip Kemble, Charles Kemble, Stephen Kemble, Ann Hatton, and Elizabeth Whitlock, and the aunt of Fanny Kemble. She was most famous for her portrayal of the Shakespearean character Lady Macbeth, a character she made her own.[1] The Sarah Siddons Society, founded in 1952, continues to present the Sarah Siddons Award annually in Chicago to a distinguished actress. The 18th-century marked the emergence of a recognisably modern celebrity culture[4] and Siddons was at the heart of it. Portraits depicted actresses in aristocratic dress, the recently industrialised newspapers spread actresses names and images and gossip about their private lives through the public. Though few people had actually seen Siddons perform, her name had been circulated to such an extent that when it was announced the crowd behaved as if they knew her already.[4]
Kuroda Seiki. Viscount Kuroda Kiyoteru or Seiki (黒田 清輝; Japanese pronunciation: [kɯꜜ.ɾo.da | kʲi.joꜜ.te.ɾɯ, -(|) kʲi.jo-],[1] 9 August 1866 – 15 July 1924) was a Japanese painter and teacher, noted for bringing Western art theory and practice to a wide Japanese audience. He was among the leaders of the yōga (or Western-style) movement in late 19th and early 20th-century Japanese painting, and has come to be remembered in Japan as the father of Western-style painting.[2] Kuroda was born in Takamibaba, Satsuma Domain (present day Kagoshima Prefecture), as the son of a samurai of the Shimazu clan, Kuroda Kiyokane and his wife Yaeko.[2] At birth, the boy was named Shintarō; this was changed to Seiki in 1877, when he was 11.[2] In his personal life, he used the name Kuroda Kiyoteru, which uses an alternate pronunciation of the same Chinese characters.[citation needed] Even before his birth, Kuroda had been chosen by his paternal uncle, Kuroda Kiyotsuna, as heir; formally, he was adopted in 1871, after traveling to Tokyo with both his birth mother and adoptive mother to live at his uncles estate.[2] Kiyotsuna was also a Shimazu retainer,[2] whose services to Emperor Meiji in the Bakumatsu period and at the Battle of Toba–Fushimi led to his appointment to high posts in the new imperial government;[2] in 1887 he was named a viscount.[2] Because of his position, the elder Kuroda was exposed to many of the modernizing trends and ideas coming into Japan during the early Meiji era; as his heir, young Kiyoteru also learned from them and took his lessons to heart. In his early teens, Kuroda began to learn the English language in preparation for his university studies; within two years, however, he had chosen to switch to French instead. At 17, he enrolled in pre-college courses in French, as preparation for his planned legal studies in college.[2] Consequently, when in 1884 Kurodas brother-in-law Hashiguchi Naouemon was appointed to the French Legation, it was decided that Kuroda would accompany him and his wife to Paris to begin his real studies of law.[2][3] He arrived in Paris on March 18, 1884,[4] and was to remain there for the next decade.[2]
Fujishima Takeji. Fujishima Takeji (藤島 武二; October 15, 1867 – March 19, 1943) was a Japanese painter, noted for his work in developing Romanticism and impressionism within the yōga (Western-style) art movement in late 19th- and early 20th-century Japanese painting. In his later years, he was influenced by the Art Nouveau movement. Fujishima was born to an ex-samurai class household in Kagoshima, Satsuma Domain in southern Kyūshū, Japan, where his father had been a retainer of the Shimazu clan daimyō. After studying art at Kagoshima Middle School he left home in 1884 to pursue his studies in Tokyo, first with Kawabata Gyokusho, a Shijō school nihonga artist. However, Fujishima was attracted to the new western-style oil painting techniques, and switched to yōga-style painting, which he learned under Yamamoto Hōsui and Soyama Yukihiro. His graduation piece, “Cruelty” was exhibited at the 3rd Meiji Art Association Exhibition in 1891, where it was viewed by noted novelist and art critic Mori Ōgai. Fujishima moved to Tsu in Mie Prefecture in 1893, where he was an assistant teacher at the Mie Prefectural Elementary School, but soon returned to Tokyo in 1896 under the sponsorship of Kuroda Seiki to become an assistant professor at the Tokyo Art Schools Western Painting Department. He also joined Kurodas art coterie, the Hakubakai (White Horse Society). Travelling to France in 1905, Fujishima studied the techniques of historical painting under Fernand Cormon at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and portraiture under Carolus-Duran at the French Academy in Rome in Italy. He returned to Japan in 1910 and became a professor at the Tokyo Art School and a member of the Imperial Art Academy. In 1937, he was one of the first recipients of the newly created Order of Culture of  the Japanese government. Fujishima died in 1943; his grave is at the Aoyama Cemetery, in Tokyo.
Yasukuni Shrine. Yasukuni Shrine (靖国神社 or 靖國神社, Yasukuni Jinja; lit. Peaceful Country Shrine) is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo. It was founded by Emperor Meiji in June 1869 and commemorates those who died in service of Japan, from the Boshin War of 1868–1869, to the two Sino-Japanese Wars, 1894–1895 and 1937–1945 respectively, and the First Indochina War of 1946–1954.[1] The shrines purpose has been expanded over the years to include those who died in the wars involving Japan spanning from the entire Meiji and Taishō periods, and the earlier part of the Shōwa period.[2] The shrine lists the names, origins, birthdates and places of death of 2,466,532 people.[2] Among those are 1,066 convicted war criminals from the Pacific War, twelve of whom were charged with Class A crimes (the planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of the war). Eleven were convicted on those charges, with the twelfth found not guilty on all such charges, though he was found guilty of Class B war crimes. The names of two more men charged with Class A war crimes are on the list but one died during trial and one before trial so they were never convicted. Another memorial at the honden (main hall) building commemorates anyone who died on behalf of Japan and so includes Koreans and Taiwanese who served Japan at the time. The Chinreisha (Spirit Pacifying Shrine) building is a shrine built to inter the souls of all the people who died during World War II, regardless of their nationality. It is located directly south of the Yasukuni Honden. The enshrinement of war criminals, as well as the shrines historical association with State Shinto, has made the shrine highly controversial within East Asia. Emperor Hirohito, under whom Japan fought during World War II, visited the shrine 8 times between the end of the war and 1975.[3] However, he thereafter boycotted the shrine due to his displeasure over the enshrinement of top convicted Japanese war criminals.[4] His successors, Akihito and Naruhito, have never visited the shrine.[5] The Japanese Governments involvement with the shrine remains highly controversial, with the most recent Japanese Prime Minister to visit the shrine while in office being Shinzo Abe in 2013. The site for the Yasukuni Shrine, originally named Tōkyō Shōkonsha (東京招魂社, shrine to summon the souls), was chosen by order of the Meiji Emperor.[6] The shrine was established in 1869, in the wake of the Boshin War, in order to honor the souls of those who died fighting for the Emperor. It initially served as the apex of a network of similar shrines throughout Japan that had originally been established for the souls of various feudal lords retainers, and which continued to enshrine local individuals who died in the Emperors service.[7]
Duchy of Ferrara. The Duchy of Ferrara (Latin: Ducatus Ferrariensis; Italian: Ducato di Ferrara; Emilian: Ducà ad Frara) was a state in what is now northern Italy. It consisted of about 1,100 km2 south of the lower Po River, stretching to the valley of the lower Reno River, including the city of Ferrara. The territory that was part of the Duchy was ruled by the House of Este from 1146 to 1597.[1] Borso dEste, already Duke of Modena and Reggio, and lord of Ferrara, was raised to Duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. Borso and his successors ruled Ferrara as a quasi-sovereign state until 1597, when it came under direct papal rule.[2] The origin of Ferrara is uncertain. It was probably settled by the inhabitants of the lagoons at the mouth of the Po. There are two early centres of settlement: one around the cathedral,[3] the other, the castrum bizantino, being the San Pietro district, on the opposite shore, where the Primaro empties into the Volano channel. Ferrara appears first in a document of the Lombard king Desiderius of 753 AD,[4] as a city forming part of the Exarchate of Ravenna. Desiderius pledged a Lombard ducatus ferrariae (Duchy of Ferrara) in 757 to Pope Stephen II. The Marquis Tedald of Canossa obtained (about 984) from the Church the possession for himself and his heirs, upon payment of a tribute. The decline of the House of Canossa was consumed with the death of the great countess Matilda of Canossa in 1115, just as the municipal institute was born and consolidated in Ferrara, which put an end to the ancient ducatus.[5] The free municipality of Ferrara survived for about 150 years. From 1208, with Azzo VI dEste, the lordship of the family was established, on the Guelph side. From this moment, the Este family also extended their dominion over the lands of Modena and Reggio. Ferrara and its domains were formally part of the State of the Church, while Modena and Reggio of the Holy Roman Empire, therefore the lords of Este were feudal lords of the Pope for the territory of Ferrara, and of the emperor for the territories of Modena and Reggio.[6]
Poet.  A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet might simply be the creator (thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or written), or someone who also performs their art to an audience. The work of a poet is essentially one of communication, expressing ideas either in a literal sense (such as describing a specific event or place) or metaphorically. Poets have existed since prehistory, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary greatly in different cultures and periods.[1] Throughout each civilization and language, poets have used various styles that have changed over time, resulting in countless poets as diverse as the literature that (since the advent of writing systems) they have produced. The civilization of Sumer figures prominently in the history of early poetry, and The Epic of Gilgamesh, a widely read epic poem, was written in the Third Dynasty of Ur c. 2100 BC; copies of the poem continued to be published and written until c. 600 to 150 BC. However, as it arises from an oral tradition, the poet is unknown. The Story of Sinuhe was a popular narrative poem from the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, written c. 1750 BC, about an ancient Egyptian man named Sinuhe, who flees his country and lives in a foreign land until his return, shortly before his death. The Story of Sinuhe was one of several popular narrative poems in Ancient Egyptian. Scholars have conjectured that Story of Sinuhe was actually written by an Ancient Egyptian man named Sinuhe, describing his life in the poem; therefore, Sinuhe is conjectured to be a real person. [citation needed]
Location identifier. A location identifier is a symbolic representation for the name and the location of an airport, navigation aid, or weather station, and is used for staffed air traffic control facilities in air traffic control, telecommunications, computer programming, weather reports, and related services. The International Civil Aviation Organization establishes sets of four-letter location indicators which are published in ICAO Publication 7910.  These are used by air traffic control agencies to identify airports and by weather agencies to produce METAR weather reports.  The first letter indicates the region; for example, K for the contiguous United States, C for Canada, E for northern Europe, R for the Asian Far East, and Y for Australia.  Examples of ICAO location indicators are RPLL for Manila Ninoy Aquino Airport, KCEF for Westover Joint Air Reserve Base and EGLL for London Heathrow Airport. The International Air Transport Association uses sets of three-letter IATA identifiers which are used for airline operations, baggage routing, and ticketing.  There is no specific organization scheme to IATA identifiers; typically they take on the abbreviation of the airport or city such as MNL for Manila Ninoy Aquino Airport. In the United States, the IATA identifier usually equals the FAA identifier, but this is not always the case.  A prominent example is Sawyer International Airport in Marquette, Michigan, which uses the FAA identifier SAW and the IATA identifier MQT. The Federal Aviation Administration location identifier (FAA LID) is a three- to five-character alphanumeric code identifying aviation-related facilities inside the United States, though some codes are reserved for, and are managed by other entities.[1]: §1–2-1
Ferrara.  Ferrara (/fəˈrɑːrə/; Italian: [ferˈraːra] ⓘ; Emilian: Fràra [ˈfraːra]) is a city and comune (municipality) in Emilia-Romagna, Northern Italy, capital of the province of Ferrara. As of 2016,[update] it had 132,009 inhabitants.[3] It is situated 44 kilometres (27 miles) northeast of Bologna, on the Po di Volano, a branch channel of the main stream of the Po River, located 5 km (3 miles) north. The town has broad streets and numerous palaces dating from the Renaissance, when it hosted the court of the House of Este.[4] For its beauty and cultural importance, it has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The first documented settlements in the area of the present-day Province of Ferrara date from the 6th century BC.[5] The ruins of the Etruscan town of Spina, established along the lagoons at the ancient mouth of the Po river, were lost until modern times, when drainage schemes in the Valli di Comacchio marshes in 1922 first officially revealed a necropolis with over 4,000 tombs, evidence of a population centre that in Antiquity must have played a major role.[6] There is uncertainty among scholars about the proposed Roman origin of the settlement in its current location (Tacitus and Boccaccio refer to a Forum Alieni[7]), for little is known of this period,[8] but some archeologic evidence points to the hypothesis that Ferrara could have been originated from two small Byzantine settlements: a cluster of facilities around the Cathedral of St. George, on the right bank of the main branch of the Po, which then ran much closer to the city than today, and a castrum, a fortified complex built on the left bank of the river to defend against the Lombards.[9] Ferrara appears first in a document of the Lombard king Desiderius of 753 AD, when he captured the town from the Exarchate of Ravenna.[10] Later the Franks, after routing the Lombards, presented Ferrara to the Papacy in 754 or 756.[8] In 988 Ferrara was ceded by the Church to the House of Canossa, but at the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115 it became a free commune.[9] During the 12th century the history of the town was marked by the wrestling for power between two preeminent families, the Guelph Adelardi and the Ghibelline Salinguerra. The powerful Imperial House of Este threw their decisive weight behind the Salinguerra and eventually reaped the benefits of victory for themselves.[9] Thus, in 1264 Obizzo II dEste was proclaimed lifelong ruler of Ferrara, taking the additional titles of Lord of Modena in 1288 and of Reggio in 1289. His rule marked the end of the communal period in Ferrara and the beginning of the Este rule, which lasted until 1598.
Lists of airports.  An airport is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals. An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called a heliport. An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up. An international airport has additional facilities for customs and immigration. 
Oral Ak Zhol Airport.  Manshuk Mametova International Airport (Kazakh: Мәншүк Мәметова атындағы Халықаралық әуежайы) (IATA: URA), is an airport in Kazakhstan located 12 km (7 mi) southeast of Oral (Uralsk). The airport is located south of the Oral River. In February 2023, Oral Airport was acquired by Oral Airport Holding LLP. It is a Kazakhstani company, the controlling stake of which belongs to the Kazakhstani Uralsk Management LLP and businessman Dauletkhan Kilybayev, and a minority stake (49%) is owned by the Russian company JSC Retrans. The company hopes to turn Uralsk airport into a regional hub, expand the route network and carry out technical re-equipment of the airport[2] It is a small airport servicing medium-sized airliners. It has parking for four jets. This airport has one terminal. The airport also serves the nearby town of Aksai, which provides the majority of airport passenger traffic, being the capital of the gas industry in West Kazakhstan. In the past, a weekly international charter flight was operated by Astraeus Airlines from Oral to London Gatwick/London Stansted; this was subsequently operated by Air Astana to Amsterdam; however, the route was terminated, along with other Air Astana flights, due to the poor condition of the runway. The airport runway and facilities were inspected by Mott MacDonald to confirm that its substandard condition prevented the airport from accommodating larger jet aircraft. On 17 April 2013, the decision was made to transfer the airports ownership back to the government for runway reconstruction. A new terminal was built and opened in April 2022. It aims to double the capacity of the airport to 600 thousand people per year.[3]
University of Ferrara. The University of Ferrara (Italian: Università degli Studi di Ferrara) is the main university of the city of Ferrara in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. In the years prior to the First World War the University of Ferrara, with more than 500 students, was the best attended of the free universities in Italy. Today there are approximately 16,000 students enrolled at the University of Ferrara with nearly 400 degrees granted each year. The teaching staff number 600, including 288 researchers. It is organized into 12 Departments. The University of Ferrara was founded on March 4, 1391 by Marquis Alberto V DEste with the permission of Pope Boniface IX. The Studium Generale was inaugurated on St. Lukes Day (October 18) of that year with courses in law, arts and theology. After the unification of Italy, Ferrara University became a free university with faculties of Law and Mathematics, a three-year course in Medicine (reduced to two years in 1863-64), as well as Schools of Veterinary Medicine (abolished in 1876), Pharmacy, and for public Notaries. After World War II, it started to be state-supported and this allowed the opening of many faculties and research departments. The most remarkable growth took place between the 70s and the 80s, when Prof. Antonio Rossi was in charge of it as Rector. Some notable instructors include:
Geocode. A  geocode is a code that represents a geographic entity (location or object). It is a unique identifier of the entity, to distinguish it from others in a finite set  of geographic entities. In general the geocode is a  human-readable and short identifier. Typical geocodes (in bold) and entities represented by it: The ISO 19112:2019 standard[1] (section 3.1.2) adopted the term geographic identifier instead geocode, to encompass long labels: spatial reference in the form of a label or code that identifies a location. For example, for ISO, the country name “Peoples Republic of China” is a label. Some authors, such as the United States Census Bureau,[2] use the abbreviation GEOID as a synonym for geocode. Geocodes are mainly used  (in general as an atomic data type) for labelling, data integrity, geotagging and spatial indexing. In theoretical computer science a  geocode system is a locality-preserving hashing function.
Weather station. A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or insolation. Manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period. Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount. A weather instrument is any device that measures weather related conditions. Since there are a variety of different weather conditions, there are a variety of different weather instruments. Typical weather stations have the following instruments and sensors: In addition, at certain automated airport weather stations, additional instruments may be employed, including: More sophisticated stations may also measure the ultraviolet index, leaf wetness, soil moisture, soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data.
Air traffic control.  Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organise and expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots.[1] In some countries, ATC can also provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace.  Controllers monitor the location of aircraft in their assigned airspace using radar and communicate with pilots by radio.[2] To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space around it. ATC services are provided to all types of aircraft, including private, military, and commercial flights.[3] Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue mandatory instructions or non-binding advisories (known as flight information in some countries). While pilots are required to obey all ATC instructions, the pilot in command of an aircraft always retains final authority for its safe operation. In an emergency, the pilot may deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to maintain the safety of the aircraft.[4] Weather conditions such as thunderstorms, strong winds, and low visibility can significantly affect air traffic control operations, leading to delays, diversions, and the need for alternate routing.[5] Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ATC operations are conducted either in the English language, or the local language used by the station on the ground.[6] In practice, the native language for a region is used; however, English must be used upon request.[6] In 1920, Croydon Airport near London, England, was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control.[7]  The aerodrome control tower was a wooden hut 15 feet (5 metres) high with windows on all four sides.  It was commissioned on 25 February 1920, and provided basic traffic, weather, and location information to pilots.[8][9] In the United States, air traffic control developed three divisions. The first of several air mail radio stations (AMRS) was created in 1922, after World War I, when the U.S. Post Office began using techniques developed by the U.S. Army to direct and track the movements of reconnaissance aircraft. Over time, the AMRS morphed into flight service stations. Todays flight service stations do not issue control instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where flight service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first airport traffic control tower, regulating arrivals, departures, and surface movement of aircraft in the US at a specific airport, opened in Cleveland in 1930. Approach- and departure-control facilities were created after adoption of radar in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first air route traffic control center (ARTCC), which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination, was opened in Newark in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago and Cleveland.[10]
Keiō. Keiō (慶応; historically 慶應) was a Japanese era name (年号, nengō; literally year name) after Genji and before Meiji.  The period spanned the years from May 1865 to October 1868.[1] The reigning emperors were Kōmei-tennō (孝明天皇) and Meiji-tennō (明治天皇). Keio University, which was initially established in 1858 (Ansei 5), seven years before the beginning of the Keiō era, is named after this era. This is the oldest existing institution of higher learning in Japan.[7]
Natural philosophy. Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin philosophia naturalis) is the philosophical study of physics, that is, nature and the physical universe, while ignoring any supernatural influence. It was dominant before the development of modern science. From the ancient world (at least since Aristotle) until the 19th century, natural philosophy was the common term for the study of physics (nature), a broad term that included botany, zoology, anthropology, and chemistry as well as what is now called physics. It was in the 19th century that the concept of science received its modern shape, with different subjects within science emerging, such as astronomy, biology, and physics. Institutions and communities devoted to science were founded.[1] Isaac Newtons book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) (English: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) reflects the use of the term natural philosophy in the 17th century. Even in the 19th century, the work that helped define much of modern physics bore the title Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867). In the German tradition, Naturphilosophie (philosophy of nature) persisted into the 18th and 19th centuries as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity of nature and spirit, after rejecting the scholastic tradition and replacing Aristotelian metaphysics, along with those of the dogmatic churchmen, with Kantian rationalism. Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with this movement, including Goethe, Hegel, and Schelling. Naturphilosophie was associated with Romanticism and a view that regarded the natural world as a kind of giant organism, as opposed to the philosophical approach of figures such as John Locke and others espousing a more mechanical philosophy of the world, regarding it as being like a machine.[citation needed] The term natural philosophy preceded current usage of natural science (i.e. empirical science). Empirical science historically developed out of philosophy or, more specifically, natural philosophy. Natural philosophy was distinguished from the other precursor of modern science, natural history, in that natural philosophy involved reasoning and explanations about nature (and after Galileo, quantitative reasoning), whereas natural history was essentially qualitative and descriptive. Greek philosophers defined natural philosophy as the combination of beings living in the universe, ignoring things made by humans.[2] The other definition refers to human nature.[2]
Yoga.  Traditional Yoga[a] (UK: /ˈjəʊɡə/, US: /ˈjoʊɡə/;[1] Sanskrit: योग yoga [joːɡɐ] ⓘ; lit. yoke  or union) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals,[2][3][4][b] as practiced in the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions.[5][6] Yoga may have pre-Vedic origins,[c] but is first attested in the early first millennium BCE. It developed as various traditions in the eastern Ganges basin drew from a common body of practices, including Vedic elements.[7][8] Yoga-like practices are mentioned in the Rigveda[9] and a number of early Upanishads,[10][11][12][d] but systematic yoga concepts emerge during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient Indias ascetic and Śramaṇa movements, including Jainism and Buddhism.[13] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the classical text on Hindu yoga, samkhya-based but influenced by Buddhism, dates to the early centuries of the Common Era.[14][15][e] Hatha yoga texts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries, originating in tantra.[f] Yoga is practiced worldwide,[16] but yoga in the Western world often entails a modern form of Hatha yoga and a posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique,[17] consisting largely of asanas;[18] this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses on meditation and release from worldly attachments.[19][17][20][a] It was introduced by gurus from India after the success of Swami Vivekanandas adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[21] Vivekananda introduced the Yoga Sutras to the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga.[22]
Navigation. Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.[1][2] The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation,[3] marine navigation, aeronautic navigation, and space navigation.[1] It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks.[4] All navigational techniques involve locating the navigators position compared to known locations or patterns. Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and direction.[1] In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian navigation.[1] For marine navigation, this involves the safe movement of ships, boats and other nautical craft either on or underneath the water using positions from navigation equipment with appropriate nautical charts (electronic and paper).[4] Navigation equipment for ships is mandated under the requirements of the SOLAS Convention, depending on ship size.[5] For land navigation, this involves the movement of persons, animals and vehicles from one place to another by means of navigation equipment (such as a compass or GNSS receivers), maps and visual navigation marks across urban or rural environments.[6][7] Aeronautic (air) navigation involves piloting an aircraft from one geographic position to another position while monitoring the position as the flight progresses.[8] The term stems from the 1530s, from Latin navigationem (nom. navigatio), from navigatus, pp. of navigare to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship, from navis ship and the root of agere to drive.[9] Polynesian navigation is probably the earliest form of open-ocean navigation; it was based on memory and observation recorded on scientific instruments like the Marshall Islands Stick Charts of Ocean Swells. Early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another.[10][11][12] Among the first proper navigational instruments was the compass, with one of the oldest Chinese in origin from the Han dynasty (since c. 206 BC).[13] The compass was later adopted for sea navigation by the Song dynasty Chinese during the 11th century.[14][15][16] The first usage of a compass recorded in Western Europe and the Islamic world occurred around 1190.[17] Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the mariners astrolabe first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. Although land astrolabes were invented in the Hellenistic period and existed in classical antiquity and the Islamic Golden Age, the oldest record of a sea astrolabe is that of Spanish astronomer Ramon Llull dating from 1295.[18] The perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to Portuguese navigators during early Portuguese discoveries in the Age of Discovery.[19][20] The earliest known description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Spanish cosmographer Martín Cortés de Albacars Arte de Navegar (The Art of Navigation) published in 1551,[21] based on the principle of the archipendulum used in constructing the Egyptian pyramids. However, the first altitude measuring instrument to navigate extensively used at sea was the quadrant.[22] This was reintroduced by Leonardo of Pisa in the 13th century.[22] Its first recorded use was in 1461 by Diogo Gomes.[22] As well as astrolabes and quadrants, the first cross-staff used in navigation was known from the 14th century onwards, believed to have come from early Arab navigators.[23] However, it had many errors and was also difficult to use as it required squinting at the sun.[23] These disadvantages were overcome with the invention of the backstaff in 1595 by John Davis.[23]
Taishō era. The Taishō era (大正時代, Taishō jidai; [taiɕoː dʑidai] ⓘ) was a period in the history of Japan dating from July 30th, 1912 to December 25th, 1926, coinciding with the reign of Emperor Taishō.[1] The new emperor was a sickly man, which prompted the shift in political power from the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō) to the Imperial Diet of Japan and the democratic parties. Thus, the era is considered the time of the liberal movement known as Taishō Democracy; it is usually distinguished from the preceding chaotic Meiji era and the following militaristic-driven first part of the Shōwa era.[2] The two kanji characters in Taishō (大正) were from a passage of the Classical Chinese I Ching: 大亨以正 天之道也 (translated: Great prevalence is achieved through rectitude, and this is the Dao of Heaven.)[3] The term could be roughly understood as meaning great rectitude, or great righteousness. On 30 July 1912, Emperor Meiji died and Crown Prince Yoshihito succeeded to the throne as Emperor of Japan. In his coronation address, the newly enthroned Emperor announced his reigns nengō (era name) Taishō, meaning great righteousness.[4] The end of the Meiji period was marked by huge government, domestic, and overseas investments and defense programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign reserves to pay debts. The influence of Western culture experienced in the Meiji period also continued. Notable artists, such as Kobayashi Kiyochika, adopted Western painting styles while continuing to work in ukiyo-e; others, such as Okakura Kakuzō, kept an interest in traditional Japanese painting. Authors such as Mori Ōgai studied in the West, bringing back with them to Japan different insights on human life influenced by developments in the West. The events following the Meiji Restoration in 1868 had seen not only the fulfillment of many domestic and foreign economic and political objectives—without Japan suffering the colonial fate of other Asian nations—but also a new intellectual ferment, in a time when there was worldwide interest in communism and socialism and an urban proletariat was developing. Universal male suffrage, social welfare, workers rights, and nonviolent protests were ideals of the early leftist movement.[citation needed] Government suppression of leftist activities, however, led to more radical leftist action and even more suppression, resulting in the dissolution of the Japan Socialist Party (日本社会党, Nihon Shakaitō) only a year after its founding and general failure of the socialist movement in 1906.[citation needed]
Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874). The Japanese punitive expedition to Taiwan in 1874, referred to in Japan as the Taiwan Expedition (Japanese: 台湾出兵, Hepburn: Taiwan Shuppei) and in Taiwan and mainland China as the Mudan incident (Chinese: 牡丹社事件), was a punitive expedition launched by the Japanese ostensibly in retaliation for the murder of 54 Ryukyuan sailors by Paiwan indigenous peoples near the southwestern tip of Taiwan in December 1871. In May 1874, the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the indigenous Taiwanese peoples in southern Taiwan and retreated in December after the Qing dynasty agreed to pay an indemnity of 500,000 taels, with Japan conceding that China had sovereignty over Taiwan. Some ambiguous wording in the agreed terms were later argued by Japan to be confirmation of Chinese renunciation of suzerainty over the Ryukyu Islands, paving the way for de facto Japanese incorporation of the Ryukyu in 1879. In December 1871, a Ryukyuan vessel shipwrecked on the southeastern tip of Taiwan and 54 sailors were killed by indigenous Taiwanese peoples. Four tribute ships were returning to the Ryukyu Islands when they were blown off course on 12 December. Two ships were pushed towards Taiwan. One of them landed on Taiwans western coast and made it back home with the help of Qing officials. The other one crashed into the eastern coast of southern Taiwan near Padiyudr Bay (Chinese: 八瑤灣; pinyin: Bāyáowān). There were 69 passengers and 66 managed to make it to shore. Fifty-four of them were killed by Paiwan while the remaining 12 were rescued by Han Chinese who transferred them to Taiwan Prefecture (modern Tainan). They then made their way to Fujian province in mainland China and from there, the Qing government arranged transport to send them home. They departed in July 1872.[5] This event, known as the Mudan incident, did not immediately cause any concern in Japan. A few officials knew of it by mid-1872 but it was not until April 1874 that it became an international concern. The repatriation procedure in 1872 was by the book and had been a regular affair for several centuries. From the 17th to 19th centuries, the Qing had settled 401 Ryukyuan shipwreck incidents both on the coast of mainland China and Taiwan. The Ryukyu Kingdom did not ask Japanese officials for help regarding the shipwreck. Instead its king, Shō Tai, sent a reward to Chinese officials in Fuzhou for the return of the 12 survivors.[6] On 30 August 1872, Sukenori Kabayama, a general of the Imperial Japanese Army, urged the Japanese government to invade Taiwans tribal areas. In September, Japan dethroned the king of Ryukyu. On 9 October, Kabayama was ordered to conduct a survey in Taiwan. In 1873, Tanemomi Soejima was sent to communicate to the Qing court that if it did not extend its rule to the entirety of Taiwan, punish murderers, pay victims families compensation, and agree to talk about the matter, Japan would take care of it. The Foreign Minister Sakimitsu Yanagihara believed that the perpetrators of the Mudan incident were all Taiwan savages beyond Chinese education and law.[7] Japan justified sending an expedition to Taiwan through linguistic interpretation of huawai zhimin (lit. outside the sphere of civilization) to mean not part of China. Chinese diplomat Li Hongzhang rejected the claim that the murder of Ryukyuans had anything to do with Japan once he learned of Japans aspirations.[8] However, after communications between the Qing and Yanagihara, the Japanese took their explanation to mean that the Qing government had not opposed Japans claims to sovereignty over the Ryukyu Islands, disclaimed any jurisdiction over indigenous Taiwanese peoples, and had indeed consented to Japans expedition to Taiwan.[9] In the eyes of Japan and the foreign advisor Charles Le Gendre, the indigenous people were savages who had no sovereign or international status, and therefore their territory was terra nullius, free to be seized for Japan.[10] The Qing argued that like in many other countries, the administration of the government did not stretch to every part of a country, similar to the Native American territories in the United States or aboriginal territories in Australia and New Zealand, a view Le Gendre also took before his employment by the Japanese.[11] Japan had already sent a student, Kurooka Yunojo, to conduct surveys in Taiwan in April 1873. Kabayama reached Tamsui on 23 August disguised as a merchant and surveyed eastern Taiwan.[8] On 9 March 1874, the Taiwan Expedition prepared for its mission. The magistrate of the Taiwan Circuit learned of the impending Japanese invasion from a Hong Kong newspaper quoting a Japanese news item and reported it to Fujian authorities.[12] Qing officials were taken by complete surprise due to the seemingly cordial relations with Japan at the time. On 17 May, Saigō Jūdō led the main force, 3,600 strong, aboard four warships in Nagasaki headed to Tainan.[13] On 6 June, the Japanese emperor issued a certificate condemning the Taiwan savages for killing our nationals, the Ryukyuans killed in southeastern Taiwan.[14]
Osaka Bay. Osaka Bay (大阪湾 Ōsaka-wan Japanese: [oːsakaꜜwaɴ]) is a bay in western Japan. As an eastern part of the Seto Inland Sea, it is separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Kii Channel and from the neighbor western part of the Inland Sea by the Akashi Strait. Its western shore is formed by Awaji Island, and its northern and eastern shores are part of the Kansai metropolitan area. Major ports on Osaka Bay include Osaka, Kobe, Nishinomiya, Sakai, Amagasaki, and Hannan. A number of artificial islands have been created in Osaka Bay in past decades, including Kansai International Airport, Kobe Airport, Port Island, and Rokkō Island. In antiquity, Osaka Bay stretched almost to Kyoto, Naniwa, Osakas oldest settlement, itself a peninsula in the bay. Several islands at the south end of Osaka Bay are part of the Seto Inland Sea National Park. Industries locate around Osaka Bay because there is a skilled and plentiful workforce, many port facilities, efficient linkages (from small to medium to large firms). There are good transport links (including the Shinkansen), room for expansion (land reclaimed from the sea), and a large local market (9 million).
Airport.  An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities, mostly for commercial air transport.[1][2] They usually consist of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off and to land[3] or a helipad,[4] and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars[5] and terminals, to maintain and monitor aircraft. Larger airports may have airport aprons, taxiway bridges, air traffic control centres, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. In some countries, the US in particular, airports also typically have one or more fixed-base operators, serving general aviation. Airport operations are extremely complex, with a complicated system of aircraft support services, passenger services, and aircraft control services contained within the operation. Thus airports can be major employers, as well as important hubs for tourism and other kinds of transit. Because they are sites of operation for heavy machinery, a number of regulations and safety measures have been implemented in airports, in order to reduce hazards. Additionally, airports have major local environmental impacts, as both large sources of air pollution, noise pollution and other environmental impacts, making them sites that acutely experience the environmental effects of aviation. Airports are also vulnerable infrastructure to extreme weather, climate change caused sea level rise and other disasters. The terms aerodrome, airfield, and airstrip also refer to airports, and the terms heliport, seaplane base, and STOLport refer to airports dedicated exclusively to helicopters, seaplanes, and short take-off and landing aircraft. In colloquial use in certain environments, the terms airport and aerodrome are often interchanged. However, in general, the term airport may imply or confer a certain stature upon the aviation facility that other aerodromes may not have achieved. In some jurisdictions, airport is a legal term of art reserved exclusively for those aerodromes certified or licensed as airports by the relevant civil aviation authority after meeting specified certification criteria or regulatory requirements.[6]
Akashi Strait. The Akashi Strait (明石海峡, Akashi Kaikyō) is a strait between the Japanese islands of Honshu and Awaji. The strait connects Seto Inland Sea and Osaka Bay. The width of the Akashi Strait is approximately 4 kilometers, and maximum depth is about 110 meters.[1] The fastest tidal current is about 4.5 metres per second (8.7 knots).[1] The 1.5-kilometer strait is one of the important points of the Seto Inland Sea and is at the mouth of the Pacific Ocean. The surrounding waters around Akashi Strait is a known fishery area. The Akashi Strait is designated as an international shipping channel by the Maritime Traffic Safety Act in Japan.[1] The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, an almost four-kilometer-long suspension bridge, crosses the strait. It links the city of Kobe (the capital of Hyōgo Prefecture) on Honshu Island to Iwaya on Awaji Island (also within Hyōgo Prefecture). Its longest span measures nearly two kilometers.[1] After 10 years of construction it was finally opened to traffic on 5 April 1998.[2] At the time of its opening in 1998, it was the worlds longest suspension bridge.[2] The Great Hanshin Earthquake occurred beneath the Akashi Strait and struck on 17 January 1995 with magnitude 7.2.[3] The Nojima Fault, which cuts across Awaji Island, is responsible; a surface trace about 10 kilometers long appeared on the island due to the earthquake.[3] The Nojima Fault is a branch of the Japan Median Tectonic Line which runs the length of the southern half of Honshu.
International Civil Aviation Organization.  The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO /ˌaɪˈkeɪoʊ/ eye-KAY-oh) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that coordinates the principles and techniques of international air navigation, and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.[3] The ICAO headquarters are located in the Quartier international de Montréal of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation. ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation that are followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation.[4] The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO. The commission is composed of 19 commissioners, nominated by the ICAOs contracting states and appointed by the ICAO Council.[5] Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do not serve as state or political representatives. International Standards and Recommended Practices are developed under the direction of the ANC through the formal process of ICAO Panels. Once approved by the commission, standards are sent to the council, the political body of ICAO, for consultation and coordination with the member states before final adoption. ICAO is distinct from other international air transport organizations, particularly because it alone is vested with international authority (among signatory states): other organizations include the International Air Transport Association (IATA), a trade association representing airlines; the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), an organization for air navigation service providers (ANSPs); and the Airports Council International, a trade association of airport authorities. In addition there are several regional civil aviation commissions, such as the Latin America Civil Aviation Commission (LACAC) who focus on challenges and growth in specific regions.
Meiji Constitution.  Naruhito  Fumihito 
Artificial island. An artificial island or man-made island is an island that has been constructed by humans rather than formed through natural processes.[1] Other definitions may suggest that artificial islands are lands with the characteristics of human intervention in their formation process, while others argue that artificial islands are created by expanding existing islets, constructing on existing reefs, or amalgamating several islets together. Although constructing artificial islands is not a modern phenomenon, there is no definite legal definition of it.[2] Artificial islands may vary in size from small islets reclaimed solely to support a single pillar of a building or structure to those that support entire communities and cities. Archaeologists argue that such islands were created as far back as the Neolithic era.[3] Early artificial islands included floating structures in still waters or wooden or megalithic structures erected in shallow waters (e.g. crannógs and Nan Madol discussed below). In modern times, artificial islands are usually formed by land reclamation, but some are formed by flooding of valleys resulting in the tops of former knolls getting isolated by water (e.g., Barro Colorado Island). There are several reasons for the construction of these islands, which include residential, industrial, commercial, structural (for bridge pylons) or strategic purposes.[4] One of the worlds largest artificial islands, René-Levasseur Island,[5][6] was formed by the flooding of two adjacent reservoirs. Technological advancements have made it feasible to build artificial islands in waters as deep as 75 meters.[7] The size of the waves and the structural integrity of the island play a crucial role in determining the maximum depth.[7] Despite a popular image of modernity, artificial islands actually have a long history in many parts of the world, dating back to the reclaimed islands of Ancient Egyptian civilization, the Stilt crannogs of prehistoric Wales, Scotland and Ireland, the ceremonial centers of Nan Madol in Micronesia and the still extant floating islands of Lake Titicaca.[8] The city of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec predecessor of Mexico City that was home to 500,000 people when the Spaniards arrived, stood on a small natural island in Lake Texcoco that was surrounded by countless artificial chinamitl islands. The people of Langa Langa Lagoon and Lau Lagoon in Malaita, Solomon Islands, built about 60 artificial islands on the reef including Funaafou,  Sulufou, and Adaege.[9][10] The people of Lau Lagoon build islands on the reef as this provided protection against attack from the people who lived in the centre of Malaita.[11][12]  These islands were formed literally one rock at a time. A family would take their canoe out to the reef which protects the lagoon and then dive for rocks, bring them to the surface and then return to the selected site and drop the rocks into the water. Living on the reef was also healthier as the mosquitoes, which infested the coastal swamps, were not found on the reef islands. The Lau people continue to live on the reef islands.[9] Many artificial islands have been built in urban harbors to provide either a site deliberately isolated from the city or just spare real estate otherwise unobtainable in a crowded metropolis. An example of the first case is Dejima (or Deshima), created in the bay of Nagasaki in Japans Edo period as a contained center for European merchants. During the isolationist era, Dutch people were generally banned from Nagasaki and Japanese from Dejima. Similarly, Ellis Island, in Upper New York Bay beside New York City, a former tiny islet greatly expanded by land reclamation, served as an isolated immigration center for the United States in the late 19th and early 20th century, preventing an escape to the city of those refused entry for disease or other perceived flaws, who might otherwise be tempted toward illegal immigration. One of the most well-known artificial islands is the Île Notre-Dame in Montreal, built for Expo 67.
Mount Rokkō. Mount Rokkō (六甲山, Rokkō-san) is the name of a range of mountains in southeastern Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. There is no single mountain or peak called Rokkō, although the highest peak of the mountains is called Rokkōsan-Saikōhō (六甲山最高峰), (literally, the highest peak of the Rokkō Mountains) and the area to the south is known as the Rokkō area.[1] The mountains run approximately east-west from Sumaura Kōen Park in western Kobe to Takarazuka, and the length of the range is about 56 km (35 mi). The highest point is 932 metres (3,060 ft).[2] It also includes Mount Maya, Mount Kabutoyama, Mount Iwahara and Mount Iwakura. Today, the Rokkō mountain area is a centerpiece of a popular sightseeing and hiking area for people in the metropolitan Kansai region. Mt. Rokkō is a symbol of Kobe as well as Osaka. Arthur Hasketh Groom opened the first golf course in Japan, Kobe Golf Club, on Mount Rokko in 1903. Mount Rokkō was the first place to introduce rock climbing to the Japanese by Kuzou Fujiki who established the first rock climbing club in Japan in 1924.
Emperor Meiji.  Mutsuhito (睦仁; 3 November 1852 – 29 July 1912), posthumously[a] honored as Emperor Meiji[b] (明治天皇, Meiji Tennō),[c] was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 1867 until his death in 1912. His reign is associated with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, which ended the Tokugawa shogunate and began rapid changes that transformed Japan from an isolationist, feudal state to an industrialized world power. Emperor Meiji was the first monarch of the Empire of Japan, and presided over the Meiji era. At the time of Mutsuhitos birth, Japan was a feudal and pre-industrial country dominated by the isolationist Tokugawa shogunate and the daimyō subject to it, who ruled over Japans 270 decentralized domains. The opening of Japan to the West from 1854 fueled domestic demands for modernization, and when Mutsuhito became emperor after the death of his father Emperor Kōmei in 1867, it triggered the Boshin War, in which samurai (mostly from the Chōshū and Satsuma Domains) defeated the shogunate and restored power in his name. Documents issued during his reign include the Charter Oath of 1868, Meiji Constitution of 1889, Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors of 1882, and Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890, in which he was advised by a group of oligarchs known as the genrō. Other major events which  occurred during his reign include the establishment of the Cabinet in 1885, Privy Council in 1888, Imperial Diet in 1890, and military victories over China in the First Sino-Japanese War and over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. Taiwan and Korea were annexed in 1895 and 1910, respectively. Emperor Meiji died in 1912, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Yoshihito. The Tokugawa shogunate had established itself in the early 17th century.[6] Under its rule, the shōgun governed Japan. About 180 lords, known as daimyōs, ruled autonomous realms under the shōgun, and occasionally the shōgun called upon the daimyōs for gifts but did not tax them. The shōgun controlled the daimyōs in other ways too; only the shōgun could approve daimyōs marriages, and the shōgun could divest a daimyō of his lands.[7] Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had officially retired from his position by 1605, was the first Tokugawa shōgun. Upon retirement, Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son Tokugawa Hidetada, the titular shōgun, issued a code of behavior for the nobility in 1605. Under the code, the emperor was required to devote his time to scholarship and the arts.[8] The emperors under the shogunate appear to have adhered closely to this code by studying Confucian classics and devoting time to poetry and calligraphy.[9] Emperors were taught only the rudiments of Japanese and Chinese history and geography.[9] The shōgun did not seek the consent or advice of the emperor for his actions.[10]
Haneda (surname). Haneda (written: 羽田 or 羽根田) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Seto Inland Sea. The Seto Inland Sea (瀬戸内海, Seto Naikai), sometimes shortened to the Inland Sea, is the body of water separating Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, three of the four main islands of Japan. It serves as a waterway connecting the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan. It connects to Osaka Bay and provides a sea transport link to industrial centers in the Kansai region, including Osaka and Kobe. Before the construction of the Sanyō Main Line, it was the main transportation link between Kansai and Kyūshū. Yamaguchi, Hiroshima, Okayama, Hyōgo, Osaka, Wakayama, Kagawa, Ehime, Tokushima, Fukuoka, and Ōita prefectures have coastlines on the Seto Inland Sea; the cities of Hiroshima, Iwakuni, Takamatsu, and Matsuyama are also located on it. The Setouchi region encompasses the sea and surrounding coastal areas. The region is known for its moderate climate, with a stable year-round temperature and relatively low rainfall levels. The sea experiences periodic red tides caused by dense groupings of certain phytoplankton that result in the death of large numbers of fish. Since the 1980s, the seas northern and southern shores have been connected by the three routes of the Honshū–Shikoku Bridge Project, including the Great Seto Bridge, which serves both railroad and automobile traffic. The International Hydrographic Organizations definition of the limits of the Seto Inland Sea (published in 1953) is as follows:[1] On the West. The southeastern limit of the Japan Sea [In Shimonoseki-kaikyo. A line running from Nagoya Saki (130°49E) in Kyûsû through the islands of Uma Sima and Muture Simia (33°58,5N) to Murasaki Hana (34°01N) in Honsyû].
Haneda, Ōta, Tokyo. Haneda (羽田, Haneda) is a district of Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. As of January 1, 2011, Haneda had a total population of 14,885.[1] The district gives its name to Haneda Airport, the busiest airport in Japan by passenger traffic. Before the construction of Haneda Airport, the area was a prosperous mineral springs and beach resort centered around Anamori Shrine [ja].  In 1930, the Japanese postal ministry purchased a 53-hectare (130-acre) portion of reclaimed land in Tokyo Bay to the east of Haneda from a private individual in order to construct an airport.[2]  Haneda Airfield first opened in 1931 with a flight from the airport on August 25.[2] In 1932, the town of Haneda [ja] was merged into the newly created Tokyo City ward of Kamata, which was in turn merged with Ōmori to form Ōta in 1947.[3] 35°32′55″N 139°44′50″E / 35.5487°N 139.7471°E / 35.5487; 139.7471 
Yayoi people.  The Yayoi people (弥生 人, Yayoi jin) were an ancient people that immigrated[1] to the Japanese archipelago during the Yayoi period (300 BC–300 AD) and are characterized by the existence of Yayoi material culture.[2][3][4][5] Some argue for an earlier start of the Yayoi period, between 1000 and 800 BC, but this date is contested.[1] The terms Yayoi and Wajin can be used interchangeably, though Wajin (倭人) refers to the people of Wa, and Wajin (和人) is also used as a name for the modern Yamato people.[6] The definition of the Yayoi people is complex: Yayoi describes both farmer-hunter-gatherers exclusively living in the Japanese archipelago and their agricultural transition. Yayoi people refers specifically to the mixed descendants of Jōmon hunter-gatherers and mainland Asian migrants, who adopted rice agriculture and other continental material culture.[7] It is believed that rice farming spread to Japan from the Yangtze River Delta to the Shandong peninsula, then to the Liaodong peninsula, and finally to the Korean peninsula, from where it was directly introduced to the Japanese archipelago.[8][9] The immigration of early rice farmers into Japan coincided with a range of sociopolitical transformations occurring in China and Korea, beginning with the eastward expansion of the Shang dynasty from 1600 to 1400 BCE and culminating in the spread of the Mumun culture around 300 BCE.[8] Archaeological research defines the term Yayoi people as a general designation for migrants who arrived in the Japanese archipelago during the Yayoi period, originating primarily from the Korean peninsula and southern Pacific regions. It is not used to indicate a single, specific ethnic group.[10]
Hyōgo Prefecture. Hyōgo Prefecture (兵庫県, Hyōgo-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [çoꜜː.ɡo, -ŋo, çoː.ɡoꜜ.keɴ, -ŋoꜜ.keɴ][3]) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu.[4] Hyōgo Prefecture has a population of 5,469,762 (as of 1 June 2019[update]) and a geographic area of 8,400 square kilometres (3,200 square miles). Hyōgo Prefecture borders Kyoto Prefecture to the east, Osaka Prefecture to the southeast, and Okayama and Tottori prefectures to the west. Kobe is the capital and largest city of Hyōgo Prefecture, and the seventh-largest city in Japan, with other major cities including Himeji, Nishinomiya, and Amagasaki.[5] Hyōgo Prefectures mainland stretches from the Sea of Japan to the Seto Inland Sea, where Awaji Island and a small archipelago of islands belonging to the prefecture are located. Hyōgo Prefecture is a major economic center, transportation hub, and tourist destination in western Japan, with 20% of the prefectures land area designated as Natural Parks. Hyōgo Prefecture forms part of the Kobe metropolitan area and Osaka metropolitan area, the second-most-populated urban region in Japan after the Greater Tokyo area and one of the worlds most productive regions by GDP. Present-day Hyōgo Prefecture includes the former provinces of Harima, Tajima, Awaji, and parts of Tanba and Settsu.[6] In 1180, near the end of the Heian period, Emperor Antoku, Taira no Kiyomori, and the Imperial court moved briefly to Fukuhara, in what is now the city of Kobe. There the capital remained for five months. Himeji Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is in the city of Himeji. Southern Hyōgo Prefecture was severely devastated by the 6.9 Mw Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995, which destroyed major parts of Kobe and Awaji, as well as Nishinomiya and Ashiya and the neighboring Osaka Prefecture, killing nearly 6,500 people.
Ethnicity.   An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people who identify with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Attributes that ethnicities believe to share include language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, religion, history or social treatment.[1][2] Ethnicities are maintained through long-term endogamy[3] and may have a narrow or broad spectrum of genetic ancestry, with some groups having mixed genetic ancestry.[4][5][6] Ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism. It is also used interchangeably with race although not all ethnicities identify as racial groups.[7] By way of assimilation, acculturation, amalgamation, language shift, intermarriage, adoption and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another. Ethnic groups may be divided into subgroups or tribes, which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due to endogamy or physical isolation from the parent group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a panethnicity and may eventually merge into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. Two theories exist in understanding ethnicities, mainly primordialism and constructivism. Early 20th-century primordialists viewed ethnic groups as real phenomena whose distinct characteristics have endured since the distant past.[8] Perspectives that developed after the 1960s increasingly viewed ethnic groups as social constructs, with identity assigned by societal rules.[9]
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (国土交通省, Kokudo-kōtsū-shō; lit. Ministry of Land and Transport; MLIT) is a ministry of the Japanese government.[1] It is responsible for one-third of all the laws and orders in Japan and is the largest Japanese ministry in terms of employees, as well as the second-largest executive agency of the Japanese government after the Ministry of Defense. The ministry oversees four external agencies including the Japan Coast Guard, the Japan Meteorological Agency and the Japan Tourism Agency. MLIT was established as part of the administrative reforms of January 6, 2001, which merged the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of Construction, the Hokkaido Development Agency [ja] (北海道開発庁 Hokkaidō-kaihatsu-chō), and the National Land Agency [ja] (国土庁 Kokudo-chō). Before the ministry renamed itself on January 8, 2008, the ministrys English name was Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.[2] One of the mother ministries, the Ministry of Construction, along with the former Ministry of Home Affairs, the National Police Agency and the former Ministry of Health and Welfare, is the successor to the pre-WW2 Home Ministry, and has sent deputy governors and deputy mayors to each prefecture and municipality since becoming the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. MLIT is organized into the following bureaus:[1][3]
Flag of the Republic of Venice.  The Flag of the Republic of Venice, commonly known as the Banner or Standard of Saint Mark (stendardo di San Marco), was the symbol of the Republic of Venice, until its dissolution in 1797. Its main charge was the Lion of Saint Mark, symbolizing Mark the Evangelist, the patron saint of Venice.[1] A distinguishing feature of the flag is its six fringes, which were added to represent the original six sestiere of Venice. The fringes also serve to prevent damage being caused to the central section of the flag by wind.[2] During times of peace, the Lion of Saint Mark was depicted alongside an open book. However, when the Republic was at war the Bible was replaced with the lion grasping an upright sword.[1] During the corteo dogale (lit. procession of the doges), four banners of Saint Mark with different background colours, white, purple, blue, and red, were carried, with the one in front representing the state of the republic at that time (at peace, in a truce, in an alliance, at war, respectively). When at war, the war version of the Lion of Saint Mark was used.[3][4] The flag inspired the modern flag of the Veneto region in Italy.[5]
Greater Tokyo Area.  The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world, consisting of the Kantō region of Japan (including Tokyo Metropolis and the prefectures of Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, and Tochigi) as well as the prefecture of Yamanashi of the neighboring Chūbu region. In Japanese, it is referred to by various terms, one of the most common being Capital Region (首都圏, Shuto-ken). As of 2016, the United Nations estimates the total population at 38,140,000.[3][needs update] It covers an area of approximately 13,500 km2 (5,200 mi2),[4] giving it a population density of 2,642 people/km2. It is the second-largest single metropolitan area in the world in terms of built-up or urban function landmass at 8,547 km2 (3,300 mi2), behind only the New York City metropolitan area at 11,642 km2 (4,495 mi2).[5] With over US$2 trillion in GDP, Tokyo remains the second-largest metropolitan economy in the world, also behind New York. There are various definitions of the Greater Tokyo Area, each of which tries to incorporate different aspects.  Some definitions are clearly defined by law or government regulation, some are based coarsely on administrative areas, while others are for research purposes such as commuting patterns or distance from Central Tokyo. Each definition has a different population figure, granularity, methodology, and spatial association. Notes and sources: All figures issued by Japan Statistics Bureau,[10][11] except for Metro Employment Area, a study by Center for Spatial Information Service, the University of Tokyo. Abbreviations: CF for National Census Final Data (every 5 years by JSB), CR for Civil Registry (compiled by local governments, monthly as per legal requirement), CP for Census Preliminary.
Rokkō Island Line. The Kobe New Transit Rokkō Island Line (神戸新交通六甲アイランド線, Kōbe Shin-Kōtsū Rokkō Airando Sen), commonly known as Rokkō Liner (六甲ライナー, Rokkō Rainā) is an automated guideway transit system in Kobe, Japan. Upon its opening on February 21, 1990, it became the second AGT line operated by Kobe New Transit. The line connects the man-made Rokkō Island to Sumiyoshi Station on the JR Kobe Line. There is a plan to extend the line from the Marine Park to the south of Rokko Island, which is currently under construction.[1]
Serenissima. [La] Serenissima ([The] Most Serene) may refer to:
Flag of the Republic of Venice.  The Flag of the Republic of Venice, commonly known as the Banner or Standard of Saint Mark (stendardo di San Marco), was the symbol of the Republic of Venice, until its dissolution in 1797. Its main charge was the Lion of Saint Mark, symbolizing Mark the Evangelist, the patron saint of Venice.[1] A distinguishing feature of the flag is its six fringes, which were added to represent the original six sestiere of Venice. The fringes also serve to prevent damage being caused to the central section of the flag by wind.[2] During times of peace, the Lion of Saint Mark was depicted alongside an open book. However, when the Republic was at war the Bible was replaced with the lion grasping an upright sword.[1] During the corteo dogale (lit. procession of the doges), four banners of Saint Mark with different background colours, white, purple, blue, and red, were carried, with the one in front representing the state of the republic at that time (at peace, in a truce, in an alliance, at war, respectively). When at war, the war version of the Lion of Saint Mark was used.[3][4] The flag inspired the modern flag of the Veneto region in Italy.[5]
Lists of airports.  An airport is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals. An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called a heliport. An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up. An international airport has additional facilities for customs and immigration. 
Hanshin Main Line. The Hanshin Main Line (阪神電気鉄道本線, Hanshin Denki Tetsudō Honsen) is a railway line operated by the  private railway company Hanshin Electric Railway in Japan.  It connects the two cities of Osaka and Kobe, between Umeda and Kobe-Sannomiya stations respectively. The Main Line of Hanshin is the southernmost railway to connect Osaka and Kobe. The other two lines, from south to north, are the West Japan Railway Company‘s Tōkaidō Main Line (known as the JR Kobe Line), and the Hankyu Railways Kobe Main Line. For nearly a century, the line served as a primary competitor to the Hankyū Kobe Line. However, in 2006, Hanshin and Hankyū were subsidiarized under a single share holding company, Hankyu Hanshin Holdings. The Main Line started operation on April 12, 1905, by the company. The company found a solution to construct a competing line to the then JNR owned Kobe Line using a loophole in the Tram Act, allowing large portions of the line to be built using street running. It became the first interurban in Japan. This inspired other railways such as Keihan Electric Railway, Minoo Arima Electric Tramway (present Hankyu Hanshin Holdings, Inc.), Osaka Electric Tramway (present Kintetsu), Keihin Electric Railway (present Keihin Electric Express Railway) to build their first lines in a similar fashion. Then another competing railway company, Hankyū (then Hanshin Kyuko Railway), opened the Kobe Main Line in 1920. The Kobe Main Line was designed as a faster electric mainline railway, and in response Hanshin began upgrading its interurban mainline to become more railway like. Operations included realigning and grade separating street running portions, using high platforms, and introducing express trains.
Mount Nagamine. Mount Nagamine (長峰山, Nagamine-san) is a 687.8 m (2,257 ft) mountain in Nada, Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. This mountain is one of the major mountains of Rokko Mountains. Mount Nagamine literally means, long ridge mountain. Mount Nagamine is on a ridge, which branches off a main ridge of Rokko Mountains. Because the ridge stretches to the south, toward the Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area, climbers can enjoy attractive views from the top. On the top of the mountain, there is a rock called ‘Tenguzuka’. This mountain belongs to the Setonaikai National Park. This mountain has major two routes to the top. One is from Hankyu Rokko Station, and the other is from Ōji-kōen Station. It takes one and half hours from these stations to the top.
Kobe (disambiguation). Kobe is a city in Japan and capital of the Hyōgo prefecture. Kobe or KOBE may also refer to:
Mainland China.  Mainland China, also referred to as the Chinese mainland, is a geopolitical term defined as the territory under direct administration of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. In addition to the geographical mainland, the geopolitical sense of the term includes islands such as Hainan, Chongming, and Zhoushan.[1] By convention, territories outside of mainland China include: In Taiwan it is also often used to refer to all territories administered by the PRC.[3][4][5] The term is widely used in all of the above territories as well as internationally, including by many Overseas Chinese communities especially Malaysian Chinese and Chinese Singaporeans, use this term to describe people from the ancestral land. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Peoples Liberation Army had largely defeated the Kuomintang (KMT)s National Revolutionary Army in the Chinese Civil War. This forced the Kuomintang to relocate the government and institution of the Republic of China to the relative safety of Taiwan, an island which was placed under its control after the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II in 1945. With the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China on 1 October 1949, the CCP-controlled government saw itself as the sole legitimate government of China,[6] competing with the claims of the Republic of China, whose authority is now limited to Taiwan and other islands. This resulted in a situation in which two co-existing governments competed for international legitimacy and recognition as the government of China. With the democratisation of Taiwan in the 1990s and the rise of the Taiwanese independence movement, some people began simply using the term China instead.[7] Due to their status as colonies of foreign states during the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, the phrase mainland China excludes Hong Kong and Macau.[8] Since the return of Hong Kong and Macau to Chinese sovereignty in 1997 and 1999, respectively, the two territories have retained their legal, political, and economic systems. The territories also have their distinct identities. Therefore, mainland China generally continues to exclude these territories, because of the one country, two systems policy adopted by the Chinese government towards the regions.[9] The term is also used in economic indicators, such as the IMD Competitiveness Report. International news media often use China to refer only to the mainland of the Peoples Republic of China.
Aerodrome. An aerodrome, airfield, or airstrip is a location from which aircraft flight operations take place, regardless of whether they involve air cargo, passengers, or neither, and regardless of whether it is for public or private use. Aerodromes include small general aviation airfields, large commercial airports, and military air bases. The term airport may imply a certain stature (having satisfied certain certification criteria or regulatory requirements) that not all aerodromes may have achieved. That means that all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports. Usage of the term aerodrome (or airfield) remains more common in Commonwealth English, and is conversely almost unknown in American English, where the term airport is applied almost exclusively. A water aerodrome is an area of open water used regularly by seaplanes, floatplanes or amphibious aircraft for landing and taking off. In formal terminology, as defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an aerodrome is a defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations, and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement of aircraft.[1] The word aerodrome derives from Ancient Greek ἀήρ (aḗr), air, and δρόμος (drómos), road or course, literally meaning air course. An ancient linguistic parallel is hippodrome (a stadium for horse racing and chariot racing), derived from ἵππος (híppos), horse, and δρόμος (drómos), course. A modern linguistic parallel is velodrome, an arena for velocipedes. Αεροδρόμιο is the word for airport in Modern Greek, which transliterates as aerodromio.
Code.  In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium. An early example is an invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they thought, saw, heard, or felt to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time. The process of encoding converts information from a source into symbols for communication or storage. Decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient understands, such as English, Spanish, etc. One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language, spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaler or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters, and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. In information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an algorithm that uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet. An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings.
Meriken Park. Meriken Park (メリケンパーク, Meriken pāku) is a waterfront park located in the port city of Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan.  The park features the Kobe Port Tower, Kobe Maritime Museum, and a memorial to victims of the Great Hanshin earthquake.  The name of the park comes from the word American, which was commonly translated as Meriken during the Meiji era.[1]  Meriken Park is also the location of the Hotel Okura Kobe and Kobe Meriken Park Oriental Hotel. 34°40′54″N 135°11′18″E / 34.68167°N 135.18833°E / 34.68167; 135.18833
Irreligious (album).  Irreligious is the second studio album by Portuguese gothic metal band Moonspell, released in 1996. It features some of the bands best-known songs, such as Opium, Ruin & Misery, Awake! and Full Moon Madness. The latter usually closes almost every Moonspell concert. The third track, Awake!, features a recording of Aleister Crowley reading his poem The Poet. The album was promoted by the first Moonspell music video Opium, which contained imagery of 19th-century-looking opium den. Guest musicians Production
Kobe Maritime Museum. Kobe Maritime Museum is a museum in Kobe, Japan focusing on the history of Japanese shipping and Kobe harbor. One of the exhibits is the Yamato 1. 34°40′58″N 135°11′18″E / 34.68278°N 135.18833°E / 34.68278; 135.18833 This article related to a museum in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This Hyōgo Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Venetian language. Venetian,[7][8] also known as wider Venetian or Venetan[9][10] (łengua vèneta[11] [ˈɰeŋɡwa ˈvɛneta] or vèneto [ˈvɛneto]), is a Romance language spoken natively in the northeast of Italy,[12] mostly in Veneto, where most of the five million inhabitants can understand it. It is sometimes spoken and often well understood outside Veneto: in Trentino, Friuli, the Julian March, Istria, and some towns of Slovenia, Dalmatia (Croatia) and Bay of Kotor (Montenegro)[13][14] by a surviving autochthonous Venetian population, and in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, the United States and the United Kingdom by Venetians in the diaspora. Although referred to as an Italian dialect (Venetian: diałeto; Italian: dialetto) even by some of its speakers, the label is primarily geographic. Venetian is a separate language from Italian, with many local varieties. Its precise place within the Romance language family remains somewhat controversial. Both Ethnologue and Glottolog group it into the Gallo-Italic branch (and thus, closer to French and Emilian–Romagnol than to Italian).[8][7] Devoto, Avolio and Ursini reject such classification,[15][16][17] and Tagliavini places it in the Italo-Dalmatian branch of Romance.[18] Like all members of the Romance language family, Venetian evolved from Vulgar Latin, and is thus a sister language of Italian and other Romance languages. Venetian is first attested in writing in the 13th century. The language enjoyed substantial prestige in the days of the Republic of Venice, when it attained the status of a lingua franca in the Mediterranean Sea. Notable Venetian-language authors include the playwrights Ruzante (1502–1542), Carlo Goldoni (1707–1793) and Carlo Gozzi (1720–1806). Following the old Italian theatre tradition (commedia dellarte), they used Venetian in their comedies as the speech of the common folk. They are ranked among the foremost Italian theatrical authors of all time, and plays by Goldoni and Gozzi are still performed today all over the world. Other notable works in Venetian are the translations of the Iliad by Giacomo Casanova (1725–1798) and Francesco Boaretti, the translation of the Divine Comedy (1875) by Giuseppe Cappelli and the poems of Biagio Marin (1891–1985). Notable too is a manuscript titled Dialogo de Cecco di Ronchitti da Bruzene in perpuosito de la stella Nuova attributed to Girolamo Spinelli, perhaps with some supervision by Galileo Galilei for scientific details.[19]
Secularity. Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin saeculum, worldly or of a generation or century), is the state of being unrelated to, or neutral in regard to, religion. The origins of secularity as a concept can be traced to the Bible, and it was fleshed out through Christian history into the modern era.[1] Since the Middle Ages, there have been clergy not pertaining to a religious order called secular clergy.[2][3][4] Furthermore, secular and religious entities were not separated in the medieval period, but coexisted and interacted naturally.[5][6] The word secular has a meaning very similar to profane as used in a religious context. Today, anything that is not directly connected with religion may be considered secular, in other words, neutral to religion.[7] Secularity does not mean anti-religious, but unrelated to religion. Many activities in religious bodies are secular, and though there are multiple types of secularity or secularization, most do not lead to irreligiosity.[8] Linguistically, a process by which anything becomes secular is named secularization, though the term is mainly reserved for the secularization of society; any concept or ideology promoting the secular may be termed secularism, a term generally applied to the ideology dictating no religious influence on the public sphere. Both religion and secular are Western terms and concepts that are not universal across cultures, languages, or time.[9] Since both are Western concepts that were formed under the influence of Christian theology, other cultures do not necessarily have words or concepts that resemble or are equivalent to them.[10] Many scholars have problematized the concept of secularity, arguing that it has been heavily structured by Protestant models of Christianity such as emphasis of beliefs and skepticism towards rituals.[11] Of the cultures that do have conceptions of religion and secular, most do not have tension or dichotomous views of religion and secularity.[12] Historically, the word secular was not related or linked to religion, but was a freestanding term in Latin that would relate to any mundane endeavour.[13] However, the term, saecula saeculorum (saeculōrum being the genitive plural of saeculum) as found in the New Testament in the Vulgate translation (c. 410) of the original Koine Greek phrase εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων (eis toùs aionas ton aiṓnōn), e.g. at Galatians 1:5, was used in the early Christian church (and is still used today), in the doxologies, to denote the coming and going of the ages, the grant of eternal life, and the long duration of created things from their beginning to forever and ever.[14] Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant of a generation, belonging to an age or denoted a period of about one hundred years.[13] The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones.[citation needed]
Italian language.  Italian (italiano, pronounced [itaˈljaːno] ⓘ, or lingua italiana, pronounced [ˈliŋɡwa itaˈljaːna]) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family. It evolved from the colloquial Latin of the Roman Empire,[7] and is the least divergent language from Latin, together with Sardinian.[8] It is spoken by 68 to 85 million people, including 64 million native speakers as of 2024.[2][1] Some speakers of Italian are native bilinguals of both Italian (either in its standard form or regional varieties) and a local language of Italy, most frequently the language spoken at home in their place of origin.[1] Italian is an official language in Italy, San Marino, Switzerland (Ticino and the Grisons), and Vatican City, and it has official minority status in Croatia, Slovenia (Istria), Romania,[6][9] Bosnia and Herzegovina,[6] and in 6 municipalities of Brazil.[10][11] It is also spoken in other European and non-EU countries, most notably in Malta (by 66% of the population),[12] Albania and Monaco,[2] as well as by large immigrant and expatriate communities in the Americas, Australia and on other continents.[1] Italian is a major language in Europe, being one of the official languages of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and one of the working languages of the Council of Europe. It is the third-most-widely spoken native language in the European Union (13% of the EU population) and it is spoken as a second language by 13 million EU citizens (3%).[13][14][15] Italian is the main working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy and the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian influence led to the development of derivated languages and dialects worldwide. It is also widespread in various sectors and markets, with its loanwords used in arts, luxury goods, fashion, sports and cuisine; it has a significant use in musical terminology and opera, with numerous Italian words referring to music that have become international terms taken into various languages worldwide, including in English.[16] Almost all native Italian words end with vowels, and the language has a 7-vowel sound system (e and o have mid-low and mid-high sounds).[17] Italian has contrast between short and long consonants and gemination (doubling) of consonants.
Kobe Port Tower.  The Kobe Port Tower (神戸ポートタワー, Kōbe Pōto Tawā) is a landmark in the port city of Kobe, Japan. The sightseeing tower was completed in 1963 and was temporarily closed from late 2009 to 28 April 2010 and again from 27 September 2021 to 26 April 2024 for renovation. It is located in Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. The Kobe Port Tower was designed by the Nikken Sekkei Company and was completed in 1963.[1] The maintenance of the whole facility began on November 2009 and the Kobe Port Tower was closed to the public from 12 January 2010 for refurbishment. It was renovated and re-opened to the public for the sightseeing deck on 19 March 2010 but Kobe Port Tower completed the installation of 7,000 light-emitting diodes (LED) lighting equipment with 40 lighting effects starting from the re-opening day of 28 April 2010. The building also pays homage to the late Kobe Bryant.[2][3] The facility was once again closed to the public from 27 September 2021 for renovation and seismic retrofitting.[4] It reopened on 26 April 2024.[5]
Nasreddine Dinet. Nasreddine Dinet (born as Alphonse-Étienne Dinet on 28 March 1861 – 24 December 1929, Paris) was a French orientalist painter and was one of the founders of the Société des Peintres Orientalistes Society for French Orientalist Painters. He became so enchanted with Algeria and its culture, that he converted to Islam, and was proficient in Arabic.  In addition to his paintings, he translated Arabic literature into French. Born in Paris, Alphonse-Étienne Dinet, was the son of a prominent French judge, Philippe Léon Dinet and Marie Odile Boucher.[1] In 1865 his sister Jeanne, who would be his biographer, was born.[2] From 1871, he studied at the Lycée Henry IV, where the future president Alexandre Millerand was also among the students. Upon graduation in 1881 he enrolled in the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts and entered the studio of Victor Galland. The following year he studied under William Bouguereau and Tony Robert-Fleury at the Académie Julian. He also exhibited for the first time at the Salon des artistes français. Dinet made his first trip to Bou Saâda by the Ouled Naïl Range in northern Algeria in 1884, with a team of entomologists. The following year he made a second trip on a government scholarship, this time to Laghouat.[1] At that time he painted his first two Algerian pictures: les Terrasses de Laghouat and l’Oued M’Sila après l’orage. He won the silver medal for painting at the Exposition Universelle in 1889, and in the same year founded the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts along with Meissonier, Puvis de Chavannes, Rodin, Carolus-Duran and Charles Cottet. In 1887 he further founded with Léonce Bénédite, director of the Musée du Luxembourg, the Société des Peintres Orientalistes Français.[3]
Secularism.  Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on naturalistic considerations, uninvolved with religion. It is most commonly thought of as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state and may be broadened to a similar position seeking to remove or to minimize the role of religion in any public sphere.[1] Secularism may encapsulate anti-clericalism, atheism, naturalism, non-sectarianism, neutrality on topics of religion, or antireligion.[2] Secularism is not necessarily antithetical to religion, but may be compatible with it.[3] As a philosophy, secularism seeks to interpret life based on principles derived solely from the material world, without recourse to religion. It shifts the focus from religion towards temporal and material concerns.[4] There are distinct traditions of secularism like the French, Turkish, American and Indian models. These differ greatly, from the American emphasis on avoiding an established religion and freedom of belief, to the French interventionist model, and more. The purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely, ranging from assertions that it is a crucial element of modernization, or that religion and traditional values are backward and divisive, to the claim that it is the only guarantor of free religious exercise. Both religion and secular are Western concepts that are not universal across cultures, languages, or time; with experiences of secularism varying significantly.[5] Secularism has origins going back to the ancient world into religious texts such as the Bible, being refined through history by religious thinkers.[6] Secular individuals hold complex relations to religion.[7][8] Secularism takes different forms with varying stances on where and how religion should be separate from other aspects of society.[9] People of any religious denomination can support a secular society, or adopt the principles of secularism, although secularist identity is often associated with non-religious individuals such as atheists.[10] Political secularism encompasses the schools of thought in secularism that consider the regulation of religion by a secular state.[11] Religious minorities and non-religious citizens in a country tend to support political secularism while members of the majority religion tend to oppose it.[12] Secular nationalists are people that support political secularism within their own state.[13]
Emam. Emam may refer to:
Iman. Iman, Imann, Imaan, Eman,  Eiman,  Imane, Emaan, or Imman may refer to:
Imamate. The term imamate or imamah (Arabic: إمامة, imāmah) means leadership and refers to the office of an imam or a Muslim theocratic state ruled by an imam.[1]
Shakespeare (disambiguation). William Shakespeare (1564–1616) was an English playwright and poet. Shakespeare  may also refer to:
Anti-clericalism. Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historically, anti-clericalism in Christian traditions has been opposed to the influence of Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to separate the church from public and political life.[1] Some have opposed clergy on the basis of moral corruption, institutional issues and/or disagreements in religious interpretation, such as during the Protestant Reformation. Anti-clericalism became extremely violent during the French Revolution, because revolutionaries claimed the church played a pivotal role in the systems of oppression which led to it.[2] Many clerics were killed, and French revolutionary governments tried to put priests under the control of the state by making them employees. Anti-clericalism appeared in Catholic Europe throughout the 19th century, in various forms, and later in Canada, Cuba, and Latin America. According to the Pew Research Center several communist and post-communist states are current practitioners of political anti-clericalism, including Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Vietnam, China and North Korea.[3] During the Protestant Reformation, anti-clericalism resulted from opposition to the political and economic privileges of the clergy.[4] The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was passed on July 12, 1790, requiring all clerics to swear allegiance to the French government and, by extension, to the increasingly anti-clerical National Constituent Assembly. All but seven of the 160 bishops refused the oath, as did about half of the parish priests.[5] Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion; the second being conscription. Nonjuring priests were exiled or imprisoned and women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets.[5]
William Shakespeare (disambiguation). William Shakespeare (1564–1616) was an English poet, playwright and actor. William Shakespeare may also refer to:
Antireligion. Antireligion is opposition to religion or traditional religious beliefs and practices.[1][2][3] It involves opposition to organized religion, religious practices or religious institutions. The term antireligion has also been used to describe opposition to specific forms of supernatural worship or practice, whether organized or not. Antireligion is distinct from deity-specific positions such as atheism (the lack of belief in deities) and antitheism (an opposition to belief in deities); although antireligionists may also be atheists or antitheists. Unlike antitheism, antireligion is also against those religions that do not have deities, such as some sects of Buddhism and Jainism. Some Catholics have accused the Reformation of Martin Luther as having inspired anti religiosity.[4] Early anti religious tendencies were expressed by skeptics such as Christopher Marlowe.[5] Significant antireligion was advanced during the Age of Enlightenment, as early as the 17th century. Baron dHolbachs book Christianity Unveiled, published in 1766, attacked not only Christianity but religion in general as an impediment to the moral advancement of humanity. According to historian Michael Burleigh, antireligion found its first mass expression of barbarity in revolutionary France as organised ... irreligion...an anti-clerical and self-styled non-religious state responded violently to religious influence over society.[6] The Soviet Union adopted the political ideology of Marxism–Leninism and by extension the policy of state atheism, which opposed the growth of religions.[7] It directed varying degrees of antireligious efforts at varying faiths, depending on what threat they posed to the Soviet state, and their willingness to subordinate themselves to political authority. In the 1930s, during the Stalinist period, the government destroyed church buildings or put them into secular use (as museums of religion and atheism, clubs or storage facilities), executed clergy, prohibited the publication of most religious material and persecuted some members of religious groups.[8] Less violent attempts to reduce or eliminate the influence of religion in society were also carried out at other times in Soviet history. For instance, it was usually necessary to be an atheist in order to acquire any important political position or any prestigious scientific job; thus, many people became atheists in order to advance their careers. Some estimate that 12–15 million Christians were killed in the Soviet Union.[9][10][11] Up to 500,000 Russian Orthodox Christians were persecuted by the Soviet government, not including other religious groups.[12] At least 106,300 Russian clergymen were executed between 1937 and 1941.[13] The Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic targeted numerous clergy for arrest and interrogation as enemies of the state,[14] and many churches, mosques, and synagogues were converted to secular uses.[15] The Peoples Republic of Albania had an objective for the eventual elimination of all religion in Albania with the goal of creating an atheist nation, which it declared it had achieved in 1967.  In 1976, Albania implemented a constitutional ban on religious activity and actively promoted atheism.[16][17] The government nationalized most property of religious institutions and used it for non-religious purposes, such as cultural centers for young people. Religious literature was banned. Many clergy and theists were tried, tortured, and executed. All foreign Roman Catholic clergy were expelled in 1946,[citation needed] and Albania officially tried to eradicate religion.[17]
Chandos portrait.  The Chandos portrait is an oil painted portrait thought to depict William Shakespeare (1564–1616). Painted between 1600 and 1610, it may have served as the basis for the engraved portrait of Shakespeare used in the First Folio in 1623.[1] It is named after the 3rd Duke of Chandos, who was a former  owner. The portrait was given to the National Portrait Gallery, London, on its foundation in 1856, and it was the first portrait to be acquired for its collection.[2] It has not been possible to determine with certainty who painted the portrait, or whether it actually depicts Shakespeare. However, the National Portrait Gallery believes that it certainly fairly likely does depict the writer.[2][3] The first known reference to the painting is in a note written in 1719 by George Vertue, who stated that it was painted by John Taylor, a respected member of the Painter-Stainers Company, who may also have been the same John Taylor who acted with the Children of Pauls.[4] Vertue refers to Taylor as an actor and painter and as Shakespeares intimate friend. Katherine Duncan-Jones argues that John Taylor could have been a misreading of what had originally been Jo: Taylor; she suggests that this may refer to the actor Joseph Taylor, who was a protégé of the older Shakespeare.[5] In 1719, in a note in the margin of a book, George Vertue wrote the name Richard Burbridge [sic], then crossed it out.  It is thought that Vertue temporarily and mistakenly assigned the painting to Shakespeares friend Richard Burbage (1567–1619), then crossed it out, and instead wrote that the painting was by one Taylor.[6]
Principles of Islamic jurisprudence. Principles of Islamic jurisprudence (Arabic: أصول الفقه, romanized: ʾUṣūl al-Fiqh) are traditional methodological principles used in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) for deriving the rulings of Islamic law (sharia).[1] Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how the scriptures (Quran and hadith) should be interpreted from the standpoint of linguistics and rhetoric.[2] It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is abrogated by a passage revealed at a later date.[2] In addition to the Quran and hadith, the classical theory of Sunni jurisprudence recognizes secondary sources of law: juristic consensus (ijmaʿ) and analogical reasoning (qiyas).[3] It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools (madhahib).[2] This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of ijtihad, which refers to a jurists exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question.[2] The theory of Twelver Shia jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (ʿaql) as a source of law in place of qiyās and extension of the notions of hadith and sunnah to include traditions of the imams.[1][4] Uṣūl al-fiqh is a genitive construction with two Arabic terms, uṣūl and fiqh. Uṣūl means roots or basis. Some says, Uṣūl, the plural form of Aṣl, means Rājih (preponderant). It also signifies Qā’idah (rules), which is the real-world application of the word. For example: every sentence must contain a verb is a rule of Grammar. Fiqh linguistically refers to knowledge, deep understanding or comprehension. In the context of Islamic law, it refers to traditional Islamic jurisprudence.[citation needed] Classical jurists held that human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity.[5] However, they believed that use of reason alone is insufficient to distinguish right from wrong, and that rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad.[5] In Islam, the Quran is considered to be the most sacred source of law.[6] Classical jurists held its textual integrity to be beyond doubt on account of it having been handed down by many people in each generation, which is known as recurrence or concurrent transmission (tawātur).[3][6] Only several hundred verses of the Quran have direct legal relevance, and they are concentrated in a few specific areas such as inheritance, though other passages have been used as a source for general principles whose legal ramifications were elaborated by other means.[7][6]
Korea.  Korea[a] is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula,[b] Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in Asia in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK). Both countries proclaimed independence in 1948, and the two countries fought the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. The region is bordered by China to the north and Russia to the northeast, across the Amnok (Yalu) and Duman (Tumen) rivers, and is separated from Japan to the southeast by the Korea Strait. Known human habitation of the Korean peninsula dates to 40,000 BC.[3] The kingdom of Gojoseon, which according to tradition was founded in 2333 BC, fell to the Han dynasty in 108 BC. It was followed by the Three Kingdoms period, in which Korea was divided into Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. In 668 AD, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with the aid of the Tang dynasty, forming Unified Silla; Balhae succeeded Goguryeo in the north. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla collapsed into three states, beginning the Later Three Kingdoms period. In 918, Goguryeo was resurrected as Goryeo, which achieved what has been called a true national unification by Korean historians, as it unified both the Later Three Kingdoms and the ruling class of Balhae after its fall.[4] Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was highly cultured and saw the invention of the first metal movable type. During the 13th century, Goryeo became a vassal state of the Mongol Empire. Goryeo overthrew Mongol rule before falling to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established the Joseon dynasty in 1392. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace; the Hangul, the Korean alphabet was created and Confucianism became influential. This ended with Japanese and Qing invasions, which brought devastation to Joseon and led to Korean isolationism. After the invasions, an isolated Joseon experienced another nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. In the final years of the 19th century, Japan forced Joseon to open up and Joseon experienced turmoil such as the Kapsin Coup, Donghak Peasant Revolution, and the assassination of Empress Myeongseong. In 1895, Japan defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War and China lost suzerainty over Korea and Korea was placed under further Japanese influence. In 1897, the centuries old Joseon was replaced by the Korean Empire with the Joseons last king, Gojong, becoming the Emperor of the Korean Empire. Japans further victory in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, expelled Russian influence in Korea and Manchuria. In 1905, the Korean Empire became a protectorate of the Empire of Japan. In 1910, the Empire of Japan officially annexed the Korean peninsula. Korea under Japanese rule was marked by industrialization and modernization, economic exploitation, and brutal suppression of the Korean independence movement, as reflected in the 1919 March First Movement. The Japanese suppressed Korean culture, and during World War II forcefully mobilized millions of Koreans to support its war effort. In 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies, and the Soviet Union and United States agreed to divide Korea into two military occupation zones divided by the 38th parallel, with the Soviet zone in the north and American zone in the south. The division was meant to be temporary, with plans for Korea to be reunited under a single government. In 1948, the DPRK and ROK were established with the backing of each power, and ongoing tensions led to the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, which came to involve U.S.-led United Nations and communist Chinese forces. The war ended in stalemate in 1953, but without a peace treaty. A demilitarized zone was created between the countries, approximating the original partition. This status contributes to the high tensions that divide the peninsula, and both states claim to be the sole legitimate government of Korea. South Korea is a regional power and a developed country, with its economy ranked as the worlds fourteenth-largest by GDP (PPP). Its armed forces are one of the worlds strongest militaries, with the worlds second-largest standing army by military and paramilitary personnel. South Korea has been renowned for its globally influential pop culture, particularly in music (K-pop) and cinema, a phenomenon referred to as the Korean Wave. North Korea follows Songun, a military first policy which prioritizes the Korean Peoples Army in state affairs and resources. It possesses nuclear weapons, and is the country with the highest number of military personnel, with a total of 7.8 million active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel, or approximately 30% of its population. Its active duty army of 1.3 million soldiers is the fourth-largest in the world, consisting of 4.9% of its population. North Korea is widely considered to have the worst human rights record in the world.
Ryukyu (disambiguation). Ryukyu may refer to:
Southwest Islands (Palau). The Southwest Islands of Palau are several small islands spread across the Pacific Ocean about 600 km from the main island chain of Palau. They make up the Palauan states of Sonsorol and Hatohobei. The nearshore islands to the southwest of the main island of Palau (Babeldaob), which belong to the states of Koror, Peleliu and Angaur and the unincorporated Rock Islands, are not considered part of the Southwest Islands. The Southwest Islands are located some 275 to 325 km southwest of Angaur. These small outer islands, which include Sonsorol, Pulu Ana, and Meriir, are both physically and culturally distinct from the rest of the Palau. The islands are miniature platforms of raised reef composed of coralline limestone. The islands have sandy soils covered with atoll-like forest and brush. The islands are low, and have depressed, swampy interiors. Large stands of coconut palms line the beaches forming the primary resource for the only industry on the islands: copra production. Today, the islands are largely uninhabited as most of the native population lives in Koror or on Ngerekebesang Island. Even so, the natives retain a strong sense of cultural pride in their heritage and a firm commitment to their islands.[1] The state governments operate the vessel connecting with Koror every 3 months. The Southwest Islands, grouped by their state, from north to south, are: There is little information available on traditional village patterns in the Southwest Islands. Osborne noted several individual old dwelling places and one concentration of platforms and pathways. There is some information available on traditional fishing practices. The surrounding ocean provided the primary source of protein and was probably intensely exploited prehistorically. Given the limited amount of land, it is expected that almost all of it would have been intensively exploited by settlement or subsistence activities.[1] The people of the Southwest Islands and Tochobei (Tobi) share a cultural heritage that shows close ties with peoples of the central Caroline Islands, more than 1000 km to the northeast and on the other side of Palau. The migration of these people to the Southwest Islands must be one of the truly remarkable events in the prehistory of the Pacific.[1]
Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon.  The Collegiate Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, Stratford-upon-Avon, is a Grade I listed[3] parish church of the Church of England in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. It is often known simply as Holy Trinity Church or as Shakespeares Church, due to its fame as the place of baptism and burial of William Shakespeare. More than 200,000 tourists visit the church each year.[4] The past building dates from 1210 and is built on the site of a Saxon monastery. It is Stratford-upon-Avons oldest building, is situated on the banks of the River Avon, and is one of Englands most visited churches.[5] In the fourteenth century, John de Stratford founded a chantry, which was rebuilt between 1465 and 1497 by Dean Thomas Balshall, who is buried at the church.[6][7] The building is believed to have originally had a wooden spire, which was replaced by William Hiorne in 1763.[6] Holy Trinity contains many interesting features, including: The carved scenes of the life of Christ around Balshalls tomb were mutilated during the Reformation, as were most images of Christ. Notable survivors include a remarkable face of Christ or possibly God the Father within a sedilia canopy, and some beautiful medieval stained glass depicting the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ and the Day of Pentecost. The pre-Reformation stone altar slab or mensa was found hidden beneath the floor in Victorian times and has now been re-instated as the high altar.
Rende. Rende  is a comune (municipality) in the province of Cosenza, Calabria, Italy, home to the headquarters of the University of Calabria. It has a population of about 36,000. The city is divided into two parts: the old town, on a high hill, and the modern area, on level ground, which is fully connected to the city of Cosenza and central to the cultural and economic life of the urban area. Rende stretches from the left river of the Crati to the mountains called Serre Cosentine. The municipality counts the hamlets (frazioni) of Arcavacata, Commenda, Quattromiglia, Roges, Santo Stefano, Saporito and Surdo. The territory presents mountain areas from west that degrade slowly eastward forming hills, one of which is the historic centre, until the valley of the Crati. Thanks to large flat areas, it is covered by the modern city. The most important rivers crossing Rende are Crati, Campagnano, Surdo and Emoli.
Cantastoria.  Cantastoria (Italian: [ˌkantaˈstɔːrja]; also spelled cantastorie [ˌkantaˈstɔːrje], canta storia or canta historia) comes from Italian for story-singer and is known by many other names around the world. It is a theatrical form where a performer tells or sings a story while gesturing to a series of images. These images can be painted, printed or drawn on any sort of material. In 6th-century India, religious tales called saubhikas were performed by traveling storytellers who carried banners painted with images of gods from house to house. Another form called yamapapaka featured the storytellers carrying vertical cloth scrolls and sung stories of the afterlife. In recent times, this is still performed by Chitrakar women from West Bengal, India. In Tibet, this was known as ma-ni-pa and in other parts of China this was known as pien. In Indonesia, the scroll was made horizontally which is called the wayang beber and employed four performers: a man who sings the story, two men who operate the rolling of the scroll, and a woman who holds a lamp to illuminate particular pictures featured in the story. Other Indonesian theater forms, which are labelled as shadow play are the wayang kulit and wayang golek which uses rod puppetry, these are still performed today. In Japan, cantastoria appears as etoki (絵解) or emaki (絵巻) in the form of hanging scrolls divided into separate panels, foreshadowing the popular modern manga, or Japanese comics. Etoki sometimes took the shape of little booklets, or even displays of dolls posed on the roadside with backgrounds behind them. In the 20th century, Japanese candymen on bicycles would bring serial shows called kamishibai (紙芝居) where the story was told on a series of changing pictures that slid in and out of an open-framed box. Some kamishibai shows had a raree show element to them, where a viewer could pay extra to peer through a hole and see a supposed artifact from the story.
Stratford-upon-Avon.  Stratford-upon-Avon (/ ... ˈeɪvən/ ... AY-vən), also known simply as Stratford, is a market town and civil parish in the Stratford-on-Avon district, in the county of Warwickshire,[2] in the West Midlands region of England. It is situated on the River Avon, 91 miles (146 km) north-west of London, 22 miles (35 km) south-east of Birmingham and 8 miles (13 km) south-west of Warwick.[3] The town is the southernmost point of the Arden area at the northern extremity of the Cotswolds.[4] At the 2021 British census Stratford had a population of 30,495.[5] Stratford was inhabited originally by Britons before Anglo-Saxons and remained a village before the lord of the manor, John of Coutances, set out plans to develop it into a town in 1196. In that same year, Stratford was granted a charter from King Richard I to hold a weekly market in the town, giving it its status as a market town. As a result, Stratford experienced an increase in trade and commerce as well as urban expansion. Stratford is a popular tourist destination, owing to being the birthplace and burial place of the playwright and poet William Shakespeare, who is widely regarded as the national poet of England.[6] It receives approximately 2.7 million visitors a year.[7] The Royal Shakespeare Company resides in the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The name is a combination of the Old English strǣt (from Latin stratum), meaning street, ford, indicating a shallow part of a river or stream, allowing it to be crossed by walking or driving, and avon which is a Celtic word for river (Welsh: afon).[8][9] The street was a Roman road which connected Icknield Street in Alcester to the Fosse Way. The ford, which has been used as a crossing since Roman times, later became the location of Clopton Bridge.[10][11][12]
Kobe Bryant.   Kobe Bean Bryant (/ˈkoʊbi/ KOH-bee; August 23, 1978 – January 26, 2020) was an American professional basketball player. A shooting guard, he spent his entire 20-year career with the Los Angeles Lakers in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential basketball players of all time, Bryant won five NBA championships and was an 18-time All-Star, four-time All-Star MVP, 15-time member of the All-NBA Team, 12-time member of the All-Defensive Team, the 2008 NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP), two-time NBA Finals MVP, and two-time scoring champion. He ranks fourth in league all-time regular season and postseason scoring. Bryant was posthumously named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021 and was a two-time inductee to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, as a player in 2020 and as a member of the 2008 U.S. Olympic team in 2025.[3] The son of NBA player Joe Bryant, Bryant was born in Philadelphia and partly raised in Italy. Recognized as the top American high school basketball player while at Lower Merion High School in the Philadelphia suburb of Ardmore, Bryant declared for the 1996 NBA draft and was selected by the Charlotte Hornets with the 13th pick; he was then traded to the Lakers. As a rookie, Bryant earned a reputation as a high-flyer by winning the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest and was named an All-Star by his second season. Despite his contentious relationship with teammate Shaquille ONeal, the pair led the Lakers to three consecutive NBA championships from 2000 to 2002. In 2003, Bryant was charged with sexual assault. Charges were dropped after the accuser refused to testify, and a lawsuit was settled out of court, with Bryant issuing an apology and admitting to a sexual encounter he maintained was consensual. After the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals, ONeal was traded and Bryant became the franchises cornerstone. He led the NBA in scoring in the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons. On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career-high 81 points, the second most scored in a single NBA game behind Wilt Chamberlains 100-point game. Bryant led the team to championships in 2009 and 2010, and was named NBA Finals MVP both times. He continued to be among the leagues premier players through the 2012–13 season when he suffered a torn achilles tendon. The last years of his playing career were hampered by injuries and limited playing time. Bryant retired after the 2015–16 season, capping off his illustrious career with a 60-point performance in his final NBA game, leading the Lakers to a comeback victory over the Utah Jazz. In 2017, the Lakers retired both his Nos. 8 and 24, making Bryant the only player in NBA history to have multiple numbers retired by the same franchise.
FC Bayern Munich (basketball).  FC Bayern München Basketball GmbH, commonly referred to as Bayern Munich, is a professional basketball club, a part of the FC Bayern Munich sports club, based in Munich, Germany. The club competes domestically in the Basketball Bundesliga (BBL) and internationally in the EuroLeague. The club has won six German Championships, and five German Cups in its history. Founded in 1946, Bayerns basketball section had early success in the 1950s and 1960s, before mostly disappearing from the national first level in the following three decades. The team had a resurgence in 2010s and has since been among Germanys best teams, as well as a EuroLeague regular. Bayern plays its domestic home games at BMW Park, which was opened in 1972, while international games are played at the SAP Garden, which opened in 2024. FC Bayern Munich Basketball also has a reserve team that plays in German third-tier level ProB.
Reggio Calabria. Reggio di Calabria[a] (Southern Calabrian: Riggiu; Calabrian Greek: Ρήγι, romanized: Rìji), commonly and officially referred to as Reggio Calabria, or simply Reggio by its inhabitants, is the largest city in Calabria as well as the seat of the Metropolitan City of Reggio Calabria.[8] As of 2025, it has 168,572 inhabitants and is the twenty-first most populous city in Italy, after Modena and other Italian cities, and the 100th most populated city in Europe. Reggio Calabria is located near the center of the Mediterranean and is known for its climate, ethnic and cultural diversity. It is the third economic centre of mainland Southern Italy. About 511,935 people live in its metropolitan city.[3] Reggio is located on the toe of the Italian Peninsula and is separated from the island of Sicily by the Strait of Messina. It is situated on the slopes of the Aspromonte, a long, craggy mountain range that runs up through the centre of the region. As a major functional pole in the region, it has strong historical, cultural and economic ties with the city of Messina, which lies across the strait in Sicily, forming a metro city of less than 1 million people.[9] Reggio is the oldest city in the region, and during ancient times, it was an important and flourishing colony of Magna Graecia. Reggio has a modern urban system, set up after the catastrophic earthquake of 1908, which destroyed most of the city. Before that seismic event, the region has been subject to several other previous earthquakes.[10] The seismicity is caused by Reggio being on the Eurasian Plate near the faultline where it meets the African Plate that runs through the strait, dividing the two European regions of Calabria and Sicily into two different tectonic regions.[11][12] It is a major economic centre for regional services and transport on the southern shores of the Mediterranean. Reggio, with Naples and Taranto, is home to one of the most important archaeological museums, the National Archaeological Museum of Magna Græcia, dedicated to Ancient Greece (which houses the Bronzes of Riace, rare example of Greek bronze sculpture, which became one of the symbols of the city). Reggio is the seat, since 1907, of the Archeological Superintendence of Bruttium and Lucania. The city is home to football club Reggina, that previously played in the Italian top flight.
Okinawan language.  Okinawan (沖縄口, ウチナーグチ, Uchināguchi, [ʔut͡ɕinaːɡut͡ɕi]), or more precisely Central Okinawan, is a Northern Ryukyuan language spoken primarily in the southern half of the island of Okinawa, as well as in the surrounding islands of Kerama, Kumejima, Tonaki, Aguni and a number of smaller peripheral islands.[3] Central Okinawan distinguishes itself from the speech of Northern Okinawa, which is classified independently as the Kunigami language. Both languages are listed by UNESCO as endangered.[4] Though Okinawan encompasses a number of local dialects,[5] the Shuri–Naha variant is generally recognized as the de facto standard,[6] as it had been used as the official language of the Ryukyu Kingdom[7] since the reign of King Shō Shin (1477–1526). Moreover, as the former capital of Shuri was built around the royal palace, the language used by the royal court became the regional and literary standard,[7][6] which thus flourished in songs and poems written during that era. Today, most Okinawans speak Okinawan Japanese, although a number of people still speak the Okinawan language, most often the elderly. Within Japan, Okinawan is often not seen as a language unto itself but is referred to as the Okinawan dialect (沖縄方言, Okinawa hōgen), or more specifically the Central and Southern Okinawan dialects (沖縄中南部諸方言, Okinawa Chūnanbu Sho hōgen). Okinawan speakers are undergoing language shift as they switch to Japanese, since language use in Okinawa today is far from stable. Okinawans are assimilating and accenting standard Japanese due to the similarity of the two languages, the standardized and centralized education system, the media, business and social contact with mainlanders and previous attempts from Japan to suppress the native languages.[8] Okinawan is still kept alive in popular music, tourist shows and in theaters featuring a local drama called uchinā shibai, which depict local customs and manners.[9] Okinawan is a Japonic language, derived from Proto-Japonic and is therefore related to Japanese. The split between Old Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages has been estimated to have occurred as early as the 1st century AD to as late as the 12th century AD. Chinese and Japanese characters were first introduced by a Japanese missionary in 1265.[10]
Richard J. Reynolds High School.  Richard J. Reynolds High School now the Richard J. Reynolds Magnet School for the Visual and Performing Arts (often simply R. J. Reynolds High School or Reynolds) is a public high school in the Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools located in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Named for R. J. Reynolds, the founder of the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, the school opened in 1923. The school colors are Old Gold and Black, and the schools mascot is a demon. Katharine Smith Reynolds-Johnston (1880–1924), the widow of R. J. Reynolds (1850–1918), donated funds and land for the creation of the school in memory of her first husband. The site was known as Silver Hill.[3] Just weeks before Reynolds-Johnstons death, a souvenir program for the dedication of the Memorial Auditorium says: In 1919, the City of Winston-Salem, in the course of its ex-tended school building program, planned a model high school, and wished to honor the memory of Richard J. Reynolds, by naming it The Richard J. Reynolds High School. It seemed to his wife, now Mrs. J. Edward Johnston, that a memorial of this kind was very fitting, as Mr. Reynolds had had such a large part and was so interested in the development of this city. Mrs. Johnston had wanted to erect some really worth while memorial personally, and when notified of the action of the city authorities, it seemed that this plant, which would be so closely identified with the life of the people, young and old, presented the opportunity for which she was looking. She therefore notified the city that she would be glad to give a suitable site upon which to erect the high school, the selection to be left to the City, and to present as a personal memorial, a beautiful auditorium in connection with the high school plant.[4] The School and Auditorium sit on a piece of land known as Society Hill. The complex consists of five buildings, three of which are contributing buildings on the National Register of Historic Places. They are the High School Building (1922–1923), the Power House (1923), and the Auditorium (1923–1924).  They were designed in the late 1910s by architect Charles Barton Keen of Philadelphia and built as part of a single project.[5]
Sakhalin Island (book). Sakhalin Island (Russian: Остров Сахалин) is a book by Anton Chekhov written and serialized in 1891–1893, which then appeared as a separate book in 1895.[1]  It consists of travel notes written after Chekhovs trip to the island of Sakhalin in summer and autumn of 1890. The book is based on the writers personal travel experience, as well as on extensive statistical data collected by him. The English translation came out in 1967 under the title The Island: A Journey to Sakhalin. In the opinion of some critics, the book was influenced by The House of the Dead by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Siberia and Katorga by Sergei Maksimov (who is repeatedly mentioned in the text).[2] At the time Sakhalin was a frontier prison colony of the Russian Empire.[3] In 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer to the Russian Far East and the katorga, or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan, where he spent three months interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half-month journey to Sakhalin are considered to be among his best.[4] His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious.[5][6] Tomsk is a very dull town. To judge from the drunkards whose acquaintance I have made, and from the intellectual people who have come to the hotel to pay their respects to me, the inhabitants are very dull, too.[7] Chekhov witnessed much on Sakhalin that shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women. He wrote,  There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of mans degradation.[8][9] He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example:
Hillsborough Community College.  Hillsborough Community College (HCC) is a public community college in Hillsborough County, Florida. It is part of the Florida College System. HCC was one of the last community colleges to be created in Florida, founded in 1968. Only Pasco–Hernando State College, out of the 28-school Florida community college system, was founded later. In January 2008 the school opened its first residence hall, Hawks Landing, named after the school mascot. This marks HCC as one of the few community colleges with its own residence hall.[2] On July 1, 2025, Hillsborough Community College announced that it will undergo a rebrand, dropping Community from its name in the process to become Hillsborough College.[3]
Sacalin Island. Sacalin Island is a newly formed island in the Black Sea, right off the coast of the Romanian Danube Delta, off the Sfântu Gheorghe branch.[1] Initially Sacalin was made up of two smaller islands, Sacalinu Mare [Greater Sacalin] (1400 ha) and Sacalinu Mic [Lesser Sacalin] (90 ha). In time, however, the two merged into one continuous landmass. The Romanian government has declared the area an ecological reserve Sacalin-Zătoane (21410 ha) and no settlement is permitted on the island. Sakalin-Zătoane Island is surrounded on all sides by lakes, fishponds, rivers, canals and the Black Sea. 44°47′15″N 29°32′29″E / 44.78750°N 29.54139°E / 44.78750; 29.54139  This Romanian location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Haori.  A haori (羽織) is a traditional Japanese jacket worn over a kimono. Resembling a shortened kimono with no overlapping front panels (okumi), the haori typically features a thinner collar than that of a kimono, and is sewn with the addition of two thin, triangular panels at either side seam. The haori is usually tied at the front with two short cords, known as haori himo, which attach to small loops sewn inside the garment. During the Edo period, economic growth within the wealthy but low-status merchant classes resulted in an excess of disposable income, much of which was spent on clothing. It was during this period that, due to various edicts on dress mandated by the ruling classes, merchant-class Japanese men began to wear haori with plain external designs and lavishly decorated linings, a trend still seen in mens haori today.[1] During the early 1800s, geisha in the hanamachi of Fukagawa, Tokyo began to wear haori over their kimono. Haori had until that point only been worn by men; the geisha of Fukagawa, well known for their stylish and unusual fashion choices, set a trend that saw women wearing haori become commonplace by the 1930s.[2][3] In modern-day Japan, haori are worn by both men and women. 
Kingdom of Italy.  The Kingdom of Italy (Italian: Regno dItalia, pronounced [ˈreɲɲo diˈtaːlja]) was a unitary state that existed from 17 March 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy, until 10 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished, following civil discontent that led to an institutional referendum on 2 June 1946. This resulted in a modern Italian Republic. The kingdom was established through the unification of several states over a decades-long process, called the Risorgimento. That process was influenced by the Savoy-led Kingdom of Sardinia, which was one of Italys legal predecessor states. In 1866, Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia and, upon its victory, received the region of Veneto. Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. In the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed into a colonial power, and in 1882 it entered into a Triple Alliance with the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, following strong disagreements with France about their respective colonial expansions. Although relations with Berlin became very friendly, the alliance with Vienna remained purely formal, due in part to Italys desire to acquire Trentino and Trieste from Austria-Hungary. As a result, Italy accepted the British invitation to join the Allied Powers during World War I, as the western powers promised territorial compensation (at the expense of Austria-Hungary) for participation that was more generous than Viennas offer in exchange for Italian neutrality. Victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations, but it did not receive all the territories it was promised. In 1922, Benito Mussolini became prime minister and the National Fascist Party took control of the Italian government, thus, ushering an era of the Fascist period in Italy known as Fascist Italy. Authoritarian rule was enforced, crushing all political opposition while promoting economic modernization, traditional values, and territorial expansion. In 1929, the Italian government reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church through the Lateran Treaties, which granted independence to the Vatican City. The following decade presided over an aggressive foreign policy, with Italy launching successful military operations against Ethiopia in 1935, Spain in 1937, and Albania in 1939. This led to economic sanctions, departure from the League of Nations, growing economic autarky, and the signing of military alliances with Germany and Japan. Italy entered World War II as a leading member of the Axis Powers in 1940 and despite initial success, was defeated in North Africa and the Soviet Union. Allied landings in Sicily led to the fall of the Fascist regime and the new government surrendered to the Allies in September 1943. German forces occupied northern and central Italy, established the Italian Social Republic, and reappointed Mussolini as dictator. Consequentially, Italy descended into civil war, with the Italian Co-belligerent Army and resistance movement contending with the Social Republics forces and its German allies. Shortly after the surrender of all Axis forces in Italy, civil discontent prompted an institutional referendum, which established a republic and abolished the monarchy in 1946.
Sakhalin Oblast.  Sakhalin Oblast (Russian: Сахали́нская о́бласть, romanized: Sakhalinskaya oblastʹ, IPA: [səxɐˈlʲinskəjə ˈobləsʲtʲ]) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) comprising the island of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in the Russian Far East. The oblast has an area of 87,100 square kilometers (33,600 sq mi). Its administrative center and largest city is Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. As of the 2021 Census, the oblast has a population of 466,609.[10] The vast majority of the oblasts residents are ethnic Russians, with a small minority of Sakhalin Koreans. Sakhalin Oblast is rich in natural gas and oil, and is Russias second wealthiest federal subject after the Tyumen Oblast.[11] It borders by sea Khabarovsk Krai to the west and Kamchatka Krai to the north, along with Hokkaido, Japan to the south. The etymology of Sakhalin can be traced back to the Manchu hydronym Sahaliyan Ula (Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨᡠᠯᠠ) for Black River (i.e. the Amur River). Sakhalin shares this etymology with the Chinese province of Heilongjiang (Chinese: 黑龍江; pinyin: Hēilóngjiāng; lit. black dragon river). The indigenous people of Sakhalin are the Nivkh, Orok, and Ainu minorities.
Rakugo.  Rakugo (落語; literally story with a fall)[1] is a form of Japanese verbal comedy, traditionally performed in yose theatres.[2] The lone storyteller (落語家, rakugoka) sits on a raised platform, a kōza (高座). Using only a paper fan (扇子, sensu) and a small cloth (手拭, tenugui) as props, and without standing up from the seiza sitting position, the rakugo artist depicts a long and complicated comical (or sometimes sentimental) story. The story always involves the dialogue of two or more characters. The difference between the characters is depicted only through change in pitch, tone, and a slight turn of the head. The speaker is in the middle of the stage, and his purpose is to stimulate the general hilarity with tone and limited, yet specific body gestures.  The monologue always ends with a narrative stunt (punch line) known as ochi (落ち; lit. fall) or sage (下げ; lit. lowering), consisting of a sudden interruption of the wordplay flow. Twelve kinds of ochi are codified and recognized, with more complex variations having evolved through time from the more basic forms.[3] Early rakugo has developed into various styles, including the shibaibanashi (芝居噺; theatre discourses), the ongyokubanashi (音曲噺; musical discourses), the kaidanbanashi (怪談噺; ghost discourses, see kaidan), and ninjōbanashi (人情噺; sentimental discourses). In many of these forms the ochi, which is essential to the original rakugo, is absent. Rakugo has been described as a sitcom with one person playing all the parts by Noriko Watanabe, assistant professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Comparative Literature at Baruch College.[4]
Akihito Fujii.  As coach Akihito Fujii (藤井 彰人, Fujii Akihito; born June 18, 1976) is a Japanese former professional baseball catcher and current coach for the Hanshin Tigers in Japans Nippon Professional Baseball. He previously played for the Osaka Kintetsu Buffaloes from 1999 to 2004 and the Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles from 2005 to 2010 and the Tigers from 2011 to 2015. This biographical article relating to a Japanese baseball catcher is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Heihe. Heihe (Chinese: 黑河; pinyin: Hēihé; lit. Black River; Russian: Хэйхэ) is a prefecture-level city of northern Heilongjiang province, China, located on the Russian border, on the south bank of the Amur (Heilong) River, across the river from Blagoveshchensk. At the 2020 census, 1,286,401 people lived in the prefecture-level city of whom 223,832 lived in the built-up area (or metro) made of Aihui District. Heihe marks the northeast terminus of the diagonal Heihe–Tengchong Line, which is sometimes used to divide China into east and west. Heihe, formerly Aihui or Aigun, is one of the five oldest cities in Heilongjiang, along with Qiqihar, Yilan, Acheng and Hulan. Human beings started to settle in Heihe region as early as the Paleolithic Age.[2] Later it became home to local tribes. During the Qing dynasty, Heihe was the first place troops sent to Heilongjiang were stationed. The predecessor of todays Heihe was the town established by the indigenous Ducher people of the Amur Valley in the mid-1650s.[2] It was established some 30 km (19 mi) south of the modern city site[3] (in todays Aihui District) and was known as Aigun, Heilongjiang, or Saghalien Ula. (The two last names both mean the Black Dragon River – the name for the Amur River in Chinese and Manchu, respectively). After the Ducher were evacuated by the Qing to the Sungari or Hurka in the 1650s, the Ducher town was probably vacated. However, in 1683–85 the Manchus re-used the site as a base for their campaign against the Russian fort of Albazin.[4] Aigun was the capital (the seat of the military governor) of Heilongjiang from 1683 to 1690, before the capital was moved to Nenjiang (Mergen).[5] After the capture of Albazin in 1685 or 1686, the Qing governor relocated the town to a new site on the right (southwestern) bank of the Amur, about 3 miles downstream from the original.[6][7] The new site occupied the location of the former village of the Daurian chief named Tolga.[6] The city became known primarily under its Manchu name Saghalien Ula hoton (Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨᡠᠯᠠᡥᠣᡨᠣᠨ sahaliyan ula hoton) and Chinese name Heilongjiang Cheng (黑龍江城), which both mean Black River City.[8] Later the governor office was transferred to Qiqihar. However, Aigun remained the seat of the Deputy Lieutenant-General (Fu dutong), responsible for a large district covering much of the Amur Valley within the province of Heilongjiang as it existed in those days.[5] Aigun was visited around 1709 as a part of a nationwide Sino-French cartographic program by the Jesuits Jean-Baptiste Régis, Pierre Jartoux, and Xavier Ehrenbert Fridelli,[9] who found it a stronghold, serving as the base of Manchus controlling the Amur River basin. The Aigun Treaty was concluded at Aigun in 1858. According to this treaty,  the left bank of the Amur River was conceded to Czarist Russia.
Kimono (disambiguation). A kimono is a Japanese traditional garment. Kimono may also refer to:
Ohio State Buckeyes mens basketball.  The Ohio State Buckeyes mens basketball team represents Ohio State University in NCAA Division I college basketball competition. The Buckeyes are a member of the Big Ten Conference. The Buckeyes play their home games at Value City Arena in the Jerome Schottenstein Center in Columbus, Ohio, which opened in 1998. The official capacity of the center is 19,200. Ohio State ranked 28th in the nation in average home attendance as of the 2016 season.[2] The Buckeyes have won one national championship (1960), been the national runner-up four times, appeared in 10 Final Fours (one additional appearance has been vacated by the NCAA), and appeared in 27 NCAA Tournaments (four other appearances have been vacated). Thad Matta was named the head coach of Ohio State in 2004 to replace coach Jim OBrien, who was fired due to NCAA violations which made Ohio State vacate 113 games between 1998 and 2002.[3][4] On June 5, 2017, after consecutive years of missing the NCAA Tournament, the school announced Matta would not return as head coach after 13 years and 337 wins at Ohio State. On June 9, 2017, the school hired Butler head coach Chris Holtmann as head coach.[5]
Winston-Salem, North Carolina.  Winston-Salem is a city in Forsyth County, North Carolina, United States, and its county seat.[9] It is the fifth-most populous city in North Carolina and 91st-most populous city in the United States, with a population of 249,545 at the 2020 census.[10] The Winston-Salem metropolitan area has an estimated 705,000 residents, the fourth-largest metropolitan area based in North Carolina.[7] It is the second-most-populous city in North Carolinas Piedmont Triad region, home to about 1.7 million residents. Winston-Salem is called the Twin City for its dual heritage, and the Camel City as a reference to the citys historic involvement in the tobacco industry related to locally based R. J. Reynolds Camel cigarettes. Many North Carolinians refer to the city as Winston in informal speech.[citation needed] Winston-Salem is also home to six colleges and institutions, most notably Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem State University, and the University of North Carolina School of the Arts. Siouan-speaking tribes such as the Cheraw and the Keyauwee Indians inhabited the area. Followers of the Moravian Church had interacted with Cherokees.[11][12] The city of Winston-Salem is a product of the merging of the two neighboring towns of Winston and Salem in 1913. The origin of the town of Salem dates to 1753, when Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg, on behalf of the Moravian Church, selected a settlement site in the three forks of Muddy Creek. He called this area die Wachau (Latin form Wachovia) after the ancestral estate of Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. The land, just short of 99,000 acres (400 km2), was subsequently purchased from John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville.
Akihito Hirose. Akihito Hirose (広瀬 章人, Hirose Akihito; born January 18, 1987) is a Japanese professional shogi player, ranked 9-dan. He is a former Ryūō and Ōi title holder, and is also the first shogi professional to win a major title while attending university. Hirose was born in Kōtō, Tokyo on January 18, 1987.[1][2][3] He first started playing shogi around the age of four because his father and older brother played the game. His family moved to Sapporo, Hokkaido due to his fathers job and he lived there from elementary school grades three through six.[4] While living in Sapporo, Hirose began studying under some members of the Hokkaido Shogi Association and polishing his skills at local shogi clubs before officially entering the Japan Shogi Associations apprentice school at the rank of 6-kyū as protegee of shogi professional Osamu Katsuura [ja] in 1998 while he was a sixth-grade elementary student. For roughly his first year as a shogi apprentice, Hirose commuted by plane twice monthly from Sapporo to the Japan Shogi Associations headquarters in Tokyo to play games against other apprentices.[3] Hirose was promoted to the rank of 1-dan in 2000, and was officially awarded professional status in April 2005 for winning the 36th 3-dan League with a record of 15 wins and 3 losses.[4][5] Hirose graduated from Tokyo Seitoku University High School in March 2005 and decided to continue his education by enrolling in the School of Education of Waseda University and majoring in mathematics.[3][6] This was quite rare for a professional shogi player to do, but Hirose stated he wanted to experience many things in addition to shogi[6] and also wanted to be like his friends who were all moving on to university.[3] Hirose graduated from Waseda in 2011.[2]
Akihito Motohashi.  Akihito Motohashi (本橋　昭人, Motohashi Akihito) is a Japanese former paralympic athlete and cyclist. At the age of 21, Motohashi was diagnosed as having atrophy of the optic nerve.[1] He has subsequently competed at three paralympics in two different sports. He first competed in the 1992 Summer Paralympics, where he ran in the marathon, finishing in 6th place,[2] and won a bronze medal in the high jump. In the 1996 Summer Paralympics, Motohashi competed in the marathon only. In the 2000 Summer Paralympics, he moved over to cycling, but failed to win any medals despite competing in four different events.[3] From 1996, Motohashi worked as an assistant teacher at the Yamagata School for the Blind [ja].[4] From 2003, he became a psychotherapy instructor, teaching techniques such as acupuncture and massage.[1][4][5]
Akihito Okano. Akihito Okano (岡野昭仁, Okano Akihito; born 15 October 1974) is a Japanese musician, vocalist of rock band Porno Graffitti.[1] Okano was born in Nakasho, Innoshima City (now Onomichi City), Hiroshima.[2] He is married with one child. Okano is the youngest of three siblings (he has two older sisters). His parents wanted to name him Satoru, but received the name of Akihito from his uncle, as part of a family tradition. As a child, he wanted to be an athlete. He played baseball in elementary school, and was in track and field and soccer in junior high.[3] His interest in music started in elementary school, when he started listening to Western music thanks to one of his sisters, and singing Japanese songs in family reunions.[4][5] In 1990, he entered Innoshima High School, where he met Haruichi Shindō. They became friends in the second year of high school, after attending a party where Shindō was in, to which Okano was invited by a friend. They began to go together to karaoke, and later on, Okano was invited by Shindō to form part of his band No Score as part of the chorus, to participate in the school festival. After the festival, Shindō decided to leave the vocals to Okano, and he made his vocalist debut at the entrance ceremony the following Spring.[6][7] After graduating from high school in 1993, No Score was disbanded.
Promotion and relegation.  Promotion and relegation is used by sports leagues as a process where teams can move up and down among divisions in a league system, based on their performance over a season. Leagues that use promotion and relegation systems are sometimes called open leagues.   In a system of promotion and relegation, the best-ranked team(s) in a lower division are promoted to a higher division for the next season, and the worst-ranked team(s) in the higher division are relegated to the lower division for the next season. During the season, teams that are high enough in the league table that they would qualify for promotion are sometimes said to be in the promotion zone, and those at the bottom are in the relegation zone (colloquially the drop zone or facing the drop). These can also involve being in zones where promotion and relegation is not automatic, but subject to a playoff.[1] An alternate system of league organization, used primarily in Australia, Canada, the Philippines, Singapore, and the United States, is a closed model based on licensing or franchises. This maintains the same teams from year to year, with occasional admission of expansion teams and relocation of existing teams, and with no team movement between the major league and minor leagues. Some competitions, such as the Belgian Pro League in football or the Super League in rugby league, operate hybrid systems which allow for promotion and relegation between divisions but which allocate this based on a mix of financial and administrative scores with competition performance. The number of teams exchanged between the divisions is almost always identical. Exceptions occur when the higher division wishes to change the size of its membership, or has lost one or more of clubs (to financial insolvency or expulsion, for example) and wishes to restore its previous membership size, in which case fewer teams are relegated from that division, or (less often) more teams are accepted for promotion from the division below. Such variations usually cause a knock-on effect through the lower divisions. For example, in 1995 the Premier League voted to reduce its numbers by two and achieved the desired change by relegating four teams instead of the usual three, whilst allowing only two promotions from Football League Division One. Even in the absence of such extraordinary circumstances, the pyramid-like nature of most European sports league systems can still create knock-on effects at the regional level. For example, in a higher league with a large geographical footprint and multiple feeder leagues each representing smaller geographical regions, should most or all of the relegated teams in the higher division come from one particular region then the number of teams to be promoted or relegated from each of the feeder leagues may have to be adjusted, or one or more teams playing near the boundary between the feeder leagues may have to transfer from one feeder league to another to maintain numerical balance. The system is said to be the defining characteristic of the European form of professional sports league organization. Promotion and relegation have the effect of allowing the maintenance of a hierarchy of leagues and divisions, according to the relative strength of their teams. They also maintain the importance of games played by many low-ranked teams near the end of the season, which may be at risk of relegation. In contrast, the final games of a low-ranked US or Canadian team serve little purpose, and in fact losing may be beneficial to such teams because they offer a better position in the next years draft.
Defensive back. In gridiron football, defensive backs (DBs), also called the secondary, are the players on the defensive side of the ball who play farthest back from the line of scrimmage. They are distinguished from the other two sets of defensive players, the defensive linemen who play directly on the line of scrimmage, and the linebackers, who play in the middle of the defense, and between the defensive line and the defensive backs.[1][2] Among all the defensive backs, there are two main types, cornerbacks, which play nearer the line of scrimmage and the sideline, whose main role is to cover the opposing teams wide receivers, and the safeties, who play further back near the center of the field, and who act as the last line of defense. American defensive formations usually includes two of each, a left and right cornerback, as well as a strong safety and a free safety, with the free safety tending to play further back than the strong safety. In Canadian football, which has twelve players on the field compared to the eleven of American football, there is an additional position called defensive halfback, which plays like a hybrid between a linebacker and cornerback. Canadian formations include two cornerbacks, two halfbacks and one safety, for a total of five defensive backs. Besides the standard set of defensive backs, teams may also remove a defensive lineman or a linebacker and replace them with an additional defensive back. The fifth defensive back is commonly called the nickelback (so named because a five-cent coin in the U.S. and Canada is called a nickel). By extension, a sixth defensive back is called a dimeback (because the next value coin in the U.S. and Canada is called a dime). Rarely, teams may employ seven or even eight defensive backs. Historic notable defensive backs include Hall-of-Famers Dick Night Train Lane, Mike Haynes, Ronnie Lott, Troy Polamalu, Deion Sanders, Darrelle Revis, and Ed Reed, among others. In 2019, the National Football League released its all-time team in honor of the leagues 100th anniversary, in which the top defensive backs in its history were noted and honored.[3] Longtime National Football League executive and renowned former general manager of the Dallas Cowboys, Gil Brandt released a list of the top cornerbacks of all time.[4]
Gobiiformes.  See text Gobiiformes /ˈɡoʊbi.ɪfɔːrmiːz/ (meaning goby-like) is an order of percomorph fish containing three suborders: Apogonoidei, Trichonotoidei, and Gobioidei.[1] The order was formerly defined as containing only the gobies (now placed within the Gobioidei).[2] However, more recent taxonomic treatments also place their close relatives (the cardinalfishes, nurseryfishes, and sand-divers) with them, based on phylogenetic studies that unexpectedly found a close relationship between these groups.[1][3] The Gobioidei are the most speciose clade of the family.[4] Despite the differing appearances of members of this group, all share the trait of adhesive eggs with elaborate structures. Many species within this group also display elaborate forms of parental care by the male.[5] Gobiiforms are a relatively basal clade of the percomorphs, with only the ophidiiforms and batrachoidiforms being more basal. They are estimated to have diverged from the rest of the group during the early-to-mid Cretaceous (about 120 million years ago), and the first presumed fossils of the family are of apogonid otoliths from the Maastrichtian. This suggests that all three suborders within the group had diverged during the Late Cretaceous.[3][5] However, much of the orders modern diversity, especially within the gobioids, appears to have evolved relatively recently.[6]
Shaam (disambiguation). Shaam (Arabic: شَـام) often refers to the Greater Syria (region), seen from a Eurocentric perspective as the Levant. Shaam may also refer to:
Zen.  The way The goal Background Chinese texts
Matsumoto Yamaga FC.  Matsumoto Yamaga Football Club (松本山雅フットボールクラブ, Matsumoto Yamaga Futtobōru Kurabu) or simply Matsumoto Yamaga (松本山雅FC, Matsumoto Yamaga Efu Shī) is a Japanese football (soccer) club based in the city of Matsumoto, located in the Nagano Prefecture. The club currently plays in the J3 League, Japanese third tier of professional football. The club was founded in 1965 by the players who represented Nagano Prefecture. The players frequented a cafe called Yamaga in front of Matsumoto railway station and initially they were simply called Yamaga Club. In 2004, they were renamed as Matsumoto Yamaga when nonprofit organisation Alwin Sports Project were set up to support the club with the intention of promotion to J. League. The very coffee shop where they founded the club no longer exists, but the club opened a new one in 2017. In the 2007 and 2008 season they finished respectively 1st and 4th in the Hokushinetsu First Division, but failed to gain the promotion to the Japan Football League as they exited at the group stage of the Regional League promotion series against other regional champions. 2008 also brought a crucial Emperors Cup run, where they defeated former Japanese champions Shonan Bellmare in the third round by penalty kicks, only to be eliminated 8–0 by Vissel Kobe. The 2009 season brought inconsistency, as they took 4th place in the regional league but knocked Urawa Red Diamonds out of the Emperors Cup in the second round, their biggest giant-killing ever.
Syria (disambiguation). Syria is a country in the West Asia, incorporating the northern Levant. Syria may also refer to: Syria (region) refers to a wider historical geographic region. In this sense it can refer to:
Actinopterygii.  Actinopterygii (/ˌæktɪnɒptəˈrɪdʒiaɪ/ ⓘ; from Ancient Greek  ἀκτίς (aktis) having rays and  πτέρυξ (ptérux) wing, fins), members of which are known as ray-finned fish or actinopterygians, is a class of bony fish[2] that comprise over 50% of living vertebrate species.[3] They are so called because of their lightly built fins made of webbings of skin supported by radially extended thin bony spines called lepidotrichia, as opposed to the bulkier, fleshy lobed fins of the sister clade Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish). Resembling folding fans, the actinopterygian fins can easily change shape and wetted area, providing superior thrust-to-weight ratios per movement compared to sarcopterygian and chondrichthyian fins. The fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the articulation between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). The vast majority of actinopterygians are teleosts. By species count, they dominate the subphylum Vertebrata, and constitute nearly 99% of the over 30,000 extant species of fish.[4] They are the most abundant nektonic aquatic animals and are ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments from the deep sea to subterranean waters to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from Paedocypris, at 8 mm (0.3 in), to the massive giant sunfish, at 2,700 kg (6,000 lb), and the giant oarfish, at 8 m (26 ft) (or possibly 11 m (36 ft)). The largest ever known ray-finned fish, the extinct Leedsichthys from the Jurassic, is estimated to have grown to 16.5 m (54 ft). Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram. The swim bladder is a more derived structure and used for buoyancy.[5] Except from the bichirs, which just like the lungs of lobe-finned fish have retained the ancestral condition of ventral budding from the foregut, the swim bladder in ray-finned fishes derives from a dorsal bud above the foregut.[6][5] In early forms the swim bladder could still be used for breathing, a trait still present in Holostei (bowfins and gars).[7] In some fish like the arapaima, the swim bladder has been modified for breathing air again,[8] and in other lineages it has been completely lost.[9] The teleosts have urinary and reproductive tracts that are fully separated, while the Chondrostei have common urogenital ducts, and partially connected ducts are found in Cladistia and Holostei.[10] Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales; but all teleosts have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges, while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel- or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows.[11] Teleosts and chondrosteans (sturgeons and paddlefish) also differ from the bichirs and holosteans (bowfin and gars) in having gone through a whole-genome duplication (paleopolyploidy). The WGD is estimated to have happened about 320 million years ago in the teleosts, which on average has retained about 17% of the gene duplicates, and around 180 (124–225) million years ago in the chondrosteans. It has since happened again in some teleost lineages, like Salmonidae (80–100 million years ago) and several times independently within the Cyprinidae (in goldfish and common carp as recently as 14 million years ago).[12][13][14][15][16] Ray-finned fish vary in size and shape, in their feeding specializations, and in the number and arrangement of their ray-fins. In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage.[17] However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny.[18] Most families use external rather than internal fertilization.[19] Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care.[20] Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition.[20] The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in Middle Triassic species of †Saurichthys.[21] Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care.[20][22] Male territoriality preadapts a species for evolving male parental care.[23][24] There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fishs habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below 19 °C (66 °F) and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.[25]
Ottoman Syria.  Ottoman Syria (Arabic: سوريا العثمانية) is a historiographical term used to describe the group of divisions of the Ottoman Empire within the region of the Levant, usually defined as being east of the Mediterranean Sea, west of the Euphrates River, north of the Arabian Desert and south of the Taurus Mountains.[1] Ottoman Syria was organized by the Ottomans upon conquest from the Mamluk Sultanate in the early 16th century as a single eyalet (province) of the Damascus Eyalet. In 1534, the Aleppo Eyalet was split into a separate administration. The Tripoli Eyalet was formed out of Damascus province in 1579 and later the Adana Eyalet was split from Aleppo. In 1660, the Eyalet of Safed was established and shortly afterwards renamed the Sidon Eyalet; in 1667, the Mount Lebanon Emirate was given special autonomous status within the Sidon province, but was abolished in 1841 and reconfigured in 1861 as the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The Syrian eyalets were later transformed into the Syria Vilayet, the Aleppo Vilayet and the Beirut Vilayet, following the 1864 Tanzimat reforms. Finally, in 1872, the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was split from the Syria Vilayet into an autonomous administration with a special status. Before 1516, Syria was part of the Mamluk Empire centered in Lower Egypt.[2] The Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered Syria in 1516[3] after defeating the Mamlukes at the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo in northern Syria. Selim carried on his victorious campaign against the Mamlukes and conquered Egypt in 1517 following the Battle of Ridanieh, bringing an end to the Mamluk Sultanate. When he first seized Syria in 1516, Selim I kept the administrative subdivisions of the Mamluk period unchanged. After he came back from Egypt in July 1517, he reorganized Syria into one large province or eyalet named Şam (Arabic/Turkish for Syria). The eyalet was subdivided into several districts or sanjaks.
Liga Leumit (basketball).  Liga Leumit (Hebrew: ליגה לאומית, lit. National League) is the second tier level league of basketball competition in Israel. It is the league level that is below the first tier Israeli Premier League. On 30 July, 2024 the Israel Basketball Association announces new game system. The regular season be played in  a home-and-away round-robin format. The top 6 finishers will advance to the Top-teams League Group, and the rest of the teams will advance to the Bottom-Teams League Group. The winner of the Top-teams League Group will be promoted to the Premier League, while the 2nd to 9th ranked teams will advance to the playoff to determine the second team that will be promoted. The two teams that finish at the bottom of the Bottom-Teams League Group will be relegated to the Liga Artzit.[1]  Note:
Israeli Womens Basketball Premier League. The Israeli Women Basketball Premier League or Ligat Athena Winner (Hebrew: ליגת העל בכדורסל נשים), is a womens professional basketball league in Israel. It is currently composed of 11 teams.[1] The league was founded in 1957. Initially the most predominant teams in the league were veteran womens basketball clubs such as Maccabi Tel Aviv and Hapoel Tel Aviv, who won almost yearly during the first two decades after the establishment of the womens league. This changed in 1976, when the team Elitzur Tel Aviv began winning all of the leagues championships for 19 years straight. During the 1990s the trend again changed, as the most prominent championship winners became A.S Ramat Hasharon and Elitzur Ramla. The champions of the 2010/2011 season were Elitzur Ramla.[2] Elitzur Tel Aviv and Elitzur Holon share the distinction of having won the most championship trophies, 20 between themselves.,[3] although the union that was established in 1990 between the two team was disbanded in 2008. In the 2011/12 season Maccabi Bnot Ashdod reached double winning, for the first time, the national league and national cup in one season.
Chordate.  Clockwise: lancelet, tunicate, tiger, shark And see text A chordate (/ˈkɔːrdeɪt/ KOR-dayt) is a bilaterian animal belonging to the phylum Chordata (/kɔːrˈdeɪtə/ kor-DAY-tə). All chordates possess, at some point during their larval or adult stages, five distinctive physical characteristics (synapomorphies) that distinguish them from other taxa. These five synapomorphies are a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, an endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.[8] In addition to the morphological characteristics used to define chordates, analysis of genome sequences has identified two conserved signature indels (CSIs) in their proteins: cyclophilin-like protein and inner mitochondrial membrane protease ATP23, which are exclusively shared by all vertebrates, tunicates and cephalochordates.[9] These CSIs provide molecular means to reliably distinguish chordates from all other animals.
Sakhalin Island (film). Sakhalin Island (Russian: Остров Сахалин) is a 1954 Soviet documentary film directed by Eldar Ryazanov and Vasiliy Katanyan.[1][2][3][4] The film tells the story and shows the nature and inhabitants of Sakhalin Island. The film, presented in the style of a cinematic essay, explores the history, nature, and people of Sakhalin Island. Beginning in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, the expedition moves through summer reindeer herding camps, geological survey teams, bird colonies, and seal rookeries. Aerial footage captures pilots tracking schools of fish and directing trawlers to abundant herring shoals. On the floating crab-processing ship Alma-Ata, crabs are shown being boiled in seawater on deck before being transported to the factory for canning. A pivotal sequence recounts the rescue of the ice-bound vessel Pozharsky. Supplies and explosives are airlifted to the stranded crew, and after locating the ship, relief operations commence. The crew clears a path through the ice using explosives, enabling the vessel to reach open water.
Killeen, Texas.  Killeen is a city in the U.S. state of Texas, located in Bell County. According to the 2020 census, its population was 153,095,[5] making it the 19th-most populous city in Texas and the largest of the three principal cities of Bell County. It is the principal city of the Killeen–Temple–Fort Hood Metropolitan Statistical Area. Killeen is 55 miles (89 km) north of Austin, 125 miles (201 km) southwest of Dallas, and 125 miles (201 km) northeast of San Antonio. Killeen is directly adjacent to the main cantonment of Fort Hood. Its economy depends on the activities of the post, and the soldiers and their families stationed there. It is known as a military boom town because of its rapid growth and high influx of soldiers. In 1881, the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway extended its tracks through central Texas, buying 360 acres (1.5 km2) a few miles southwest of a small farming community known as Palo Alto, which had existed since about 1872. The railroad platted a 70-block town on its land and named it after Frank P. Killeen,[6] the assistant general manager of the railroad. By the next year, the town included a railroad depot, a saloon, several stores, and a school. Many of the residents of the surrounding smaller communities in the area moved to Killeen. By 1884, the town had grown to include about 350 people, served by five general stores, two gristmills, two cotton gins, two saloons, a lumberyard, a blacksmith shop, and a hotel. Killeen expanded as it became an important shipping point for cotton, wool, and grain in western Bell and eastern Coryell Counties. By 1900, its population was about 780.
Ellison High School.  C. E. Ellison High School is a public high school in the city of Killeen, Bell County, Texas. It is one of six high schools in the Killeen Independent School District, and during 2024–2026 is classified as a 5A school by the University Interscholastic League.[2]  During 2022–2023, Ellison High School had an enrollment of 1,682 students and a student to teacher ratio of 14.68.[1] The school received an overall rating of B from the Texas Education Agency for the 2021–2022 school year.[3] Currently, the following Advanced Placement (AP) exams are available to the students:[4] Ellison High School opened in 1978 and the first graduation class was held in 1979. The Ellison High School football program received a donation of $25,000 from the American television channel NBC and automobile maker Toyota, for their participation in the Friday Night Lights Hometown Sweepstakes contest. The former University of Kentucky head basketball coach, Billy Gillispie, was the head coach at Ellison in the early 1990s, leading the school to the 5A state basketball tournament in 1993. 
FIBA Europe. FIBA Europe is the administrative body for basketball in Europe, within the International Basketball Federation (FIBA), which includes all 50 national European basketball federations. FIBA Europe is one of five Regions of FIBA and is responsible for controlling and developing the sport of basketball in Europe. Among many tasks, this includes promoting, supervising and directing international competition at the club and national team levels, as well as governing and appointing European international referees. FIBA Europe is an international federation consisting of the national basketball federations of Europe. Currently 50 national federations are members.[1] The highest decision-making body is the Board of FIBA Europe which consists of 25 persons elected by the National Federations. The Board of FIBA Europe meets twice a year and is the executive body which represents all 50 Federations that make up the membership of FIBA Europe. All 50 federations meet once a year at the General Assembly of FIBA Europe.[1] The current board members are:[2] Until 1 January 2015, the position was titled as a Secretary General.
Jordan.  Jordan,[a] officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,[b] is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories of West Bank to the west. The Jordan River, flowing into the Dead Sea, is located along the countrys western border within the Jordan Rift Valley. Jordan has a small coastline along the Red Sea in its southwest, separated by the Gulf of Aqaba from Egypt. Amman is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as the most populous city in the Levant. Inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period, three kingdoms developed in Transjordan during the Iron Age: Ammon, Moab and Edom. In the third century BC, the Arab Nabataeans established their kingdom centered in Petra. The Greco-Roman period saw the establishment of several cities in Transjordan that comprised the Decapolis. After the end of Byzantine rule, the region became part of the Islamic caliphates of the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and the Ottoman. Following the 1916 Great Arab Revolt during World War I, former Ottoman Syria was partitioned, leading to the establishment of the Emirate of Transjordan in 1921, which became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan gained independence and became officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.[c] Jordan captured and annexed the West Bank during the 1948 Palestine war until it was occupied by Israel in 1967. Jordan renounced its claim to the territory to the Palestinians in 1988 and signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1994. Jordan is a semi-arid country, covering an area of 89,342 km2 (34,495 sq mi) with a population of 11.5 million, making it the eleventh-most populous Arab country. The dominant majority, or around 95% of the countrys population, is Sunni Muslim, with the rest being mostly Arab Christian. Jordan was mostly unscathed by the violence that swept the region following the Arab Spring in 2010. From as early as 1948, Jordan has accepted refugees from multiple neighbouring countries in conflict. An estimated 2.1 million Palestinian refugees, most of whom hold Jordanian citizenship, as well as 1.4 million Syrian refugees, were residing in Jordan in 2015.[4] The kingdom is also a refuge for thousands of Christian Iraqis fleeing persecution.[8][9] While Jordan continues to accept refugees, the large Syrian influx during the 2010s has placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure.[10] The sovereign state is a constitutional monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers. Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Jordan has a high Human Development Index, ranking 100th, and is considered a lower middle income economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce.[11] Jordan is a major tourist destination, also attracting medical tourism with its well-developed health sector.[12] Nonetheless, a lack of natural resources, large flow of refugees, and regional turmoil have hampered economic growth.[13]
1993 NFL draft.  The 1993 NFL draft was the procedure by which National Football League teams selected amateur college football players. It is officially known as the NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting. The draft was held April 25–26, 1993, at the Marriot Marquis in New York City, New York.[1][2] No teams chose to claim any players in the supplemental draft that year, but the New York Giants and Kansas City Chiefs forfeited their first and second round picks, respectively, due to selecting quarterback Dave Brown and defensive end Darren Mickell in the 1992 supplemental draft. With the first overall pick of the draft, the New England Patriots selected quarterback Drew Bledsoe.  
Schloss Frohsdorf. Schloss Frohsdorf is a castle-like complex in Lanzenkirchen in Niederösterreich and was built 1547–50 out of the ruins of the so-called Krotenhof. After similar devastation in the year 1683 it was largely altered and renovated in the style of Baroque architecture. Greatly damaged by the Second World War, the palace was restored between 1968 and 1971 by the Austrian postal service. 47°44′43″N 16°15′16″E / 47.74528°N 16.25444°E / 47.74528; 16.25444 This Lower Austria location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article about a castle in Austria is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
al-Hadi. Abū Muḥammad Mūsā ibn al-Mahdī al-Hādī (Arabic: أبو محمد موسى بن المهدي الهادي; 26 April 764 CE  – 14 September 786 CE)[1] better known by his laqab al-Hādī (الهادي‎) was the fourth Arab Abbasid caliph who succeeded his father al-Mahdi and ruled from 169 AH (785 CE) until his death in 170 AH (786 CE). His short reign ended with internal chaos and power struggles with his mother.[2] Al-Hadi was born in 764. His father was al-Mahdi and al-Khayzuran bint Atta was the mother of both caliphs Musa al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid.[3] She had another son named Isa ibn al-Mahdi,[4] and a daughter named Banuqah or Banujah.[5] His mother, al-Khayzuran was born in Mecca and brought up in Jurash.[6] She had two sisters, Salsal bint Atta[7] and Asma bint Atta,[4] and a brother Ghitrif ibn Atta.[7] She was al-Mahdis favourite wife. Al-Mahdi consulted her on important matters of defense and administration, and officers and clerics went to her door day and night to get what they wanted from the caliph through her, and the petitioners lined up outside her door and it was crowded like a market. Khayzurans influence in public and political life increased gradually from interferer and decisive incursions during the reign of her husband to more powerful and wider ones during the reigns of her two sons.[8] Al-Hadi also had several half-brothers; Ubaydallah, Ibrahim, Mansur, Ali, Abdallah. He also had half-sisters; Abbasa was his elder half-sister, others were Ulayya and Aliyah. Al-Hadi was the eldest son of al-Mahdi and al-Khayzuran and the older brother of Harun al-Rashid. He was very dear to his father and was appointed as the first crown prince by his father at the age of 16 and was chosen as the leader of the army.[9] Prior to his death, al-Mahdi supposedly favored his second son, Harun al-Rashid, as his successor, taking him on multiple military expeditions in 779 and 781 to train him to be the next caliph, as his own father prepared him, but died before the formal transfer of the crown prince title could occur.  Not to mention, their mother, Khayzuran played a driver in these thoughts of al-Mahdi and was a partner. Alternatively, al-Rashid was a general and may have accompanied his father to war to train for and carry out his profession. Regardless of the intent, in 785, Al-Mahdi died during an expedition with his son Harun, who rushed back to Baghdad to inform his mother. At al-Mahdis untimely death, Khayzuran took control of the situation. She ensured a smooth transition of power and to secure the succession for her son, she called upon the viziers and ordered them to pay the wages of the army to secure order, and then had them swear allegiance to her son as their new caliph in his absence, and held everything together until al-Hadi returned to Baghdad. Al-Hadi became the caliph at the age of 25, the youngest caliph to yet rule the Abbasids. His brother Harun al-Rashid became his crown prince at 22. This was a point of insecurity for al-Hadi as he spent the majority of his rule attempting to wrest the title of crown prince from al-Rashid - whether he was granted it before or after his fathers death - and install his 7-year-old son Jafar in his place. As Jafar was very young and it went against law and wisdom to install him as crown prince, al-Hadi tried to put pressure on Harun and convince him to resign himself. So, Harun escaped from the capital and did not return there until the end of his brothers life. However, al-Hadis attempt to depose his brother caused further conflict between him and his mother Khayzuran, as they each strove for their respective sons to become the next caliph: al-Hadi for Jafar and Khayzuran for Harun.[10] Al-Hadi was considered an enlightened ruler by his constituents and continued the progressive moves of his Abbasids predecessor. Like his father he was very open to the people of his empire and allowed citizens to visit him in the palace at Baghdad to address him. He was physically strong and famous for his bravery and talent in government and generosity. However, he was cruel, daring and zealous. Al-Hadi was especially malevolent to non-Muslim citizens, as he continued his fathers persecutions and quashed multiple internal uprisings. He crushed a Kharijite rebellion, repelled a Byzantine invasion and seized some territory in the process.[11]
François Gérard.  François Pascal Simon Gérard (French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃swa paskal simɔ̃ ʒeʁaʁ], 4 May 1770 – 11 January 1837),[a] titled as Baron Gérard in 1809, was a French painter. He was born in Rome, where his father occupied a post in the house of the French ambassador, and his mother was Italian. After he was made a baron of the Empire in 1809 by Emperor Napoleon, he was known formally as Baron Gérard. François Gérard was born in Rome to J. S. Gérard and Cleria Matteï.[1] At the age of twelve, Gérard obtained admission into the Pension du Roi in Paris. From the Pension, he passed to the studio of the sculptor Augustin Pajou, which he left at the end of two years for the studio of the history painter Nicolas-Guy Brenet,[2] whom he quit almost immediately to place himself under Jacques-Louis David.[3] In 1789, he competed for the Prix de Rome, which was carried off by his comrade Girodet. The following year (1790), he once more showed up, but the passing of his father prevented him from finishing his work and forced him to travel to Rome with his mother. He eventually made it back to Paris in 1791, but due to his extreme poverty, he was forced to abandon his studies in favor of a job that would pay him money right away. David at once availed himself of his help, and one of that masters most celebrated portraits, of Louis-Michel Le Pelletier de Saint-Fargeau, may owe much to the hand of Gérard. This painting was executed early in 1793, the year in which Gérard, at the request of David, was named a member of the revolutionary tribunal, from the fatal decisions of which he, however, invariably absented himself.[4] In 1794, he obtained the first prize in a competition, the subject of which was The Tenth of August, that is, the storming of the Tuileries Palace on that date in 1792. Further stimulated by the successes of his rival and friend Girodet in the Salons of 1793 and 1794, Gérard (aided by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, the miniaturist) produced in 1795 his famous Bélisaire. In 1796, a portrait of his generous friend (conserved today in the Louvre) obtained undisputed success, and the money received from Isabey for these two works enabled Gérard to execute in 1797 his Psyche et lAmour (illustration).[b] At last, in 1799, his portrait of Madame Mère established his position as one of the foremost portrait-painters of the day.[4]
Balbec, Indiana.  Balbec is an unincorporated community in Penn Township, Jay County, Indiana. A post office was established at Balbec in 1865, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1919.[3] The community was likely named after Baalbek, in Lebanon.[4]  This Jay County, Indiana location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. Baalbek-Hermel (Arabic: بعلبك - الهرمل) is a governorate of Lebanon and is the largest by area in the country. It comprises the districts of Baalbek and Hermel,[3] which in turn are subdivided into a total of 74 municipalities.[2] The capital is at Baalbek.[3] The governorate covers an area of 3,009 km2 (1,162 sq mi)[1] and is bounded by Akkar Governorate to the northwest, North Governorate to the west, Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate and Mount Lebanon Governorate to the southwest, Beqaa Governorate to the south, and the Syrian governorates of Homs and Rif Dimashq to the northeast and southeast. The governorate occupies the northern portion of the Beqaa Valley, Lebanons most important agricultural area.[4] The UNHCR estimated the population of the governorate at 416,427 in 2015, including 137,788 registered refugees of the Syrian Civil War and 8,117 Palestinian refugees.[2] The Lebanese citizen population is predominantly Shiite with pockets of Christians and Sunnis, while the refugee population is predominantly Sunni Muslims.[2] Baalbek-Hermel Governorate was created by the enactment of Law 522 on 16 July 2003, in which the districts of Baalbek and Hermel were separated from Beqaa Governorate.[5] Implementation of the new region only began in 2014 with the appointment of the first and current governor, Bashir Khodr.[6] Already one of Lebanons poorest regions, the recent influx of Syrian refugees has placed additional strain on the governorates fragile infrastructure and services.[4] Violence in Syria has spilled over into the governorate, especially in the area around Arsal and Ras Baalbek.[4] The northern Beqaa valley and Baalbek has had Hezbollah or the Amal Movement electoral victories but 46% of the electorate voted for the opposition Baalbek Madinati party in recent elections.[7][8] According to registered voters in 2014:
Austrian Empire. Timeline The Austrian Empire,[a] officially known as the Empire of Austria, was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence, it was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, while geographically, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire. The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleons declaration of the First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latters dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars, except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War. Austria and its allies emerged victorious in the war, leading to the Congress of Vienna, which reaffirmed the empire as one of the great powers of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Hungary—as Regnum Independens—was administered by its own institutions separately from the rest of the empire. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt (1797–1799) and Regensburg (1801–1803). On 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess (German: Reichsdeputationshauptschluss) was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, but the actual consequence of the Imperial Recess, along with the French occupying the Electorate of Hanover in the same month and various Holy Roman states becoming allied with or against France, was the end of the empire.[2] Taking this significant change into consideration, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria for himself and his successors, thereby becoming Francis I of Austria. This new title and state were created to safeguard his dynastys imperial status as he foresaw either the end of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor, who had earlier that year adopted the title Emperor of the French and established the First French Empire. Initially Francis II/I continued to hold both titles but abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
Governorates of Lebanon. Member State of the Arab League Lebanon portal Lebanon is divided into nine governorates (Arabic: muhafazah). Each governorate is headed by a governor (Arabic: muhafiz). (per km2)
Biuret. Biuret (/ˈbjurɛt/ BYUR-ret) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula HN(CONH2)2. It is a white solid that is soluble in hot water. A variety of organic derivatives are known. The term biuret also describes a family of organic compounds with the chemical formula R1R2N−C(=O)−N(R3)−C(=O)−NR4R5, where R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 are hydrogen, organyl or other groups. Also known as carbamylurea, it results from the condensation of two equivalents of urea. It is a common undesirable impurity in urea-based fertilizers, as biuret is toxic to plants. The parent compound can be prepared by heating urea at 150 °C for ~6 hours until it gets slightly cloudy, then recrystallizing from water. After that, it can be recrystallized repeatedly from 2% sodium hydroxide solution and water to finally get base-free crystalline needles of the monohydrate which are free of cyanuric acid. While heating, a lot of ammonia is expelled:[3] Under related conditions, pyrolysis of urea affords triuret O=C(−N(H)−C(=O)−NH2)2.[3] In general, organic biurets (those with alkyl or aryl groups in place of one or more H atoms) are prepared by trimerization of isocyanates. For example, the trimer of 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate is also known as HDI-biuret. In the anhydrous form, the molecule is planar and unsymmetrical in the solid state owing to intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The terminal C–N distances of 1.327 and 1.334 Å are shorter than the internal C–N distances of 1.379 and 1.391 Å. The C=O bond distances 1.247 and 1.237 Å. It crystallizes from water as the monohydrate.[4] Biuret is used as a non-protein nitrogen source in ruminant feed,[5] where it is converted into protein by gut microorganisms.[6] It is less favored than urea, due to its higher cost and lower digestibility[7] but the latter characteristic also slows down its digestion and so decreases the risk of ammonia toxicity.[7][8]
UCLA Bruins football.   The UCLA Bruins football program represents the University of California, Los Angeles, in college football as members of the Big Ten Conference at the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) level. The Bruins play their home games off campus at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. The Bruins have enjoyed several periods of success in their history, having been ranked in the top ten of the AP Poll at least once in every decade since the poll began in the 1930s. Their first major period of success came in the 1950s, under head coach Red Sanders. Sanders led the Bruins to the Coaches Poll national championship in 1954, three conference championships, and an overall record of 66–19–1 in nine years. In the 1980s and 1990s, during the tenure of Terry Donahue, the Bruins compiled a 151–74–8 record, including 13 bowl games and an NCAA record eight straight bowl wins. Recent success has evaded them, though, landing them with a 16–19 overall bowl game record. The program has produced 28 first round picks in the NFL Draft, 30 consensus All-Americans, and multiple major award winners, including Heisman Trophy winner Gary Beban. The UCLA Bruins main rival is the USC Trojans. The Bruins were twice the Pac-12 Conference South Division champions, earning the right to play in Pac-12 Football Championship Games in both 2011 and 2012. UCLA and fellow Pac-12 members USC, Oregon, and Washington left for the Big Ten Conference in 2024.
Siege of Baghdad.  The siege of Baghdad took place in early 1258. A large army commanded by Hulegu, a prince of the Mongol Empire, attacked the historic capital of the Abbasid Caliphate after a series of provocations from its ruler, caliph al-Mustasim. Within a few weeks, Baghdad fell and was sacked by the Mongol army—al-Mustasim was killed alongside hundreds of thousands of his subjects. The citys fall has traditionally been seen as marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age; in reality, its ramifications are uncertain. After the accession of his brother Möngke Khan to the Mongol throne in 1251, Hulegu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, was dispatched westwards to Persia to secure the region. His massive army of over 138,000 men took years to reach the region but then quickly attacked and overpowered the Nizari Ismaili Assassins in 1256. The Mongols had expected al-Mustasim to provide reinforcements for their army—the Caliphs failure to do so, combined with his arrogance in negotiations, convinced Hulegu to overthrow him in late 1257. Invading Mesopotamia from all sides, the Mongol army soon approached Baghdad, routing a sortie on 17 January 1258 by flooding their opponents camp. They then invested Baghdad, which was left with around 30,000 troops. The assault began at the end of January. Mongol siege engines breached Baghdads fortifications within a couple of days, and Hulegus highly-trained troops controlled the eastern wall by 4 February. The increasingly desperate al-Mustasim frantically tried to negotiate, but Hulegu was intent on total victory, even killing soldiers who attempted to surrender. The Caliph eventually surrendered the city on 10 February, and the Mongols began looting three days later. The total number of people who died is unknown, as it was likely increased by subsequent epidemics; Hulegu later estimated the total at around 200,000. After calling an amnesty for the pillaging on 20 February, Hulegu executed the caliph. In contrast to the exaggerations of later Muslim historians, Baghdad prospered under Hulegus Ilkhanate, although it did decline in comparison to the new capital, Tabriz. Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, which had recently overthrown the empire of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur believed that the new Abbasid Caliphate needed a new capital city, located away from potential threats and near the dynastys power base in Persia. Incredibly wealthy due to the trade routes and taxes it controlled, Baghdad quickly became a world city and the epicentre of the Islamic Golden Age: poets, writers, scientists, philosophers, musicians, and scholars of every type thrived in the city. Containing centres of learning like the House of Wisdom and astronomical observatories, which used the newly-arrived technology of paper and the gathering of the teachings of antiquity from all Eurasia, Baghdad was the intellectual capital of the planet, in the words of the historian Justin Marozzi.[1]
Syria.  Syria,[e] officially the Syrian Arab Republic,[f][17] is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. It is a republic under a transitional government and comprises 14 governorates. Damascus is the capital and largest city. With a population of 25 million across an area of 185,180 square kilometres (71,500 sq mi), it is the 57th-most populous and 87th-largest country. The name Syria historically referred to a wider region. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital under the Mamluk Sultanate. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century after centuries of Ottoman rule, as a French Mandate. The state represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Syrian provinces. It gained de jure independence as a parliamentary republic in 1945 when the First Syrian Republic became a founding member of the United Nations, an act which legally ended the French Mandate. French troops withdrew in April 1946, granting the nation de facto independence. The post-independence period was tumultuous, with multiple coups and coup attempts between 1949 and 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a brief pan-Arab union with Egypt, which was terminated following a 1961 coup détat. The 1963 coup détat carried out by the military committee of the Baath Party established a one-party state, which ran Syria under martial law from 1963 to 2011. Internal power-struggles within Baathist factions caused further coups in 1966 and 1970, the latter of which saw Hafez al-Assad come to power. Under Assad, Syria became a hereditary dictatorship. Assad died in 2000, and he was succeeded by his son, Bashar. Since the Arab Spring in 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a multi-sided civil war with the involvement of several countries, leading to a refugee crisis in which more than 6 million refugees were displaced from the country. In response to rapid territorial gains made by the Islamic State during the civil war in 2014 and 2015, several countries intervened on behalf of various factions opposing it, leading to its territorial defeat in 2017 in both central and eastern Syria. Thereafter, three political entities—the Syrian Interim Government, Syrian Salvation Government, and the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria—emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assads rule. In late 2024, a series of offensives from a coalition of opposition forces led to the capture of Damascus and the fall of Assads regime. By 2025, the war had left Syrias economy in a poor state, following years of international sanctions that were later eased. A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups. Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunni Muslims are the largest religious group.
List of cities and towns in Lebanon.  This is a list of cities and towns in Lebanon[1] distributed according to the 26 districts which are split into 9 governorates. There are over 1000 municipalities (cities and towns). 56.21% of the population lives in 19 cities and towns, which gives the average 2,158 people per town. NB: These numbers are sourced from World Population Review which source their data from Geonames.org This list includes the 12 Quarters (also known as neighborhoods with the number of registered voters in 2014[3] 1 The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is not officially recognized by the United Nations, recognized only by Turkey; see Cyprus dispute.
Israel.   Israel,[a] officially the State of Israel,[b] is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. It shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. It occupies the Palestinian territories of the West Bank in the east and the Gaza Strip in the south-west, as well as the Syrian Golan Heights in the northeast. Israel also has a small coastline on the Red Sea at its southernmost point, and part of the Dead Sea lies along its eastern border. Its proclaimed capital is Jerusalem,[22] while Tel Aviv is its largest urban area and economic centre. Israel is located in a region known as the Land of Israel, synonymous with Canaan, the Holy Land, the Palestine region, and Judea. In antiquity it was home to the Canaanite civilisation, followed by the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Situated at a continental crossroad, the region experienced demographic changes under the rule of empires from the Romans to the Ottomans. European antisemitism in the late 19th century galvanised Zionism, a movement which sought to colonise Palestine to establish a homeland for the Jewish people. Zionists gained British support with the Balfour Declaration. After World War I, Britain occupied the region and established Mandatory Palestine in 1920. Increased Jewish immigration in the lead-up to the Holocaust and British foreign policy in the Middle East led to intercommunal conflict between Jews and Arabs,[23][24] which escalated into a civil war in 1947 after the United Nations (UN) proposed partitioning the land between them. Israel declared independence at the end of the British Mandate on 14 May 1948, and neighboring Arab states invaded the next day. A 1949 armistice left Israel with territory beyond the UN plan;[25] no Arab state was created, as the Gaza Strip and the West Bank came under Egyptian and Jordanian control.[25][26][27] Most Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled by Zionist militias in an ethnic cleansing known as the Nakba, with those who remained became the states main minority.[28][29][30] Israels population increased greatly through the Jewish exodus from the Muslim world in the following decades.[31][32] In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel occupied the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and Syrian Golan Heights. Peace was made with Egypt in 1979 (returning Sinai in 1982) and with Jordan in 1994. The 1993 Oslo Accords with the Palestinians established mutual recognition and limited self-rule, and the 2020 Abraham Accords normalised ties with more Arab states. The Israeli–Palestinian conflict remains unresolved, with periodic wars and clashes with Palestinian militant groups. Settlement expansion in the occupied territories, and the annexations of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, are regarded as violations of international law. Israels practices in its occupation of the Palestinian territories have drawn sustained international criticism—along with accusations that it has committed war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide against the Palestinians—from experts, human rights organisations and UN officials.
Islamic world.  The terms Islamic world and Muslim world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam[1] or to societies in which Islam is practiced.[2][3] In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[4][3] The term Muslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense.[5] The history of the Muslim world spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology during the Islamic Golden Age. Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religious schools of thought and sects within Islam.[6] The Islamic conquests, which culminated in the Caliphate being established across three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings.[7] In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under European colonial domination. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular as well as religious trends.[8] As of 2013[update], the combined GDP (nominal) of 50 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion.[9] As of 2016[update], they contributed 8% of the worlds total.[10] In 2020, the Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of worlds GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the worlds GDP. Some OIC member countries - Ivory Coast, Guyana, Gabon, Mozambique, Nigeria, Suriname, Togo and Uganda  are not Muslim-majority.[11] As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of the world population are Muslims.[12][13] By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East-North Africa (MENA),[14] 89% in Central Asia,[15] 40% in Southeast Asia,[16] 31% in South Asia,[17][18] 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa,[19] 25% in Asia, 1.4% in Oceania,[20][21] 6% in Europe,[22] and 1% in the Americas.[23][24][25][26]
Beirut (disambiguation). Beirut is the capital city of Lebanon. Beirut, Beyrut or Bayrut may also refer to:
Bierut. Bierut is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Abbasid Caliphate.  The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire[a] was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammads uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name.[8] After overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH), they ruled as caliphs based in Iraq, with Baghdad being their capital for most of their history. The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in the easterly region of Khurasan, far from the Levantine center of Umayyad influence.[9] The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, Iraq, but in 762 the caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad as the new capital. Baghdad became the center of science, culture, arts, and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam. By housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, the city garnered an international reputation as a centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of bureaucrats in governance, including the vizier, as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (Muslim community) and among the political elites.[10][11] The apogee of the caliphates power and prestige is traditionally associated with Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809).[12][13] After his death, civil war brought new divisions and was followed by significant changes to the character of the state, including the creation of a new professional army recruited mainly from Turkic slaves and the construction of a new capital, Samarra, in 836. The 9th century also saw a growing trend of provincial autonomy spawning local dynasties who controlled different regions of the empire, such as the Aghlabids, Tahirids, Samanids, Saffarids, and Tulunids. Following a period of turmoil in the 860s, the caliphate regained some stability and its seat returned to Baghdad in 892. During the 10th century, the authority of the caliphs was progressively reduced to a ceremonial function in the Islamic world. Political and military power was transferred instead to the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks, who took control of Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. The Abbasids eventually regained control of Mesopotamia during the rule of Caliph al-Muqtafi (r. 1136–1160) and extended it into Iran during the reign of Caliph al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225).[14] This revival ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and the execution of Caliph al-Mustasim. A surviving line of Abbasids was re-installed in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph al-Mustain, the dynasty continued to claim symbolic authority until a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517,[15] with the last Abbasid caliph being al-Mutawakkil III.[16]
Beyrut, Iran. Beyrut (Persian: بيروت, also Romanized as Beyrūt)[1] is a village in Rob-e Shamat Rural District, Sheshtomad District, Sabzevar County, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 592, in 150 families.[2] This Sabzevar County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Bayreuth.  Bayreuth (German pronunciation: [ˈbaɪʁɔʏt] ⓘ or [baɪˈʁɔʏt] ⓘ; Upper Franconian: Bareid, pronounced [ba(ː)ˈɾaɪ̯t]) is a town in northern Bavaria, Germany, on the Red Main river in a valley between the Franconian Jura and the Fichtel Mountains. The towns roots date back to 1194. In the 21st century, it is the capital of Upper Franconia and has a population of 72,148 (2015). It hosts the annual Bayreuth Festival, at which performances of operas by the 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner are presented. The town is believed to have been founded by the counts of Andechs probably around the mid-12th century,[3] but was first mentioned in 1194 as Baierrute in a document by Bishop Otto II of Bamberg. The syllable -rute may mean Rodung or clearing, whilst Baier- indicates immigrants from the Bavarian region. Already documented earlier, were villages later merged into Bayreuth: Seulbitz (in 1035 as the royal Salian estate of Silewize in a document by Emperor Conrad II) and St. Johannis (possibly 1149 as Altentrebgast). Even the district of Altstadt (formerly Altenstadt) west of the town centre must be older than the town of Bayreuth itself. Even older traces of human presence were found in the hamlets of Meyernberg: pieces of pottery and wooden crockery were dated to the 9th century based on their decoration.[4] While Bayreuth was previously (1199) referred to as a villa (village), the term civitas (town) appeared for the first time in a document published in 1231. One can therefore assume that Bayreuth was awarded its town charter between 1200 and 1230. The town was ruled until 1248 by the counts of Andechs-Merania. After they died out in 1260 the burgraves of Nuremberg from the House of Hohenzollern took over the inheritance.
Entry into force. In law, coming into force or entry into force (also called commencement) is the process by which legislation, regulations, treaties and other legal instruments come to have legal force and effect. The term is closely related to the date of this transition. The point at which such instrument comes into effect may be set out in the instrument itself, or after the lapse of a certain period, or upon the happening of a certain event, such as a proclamation or an objective event, such as the birth, marriage, reaching a particular age or death of a certain person. On rare occasions,[which?] the effective date of a law may be backdated to a date before the enactment.[citation needed] To come into force, a treaty or Act first needs to receive the required number of votes or ratifications. Although it is common practice to stipulate this number as a requirement in the body of the treaty itself, it can also be set out in a superior law or legal framework, such as a constitution or the standing orders of the legislature in which it originated. Coming into force generally includes publication in an official gazette so that people know the law or treaty exists. After their adoption, treaties as well as their amendments may have to follow the official legal procedures of the organisation, such as the United Nations, that sponsored it, including signature, ratification, and entry into force. The process of enactment, by which a bill becomes an Act, is separate from commencement. Even if a bill passes through all necessary stages to become an Act, it may not automatically come into force. Moreover, an Act may be repealed having never come into force.[1]
Baghdad.  Baghdad[a] is the capital and largest city of Iraq. Located on the banks of the Tigris in central Iraq, it is the capital of the Baghdad Governorate. The city has an estimated population of 8 million and spread across an area of 673 square kilometres (260 sq mi). It ranks among the most populous and largest cities in the Middle East and the Arab world and constitute 22% of the countrys population. Baghdad is one of the primary financial and commercial center in the region. Founded in 762 AD by Al-Mansur, Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and became its most notable development project. The city evolved into an intellectual and cultural center. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multi-ethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the Center of Learning. For much of the Abbasid era, during the Islamic Golden Age, Baghdad was one of the largest cities in the world and rivaled Changan, as the population peaked at more than one million. It was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues, shift in power and multiple successive empires. Later, Baghdad served as the administrative center of Ottoman Iraq,[3] exercising authority over the provinces of Basra, Mosul, and Shahrizor.[4] During First World War, Baghdad was made the capital of Mandatory Iraq. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent monarchy in 1932, it gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture. During the Baath Party rule, the city experienced a period of relative prosperity and growth. However, it faced severe infrastructural damage due to the Iraq War, which began with the invasion of Iraq in 2003, resulting in a substantial loss of cultural heritage and historical artifacts. During the insurgency and renewed war from 2013 to 2017, it had one of the highest rates of terrorist attacks in the world. However, these attacks have gradually declined since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State militant group in Iraq in 2017, and are now rare. Since the end of the war, numerous reconstruction projects have been underway to induce stability. Iraqs largest city, Baghdad is the seat of government. It generates 40% of the economy of Iraq. A major center of Islamic history, Baghdad is home to numerous historic mosques, as well as churches, mandis and synagogues, highlighting the citys historical diversity. Religious sites such as Masjid al-Kadhimayn, Buratha Mosque, the Shrine of Abdul-Qadir Gilani and Abu Hanifa Mosque are visited by millions of people anually. It was once home to a large Jewish community and was regularly visited by Sikh pilgrims from India.[5] Baghdad is a regional cultural hub. The city is well-known for its coffeehouses.
Ministry of Justice (Japan). The Ministry of Justice (法務省, Hōmu-shō)[1] is one of the cabinet level ministries of the Japanese government. It is responsible for the judicial system, correctional services, and household, property and corporate registrations, and immigration control. It also serves as the governments legal representatives. The MOJ represents the Japanese government in litigation, and is also responsible for maintaining the official registers of households, resident aliens, real estate and corporations. At the top of the ministry is the Minister of Justice, a member of the Cabinet, who is chosen by the Prime Minister from among members of the National Diet. The Ministry of Justice was established in 1871 as the Ministry of Justice (司法省, Shihōshō).[2] On February 15, 1948, the Attorney Generals Office Establishment Law led to the creation of the Attorney Generals Office.[2] The ministry acquired its present name under the post-war Constitution of Japan in 1952.[2] Under the Central Government Reorganization Plan, the Litigation Bureau was disbanded on January 6, 2001.[2] The LB was reestablished on April 10, 2015 from the Litigation Department.[3] The Ministry of Justice is organized in seven bureaus:[4]
Royal assent.  Royal assent is the method by which a monarch formally approves an act of the legislature, either directly or through an official acting on the monarchs behalf. In some jurisdictions, royal assent is equivalent to promulgation, while in others that is a separate step. Under a modern constitutional monarchy, royal assent is considered little more than a formality. Even in nations such as the United Kingdom, Norway, the Netherlands, Liechtenstein and Monaco which still, in theory, permit their monarch to withhold assent to laws, the monarch almost never does so, except in a dire political emergency or on advice of government. While the power to veto by withholding royal assent was once exercised often by European monarchs, such an occurrence has been very rare since the eighteenth century. Royal assent is typically associated with elaborate ceremony. In the United Kingdom the Sovereign may appear personally in the House of Lords or may appoint Lords Commissioners, who announce that royal assent has been granted at a ceremony held at the Palace of Westminster for this purpose. However, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the governor-general (as the Monarchs representative) has the right to dissolve the parliament[1] and to sign a bill.[citation needed] In Canada, the governor general may give assent either in person at a ceremony in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying Parliament of their agreement to the bill. The monarch would today not veto a bill, except on ministerial advice. Professor of constitutional law at Kings College London Robert Blackburn suggested the monarchs granting of royal assent is now limited to due process and is a certification that a bill has passed all established parliamentary procedures,[2] whereas Manchester University professor emeritus Rodney Brazier argued that a monarch can still refuse royal assent to a bill that sought to subvert the democratic basis of the constitution. However, Brazier went on to admit doing such a thing would lead to grave difficulties of definition and it would be better if the monarch sought a different method of expressing their concern.[3] The only situation in which royal assent could be denied would be if a bill had been passed by the legislative houses or house against the wishes of the cabinet and the royal assent stage offered the latter with a last-ditch opportunity to prevent the bill from becoming law.[4] Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act 1541 (33 Hen. 8. c. 21) allowed for delegation of the power to Lords Commissioners, assent was always required to be given by the sovereign in person before Parliament.[5] The last time it was given by the sovereign in person in Parliament was during the reign of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on 12 August 1854.[6][a] The act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act 1967. However section 1(2) of that act does not prevent the sovereign from declaring assent in person if he or she so desires.
National Diet.  Opposition (119) Unaffiliated (8) Opposition (240) Unaffiliated (5)
Japanese Canadians. Japanese Canadians (日系カナダ人, Nikkei Kanadajin; French: Canadiens japonais) are Canadian citizens of Japanese ancestry. Japanese Canadians are mostly concentrated in Western Canada, especially in the province of British Columbia, which hosts the largest Japanese community in the country with the majority of them living in and around Vancouver. In 2016, there were 121,485 Japanese Canadians throughout Canada.[2] The term Nikkei (日系) was coined by sociologists and encompasses all of the worlds Japanese immigrants across generations. Japanese descendants living overseas have special names for each of their generations. These are formed by combining one of the Japanese numerals with the Japanese word for generation (sei, 世): The first Japanese settler in Canada was Manzo Nagano, who lived in Victoria, British Columbia in 1877 (a mountain in the province was named after him in 1977). The first generation or Issei, mostly came to Vancouver Island, the Fraser Valley and Rivers Inlet from fishing villages on the islands of Kyūshū and Honshū between 1877 and 1928.  A Japanese community newspaper for Vancouver residents was first launched in 1897. Around the same time, the Fraser River Japanese Fishermens Association Hospital in Steveston was established after the local hospital refused to admit and treat Japanese immigrants.[4] In 1907, the Asiatic Exclusion League was established in Vancouver and, by September of that year, led a mob of rioters who vandalized both Chinese and Japanese neighbourhoods.[5] In 1908, Canada and Japan signed a Gentlemens Agreement intended to curb further Japanese immigration to Canada.[6] Influenced by the American Immigration Act of 1924, members of the British Columbia parliament pushed for a total federal ban on immigration in the 1920s. After several years of negotiations, Japan eventually agreed to reduce its immigration quota under the Gentlemans Agreement to only 150 persons per year.[7]
Lebanon.  Lebanon,[c] officially the Republic of Lebanon,[d] is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula,[14] it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west; Cyprus lies a short distance from the coastline. Lebanon has a population of more than five million and an area of 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi). Beirut is the countrys capital and largest city. Human habitation in Lebanon dates to 5000 BC.[15] From 3200 to 539 BC, it was part of Phoenicia, a maritime civilization that spanned the Mediterranean Basin.[16] In 64 BC, the region became part of the Roman Empire and the subsequent Byzantine Empire. After the seventh century, it came under the rule of different Arabic Islamic caliphates, including the Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid. The 11th century saw the establishment of Christian Crusader states, which fell to the Ayyubids and the Mamluks. Lebanon came under Ottoman rule in the early 16th century. Under Ottoman sultan Abdulmejid I, the first Lebanese proto state, the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, was established as a home for Maronite Christians, as part of the Tanzimat reforms. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, Lebanon came under the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, administered by France, which established Greater Lebanon. By 1943, Lebanon had gained independence from Free France and established a distinct form of confessional government, with the states major religious groups being apportioned specific political powers. The new Lebanese state was relatively stable,[17] but this was ultimately shattered by the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990). Lebanon was also subjugated by two military occupations: Syria from 1976 to 2005 and Israel from 1985 to 2000. It has been the scene of several conflicts with Israel, of which the ongoing war marks the fourth Israeli invasion since 1978. Lebanon is a developing country, ranked 112th on the Human Development Index.[18] It has been classified as a lower-middle-income country.[19] The Lebanese liquidity crisis, coupled with nationwide corruption and disasters such as the 2020 Beirut explosion, precipitated the collapse of Lebanons currency and fomented political instability, widespread resource shortages, and high unemployment and poverty. The World Bank has defined Lebanons economic crisis as one of the worlds worst since the 19th century.[20][21] Despite the countrys small size,[22] Lebanese culture is renowned both in the Arab world and globally, powered primarily by the large and influential Lebanese diaspora.[23] Lebanon is a founding member of the United Nations and the Arab League,[24] and a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the Group of 77.
Slang.  A slang is a vocabulary (words, phrases, and linguistic usages) of an informal register, common in everyday conversation but avoided in formal writing and speech.[1] It also often refers to the language exclusively used by the members of particular in-groups in order to establish group identity, exclude outsiders, or both. The word itself came about in the 18th century and has been defined in multiple ways since its conception, with no single technical usage in linguistics. In its earliest attested use (1756), the word slang referred to the vocabulary of low or disreputable people. By the early nineteenth century, it was no longer exclusively associated with disreputable people, but continued to be applied to usages below the level of standard educated speech.[2] In Scots dialect it meant talk, chat, gossip,[3] as used by Aberdeen poet William Scott in 1832: The slang gaed on aboot their warly care. [4] In northern English dialect it meant impertinence, abusive language.[5] The origin of the word slang is unclear. It was first used in print around 1800 to refer to the language of the disreputable and criminal classes in London, though its usage likely dates back further.[6] A Scandinavian origin has been proposed (compare, for example, Norwegian slengenavn, which means nickname), but based on date and early associations is discounted by the Oxford English Dictionary.[2] Jonathon Green, however, agrees with the possibility of a Scandinavian origin, suggesting the same root as that of sling, which means to throw, and noting that slang is thrown language – a quick and honest way to make your point.[7][8] Linguists have no simple and clear definition of slang but agree that it is a constantly changing linguistic phenomenon present in every subculture worldwide. Some argue that slang exists because we must come up with ways to define new experiences that have surfaced with time and modernity.[9] Attempting to remedy the lack of a clear definition, however, Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter argue that an expression should be considered true slang if it meets at least two of the following criteria:[9]
Syllable. A syllable is a basic unit of organization within a sequence of speech sounds, such as within a word, typically defined by linguists as a nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional sounds before or after that nucleus (margins, which are most often consonants). In phonology and studies of languages, syllables are often considered the building blocks of words.[1] They can influence the rhythm of a language: its prosody or poetic metre. Properties such as stress, tone and reduplication operate on syllables and their parts.[2] Speech can usually be divided up into a whole number of syllables: for example, the word ignite is made of two syllables: ig and nite. Most languages of the world use relatively simple syllable structures that often alternate between vowels and consonants.[3] Despite being present in virtually all human languages, syllables still have no precise definition that is valid for all known languages.[2] A common criterion for finding syllable boundaries is native-speaker intuition, but individuals sometimes disagree on them.[4] Syllabic writing began several hundred years before the first instances of alphabetic writing. The earliest recorded syllables are on tablets written around 2800 BC in the Sumerian city of Ur. This shift from pictograms to syllables has been called the most important advance in the history of writing.[5] A word that consists of a single syllable (like English dog) is called a monosyllable (and is said to be monosyllabic). Similar terms include disyllable (and disyllabic; also bisyllable and bisyllabic) for a word of two syllables; trisyllable (and trisyllabic) for a word of three syllables; and polysyllable (and polysyllabic), which may refer either to a word of more than three syllables or to any word of more than one syllable. Syllable is an Anglo-Norman variation of Old French sillabe, from Latin syllaba, from Koine Greek συλλαβή syllabḗ (Ancient Greek pronunciation: [sylːabɛ̌ː]). συλλαβή means the taken together, referring to letters that are taken together to make a single sound.[6]
Japanese Peruvians. Japanese Peruvians (Spanish: peruano-japonés or nipo-peruano; Japanese: 日系ペルー人, Nikkei Perūjin) are Peruvian citizens of Japanese origin or ancestry. Peru has the second largest ethnic Japanese population in South America after Brazil. This community has made a significant cultural impact on the country,[4] and as of the 2017 Census in Peru, 22,534 people or 0.2% of the Peruvian population self reported themselves as having Nikkei or Japanese ancestry,[5] though the Japanese government estimates that at least 200,000 Peruvians have some degree of Japanese ancestry.[2] Peru was the first Latin American country to establish diplomatic relations with Japan,[6] in June 1873.[7] Peru was also the first Latin American country to accept Japanese immigration.[6] The Sakura Maru carried Japanese families from Yokohama to Peru and arrived on April 3, 1899, at the Peruvian port city of Callao.[8] This group of 790 Japanese became the first of several waves of emigrants who made new lives for themselves in Peru, some nine years before emigration to Brazil began.[7] Most immigrants arrived from Okinawa, Gifu, Hiroshima, Kanagawa and Osaka prefectures. Many arrived as farmers or to work in the fields but, after their contracts were completed, settled in the cities.[9] In the period before World War II, the Japanese community in Peru was largely run by issei immigrants born in Japan. Those of the second generation [the nisei] were almost inevitably excluded from community decision-making.[10] Perus current Japanese international school is Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa in Surco, Lima.[11]
Nationality. Nationality is the legal status of belonging to a particular nation, defined as a group of people organized in one country, under one legal jurisdiction, or as a group of people who are united on the basis of citizenship.[1][2][3] In international law, nationality is a legal identification establishing the person as a subject, a national, of a sovereign state. It affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state against other states.[4] The rights and duties of nationals vary from state to state,[5] and are often complemented by citizenship law, in some contexts to the point where citizenship is synonymous with nationality.[6] However, nationality differs technically and legally from citizenship, which is a different legal relationship between a person and a country. The noun national can include both citizens and non-citizens. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the political life of the state, such as by voting or standing for election. However, in most modern countries all nationals are citizens of the state, and full citizens are always nationals of the state.[7] In international law, a stateless person is someone who is not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law.[8] To address this, Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that Everyone has the right to a nationality, and No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality, even though, by international custom and conventions, it is the right of each state to determine who its nationals are.[9] Such determinations are part of nationality law. In some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness or the European Convention on Nationality.[10] For when a person lacks nationality, globally only 23 countries have established dedicated statelessness determination procedures. Even where such procedures exist, they still have shortcomings in accessibility and functionality, preventing stateless people from accessing rights connected to being determined stateless.[11] The general process of acquiring nationality is called naturalization. Each state determines in its nationality law the conditions (statute) under which it will recognize persons as its nationals, and the conditions under which that status will be withdrawn. Some countries permit their nationals to have multiple nationalities, while others insist on exclusive allegiance. Due to the etymology of nationality, in older texts or other languages the word nationality, rather than ethnicity, is often used to refer to an ethnic group (a group of people who share a common ethnic identity, language, culture, lineage, history, and so forth). Individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status that have ceded some power to a larger sovereign state.
Japanese Americans.  Other places with notable populations include: Japanese Americans (Japanese: 日系アメリカ人) are Americans of Japanese ancestry. Japanese Americans were among the three largest Asian American ethnic communities during the 20th century; but, according to the 2000 census, they have declined in ranking to constitute the sixth largest Asian American group at around 1,469,637, including those of partial ancestry.[5] The United States has the second largest Japanese population outside of Japan, second to only Brazil. However, in terms of Japanese citizens, The United States has the most Japanese-born citizens outside Japan, due to Brazils Japanese population being multigenerational. According to the 2010 census, the largest Japanese American communities were found in California with 272,528, Hawaii with 185,502, New York with 37,780, Washington with 35,008, Illinois with 17,542 and Ohio with 16,995.[6] Southern California has the largest Japanese American population in North America and the city of Gardena holds the densest Japanese American population in the 48 contiguous states.[7] People from Japan began migrating to the US in significant numbers following the political, cultural, and social changes stemming from the Meiji Restoration in 1868. These early Issei immigrants came primarily from small towns and rural areas in the southern Japanese prefectures of Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Kumamoto, and Fukuoka[8] and most of them settled in either Hawaii or along the West Coast. The Japanese population in the United States grew from 148 in 1880 (mostly students) to 2,039 in 1890 and 24,326 by 1900.[9]
Japanese in the Philippines.   Japanese in the Philippines, or Japanese Filipino, refers to one of the largest branches of Japanese diaspora having historical contact with and having established themselves in what is now the Philippines. This also refers to Filipino citizens of either pure or mixed Japanese descent residing in the country, the latter a result of intermarriages between the Japanese and local populations.[7] After the establishment of a single state within Japan, official trade records began between Japan and the Philippine islands in the Heian and Muromachi period (8th to 12th centuries CE). In the case of the proto-Okinawan chiefdoms, this was much earlier, and ties in with shared migration patterns of Okinawans and Austronesian areas like the Philippines stretching back to the Neolithic period. Notable settlements of the period include Bolinao and Agoo along Lingayen Gulf.[8][9] The Japanese were trading with Philippine kingdoms well before the Spanish period, mainly in pottery and gold.[citation needed] Historical records show that Japanese traders, especially those from Nagasaki, frequently visited the Philippine shores and bartered Japanese goods for such Filipino products as gold and pearls. In the course of time, shipwrecked Japanese sailors, pirate traders, and immigrants settled in the Philippines and intermarried with the early Filipinos. The Wokous who were East Asian pirates mostly consisting of Japanese, even made it into the Philippines before their extermination in the 1600s. Aparri in the Philippines, which is located in Northern Luzon, was established as pirate city-state under the patronage of the Wokou. The area around Aparri was the site of the 1582 Cagayan battles between Japanese pirates and Spanish soldiers.[10][11][12][13][14] When the Spaniards reached the island of Luzon in 1571, they found Japanese colonies and settlements in Manila and in some parts of the Cagayan Valley, the Cordillera region, Lingayen, Bataan, and Catanduanes Island. The relatively light complexion of the natives of Bontoc and Banaue is probably a result of the early contacts between the Japanese and other islanders from south of Japan and the natives of the Cordillera.[15] Precolonial Philippines had a rich pottery tradition as verified by the finds at Ayub Cave in South Cotabato and other parts of the archipelago. Japanese texts mention trading expeditions to the island of Rusun (Luzon) for the highly prized Martaban jars. Martaban jars (Japanese: 呂宋壺, Hepburn: Rusun tsubo), also known as Luzon jars, were dark-brown to purple-black tapayan from the island of Luzon that had originally been made in Southern China and had been exported to the Philippines. These were highly sought after by Japanese traders in the 16th century Nanban trade and remain as valuable antique heirlooms in modern Japan. They are primarily used for the Japanese tea ceremony (chanoyu). They were prized for their simplicity and rough, often uneven design, epitomizing the traditional Japanese aesthetics of wabi-sabi (perfection in imperfection).[16] The Tokiko calls the Rusun and Namban jars, Ru-sun tsukuru or Lu-sung chi (in Chinese), which simply means made in Luzon. These Rusun jars, which had rokuru (wheel mark), were said to be more precious than gold because of its ability to act as tea canisters and enhance the fermentation.  In the 15th century AD, tea-jars were brought by the shōguns to Uji in Kyoto from the Philippines which was used in the Japanese tea ceremony.[17][18][19][20]
Japanese Brazilians.  Japanese Brazilians (Japanese: 日系ブラジル人, Hepburn: Nikkei Burajiru-jin; Portuguese: Nipo-brasileiros, [ˌnipobɾaziˈlejɾus]) are Brazilian citizens who are nationals or naturals of Japanese ancestry or Japanese immigrants living in Brazil or Japanese people of Brazilian ancestry.[6] Japanese immigration to Brazil peaked between 1908 and 1960, with the highest concentration between 1926 and 1935. In 2022, Japans Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that there were 2 million Japanese descendants in Brazil,[2] making it the country with the largest population of Japanese origin outside Japan. However, in terms of Japanese citizens, Brazil ranked seventh in 2023, with 46,900 Japanese citizens.[a] Most of the Japanese-descendant population in Brazil has been living in the country for three or more generations and most only hold Brazilian citizenship. Nikkei is the term used to refer to Japanese people and their descendants. Japanese immigration to Brazil officially began on June 18, 1908, when the ship Kasato Maru docked at Porto de Santos, bringing 781 Japanese workers to the coffee plantations in the São Paulo state countryside. For this reason, June 18 was established as the national day of Japanese immigration.[7][8] Immigration to Brazil ceased by 1973, with the arrival of the last immigrant ship, the Nippon Maru.[9] Between 1908 and 1963, 242,171 Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil, making them the fifth-largest immigrant group after Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, and German immigrants.[b] Currently, most Japanese Brazilians live in the states of São Paulo and Paraná.[11] In the early 20th century, Japan was overpopulated, and its predominantly rural population experienced significant poverty. At the same time, the Brazilian government was encouraging immigration, especially to supply labor for coffee plantations in São Paulo. Coffee was Brazils main export product, and the countrys financial health relied on it. Much of the labor on Brazilian coffee plantations came from Italian immigrants, whose passage by ship was subsidized by the Brazilian government. However, in 1902, the Italian government issued the Prinetti Decree, which banned subsidized immigration to Brazil due to reports that Italian immigrants were being exploited as laborers on Brazilian farms.[12] Consequently, the São Paulo government sought new sources of labor from other countries, including Japan, and Japanese immigration to Brazil developed in this context. Labor contracts on coffee plantations required immigrants to work for five years, but conditions were so poor that many left within the first year. Through great effort, some Japanese workers managed to save enough to buy their own land, with the first Japanese land purchase occurring in 1911 in the São Paulo countryside. Over the decades, Japanese immigrants and their descendants gradually moved from rural areas to Brazilian cities. By the early 1960s, the Japanese Brazilian urban population had surpassed the rural one. Many Japanese immigrants began working in small businesses or providing basic services. In Japanese tradition, the eldest son would continue the family business to help support his younger siblings education. By 1958, Japanese and their descendants, though less than 2% of the Brazilian population, accounted for 21% of Brazilians with education beyond high school. A 2016 IPEA study found that Japanese descendants had the highest average educational and salary levels in Brazil.[13] With Brazils economic deterioration from the late 1980s, many Japanese descendants from Brazil began migrating to Japan, in search of better economic conditions. These individuals are known as Dekasegis.
Infix. An infix is an affix inserted inside a word stem (an existing word or the core of a family of words). It contrasts with adfix, a rare term for an affix attached to the outside of a stem, such as a prefix or suffix.[note 1] When marking text for interlinear glossing, most affixes are separated with a hyphen, but infixes are separated with ⟨angle brackets⟩. English has almost no true infixes and those it does have are marginal. Most are heard in colloquial speech;[1] although there are other examples, such as in technical terminology, these examples are often more accurately described as tmesis.[2] None of the following are recognized in standard English. The present tense of some Proto-Indo-European verbs, in the case of a certain number of roots, adds a nasal infix (m, n) to the basic root. The stems of the other tenses have the root without the infix, and thus these verbs are called nasal-presents. This phenomenon is inherited, and preserved to varying degrees, by some early daughter languages such as Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin language, etc.[4]
ECMAScript. ECMAScript (/ˈɛkməskrɪpt/; ES)[1] is a standard for scripting languages, including JavaScript, JScript, and ActionScript. It is best known as a JavaScript standard intended to ensure the interoperability of web pages across different web browsers.[2] It is standardized by Ecma International in the document ECMA-262. ECMAScript is commonly used for client-side scripting on the World Wide Web, and it is increasingly being used for server-side applications and services using runtime environments such as Node.js,[3] Deno[4] and Bun.[5] ECMA-262, or the ECMAScript Language Specification, defines the ECMAScript Language, or just ECMAScript.[6] ECMA-262 specifies only language syntax and the semantics of the core application programming interface (API), such as Array, Function, and globalThis, while valid implementations of JavaScript add their own functionality such as input/output and file system handling. The ECMAScript specification is a standardized specification of a scripting language developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape; initially named Mocha, then LiveScript, and finally JavaScript.[7] In December 1995, Sun Microsystems and Netscape announced JavaScript in a press release.[8] In November 1996, Netscape announced a meeting of the Ecma International standards organization to advance the standardization of JavaScript.[9] The first edition of ECMA-262 was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly in June 1997. Several editions of the language standard have been published since then. The name ECMAScript was a compromise between the organizations involved in standardizing the language, especially Netscape and Microsoft, whose disputes dominated the early standards sessions. Eich commented that ECMAScript was always an unwanted trade name that sounds like a skin disease.[10] ECMAScript has been formalized through operational semantics by work at Stanford University and the Department of Computing, Imperial College London for security analysis and standardization.[11] ECMA stood for European Computer Manufacturers Association until 1994. Ecmas Technical Committee 39 (TC39) is responsible for the maintenance of ECMAScript.[12] New proposals to the language go through a staged process, with each stage representing the completeness of the proposals specification. Consensus must be reached within the committee to advance a proposal to the next stage. Proposals that reach stage 4, the final stage, will be included into the next version of the standard.[13] Since the release of version 6 in June 2015, new major versions have been finalized and published every June.[14]
Event-driven programming. In computer programming, event-driven programming is a programming paradigm in which the flow of the program is determined by external events. UI events from mice, keyboards, touchpads and touchscreens, and external sensor inputs are common cases. Events may also be programmatically generated, such as from messages from other programs, notifications from other threads, or other network events. Event-driven programming is the dominant paradigm used in graphical user interfaces applications and network servers. In an event-driven application, there is generally an event loop that listens for events and then triggers a callback function when one of those events is detected. Event-driven programs can be written in any programming language, although the task is easier in languages that provide high-level abstractions. Although they do not exactly fit the event-driven model, interrupt handling and exception handling have many similarities.
Ottoman Empire.  The Ottoman Empire[l] (/ˈɒtəmən/ ⓘ), also called the Turkish Empire,[24][25] was an empire[m] that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe, between the early 16th and early 18th centuries.[26][27][28] The empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in c. 1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II. With its capital at Constantinople and control over a significant portion of the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six centuries. Ruling over so many peoples, the empire granted varying levels of autonomy to its many confessional communities, or millets, to manage their own affairs per Islamic law. During the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire became a global power.[29] While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. The Ottomans suffered military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of territory. With rising nationalism, a number of new states emerged in the Balkans. Following Tanzimat reforms over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became more powerful and organized internally. In the 1876 revolution, the Ottoman Empire attempted constitutional monarchy, before reverting to a royalist dictatorship under Abdul Hamid II, following the Great Eastern Crisis. Over the course of the late 19th century, Ottoman intellectuals known as Young Turks sought to liberalize and rationalize society and politics along Western lines, culminating in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which reestablished a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrous Balkan Wars, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, leading a coup détat in 1913 that established a dictatorship.
Boris Vian.  Boris Vian (French: [bɔʁis vjɑ̃]; 10 March 1920 – 23 June 1959) was a French polymath who is primarily remembered for his novels. Those published under the pseudonym Vernon Sullivan were bizarre parodies of criminal fiction, highly controversial at the time of their release owing to their unconventional outlook. Vians other fiction, published under his real name, featured a highly individual writing style with numerous made-up words, subtle wordplay and surrealistic plots. His novel Froth on the Daydream (LÉcume des jours) is the best known of these works and one of the few translated into English. Vian was an important influence on the French jazz scene. He served as liaison for Hoagy Carmichael, Duke Ellington and Miles Davis in Paris, wrote for several French jazz-reviews (Le Jazz Hot, Paris Jazz) and published numerous articles dealing with jazz both in the United States and in France. His own music and songs enjoyed popularity during his lifetime, particularly the anti-war song Le Déserteur (The Deserter). Vian was born in 1920 into an upper middle-class family in the wealthy Parisian suburb of Ville dAvray. His parents were Paul Vian, a young rentier, and Yvonne Ravenez, amateur pianist and harpist. From his father, Vian inherited a distrust of the church and the military, as well as a love of the bohemian life. Vian was the second of four children: the others were Lélio (1918–1984), Alain (1921–1995) and Ninon (1924–2003). The family occupied the Les Fauvettes villa. The name Boris was chosen by Yvonne, an avid classical music lover, after seeing a performance of Mussorgskys opera Boris Godunov.[1]
Javanese. Javanese may refer to:
Programming paradigm. A programming paradigm is a relatively high-level way to conceptualize and structure the implementation of a computer program. A programming language can be classified as supporting one or more paradigms.[1] Paradigms are separated along and described by different dimensions of programming. Some paradigms are about implications of the execution model, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other paradigms are about the way code is organized, such as grouping into units that include both state and behavior. Yet others are about syntax and grammar. Some common programming paradigms include (shown in hierarchical relationship):[2][3][4] Programming paradigms come from computer science research into existing practices of software development. The findings allow for describing and comparing programming practices and the languages used to code programs. For perspective, other fields of research study  software engineering processes and describe various methodologies to describe and compare them. A programming language can be described in terms of paradigms. Some languages support only one paradigm. For example, Smalltalk supports object-oriented and Haskell supports functional. Most languages support multiple paradigms. For example, a program written in C++, Object Pascal, or PHP can be purely procedural, purely object-oriented, or can contain aspects of both paradigms, or others.
Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages.  Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported. A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.
Java (software platform).  21.0.5 LTS (October 15, 2024; 10 months ago (2024-10-15)[4]) [±] 17.0.13 LTS (October 15, 2024; 10 months ago (2024-10-15)[5]) [±] 11.0.25 LTS (October 15, 2024; 10 months ago (2024-10-15)[6]) [±] Java is a set of computer software and specifications that provides a software platform for developing application software and deploying it in a cross-platform computing environment. Java is used in a wide variety of computing platforms from embedded devices and mobile phones to enterprise servers and supercomputers. Java applets, which are less common than standalone Java applications, were commonly run in secure, sandboxed environments to provide many features of native applications through being embedded in HTML pages. Writing in the Java programming language is the primary way to produce code that will be deployed as byte code in a Java virtual machine (JVM); byte code compilers are also available for other languages, including Ada, JavaScript, Kotlin (Googles preferred Android language), Python, and Ruby. In addition, several languages have been designed to run natively on the JVM, including Clojure, Groovy, and Scala. Java syntax borrows heavily from C and C++, but object-oriented features are modeled after Smalltalk and Objective-C.[13] Java eschews certain low-level constructs such as pointers and has a very simple memory model where objects are allocated on the heap (while some implementations  e.g. all currently supported by Oracle, may use escape analysis optimization to allocate on the stack instead) and all variables of object types are references. Memory management is handled through integrated automatic garbage collection performed by the JVM. The latest version is Java 23 released in September 2024, and the latest long-term support (LTS) version is Java 21 released in September 2023, which is one of a few LTS versions still supported, down to Java 8 LTS. As an open source platform, Java has many distributors, including Amazon, IBM, Azul Systems, and AdoptOpenJDK. Distributions include Amazon Corretto, Zulu, AdoptOpenJDK, and Liberica. Regarding Oracle, it distributes Java 8, and also makes available e.g. Java 11, both also currently supported LTS versions. Oracle (and others) highly recommend that you uninstall older versions of Java than Java 8,[14] because of serious risks due to unresolved security issues.[15][16][17] Since Java 9 (as well as versions 10, and 12–16, and 18–20) are no longer supported, Oracle advises its users to immediately transition to a supported version. Oracle released the last free-for-commercial-use public update for the legacy Java 8 LTS in January 2019, and will continue to support Java 8 with public updates for personal use indefinitely. Oracle extended support for Java 6 ended in December 2018.[18]
Java (disambiguation). Java is an island of Indonesia. Java may also refer to:
Javanese script.  Javanese script (natively known as Aksara Jawa, Hanacaraka, Carakan, and Dentawyanjana)[1] is one of Indonesias traditional scripts developed on the island of Java. The script is primarily used to write the Javanese language and has also been used to write several other regional languages such as Sundanese and Madurese, the regional lingua franca Malay, as well as the historical languages Kawi and Sanskrit. It heavily influenced the Balinese script from which the writing system for Sasak developed. Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts from at least the mid-16th century CE until the mid-20th century CE, before it was gradually supplanted by the Latin alphabet. Today, the script is taught in the Yogyakarta Special Region as well as the provinces of Central Java and East Java as part of the local curriculum, but with very limited function in everyday use.[2][3] Javanese script is an abugida writing system which consists of 20 to 33 basic letters, depending on the language being written. Like other Brahmic scripts, each letter (called an aksara) represents a syllable with the inherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/ which can be changed with the placement of diacritics around the letter. Each letter has a conjunct form called pasangan, which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous letter. Traditionally, the script is written without spaces between words (scriptio continua) but is interspersed with a group of decorative punctuation. Javanese scripts evolutionary history can be traced fairly well because significant amounts of inscriptional evidence left behind allowed for epigraphical studies to be carried out. The oldest root of Javanese script is the Tamil-Brahmi script which evolved into the Pallava script in Southern and Southeast Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries. The Pallava script, in turn, evolved into Kawi script, which was actively used throughout Indonesias Hindu-Buddhist period between the 8th and 15th centuries. In various parts of Indonesia, Kawi script would then evolve into Indonesias various traditional scripts, one of them being Javanese script.[4] The modern Javanese script seen today evolved from Kawi script between the 14th and 15th centuries, a period in which Java began to receive significant Islamic influence.[5][6][7] From the 15th until the mid-20th centuries, Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts spanning a wide range of themes. Javanese script was used throughout the island at a time when there was no easy means of communication between remote areas and no impulse towards standardization. As a result, there is a huge variety of historical and local styles of Javanese writing throughout the ages. The great differences between regional styles make the Javanese script appear like a family of scripts.[8] Javanese writing traditions were especially cultivated in the Kraton environment in Javanese cultural centers, such as Yogyakarta and Surakarta. However, Javanese texts are known to be made and used by various layers of society with varying usage intensities between regions. In West Java, for example, the script was mainly used by the Sundanese nobility (ménak) due to the political influence of the Mataram kingdom.[9] However, most Sundanese people within the same time period more commonly used the Pegon script which was adapted from the Arabic alphabet.[10] Javanese writing tradition also relied on periodic copying due to the deterioration of writing materials in the tropical Javanese climate; as a result, many physical manuscripts that are available now are 18th or 19th century copies, though their contents can usually be traced to far older prototypes.[7]
Open frame. Plenty of coverage, but only as a sentence or two in a larger text about bowling scoring, which is conveniently what we already have in the Wikipedia page for tenpin bowling, therefore no need for a standalone page. (proposed by JustARandomSquid) If you can address this concern by improving, copyediting, sourcing, renaming, or merging the page, please edit this page and do so. You may remove this message if you improve the article or otherwise object to deletion for any reason. Although not required, you are encouraged to explain why you object to the deletion, either in your edit summary or on the talk page. If this template is removed, do not replace it. The article may be deleted if this message remains in place for seven days, i.e., after 07:55, 20 September 2025 (UTC). An open frame in ten-pin bowling refers to a frame in which the player makes neither a strike nor a spare.[1] Bowling an open frame in a professional game is typically devastating enough to ones score to cause a loss.[citation needed] In bowling video games, open frames typically affects the players in-game reputation, level, or experience points negatively, especially when a players level is high enough; in some games, it may even cause the players ranking or level to drop. 
Lineal descendant. A lineal or direct descendant, in legal usage, is a blood relative in a persons direct line of descent – the children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, etc. In a legal procedure sense, lineal descent refers to the acquisition of estate by inheritance by parent from grandparent and by child from parent, whereas collateral descent refers to the acquisition of estate or real property by inheritance by sibling from sibling, and cousin from cousin. Adopted children, for whom adoption statutes create the same rights of heirship as children of the body, come within the meaning of the term lineal descendants, as used in a statute providing for the non-lapse of a devise where the devisee predeceases the testator but leaves lineal descendants. Among some Native American tribes in the United States, tribal enrollment can be determined by lineal descent, as opposed to a minimum blood quantum.[1] Lineal descent means that anyone directly descended from original tribal enrollees could be eligible for tribal enrollment, regardless of how much native blood they have. The antonym of descendant is antecedent. A collateral or indirect descendant is a term for a relative descended from a persons sibling or the sibling of an ancestor, and thus a niece, nephew, or younger cousin.[2]
Tagale people. The Tagale are a sub-ethnic group of the Nuba peoples in the Nuba Mountains of South Kordofan state, in southern Sudan. They speak Tegali of the Kordofanian languages group, in the major  Niger–Congo language family. They number several 80,000 people. Most of them are Muslims.  This article about a Sudanese ethnicity is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Massacre.  Note: Varies by jurisdiction Note: Varies by jurisdiction A massacre is an event of killing people who are not engaged in hostilities or are defenseless.[1] It is generally used to describe a targeted mass killing of civilians by an armed group or person. The word is a loan of a French term for butchery or carnage.[2][3] Other terms with overlapping scope include war crime, pogrom, mass killing, mass murder, and extrajudicial killing.
Java. Java[a] (Javanese: ꦗꦮ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, projected to rise to 158 million at mid 2025, Java is the worlds most populous island, home to approximately 56% of the Indonesian population while constituting only 7% of its land area.[2] Indonesias capital city, Jakarta, is on Javas northwestern coast. Many of the best known events in Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesias eight UNESCO world heritage sites are located in Java: Ujung Kulon National Park, Borobudur Temple, Prambanan Temple, and Sangiran Early Man Site. Java was formed by volcanic eruptions due to geologic subduction of the Australian Plate under the Sunda Plate. It is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest in Indonesia by landmass, at about 132,598.77 square kilometres (51,196.67 sq mi) (including Maduras 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi)). A chain of volcanic mountains is the east–west spine of the island. Four main languages are spoken on the island: Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, and Betawi. Javanese and Sundanese are the most spoken.[3] The ethnic groups native to the island are the Javanese in the central and eastern parts and Sundanese in the western parts. The Madurese in the Eastern salient of Java are migrants from Madura Island (which is part of East Java Province in administrative terms), while the Betawi in the capital city of Jakarta are hybrids from various ethnic groups in Indonesia. Most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Javas population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.[4] Java is divided into four administrative provinces: Banten, West Java, Central Java, and East Java, and two special regions, Jakarta and Yogyakarta.
Genealogy. Genealogy (from Ancient Greek  γενεαλογία (genealogía) the making of a pedigree)[2] is the study of families, family history, and the tracing of their lineages. Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees of its members. The results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives. The field of family history is broader than genealogy, and covers not just lineage but also family and community history and biography.[3] The record of genealogical work may be presented as a genealogy, a family history, or a family tree. In the narrow sense, a genealogy or a family tree traces the descendants of one person, whereas a family history traces the ancestors of one person,[4][5][6] but the terms are often used interchangeably.[7] A family history may include additional biographical information, family traditions, and the like.[3] The pursuit of family history and origins tends to be shaped by several motives, including the desire to carve out a place for ones family in the larger historical picture, a sense of responsibility to preserve the past for future generations, and self-satisfaction in accurate storytelling.[8] Genealogy research is also performed for scholarly or forensic purposes, or to trace legal next of kin to inherit under intestacy laws. Amateur genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses. Professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases. They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to other professionals and to amateurs. Both try to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, and historical socioeconomic or religious conditions. Genealogists sometimes specialize in a particular group, e.g., a Scottish clan; a particular surname, such as in a one-name study; a small community, e.g., a single village or parish, such as in a one-place study; or a particular, often famous, person. Bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members who can prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who simply choose to support the group.
South Kordofan. South Kordofan (Arabic: جنوب كردفان Ǧanūb Kurdufān) is one of the 18 wilayat or states of Sudan. It has an area of 158,355 km2[4] and an estimated population of approximately 2,107,623 people (2018 est).[5] Kaduqli is the capital of the state. It is centered on the Nuba Mountains. At one time it was supposed that South Kordofan was the only state in (North) Sudan suitable for producing oil, but oil has also been discovered in neighboring White Nile State in larger quantities.[6] Under the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, residents of South Kordofan were to hold popular consultations in 2011 to determine the constitutional future of the state. However, South Kordofan governor Ahmed Haroun suspended the process and violence followed.[7] Haroun had previously been charged with war crimes against civilians and crime against humanity by the International Criminal Court. Although South Kordofan is part of Sudan, it is home to many pro-South Sudan communities, especially in the Nuba Mountains, some of whom fought alongside southern rebels during the long civil war.[8] In 2009 and 2010, a series of conflicts between rival nomadic tribes in South Kordofan caused a large number of casualties and displaced thousands. On June 6, 2011, An armed conflict broke out between the forces of Northern and Southern Sudan, ahead of the scheduled independence of the South on July 9. This followed an agreement for both sides to withdraw from Abyei.[9][10] On June 20, the parties agreed to demilitarize the contested area of Abyei where Ethiopian peacekeepers were deployed.[11] Abyei is currently controlled by the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei.[12]
Celebrity.  Celebrity is a condition of fame and broad public recognition of a person or group due to the attention given to them by mass media. The word is also used to refer to famous individuals. A person may attain celebrity status by having great wealth, participation in sports or the entertainment industry, their position as a political figure, or even their connection to another celebrity. Celebrity usually implies a favorable public image, as opposed to the neutrals famous or notable, or the negatives infamous and notorious.[1][2] In his 2020 book Dead Famous: An Unexpected History Of Celebrity, British historian Greg Jenner uses the definition: Celebrity (noun): a unique persona made widely known to the public via media coverage, and whose life is publicly consumed as dramatic entertainment, and whose commercial brand is made profitable for those who exploit their popularity, and perhaps also for themselves.[3] Although his book is subtitled from Bronze Age to Silver Screen, and despite the fact that Until very recently, sociologists argued that celebrity was invented just over 100 years ago, in the flickering glimmer of early Hollywood and the suggestion that some medieval saints might qualify, Jenner asserts that the earliest celebrities lived in the early 1700s, his first example being Henry Sacheverell.[3][4] Over time, the invention of more types of mass media has broadened the ways in which people have become famous.
Recidivism.  Recidivism (/rɪˈsɪdɪvɪzəm/; from Latin: recidivus recurring, derived from re- again and cadere to fall) is the act of a person repeating an undesirable behavior after they have experienced negative consequences of that behavior, or have been trained to extinguish it. Recidivism is also used to refer to the percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested for a similar offense.[1] The term is frequently used in conjunction with criminal behavior and substance abuse. Recidivism is a synonym of relapse, which is more commonly used in medicine and in the disease model of addiction.[medical citation needed] A 2011 study found that harsh prison conditions, including isolation, tended to increase recidivism, though none of these effects were statistically significant.[2] Various researchers have noted that prisoners are stripped of civil rights and are reluctantly absorbed into communities – which further increases their alienation and isolation. Other contributors to recidivism include the difficulties released offenders face in finding jobs, in renting apartments or in getting education. Owners of businesses will often refuse to hire a convicted felon and are at best hesitant, especially when filling any position that entails even minor responsibility or the handling of money (this includes most work), especially to those convicted of thievery, such as larceny, or to drug addicts.[3]  Many leasing corporations (those organisations and people who own and rent apartments) as of 2017[update] routinely perform criminal background checks and disqualify ex-convicts.  However, especially in the inner city or in areas with high crime rates, lessors may not always apply their official policies in this regard. When they do, apartments may be rented by someone other than the occupant. People with criminal records report difficulty or inability to find educational opportunities, and are often denied financial aid based on their records. In the United States, those found guilty of even a minor misdemeanor (in some states, a citation offense, such as a traffic ticket)[citation needed] or misdemeanor drug offence (e.g. possession of cannabis or heroin) while receiving Federal student aid are disqualified from receiving further aid for a specified period of time.[4] The likelihood of recidivism for a previously convicted criminal can be predicted using structured professional judgement (SPJ) tools in an effort to reduce recidivism by measuring protective factors such as stable work, attitudes towards authority and living circumstances. Two tools used for SPJ include the HCR-20[5] and the newer SAPROF developed in the late 2010s.[6][7] SPJ tools are also used in forensic psychiatry.
College-preparatory school.  A college-preparatory school (often shortened to prep school, preparatory school, college prep school or college prep academy) is a type of secondary school. The term refers to public, private independent or parochial schools primarily designed to prepare students for higher education. In Japan, college-prep schools are called Shingakukō (進学校), which means a school used to progress into another school.  Prep schools in Japan are usually considered prestigious and are often difficult to get into.  However, there are many tiers of prep schools, the entry into which depends on the university that the school leads into.[1] Japanese prep schools started as chūgakkō (中学校), secondary schools for boys, which were founded after the secondary school law in 1886. Later, kōtō jogakkō (高等女学校), secondary school for girls (1891), and jitsugyō gakkō (実業学校), vocational schools (1924), were included among chūtōgakkō and were legally regarded as schools on the same level as a school for boys. However, graduates from those two types of schools had more requirements for college entrance. In the modern period, many Japanese secondary schools were five-year schools, except for during a short term from 1943 to 1946. [citation needed] The social status of chūgakkō, or kyūsei chūgakkō (旧制中学校), secondary schools for boys under the old system, did not disappear even after the new system (6-3-3) took effect in 1947. Many shingakukō are six-year schools. Many have their origins in kyūsei chūgakkō and kōtō jogakkō, or ones attached to universities. Japanese pupils who aspire to a prep school education take written examinations in sixth grade in each prep school. [citation needed]
Niger–Congo languages. Niger–Congo is a proposed family of languages spoken over the majority of sub-Saharan Africa.[2] It unites the Mande languages, the Atlantic–Congo languages (which share a characteristic noun class system), and possibly several smaller groups of languages that are difficult to classify. If valid, Niger–Congo would be the worlds largest language family in terms of member languages,[a] the third-largest in terms of speakers, and Africas largest in terms of geographical area.[5] The number of named Niger–Congo languages listed by Ethnologue is 1,540.[6] The proposed family would be the third-largest in the world by number of native speakers, with around 600 million people as of 2025.[7] Within Niger–Congo, the Bantu languages alone account for 350 million people (2015), or half the total Niger–Congo speaking population. The most widely spoken Niger–Congo languages by number of native speakers are Yoruba, Igbo, Fula, Lingala, Ewe, Fon, Ga-Dangme, Shona, Sesotho, Xhosa, Zulu, Akan, and Mooré. The most widely spoken by the total number of speakers is Swahili, which is used as a lingua franca in parts of eastern and southeastern Africa.[5] While the ultimate genetic unity of the core of Niger–Congo (called Atlantic–Congo) is widely accepted, the internal cladistic structure is not well established. Other primary branches may include Mande, Dogon, Ijaw, Katla and Rashad. The connection of the Mande languages especially has never been demonstrated, and without them, the validity of Niger–Congo family as a whole (as opposed to Atlantic–Congo or a similar subfamily) has not been established. One of the most distinctive characteristics common to Atlantic–Congo languages is the use of a noun-class system, which is essentially a gender system with multiple genders.[8] The language family most likely originated in or near the area where these languages were spoken prior to Bantu expansion (i.e. West Africa or Central Africa). Its expansion may have been associated with the expansion of Sahel agriculture in the African Neolithic period, following the desiccation of the Sahara in c. 3500 BCE.[9][10]
Trust (law).  Governing doctrines A trust is a legal relationship in which the owner of property, or any transferable right, gives it to another to manage and use solely for the benefit of a designated person. In the English common law, the party who entrusts the property is known as the settlor, the party to whom it is entrusted is known as the trustee, the party for whose benefit the property is entrusted is known as the beneficiary,[1] and the entrusted property is known as the corpus or trust property.[2][3] A testamentary trust is an irrevocable trust established and funded pursuant to the terms of a deceased persons will.  An inter vivos trust is a trust created during the settlors life. The trustee is the legal owner of the assets held in trust on behalf of the trust and its beneficiaries. The beneficiaries are equitable owners of the trust property. Trustees have a fiduciary duty to manage the trust for the benefit of the equitable owners. Trustees must provide regular accountings of trust income and expenditures. A court of competent jurisdiction can remove a trustee who breaches their duty. Some breaches can be charged and tried as criminal offenses. A trustee can be a natural person, business entity or public body. A trust in the US may be subject to federal and state taxation. The trust is governed by the terms under which it was created. In most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or deed. It is possible for a single individual to assume the role of more than one of these parties, and for multiple individuals to share a single role. For example, in a living trust it is common for the grantor to be both a trustee and a lifetime beneficiary while naming other contingent beneficiaries.[4] Trusts have existed since Roman times and become one of the most important innovations in property law.[5] Specific aspects of trust law vary in different jurisdictions. Some U.S. states are adapting the Uniform Trust Code to codify and harmonize their trust laws, but state-specific variations still remain.
Anrakuju-in.  Anrakuju-in (安楽寿院) is a Buddhist temple located in the Takeda neighborhood of Fushimi, Kyoto, Japan. The temple is associated with the Imperial family of Japan, originating from a Buddhist chapel built in the eastern palace of the Toba Imperial Villa (鳥羽離宮, Toba rikyu)  in 1137. The temple houses a number of Important Cultural Properties and the tombs of Emperor Toba and Emperor Konoe are on the grounds. The temple belongs to the Shingon sect, and its honzon is a statue of Amida Nyorai. The temple precincts are protected as a National Historic Site as the Toba Imperial Villa site. [1] The Toba Imperial Villa was located in the Kamitoba neighborhood in Minami-ku, Kyoto, and the Shimotoba, Takeda, and Nakajima neighborhoods in the adjacent Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, or approximately three kilometers south of the original border of Heian-kyō, at the confluence of the Kamo River and the Katsura River. This area was called Toba and was a key transportation hub, as it was on the Sanyōdō highway to western Japan and served as the port for Heian-kyō, to which it was connected by an extension of the Suzaku-ōji road, the Main Street of the ancient capital. It was also famous as a scenic place where aristocrats hunted and built summer villas. The Toba Imperial Villa is estimated to be about 1.7 kilometers east-to-west and 1.1 kilometers north-to-south, but it is unclear because the western edge is the current course of the Kamo River.[2] The Toba Imperial Villa was the stage for the cloistered government in the late Heian period (11th to 12th centuries). In the 11th century, Fujiwara no Suetsuna, presented his villa at Toba to the cloistered Emperor Shirakawa. The retired emperor carried out large-scale expansion work. This is what would become Nanden, which was completed in 1087. After that, the Kitaden Palace, Izumi Palace, Baba Palace, Higashiden Palace, and Tanaka Palace were built in succession.  Buddhist temples were built in each palace by the retired Emperor Shirakawa and Emperor Toba. The Buddhist temple attached to the Nanden Palace, which was built first, was called Shōkongō-in, followed by Shōkomyō-in in the Kitaden Palace, Jōbōdō-in in the Izumi Palace, Anrakuju-in in the Higashiden Palace, and Kongōshin-in in the Tanakaden Palace. [2] During the reign of Emperor Toba in the 12th century, the Toba Imperial Villa was expanded several times, starting with the Izumi Palace. The construction work was shared among the Emperors close retainers, who were appointed to oversee the various sections. Emperor Toba ordered the construction of two three-story pagodas at Anrakuju-in, and designated the main pagoda as his own tomb. The other pagoda was intended as the tomb of Bifukumonin, but after the death of the retired emperor, Bifukumonin left a will to have her remains interred at Mount Kōya, and so her remains were not interred there. In 1163, Emperor Nijō ordered that the remains of Emperor Konoe, which had been kept at Chisoku-in, in Nara be reburied at Anrakuju-in.  At the time, Emperor Go-Shirakawa and Emperor Nijō were fighting over the position of Chiten-no-kimi, and it is speculated that Emperor Nijō carried out this reburial in order to emphasize that he was not the biological son of Emperor Go-Shirakawa, but the adopted son of Bifukumonin and the brother-in-law of Emperor Konoe. After Emperor Nijō suddenly died, Emperor Go-Shirakawa secured the position of Chiten, but disliked and avoided the Toba Imperial Villa. However, ironically, it was in Toba Imperial Villa that Taira no Kiyomori imprisoned Emperor Go-Shirakawa when he ended his cloistered rule in his coup of 1179. The Toba Imperial Villa was considered a private space for the retired emperor, and although political meetings were held there in the latter years of Emperor Tobas life, most political decisions were made at the Kyoto Imperial Palace.[citation needed]
Lists of islands.  This is a list of the lists of islands in the world grouped by country, by continent, by body of water, and by other classifications. For rank-order lists, see the other lists of islands below.  By ocean: By other bodies of water:
Fujiwara no Tashi. Fujiwara no Tashi (藤原多子; 1140 – January 12, 1202) was an empress consort of Japan. She was first the consort of Emperor Konoe,[1] and then of Emperor Nijō.[2] Because she became consort twice, she was called the Empress of Two Generations.[3] Her birth father was Tokudaiji Kinyoshi. Her adoptive father was Fujiwara no Yorinaga.[1] In 1155, Emperor Konoe died, and Fujiwara no Tashi lived in quiet retirement.[1]  A few years later, when Emperor Nijo ascended the throne, he demanded that Fujiwara no Tashi – now around 22 years old, and renowned for her beauty – be appointed his empress consort. This caused debate and scandal amongst the council and court, as there had never in Japanese history been a woman who was consort to two emperors.[1][3] Nonetheless, Emperor Nijo insisted, and Fujiwara no Tashi became his empress consort; some chronicles state that she was reluctant to do so.[1] She had several other names in her lifetime, these being Fujiwara no Ōiko, Fujiwara no Masuko and Fujiwara no Tadako.[4][5] Fujiwara no Yorinaga married Tokudaiji Kinyoshis eldest sister, Sachiko (Tashis aunt), and raised Tashi as his daughter from a young age. She was married to Emperor Konoe in 1150. After the Emperors death in 1155, Tashi left the palace to live in seclusion.
Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Emperor Go-Shirakawa (後白河天皇, Go-Shirakawa-tennō; October 18, 1127 – April 26, 1192) was the 77th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His de jure reign spanned the years from 1155 through 1158, though arguably he effectively maintained imperial power for almost thirty-seven years through the insei system – scholars differ as to whether his rule can be truly considered part of the insei system, given that the Hōgen Rebellion undermined the imperial position.[1] However, it is broadly acknowledged that by politically outmaneuvering his opponents, he attained greater influence and power than the diminished authority of the emperors position during this period would otherwise allow. Posthumously, this 12th-century sovereign was named after the 11th-century Emperor Shirakawa. Go- (後), translates literally as later; and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Shirakawa, or in some older sources, may be identified as Shirakawa, the second or as Shirakawa II. Unusually, the years of Go-Shirakawas reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō; Kyūju  (1154–1156) and Hōgen (1156–1159).[2] He was de facto the last true emperor, before the shogun became the actual head of the country after Go-Shirakawas death in 1192 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. On August 22, 1155 (Kyūju 2, 23rd day of the 7th month), Emperor Konoe died at the age of 17 years without leaving any heirs.[3] There was an ensuing succession dispute: The main candidates were Prince Shigehito, son of retired Emperor Sutoku, and Prince Morihito, son of Go-Shirakawa (then named Prince Masahito). Though, according to Gukansho, Bifukumon-in also suggested her daughter Imperial Princess Akiko, Heian society was fundamentally opposed to the idea of a female ruler. Shigehito was expected to succeed and was supported by Fujiwara no Yorinaga, but court nobles centering around Bifukumon-in and Fujiwara no Tadamichi opposed this, fearing Sutoku gaining power as Cloistered Emperor. Securing the support of Cloistered Emperor Toba, a plan was put into place where 29 year old Prince Masahito, Morihitos father, would take the throne as Emperor to secure his sons position until he came of age, skipping the usual status of Crown Prince. The new Emperor, who would be posthumously named Go-Shirakawa, was enthroned late that year.
Kujō-in. Fujiwara no Teishi (藤原 呈子, also read Fujiwara no Shimeko; 1131 – October 23, 1176) was a Japanese noblewoman (nyoin) of the late Heian period. She was a consort to Emperor Konoe but did not bear him any children and entered religious orders in her mid twenties. Her dharma name was Shōjōkan (清浄観) and her ingō was Kujō-in (九条院). Fujiwara no Teishi was born in 1131[1] to Fujiwara no Koremichi[1] and a daughter of Fujiwara no Akitaka.[1] She became the adopted daughter of the kanpaku Fujiwara no Tadamichi.[1] Like many Japanese noblewomen of the pre-modern era, the correct reading of her given name is uncertain,[citation needed] and the readings Teishi[1] and Shimeko[citation needed] are speculative on and kun readings, respectively.[citation needed] In Kyūan 6 (1150) she entered the service of Emperor Konoe,[1] initially as a nyōgo[1] and later become empress (chūgū).[1] This was against the backdrop of between Tadamichi and his brother Yorinaga regarding whose daughter would be the mother of the future emperor.[1] Unfortunately, she did not provide the emperor with an heir,[1] and in Kyūju 2 (1155) she entered religious orders due to illness,[1] taking the dharma name Shōjōkan.[1] In Hōgen 1 (1156) she became Kōgō-gūshiki [ja][1] and in Hōgen 3 (1158) Kōtaigō-gūshiki [ja].[1] In Ninan 3 (1168) she became a nyoin,[1] with Kujō-in as her ingō.[1] She died in 1176.[1] Unless otherwise noted (as BC), years are in CE / AD  1  individuals that were given the title of empress posthumously 2  individuals elevated to the rank of empress due to their position as honorary mother of the emperor 3  Shōshi served briefly as honorary empress for her younger brother Emperor Go-Daigo
Fumimaro Konoe.  Prince Fumimaro Konoe (近衞 文麿, Konoe Fumimaro; 12 October 1891 – 16 December 1945) was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1937 to 1939 and from 1940 to 1941. He presided over the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 and breakdown in relations with the United States, which shortly after his tenure culminated in Japans entry into World War II. Konoe played a central role in transforming Japan into a totalitarian state by pushing through the State General Mobilization Law and establishing the Imperial Rule Assistance Association. Born in Tokyo City to a prominent aristocratic family, Konoe graduated from Kyoto University and took up his fathers seat in the House of Peers in 1916. He was a member of the Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference following World War I, and served as president of the House of Peers from 1933 to 1937. In June 1937, Konoe became prime minister of Japan on the recommendation of his mentor Saionji Kinmochi. When the Marco Polo Bridge Incident took place a month later, he oversaw an escalation of tensions with the Republic of China which ultimately culminated in the Second Sino-Japanese War. During the early years of the conflict, Konoe presided over numerous victories against Chinese forces as well as the widespread perpetration of war crimes (including the Nanjing Massacre). In 1938, he enacted the State General Mobilization Law which massively expanded the governments control over Japanese civilians in order to place the country on a war footing. In January 1939, Konoe resigned as the Japanese military proved unable to achieve a decisive victory in China. After resigning as Japans head of government, Konoe served as chairman of the Privy Council until being once again appointed prime minister in July 1940. Later that year, he founded the Imperial Rule Assistance Association and oversaw the signing of the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. During his second premiership, Konoe also presided over the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the formal recognition of Wang Jingweis puppet government in Nanjing and the conclusion of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact. Despite attempting to resolve growing tensions with the United States, a rigid timetable imposed by the military on the negotiations and Konoes own inflexibility set the two countries on the path to war. Politically isolated, Konoe resigned as premier in October 1941 and was replaced by Hideki Tojo. Six weeks later, the Pacific War broke out after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Konoe remained a close advisor to Emperor Hirohito until the end of World War II and played a key role in the fall of the Tōjō Cabinet in 1944. At the start of the Allied occupation of Japan in 1945, he briefly served as a minister in the cabinet of Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, but came under suspicion of war crimes. In December, Konoe committed suicide by ingesting cyanide before he could be arrested by the authorities.
Island, Kentucky.  Island is a home rule-class city in McLean County, Kentucky, in the United States. The population was 429 at the 2020 census.[3] It is included in the Owensboro metropolitan area. The city is named for Judge William Worthingtons early 19th-century 8-square-mile (21 km2) estate, known as The Island from the way high water on the Green and other nearby rivers would maroon it from adjacent land. Between 1829 and 1860, the local post office operated as Worthington. The Owensboro and Nashville Railroad connected the area in 1872; the station and new post office were known as Island Station. Both were shortened to Island in 1882.[4] Island is located at 37°26′33″N 87°8′48″W / 37.44250°N 87.14667°W / 37.44250; -87.14667 (37.442444, -87.146633).[5] It is in the southeastern portion of McLean County along U.S. Route 431 at its junction with Kentucky Route 85. Also traversing the city is Kentucky Route 2110. US 431 leads north 3 miles (5 km) to Livermore and 23 miles (37 km) to Owensboro, while to the south it leads 11 miles (18 km) to Central City. KY 85 leads east 10 miles (16 km) to Centertown and west 7 miles (11 km) to Sacramento. According to the United States Census Bureau, Island has a total area of 0.34 square miles (0.88 km2), of which 0.001 square miles (0.003 km2), or 0.30%, are water.[2]
Tragedy Khadafi.  Percy Lee Chapman (born August 13, 1971), known by his stage name Tragedy Khadafi (formerly Intelligent Hoodlum), is an American rapper and record producer. Hailing from the Queensbridge Housing Projects in Queens, New York City,[2] he is documented with coining the term illmatic during his appearance on Marley Marls album In Control, Volume 1 (1988). The word was the inspiration for fellow New York rapper Nas debut album of the same name.[3] Khadafi began his career as one half of the duo Super Kids, along with Queensbridge producer DJ Hot Day. This output caught the attention of Marley Marl, who in 1986 produced the duos single The Tragedy (Dont Do It), and Stunt of the Block.[4][5] Chapman was then made a junior member of the Juice Crew[2][6] alongside artists such as Big Daddy Kane, Kool G Rap, and MC Shan. In 1987, he appeared as MC Percy on the B side of the 12 Juice Crew All Stars[7] and on the last Super Kids single, Hot Day Master Mix appearing on tracks Hip Hop Kids Live At U.S.A  and Go Queensbridge.[8] After a conviction that year (he was only 16 years old) for robbery charges followed by serving time in the Elmira Correctional Facility.[9] In 1988, he appeared alongside fellow Juice Crew members on the Marley Marl compilation album In Control Vol.1, on the solo tracks The Rebel and Live Motivator.[10] While in prison, Chapman became a Five Percenter and began working under the alias Intelligent Hoodlum,[6] and released the self-titled album Intelligent Hoodlum on A&M Records. The album was produced by Marley Marl (with co-production by Large Professor) and contained the singles Back to Reality, Black and Proud, and Arrest the President.[11][12] Chapman continued to record throughout the remainder of the 1990s releasing a follow-up Intelligent Hoodlum album titled Tragedy – Saga of a Hoodlum for A&M Records in 1993.[13] The album spawned two singles Street Life/Mad Brothers Know his Name and Grand Groove/Get Large.[12]  One of his last recordings as Intelligent Hoodlum was the title cut for the motion picture soundtrack of Posse, a Hollywood Western that told the story of an African-American gunslinger posse. This song marked the end of Chapmans overt focus on Conscious hip hop, Black history and political commentary in his verses.  Working with Capone, Noreaga and Mobb Deep, recording L.A L.A a response to Tha Dogg Pounds New York, New York, Intelligent Hoodlum then began working under the name Tragedy Khadafi in 1997 and created a group called CNN and ended up getting them signed to Penalty Records .[6] He also executive produced the group Capone-N-Noreagas debut album, The War Report, on which he appeared more on the album than Capone. When the latter returned to prison, Noreaga severed ties with Tragedy. In 1998, Khadafi formed the group Iron Sheiks along with his lifelong friend, Michael Butler a.k.a. Imam T.H.U.G., who was also from Queensbridge, releasing an EP, which contained the underground classic True Confessions.[citation needed] Khadafis third album, Against All Odds, was scheduled for release in 1999, but conflict with his label stalled the release, finally being released in 2001, which was also the first appearance of emcee HeadRush Napoleon, who continued to work with Khadafi on future recordings. On the album, Khadafi dissed Noreaga and accused him of stealing his rhyming style on tracks like Crime Nationalist or Blood Type.[6] Noreaga kept the animosity going with his track Halfway Thugs Pt. II.[6] This was followed by Still Reportin... in 2003. In 2005, he released Thug Matrix independently and also released an album as a member of the group Black Market Militia. Khadafis latest releases, Blood Ballads and Thug Matrix 2, were both released in 2006.[citation needed]
Tragedy (band).  Tragedy is an American crust punk band formed in 1999 in Portland, Oregon. This article on a United States punk rock band is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Pan Am Flight 103.  Pan Am Flight 103 was a regularly scheduled Pan Am transatlantic flight from Frankfurt to Detroit via a stopover in London and another in New York City. Shortly after 19:00 on 21 December 1988, the Boeing 747 Clipper Maid of the Seas was destroyed by a bomb while flying over the Scottish town of Lockerbie, killing all 243 passengers and 16 crew aboard.[1] Large sections of the aircraft crashed in a residential street in Lockerbie, killing 11 residents. With a total of 270 fatalities, the event, which became known as the Lockerbie bombing, is the deadliest terrorist attack in the history of the United Kingdom. Following a three-year joint investigation by Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary and the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), arrest warrants were issued for two Libyan nationals in 1991. After protracted negotiations and United Nations sanctions, in 1999, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi handed over the two men for trial at Camp Zeist, the Netherlands. In 2001, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, a Libyan intelligence officer, was found guilty of 270 counts of murder in connection with the bombing, and was sentenced to life imprisonment. His co-accused, Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, was acquitted. In 2009, Megrahi was released by the Scottish Government on compassionate grounds after being diagnosed with prostate cancer. He died in 2012 as the only person to be convicted for the attack. In 2003, Gaddafi accepted Libyas responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing, and paid more than US$1 billion in compensation to the families of the victims. Although Gaddafi maintained that he had never personally given the order for the attack,[2] acceptance of Megrahis status as a government employee was used to connect responsibility by Libya with a series of requirements laid out by a UN resolution for sanctions against Libya to be lifted.[3] In 2011, during the First Libyan Civil War, former Minister of Justice Mustafa Abdul Jalil said that Gaddafi personally ordered the bombing.[2] As all the accomplices required for such a complex operation were never identified, or convicted, many conspiracy theories have swirled, such as East German Stasi agents having a possible role in the attack. Some relatives of the dead, including Lockerbie campaigner Jim Swire, believe the bomb was planted at Heathrow Airport, possibly by a sleeper cell belonging to the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command, which had been operating in West Germany in the months before the Pan Am bombing, and not sent via feeder flights from Malta, as suggested by the US and UK governments.[4]
Sudan.  Sudan,[c] officially the Republic of the Sudan,[d] is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the southeast, and South Sudan to the south. Sudan has a population of 50 million people as of 2024[25] and occupies 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africas third-largest country by area. Sudans capital and most populous city is Khartoum. The area that is now Sudan witnessed the Khormusan (c. 40000–16000 BC),[26] Halfan culture (c. 20500–17000 BC),[27][28] Sebilian (c. 13000–10000 BC),[29] Qadan culture (c. 15000–5000 BC),[citation needed] the war of Jebel Sahaba, the earliest known war in the world, around 11500 BC,[30][31] A-Group culture[32] (c. 3800–3100 BC), Kingdom of Kerma (c. 2500–1500 BC), the Egyptian New Kingdom (c. 1500–1070 BC), and the Kingdom of Kush (c. 785 BC – 350 AD). After the fall of Kush, the Nubians formed the three Christian kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, most of Sudan was gradually settled by Arab nomads. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, central and eastern Sudan were dominated by the Funj sultanate, while Darfur ruled the west and the Ottomans the east. From the 19th century, the entirety of Sudan was conquered by the Egyptians under the Muhammad Ali dynasty. Religious-nationalist fervour erupted in the Mahdist Uprising in which Mahdist forces were eventually defeated by a joint Egyptian-British military force. In 1899, under British pressure, Egypt agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom as a condominium. In effect, Sudan was governed as a British possession.[33] The Egyptian revolution of 1952 toppled the monarchy and demanded the withdrawal of British forces from all of Egypt and Sudan. Muhammad Naguib, one of the two co-leaders of the revolution and Egypts first President, was half-Sudanese and had been raised in Sudan. He made securing Sudanese independence a priority of the revolutionary government. On 1 January 1956, Sudan was declared an independent state. After Sudan became independent, the Gaafar Nimeiry regime began Islamist rule.[34] This exacerbated the rift between the Islamic North, the seat of the government, and the Animists and Christians in the South. Differences in language, religion, and political power erupted in a civil war between government forces, influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF), and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction was the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA), which eventually led to the independence of South Sudan in 2011.[35] Between 1989 and 2019, a 30-year-long military dictatorship led by Omar al-Bashir ruled Sudan and committed widespread human rights abuses, including torture, persecution of minorities, alleged sponsorship of global terrorism, and ethnic genocide in Darfur from 2003–2020. Overall, the regime killed an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 people. Protests erupted in 2018, demanding Bashirs resignation, which resulted in a coup détat on 11 April 2019 and Bashirs imprisonment.[36] Sudan is currently embroiled in a civil war between two rival factions, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF).
Shi Hao (bobsledder).  Shi Hao (Chinese: 史昊; pinyin: Shǐ Hào; Mandarin pronunciation: [ʂɻ̩̀ xâʊ]; born 7 September 1997) is a Chinese bobsledder. He competed in the two-man event at the 2018 and 2022 Winter Olympics.[1]  This biographical article relating to bobsleigh is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This Peoples Republic of China biographical article related to winter sports is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Surviving: A Family in Crisis.  Surviving: A Family in Crisis (also known simply as Surviving, and later released on VHS as Tragedy) is a 1985 ABC television film.  Directed by Warris Hussein and starring Zach Galligan, Molly Ringwald, and River Phoenix, the film is described as a modern-day Romeo & Juliet story that examines the tragedy of teen suicide, and the loved ones left behind to pick up the pieces. Rick (Zach Galligan) is the apple of his fathers eye—smart, handsome, and idolized by his younger siblings Philip and Sarah (River Phoenix and Heather ORourke). By stark contrast, Lonnie (Molly Ringwald) is a troubled and withdrawn girl, struggling to put the painful memory of a suicide attempt behind her.  Both teenagers are dealing with loneliness and family pressures when they begin to find solace in each other, and a young romance develops. As Rick and Lonnies bond begins to grow stronger, and they become increasingly withdrawn from their friends and families, their protective parents begin to worry that the young lovers are becoming too involved and grow increasingly uncomfortable with the teenagers relationship. Finally, when Ricks parents Tina and David (Ellen Burstyn and Len Cariou) decide that Lonnie is a bad influence on their son, and Lonnies parents Lois and Harvey (Marsha Mason and Paul Sorvino) decide that boarding school would be the best place for their troubled daughter, Rick and Lonnie, desperate not to be separated, make a tragic decision to take their own lives. In the wake of the young lovers fatal suicide pact, the two devastated families are left to try and pick up the pieces of their shattered lives and must somehow find a way to go on. The initial airing of the film brought in an 18.1 rating and a 26 share, ranking third in its timeslot, and ranking 23rd out of 66 programs aired that week.[4] A novelization of the film was written by Elizabeth Faucher and published by the Scholastic Corporation.
Kaya-no-in. Fujiwara no Taishi (藤原 泰子, also read Fujiwara no Yasuko; 1095–1156) was an Empress consort of Japan. She was the consort of Emperor Toba of Japan. Her birth name was Fujiwara no Kunshi (藤原 勲子), her ingō was Kaya-no-in (高陽院) and her dharma name upon entering religious orders in 1141 was Shōjōri (清浄理). Unless otherwise noted (as BC), years are in CE / AD  1  individuals that were given the title of empress posthumously 2  individuals elevated to the rank of empress due to their position as honorary mother of the emperor 3  Shōshi served briefly as honorary empress for her younger brother Emperor Go-Daigo This biography of a member of the Imperial House of Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Island, Yonne. Island is a commune in the Yonne department in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in north-central France.  This Arrondissement of Avallon geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Fujiwara no Nariko. Fujiwara no Nariko (藤原得子; 1117 – December 22, 1160), also known as Bifukumon-in (美福門院), was an Empress consort of Emperor Toba of Japan and mother of Emperor Konoe.[1] She was the daughter of the chūnagon Fujiwara no Nagazane (藤原長実) and Minamoto no Masako (源方子). Born in 1117, Nariko grew up with her father Nagazanes doting affection. According to the Imakagami, he commented that he could not bring himself to marry her to an ordinary person. Narikos maternal uncle Minamoto no Morotoki (源師時) recorded in his diary that even when Nagazane was on his deathbed, he shed tears and said that he could not forget his dear girl for even a moment.[2] Nagazane was favored in the court because his grandmother Fujiwara no Chikako (藤原親子) acted as wetnurse to the future Emperor Shirakawa, and during Shirakawas cloistered rule, Nagazane served as his attendant. In 1134, after Nagazanes death, Nariko gained the affection of the retired Emperor Toba,[3] and in late 1135 gave birth to Princess Eishi (叡子内親王). Early in 1136, she was conferred the junior third rank (従三位). In 1137 she gave birth to Princess Akiko (暲子内親王), and in 1139 to a long-awaited son, Prince Narihito, the future Emperor Konoe. Three months later, Toba made Narihito crown prince and thus successor to Emperor Sutoku. Nariko was promoted to the position of nyōgo (女御), surpassing Tobas main wife Fujiwara no Tamako in influence. In 1140, she adopted Emperor Sutokus first son Prince Shigehito (重仁親王). In late 1141, Toba pressed Sutoku to abdicate the throne and replaced him with his and Narikos son Narihito, who took the throne as Emperor Konoe. As Narihito had been adopted by Sutokus consort Fujiwara no Kiyoko, he should have had the official title of kōtaishi (皇太子), but in the proclamation of his ascension he was instead recorded as kōtaitei (皇太弟), which marked him as the younger brother, rather than the son, of the emperor. The now-retired Emperor Sutoku could not open his own cloistered government with his younger brother on the throne, and so this was a major source of enmity for him. Meanwhile, Konoes ascension brought now-empress dowager Nariko investiture as kōtaigō. Minamoto no Masasada (源雅定) and Fujiwara no Narimichi (藤原成通) were appointed as stewards of her quarters (皇后宮大夫). Power began to concentrate around her as Tobas most favored retainers, including her cousin Fujiwara no Ienari (藤原家成), her relatives in the Murakami Genji, and the courtiers of the Nakamikado-ryū of the Fujiwara Hokke gathered around her. In early 1142, Tobas other wife Fujiwara no Tamako was forced to become a nun for attempting to curse Nariko,[4] and her political position solidified further. In 1149, Nariko was bestowed the title Bifukumon-in. In 1148, Nariko took in her cousin Fujiwara no Koremichi (藤原伊通)s daughter Fujiwara no Shimeko as her adopted daughter.[5] This came immediately after Toba consented to allow Fujiwara no Yorinagas adopted daughter Fujiwara no Tashi to marry Emperor Konoe, and Nariko may have intended to marry Shimeko to Konoe from the first. When Konoe came of age in 1150, Tashi immediately entered his court, but Shimeko followed two months later. As Shimeko was also an adopted daughter of the regent Fujiwara no Tadamichi, Tadamichi reported to Toba that a woman not of the regent family could not become empress. Although Tadamichi was also Yorinagas adoptive father, he had recently had his own son Konoe Motozane, and allied with Nariko in an effort to let his own biological descendants succeed him. Tashi became kōgō, and Shimeko chūgū.
Fujiwara no Tamako. Fujiwara no Tamako or Fujiwara no Shōko (藤原 璋子; 1101 – September 10, 1145), also known as Taikenmonin (待賢門院), was an empress consort of Emperor Toba of Japan, and mother of Emperor Sutoku and Emperor Go-Shirakawa.[1] She was the eldest daughter of Fujiwara no Kinzane (藤原公実). Tamakos father died when she was seven years old, and she was raised by the retired Emperor Shirakawa and his favorite mistress Gion no Nyōgo (祇園女御) (Gion no Nyogo was Taira no Tadamoris wife also Mother of Taira no Kiyomori). Once she grew up, she was almost engaged to the heir of the regent Fujiwara clan, Fujiwara no Tadamichi, but his father Fujiwara no Tadazane incurred Shirakawas displeasure by declining the offer due to rumors about Tamakos behavior. In early 1118, with Shirakawa as her godfather, Tamako entered the court of her cousin Emperor Toba. Just a month later, she was invested as Empress Consort (chūgū). In mid-1119 she bore Tobas first child, Prince Akihito. In early 1123, Shirakawa had the five-year-old Prince Akihito ascend to the throne as Emperor Sutoku, and in 1124 Tamako was bestowed the title Taikenmon-in. Around this time Tamako also bore Princess Kishi, Prince Michihito, and Prince Kimihito, but these two princes were born handicapped. She bore Princess Muneko in 1126, and Prince Masahito less than a year later, in 1127. In 1129 she had her final child, Prince Motohito. Tamako bore Toba a total of seven children, and also accompanied him on a trip to the Kumano shrines, but this was all during the lifetime of Shirakawa. When the long-governing retired emperor died in 1129, her life took a turn for the worse. The retired Emperor Toba inherited Shirakawas reign, commanding the courtiers and isolating the young Emperor Sutoku. He reinstated the kampaku Shirakawa had dismissed, Fujiwara no Tadazane, and married Tadazanes daughter Fujiwara no Yasuko to the young emperor, investing her as kōgō. Furthermore, he transferred his affections from Tamako to another wife, Fujiwara no Nariko. In 1139, Toba appointed his three-month-old son with Nariko, Prince Narihito, as crown prince, and in 1141 pressed Sutoku to resign, letting Narihito take the throne as Emperor Konoe. While this was going on and Nariko was invested as Tobas kōgō, a series of incidents occurred in which someone appeared to be trying to curse Nariko, and a rumor spread that it was Tamako pulling the strings. The Kojidan further states that an additional rumor spread that Sutoku was actually Shirakawas son, though this rumor is not recorded elsewhere. In 1142, with her power evaporated, Tamako cut her hair and became a nun at Hōkongō-in (法金剛院), which she had had built herself. Three years later, on September 10, 1145, Tamako died at the estate of her eldest brother Sanjō Saneyuki (三条実行). According to the diary entry of Fujiwara no Yorinaga for that day, Toba came running to care for her, and on her deathbed wailed loudly while ringing a metal bell used in the reciting of sutras.
Emperor Horikawa.  Emperor Horikawa (堀河天皇, Horikawa-tennō; August 8, 1079 – August 9, 1107) was the 73rd emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Horikawas reign spanned the years from 1087 through 1107.[3] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina)[4] was Taruhito-shinnō (善仁親王).[5]  He was also known as Yoshihito-tennō.[6] Horikawa was the son of Emperor Shirakawa.  His mother was Fujiwara no Kenshi (藤原賢子), adopted daughter of Fujiwara Morozane (藤原師実). His wet nurse was a different namesake Fujiwara no Kenshi (藤原兼子).
Corn Mo. Corn Mo is the stage name of Jon Cunningham, an American, Brooklyn-based musician. Corn Mo sings, plays the accordion, and keyboards, and sometimes performs as a one-man band. His music style is a mixture of circus music, glam rock, and humorous novelty songs. He is currently recording his third solo album, and albums with his band .357 Lover. Many of his songs and stylings are heavily influenced by Meat Loaf (to whom he bears a slight physical resemblance) and Queen. He started his music career in Denton, Texas.  Corn Mo released his first full-length album, I Hope You Win!, in 2000.  His 2002 follow-up The Magic Is You!, features his most popular song, Busey Boy, about being mistaken for actor Gary Busey. He is featured on the Ben Folds album Supersunnyspeedgraphic singing backing vocals on Get Your Hands Off My Woman. He recently appeared in the Trachtenburg Family Slideshow Players DVD release of On and Off Broadway. He performed a duet with Jason Trachtenburg on his accordion to a new rendition of the Trachtenburgs song Beautiful Dandelion. Back in the Denton days Corn Mo teamed up with friend Mauve Oed for a cassette. It included a cover of Mötley Crües Home Sweet Home which garnered play on local indie radio show The Adventure Club. In October 2012, it was announced that he had joined Tragedy, the all metal tribute band to the Bee Gees. .357 Lover, first formed when Corn Mo lived in Denton, backs Corn Mo when he is not playing as a solo performer.  Their current lineup is Dave Wallin on bass, and Ron Salvo on drums. .357 Lover recorded their first EP, titled Your Favorite Hamburger is a Cheeseburger, in 2007.  A full-length debut, Diorama of the Golden Lion, was released in September 2009. For several years before moving to New York, Corn Mo performed at many small venues in north Texas (Denton and the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex), developing a small but loyal following. In 2003, Corn Mo played the Austin City Limits Music Festival. He plays accordion on Mary Pranksters live album Lemonade: Live which was recorded at the 9:30 Club in Washington, DC on May 10, 2003. On May 20, 2003 Corn Mo appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! where he performed Busey Boy with Kimmels live band. In 2003 and 2004, he toured with The Polyphonic Spree as a member of their band.  He has toured numerous times with They Might Be Giants and Ben Folds.  Corn Mo is featured on the 2004 They Might Be Giants live album Almanac, playing the song Particle Mo (a live version of Particle Man) with the band.  In June 2006, he performed at the Bonnaroo Music Festival.  In April 2007, .357 Lover performed as the backing group for Andrew W.K. in Denton, Texas. Corn Mo toured again with Folds on his November Surprise Tour 2006. On June 15, 2007, They Might Be Giants announced via a bulletin[1] that Corn Mo would be the opening act for many of the shows on their We Got a Fever for the Flavor of a Whatnot 2007 United States Tour.
Regnal name. A regnal name, regnant name,[1] or reign name is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they accede to the monarchy. The regnal name is usually followed by a regnal number, written as a Roman numeral, to differentiate that monarch from others who have used the same name while ruling the same realm. In some cases, the monarch has more than one regnal name, but the regnal number is based on only one of those names, for example Charles X Gustav of Sweden. If a monarch reigns in more than one realm, they may carry different ordinals in each one, as some realms may have had different numbers of rulers of the same regnal name. For example, the same person was both King James VI of Scotland and King James I of England. The ordinal is not normally used for the first ruler of the name, but is used in historical references once the name is used again. Thus, Queen Elizabeth I of England was called simply Elizabeth of England until the accession of Queen Elizabeth II almost four centuries later in 1952; subsequent historical references to the earlier queen retroactively refer to her as Elizabeth I. However, Tsar Paul I of Russia, King Umberto I of Italy, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia and Pope John Paul I all used the ordinal I (first) during their reigns, even if there was – at least so far in the case of Paul of Russia, Franz Joseph of Austria, Juan Carlos of Spain or Haile Selassie of Ethiopia – never a second ruler with the same name. In spoken English, such names are pronounced as Elizabeth the First, George the Sixth, etc. In some countries in Asia, monarchs took or take era names. While era names as such are not used in many monarchies, sometimes eras are named after a monarch (usually long-lived), or a succession of monarchs of the same name. This is customary; there is no formal or general rule. For example, the whole period during which a succession of four Georges (George I, II, III, and IV) of the Hanoverian dynasty reigned in Great Britain became known as the Georgian era. Conversely, although there were many Edwards, the Edwardian era always refers to the reign of Edward VII at the beginning of the 20th century. Ancient rulers in many parts of the world took regnal names or throne names which were different from their personal name.  This is known to be true, for instance, of several kings of Assyria, and appears to be the case for several kings of Judah.  In Ancient Egypt, Pharaohs took a number of names—the praenomen being the most commonly used, on occasion in conjunction with their personal name.
Regnal year. A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin regnum meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a third year of rule, and so on, but not a zeroth year of rule. Applying this ancient epoch system to modern calculations of time, which include zero, is what led to the debate over when the third millennium began. Regnal years are finite era names, contrary to infinite era names such as Christian era, Jimmu era, Juche era, and so on. In ancient times, calendars were counted in terms of the number of years of the reign of the current monarch. Reckoning long periods of time required a king list. The oldest such reckoning is preserved in the Sumerian king list. Ancient Egyptian chronology was also dated using regnal years. The Zoroastrian calendar also operated with regnal years following the reform of Ardashir I in the 3rd century. The Canon of Kings is a list that dates the reigns of various Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, Egyptian, and Roman monarchs, that was used by ancient astronomers as a way to date astronomical phenomena. The Liberian Catalogue is a similar list of popes of Early Christianity, that was used to date early events in the religions history. Regnal years were generally used for year marking in the Chinese cultural sphere before the advent of era names. In China, the continuous use of era names began in 140 BC, during the rule of the Emperor Wu of Han.[1][2] Prior to that, years were usually marked as regnal years of the monarch.
Tragedy (1925 film).  Tragedy (German: Tragödie) is a 1925 German silent drama film directed by Carl Froelich and starring Walter Janssen, Henny Porten and Annemarie Winkler.[1] The films sets were designed by the art director Franz Schroedter. This article related to a German silent drama film of the 1920s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Temple name. Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship.[1] The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes in the Sinosphere, with the notable exception of Japan. Temple names should not be confused with era names (年號), regnal names (尊號) or posthumous names (謚號). Modern academia usually refers to the following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of the Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of the Lý, Trần, and Later Lê dynasties (with the Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to the position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao was posthumously honored as an emperor and given the temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty. Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as was the case for Emperor Huan, whose temple name, Weizong, was abolished by Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han dynasty. In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor, but his temple name was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor. There were also instances of individuals ruling as the sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire, who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty. The temple in temple name (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for the purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within the grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death.
Catholic (disambiguation). Catholic may refer to:
Catholicism (disambiguation). Catholicism primarily designates the faith, doctrine, practice and system of the Catholic Church. It may also refer to:
Catholic Church (disambiguation). The Catholic Church, sometimes called the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church body. Catholic Church may also refer to:
Iceland.  Iceland[d] is a Nordic island country between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between Europe and North America. It is culturally and politically linked with Europe and is the regions westernmost and most sparsely populated country.[13] Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which is home to about 36% of the countrys roughly 390,000 residents (excluding nearby towns/suburbs, which are separate municipalities). The official language of the country is Icelandic. Iceland is on a rift between tectonic plates, and its geologic activity includes geysers and frequent volcanic eruptions.[14][15] The interior consists of a volcanic plateau with sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite being at a latitude just south of the Arctic Circle. Its latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, and most of its islands have a polar climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in 874 AD, when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the islands first permanent settler.[16] In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, immigrated to Iceland, bringing with them thralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin. The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. After a period of civil strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norways integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under de facto Danish rule upon its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550,[17] and the Treaty of Kiel formally ceded Iceland to Denmark in 1814. Influenced by ideals of nationalism after the French Revolution, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union in 1918, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Iceland, sharing through a personal union the incumbent monarch of Denmark. During the occupation of Denmark in World War II, Iceland voted overwhelmingly to become a republic in 1944, ending the remaining formal ties to Denmark. Although the Althing was suspended from 1799 to 1845, Iceland nevertheless has a claim to sustaining one of the worlds longest-running parliaments. Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid after World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one of the worlds wealthiest and most developed nations. In 1950, Iceland joined the Council of Europe.[18] In 1994 it became a part of the European Economic Area, further diversifying its economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes, compared to other OECD countries,[19] as well as the highest trade union membership in the world.[20] It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education.[21] Iceland ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. It has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army, possessing only a lightly armed coast guard.[22]
Roman Catholic Church (disambiguation). Roman Catholic Church, Roman Church or Church of Rome may refer to:
Roman Catholic Church (disambiguation). Roman Catholic Church, Roman Church or Church of Rome may refer to:
Dynasty.  A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,[1] usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A dynasty may also be referred to as a house, family or clan, among others. Historians periodize the histories of many states and civilizations, such as the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 1453), Imperial Iran (678 BC – AD 1979), Ancient Egypt (3100–30 BC), and Ancient and Imperial China (2070 BC – AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned. Before the 18th century, most dynasties throughout the world were traditionally reckoned patrilineally, such as those that followed the Frankish Salic law. In polities where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husbands family name. This has changed in all of Europes remaining monarchies, where succession law and conventions have maintained dynastic names de jure through a female. Dynastic politics has declined over time, owing to a decline in monarchy as a form of government, a rise in democracy, and a reduction within democracies of elected members from dynastic families.[2]
Fujiwara no Tadamichi. Fujiwara no Tadamichi (藤原 忠通; March 15, 1097 – March 13, 1164) was the eldest son of the Japanese regent (Kampaku) Fujiwara no Tadazane and a member of the politically powerful Fujiwara clan.[1] He was the father of Fujiwara no Kanefusa and Jien. In the Hōgen Rebellion of 1156, Tadamichi sided with the Emperor Go-Shirakawa, while his brother Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with Emperor Sutoku.[1] In 1162, he ordained as a Buddhist monk and took the Dharma name Enkan (円観). Parents Consort and issue:
Sandwich Islands (disambiguation). Sandwich Islands was the name given to the Hawaiian Islands by James Cook in 1778. Sandwich Islands or Sandwich Island may also refer to:
Empress of Japan. The empress of Japan[c] is the title given to the wife of the Emperor of Japan or a female ruler in her own right. The current empress consort is Empress Masako, who ascended the throne with her husband on 1 May 2019. There were eight female imperial reigns (six empresses regnant including two who reigned twice) in Japans early history between 593 and 770, and two more in the early modern period (Edo period). Although there were eight reigning empresses, with only one exception their successors were selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline.[5] After many centuries, female reigns came to be officially prohibited only when the Imperial Household Law was issued in 1889 alongside the new Meiji Constitution. The eight historical empresses regnant are: Other than the eight historical empresses regnant, two additional empress are traditionally believed to have reigned, but historical evidence for their reigns is scant and they are not counted among the officially numbered Emperors/Empresses regnant: Under Shinto religious influence, the goddess Amaterasu, who is of the highest rank in the kami system, might suggest that Japans first rulers were women.[6] According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles in Japanese mythology, the Emperors of Japan are considered to be direct descendants of Amaterasu.
Empress of Japan. The empress of Japan[c] is the title given to the wife of the Emperor of Japan or a female ruler in her own right. The current empress consort is Empress Masako, who ascended the throne with her husband on 1 May 2019. There were eight female imperial reigns (six empresses regnant including two who reigned twice) in Japans early history between 593 and 770, and two more in the early modern period (Edo period). Although there were eight reigning empresses, with only one exception their successors were selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline.[5] After many centuries, female reigns came to be officially prohibited only when the Imperial Household Law was issued in 1889 alongside the new Meiji Constitution. The eight historical empresses regnant are: Other than the eight historical empresses regnant, two additional empress are traditionally believed to have reigned, but historical evidence for their reigns is scant and they are not counted among the officially numbered Emperors/Empresses regnant: Under Shinto religious influence, the goddess Amaterasu, who is of the highest rank in the kami system, might suggest that Japans first rulers were women.[6] According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles in Japanese mythology, the Emperors of Japan are considered to be direct descendants of Amaterasu.
List of islands of Hawaii.  Download coordinates as: The following is a list of the islands in Hawaii. The state of Hawaii, consisting of the Hawaiian Islands, has the fourth-longest ocean coastline of the 50 states (after Alaska, Florida, and California) at 1,210 kilometres (750 mi). It is the only state that consists entirely of islands, with 16,634.5 km2 (6,422.6 sq mi) of land. The Hawaiian Island archipelago extends some 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) from the southernmost island of Hawaiʻi to the northernmost Kure Atoll. Despite being within the boundaries of Hawaii, Midway Atoll, comprising several smaller islands, is not included as an island of Hawaii, because it is classified as a United States Minor Outlying Islands and is therefore administered by the federal government and not the state. The Palmyra Atoll, historically claimed by both Hawaii and the United States is not included because it was separated from Hawaii when it became a state in 1959 and is part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. The Johnston Atoll which is not included in this list was claimed by both the United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1858 but the Hawaiian Claim was revoked by King Kamehameha the IV later that year upon his learning of the US claim to the island and is now part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Hawaii is divided into five counties: Hawaiʻi, Honolulu, Kalawao, Kauaʻi, and Maui. Each island is included in the boundaries and under the administration of one of these counties. Honolulu County, despite being centralized, administers the outlying Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Kalawao (the smallest county in the United States in terms of land area) and Maui, both occupying the island of Molokaʻi, are the only counties that share an island. Hawaii is typically recognized by its eight main islands of which seven are inhabited. The Main Eight islands of Hawaii are: The state of Hawaii officially recognizes only 137 islands in the state which includes four islands of the Midway Atoll.[2] An island in this sense may also include much smaller and typically uninhabited islets, rocks, coral reefs, and atolls. For that reason, this article lists 152 separate islands (but also names smaller island chains such as the French Frigate Shoals, which includes 13 islands of its own). Some of these are too small to appear on maps, and others, such as Maro Reef, only appear above the waters surface during times of low tide. Others, such as the islands Shark and Skate, have completely eroded away.
Victoria (District Electoral Area).  Victoria was one of the nine district electoral areas (DEA) in Belfast, Northern Ireland, from 1985 to 2014, when it was mostly replaced by the Ormiston district.[1] Located in the east of the city, the district elected seven members to Belfast City Council and contained the wards of Ballyhackamore; Belmont; Cherryvalley; Island; Knock; Stormont; and Sydenham. Victoria, along with wards from the neighbouring Pottinger district and Castlereagh Borough Council, formed the Belfast East constituency for the Northern Ireland Assembly and UK Parliament. The district was bounded to the west by the Victoria Channel, to the north by Belfast Lough, to the northeast by North Down Borough Council, to the south and east by Castlereagh Borough Council and to the southwest by the Newtownards Road. At each election throughout the districts existence, most of the councillors elected were Unionist.
Tragic (album).  Tragic is the second studio album by the American rock band Orange 9mm. Produced by Dave Sardy of Barkmarket, it was released on July 23, 1996, through Atlantic Records.[1] Guitarist Chris Traynor recorded most of the bass parts, replacing David Gentile, who was replaced by Taylor McLam near the end of the recording sessions.[2][3] Traynor departed not long after the albums release, ending up joining Helmet. Tragic is a departure from Driver Not Includeds hardcore stylings in favor of a rap metal sound akin to Rage Against the Machine and Red Hot Chili Peppers,[4] featuring acoustic and alternative metal tracks.[5] AllMusic critic Vincent Jeffries wrote: The thick instrumentation and fat grooves deliver on every promise made during Orange 9mms famously powerful live performances, but the adherence to of-the-moment metal sonics prevent Tragic from transcending its time. Jefferies further added that the album remains a solid offering for fans of a small but important 90s metal movement.[4] All tracks are written by Orange 9mm.[4]
Peru (disambiguation). Peru (Spanish: Perú) is a country in South America. Peru or El Peru may also refer to:
Coat of arms of Peru.  The coat of arms of Peru is the national symbolic emblem of Peru. Four variants are used: the coat of arms per se, the National Coat of Arms (or the National Shield), the Great Seal of the State, and the Naval Coat of Arms. Peruvian law describes the coat of arms as follows:[1] The arms of the Peruvian Nation shall consist of a shield divided into three fields: one celestial blue to the left, with a vicuna looking inside; other white to the right, with a Cinchona officinalis placed within, and another, red, in the bottom and smaller, with a cornucopia pouring coins, signifying with these symbols the treasures of Peru in the three realms of nature. The coat of arms shall be surmounted by a civic crown in flat view; and accompanied on each side by a flag and a standard of national colors, further described below. The coat of arms (escudo de armas) has a palm branch on its left and a laurel one on its right, tied by a red and white ribbon, as well as a Holm oak civic crown above it. These represent victory and glory. This variant is used on the national ensign (Pabellón Nacional) or state flag. Its use on its own is infrequent, except on currency, both on coins and bills, and stamps.
Jazmine Sullivan discography.  American singer and songwriter Jazmine Sullivan has released four studio albums and 15 singles. Sullivan signed a record deal with J Records in 2008,[1] and released her debut album Fearless in 2008. The album was immediately certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America while debuting at number one.[2] Fearless has spent 12 weeks atop the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums since its US release.[3] The albums first single, Need U Bad, also reached number thirty-seven on the Billboard Hot 100 and became her first number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. The second single, Bust Your Windows, was released in September 2008 and reached the charts in the US and the UK. It also became her second top forty in the US.[4] Lions, Tigers & Bears was released as the third single off the album in late 2008 and became her third top ten in the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the US. In 2009, it was confirmed Jazmine would open for American singer Ne-Yos tour. In February that same year, she released the fourth and final single, Dream Big. Love Me Back, Sullivans second studio album, was released on November 29, 2010. The album reached number five on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, and her single, Holding You Down (Goin in Circles), reached number sixty on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance at the 2011 Grammy Awards[5][6] Another single, 10 Seconds, reached the top twenty on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Reality Show, Sullivans third studio album, was released on January 13, 2015. Dumb was released as the lead single from the album on May 13, 2014, and debuted at number 45 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay.[7] The second single, Forever Dont Last was released on September 16, 2014, and peaked at number 10 on Adult R&B Songs, where it became her second top ten single on that chart.[8]
Flag of Peru.  The Flag of Peru (Spanish: Bandera del Perú), often referred to as The Bicolour (la Bicolor), was adopted by the government of Peru in 1825, and modified in 1950. According to the article 49 of the Constitution of Peru, it is a vertical triband with red outer bands and a single white middle band.[1] Depending on its use, it may be defaced with different emblems, and has different names. Flag Day in Peru is celebrated on 7 June, the anniversary of the Battle of Arica. Red represents the blood that was spilled by the fallen freedom fighters that fought for the independence of the country. White represents purity and peace. However, the colours are also linked to the flamingo, or parihuana, a red and white type of flamingo that General San Martín dreamed about during the revolution.[2] The current colors of the Peruvian flag were taken of the design of San Martín and Torre Tagle. The reasons that red and white were chosen are unknown.[citation needed] Official tones determined by Peruvian laws do not exist. However, there are some particular initiatives in approximated equivalents in multiple color models, some in tones close to crimson.[3]
Aymara language. Aymara (Aymara pronunciation: [ajˈmaɾa] ⓘ; also Aymar aru) is an Aymaran language spoken by the Aymara people of the Bolivian Andes. It is one of only a handful of Native American languages with over one million speakers.[2][3] Aymara, along with Spanish and Quechua, is an official language in Bolivia and Peru.[4] It is also spoken, to a much lesser extent, by some communities in northern Chile, where it is a recognized minority language. Some linguists have claimed that Aymara is related to its more widely spoken neighbor, Quechua. That claim, however, is disputed. Although there are indeed similarities, like the nearly identical phonologies, the majority position among linguists today is that the similarities are better explained as areal features arising from prolonged cohabitation, rather than natural genealogical changes that would stem from a common protolanguage. Aymara is an agglutinating and, to a certain extent, a polysynthetic language. It has a subject–object–verb word order. Aymara is normally written using the Latin alphabet. The ethnonym Aymara may be ultimately derived from the name of some group occupying the southern part of what is now the Quechua speaking area of Apurímac.[5] Regardless, the use of the word Aymara as a label for this people was standard practice as early as 1567, as evident from Garci Diez de San Miguels report of his inspection of the province of Chucuito (1567, 14; cited in Lafaye 1964). In this document, he uses the term aymaraes to refer to the people. The language was then called Colla. It is believed that Colla was the name of an Aymara nation at the time of conquest, and later was the southernmost region of the Inca empire Collasuyu. However, Cerrón Palomino disputes this claim and asserts that Colla were in fact Puquina speakers who were the rulers of Tiwanaku in the first and third centuries (2008:246). This hypothesis suggests that the linguistically-diverse area ruled by the Puquina came to adopt Aymara languages in their southern region.[6] In any case, the use of Aymara to refer to the language may have first occurred in the works of the lawyer, magistrate and tax collector in Potosí and Cusco, Polo de Ondegardo. This man, who later assisted Viceroy Toledo in creating a system under which the indigenous population would be ruled for the next 200 years, wrote a report in 1559 entitled On the lineage of the Yncas and how they extended their conquests[citation needed] in which he discusses land and taxation issues of the Aymara under the Inca empire.
Mauna Kea.  Mauna Kea (/ˌmɔːnə ˈkeɪə, ˌmaʊnə -/,[6] Hawaiian: [ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə]; abbreviation for Mauna a Wākea, White Mountain)[7] is a dormant shield volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi.[8] Its peak is 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level, making it the highest point in Hawaii and the island with the second highest high point, behind New Guinea, the worlds largest tropical island with multiple peaks that are higher. The peak is about 38 m (125 ft) higher than Mauna Loa, its more massive neighbor. Mauna Kea is unusually topographically prominent for its height: its prominence from sea level is 15th in the world among mountains, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft); its prominence from under the ocean is 9,330 m (30,610 ft), rivaled only by Mount Everest. This dry prominence is greater than Everests height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), and some authorities have labeled Mauna Kea the tallest mountain in the world, from its underwater base.[a] Mauna Kea is ranked 8th by topographic isolation.[citation needed] It is about one million years old and thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its current post-shield state, its lava is more viscous, resulting in a steeper profile. Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes due to construction of cinder cones, decentralization of its rift zones, glaciation on its peak, and weathering by the prevailing trade winds. Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now thought to be dormant. In Hawaiian religion, the peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred. An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak. Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production. When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep, and game animals, many of which became feral and began to damage the volcanos ecological balance. Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections: an alpine climate at its summit, a Sophora chrysophylla–Myoporum sandwicense (or māmane–naio) forest on its flanks, and an Acacia koa–Metrosideros polymorpha (or koa–ʻōhiʻa) forest, now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry, at its base. In recent years, concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources to work towards eradicating all feral species on the volcano. With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, Mauna Keas summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation. Since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit. The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum and comprise the largest such facility in the world. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate to this day.
Continent (disambiguation). A continent is a large landmass. The Continent is used by those on the periphery of Europe to refer the mainland. Continent(s) or the continent may also refer to:
Boundaries between the continents.  Determining the boundaries between the continents is generally a matter of geographical convention. Several slightly different conventions are in use. The number of continents is most commonly considered seven (in English-speaking countries) but may range as low as four when Afro-Eurasia and the Americas are both considered as single continents.[1] An island can be considered to be associated with a given continent by either lying on the continents adjacent continental shelf (e.g. Singapore, the British Isles) or being a part of a microcontinent on the same principal tectonic plate (e.g. Madagascar and Seychelles). An island can also be entirely oceanic while still being associated with a continent by geology (e.g. Bermuda, the Australian Indian Ocean Territories) or by common geopolitical convention (e.g. Ascension Island, the South Sandwich Islands). Another example is the grouping into Oceania of the Pacific Islands with Australia and Zealandia. There are three overland boundaries subject to definition: While today the isthmus between Asia and Africa is navigable via the Suez Canal, and that between North and South America via the Panama Canal, these artificial channels are not generally accepted as continent-defining boundaries in themselves. The Suez Canal happens to traverse the Isthmus of Suez between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, dividing Africa and Asia. The continental boundaries are considered to be within the very narrow land connections joining the continents. The remaining boundaries concern the association of islands and archipelagos with specific continents, notably:
Hawaiian language. Hawaiian (ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, pronounced [ʔoːˈlɛlo həˈvɐiʔi])[7] is a critically endangered Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family, originating in and native to the Hawaiian Islands. It is the historic native language of the Hawaiian people. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the U.S. state of Hawaii.[8] King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840. In 1896, the Republic of Hawaii passed Act 57, an English-only law which subsequently banned Hawaiian language as the medium of instruction in publicly funded schools and promoted strict physical punishment for children caught speaking the Hawaiian language in schools. The Hawaiian language was not again allowed to be used as a medium of instruction in Hawaiis public schools until 1987, a span of 91 years.[9]  The number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to the 1950s. English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of the language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. Most of the first students to start in immersion preschool have since graduated from college, and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. However, the language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO. A creole language, Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE), is more commonly spoken in Hawai‘i than Hawaiian.[10] The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago, Hawaii (Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian language). The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. They wrote it as Owhyhee or Owhyee. It is written Oh-Why-hee on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by Tobias Conrad Lotter [de] in 1781.[11] Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling.[12]
Tragic (song). Tragic (stylised as TRAGIC) is a song by Australian rapper and singer the Kid Laroi featuring American rapper YoungBoy Never Broke Again and American music collective Internet Money, released on 6 November 2020 as the third track from the Savage edition of the formers debut mixtape F*ck Love. Tragic is a sparse soundtrack of looping snares and high piano keys whichs beat is off-set and drops in and out of the mix. The song is carefully arranged so as not to interrupt or distract from each of the vocal deliveries.[1] Its noted that the song is the Kid Larois autobiographical account of how he has made something of himself and that hes not so much angry as hurting.[1] The accompanying Steve Cannon-directed music video was released on 28 December 2020.[2] Heran Mamo from Billboard compares the Kid Laroi in the video to a modern Robin Hood who steals to give back to his less fortunate family.[2] At the time of the videos release, YoungBoy was incarcerated regarding firearms charges.[3] ‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
Kokyo Gaien National Garden. Kokyo Gaien National Garden (or Kōkyogaien 皇居外苑, literally Imperial Palace Outer Garden) is located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, just  south of the Tokyo Imperial Palace.[1] Kokyo Gaien National Garden has an area of about 450,000m2. Though it has no playground equipment, it is often used as a place to relax and enjoy the history of Edo Castle and walk around the square. There is surveillance by the Imperial Palace Police and the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, as it is adjacent to the Imperial Palace.  This article related to a garden in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Quechuan languages. Quechua (/ˈkɛtʃuə/,[2][3] Spanish: [ˈketʃwa]), also called Runa simi (Quechua: [ˈɾʊna ˈsɪmɪ], peoples language) in Southern Quechua, is an indigenous language family that originated in central Peru and thereafter spread to other countries of the Andes.[4][5][6][7] Derived from a common ancestral Proto-Quechua language,[4] it is the most widely spoken pre-Columbian language family of the Americas, with an estimated 8–10 million speakers in 2004,[8] and just under 7 million from the most recent census data available up to 2011.[9] Approximately 13.9% (3.7 million) of Peruvians speak a Quechua language.[10] Although Quechua began expanding many centuries before[4][5][6][11][7] the Incas, that previous expansion also meant that it was the primary language family within the Inca Empire. The Spanish tolerated its use until the Peruvian struggle for independence in the 1780s. As a result, various Quechua languages are still widely spoken, being the majority language in a number of regions of Peru, the most-spoken or co-official language in many others, and, as the Kichwa language, the second most-spoken language of Ecuador, after Spanish. The Quechua linguistic homeland may have been Central Peru. It has been speculated that it may have been used in the Chavín and Wari civilizations.[12] Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire. The Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke a form of Quechua, which in the Cuzco region particularly has been heavily influenced by Aymara, hence some of the characteristics that still distinguish the Cuzco form of Quechua today.  Diverse Quechua regional dialects and languages had already developed in different areas, influenced by local languages, before the Inca Empire expanded and further promoted Quechua as the official language of the Empire. After the Spanish conquest of Peru in the 16th century, Quechua continued to be used widely by the indigenous peoples as the common language. It was officially recognized by the Spanish administration, and many Spaniards learned it in order to communicate with local peoples.[13]  The clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization. The oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú (Grammar or Art of the General Language of the Indians of the Kingdoms of Peru) in 1560.[14][15] Given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas.
Tragedy.  A tragedy is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character or cast of characters.[1] Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsis, or a pain [that] awakens pleasure, for the audience.[2][3] While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization.[2][4] That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity—the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common activity, as Raymond Williams puts it.[5] Originating in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, where only a fraction of the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides survive, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of Seneca; through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Jean Racine, and Friedrich Schiller to the more recent naturalistic tragedy of Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg; Natyaguru Nurul Momens Nemesis tragic vengeance & Samuel Becketts modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering; Heiner Müller postmodernist reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.[6][7] A long line of philosophers—which includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Voltaire, Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Freud, Benjamin,[8] Camus, Lacan, and Deleuze—have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.[9][10][11] In the wake of Aristotles Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.[11][12][13] Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialization from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed, respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.[7] The word tragedy appears to have been used to describe different phenomena at different times. It derives from Ancient Greek τραγῳδία goat song, which comes from τράγος tragos he-goat and ᾠδή ōidḗ singing, ode. Scholars suspect this may be traced to a time when a goat was either the prize[14] in a competition of choral dancing or was what a chorus danced around prior to the animals ritual sacrifice.[15] In another view on the etymology, Athenaeus of Naucratis (2nd–3rd century CE) says that the original form of the word was trygodia from trygos (grape harvest) and ode (song), because those events were first introduced during grape harvest.[16]
Playwright. A playwright or dramatist is a person who writes plays, which are a form of drama that primarily consists of dialogue between characters and is intended for theatrical performance rather than just reading. Ben Jonson coined the term playwright and is the first person in English literature to refer to playwrights as separate from poets. The earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. William Shakespeare is amongst the most famous playwrights in literature, both in England and across the world. The word play is from Middle English pleye, from Old English plæġ, pleġa, plæġa (play, exercise; sport, game; drama, applause).[1] The word wright is an archaic English term for a craftsperson or builder (as in a wheelwright or cartwright).[2] The words combine to indicate a person who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form — a play. (The homophone with write is coincidental.) The first recorded use of the term playwright is from 1605,[3] 73 years before the first written record of the term dramatist.[4] It appears to have been first used in a pejorative sense by Ben Jonson[5] to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson uses the word in his Epigram 49, which is thought to refer to John Marston[6] or Thomas Dekker:[7]
Convention (norm). A convention  influences a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, social norms, or other criteria, often taking the form of a custom. In physical sciences, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called conventional if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a convention, for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values. A convention is a selection from among two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants. Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community. For instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands. Some conventions are explicitly legislated; for example, it is conventional in the United States and in Germany that motorists drive on the right side of the road, whereas in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Nepal, India and the United Kingdom motorists drive on the left. The standardization of time is a human convention based on the solar cycle or calendar. The extent to which justice is conventional (as opposed to natural or objective) is historically an important debate among philosophers. The nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion. Quine, Davidson, and David Lewis published influential writings on the subject. Lewiss account of convention received an extended critique in Margaret Gilberts On Social Facts (1989), where an alternative account is offered. Another view of convention comes from Ruth Millikans Language:  A Biological Model (2005), once more against Lewis.[example needed] According to David Kalupahana, The Buddha described conventions—whether linguistic, social, political, moral, ethical, or even religious—as arising dependent on specific conditions. According to his paradigm, when conventions are considered absolute realities, they contribute to dogmatism, which in turn leads to conflict. This does not mean that conventions should be absolutely ignored as unreal and therefore useless. Instead, according to Buddhist thought, a wise person adopts a Middle Way without holding conventions to be ultimate or ignoring them when they are fruitful.[1]
Brazil (disambiguation). Brazil is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. Brazil or Brasil may also refer to:
Flag of Brazil.  The national flag of Brazil is a blue disc depicting a starry sky (which includes the Southern Cross) spanned by a curved band inscribed with the national motto Ordem e Progresso (Order and Progress), within a yellow rhombus, on a green field. It was officially adopted on 19 November 1889, four days after the Proclamation of the Republic, to replace the flag of the Empire of Brazil. The concept was the work of Raimundo Teixeira Mendes, with the collaboration of Miguel Lemos [pt], Manuel Pereira Reis [pt] and Décio Villares. The green field and yellow rhombus from the previous imperial flag were preserved (though slightly modified in hue and shape). In the imperial flag, the green represented the House of Braganza of Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil, while the yellow represented the House of Habsburg of his wife, Empress Maria Leopoldina.[1] A blue circle with white five-pointed stars replaced the arms of the Empire of Brazil –its position in the flag reflects the sky over the city of Rio de Janeiro on 15 November 1889. The motto Ordem e Progresso is derived from Auguste Comtes motto of positivism: Lamour pour principe et lordre pour base; le progrès pour but (Love as a principle and order as the basis; progress as the goal).[2] Each star, corresponding to a Brazilian Federal Unit, is sized in proportion relative to its geographic size, and, according to Brazilian Law, the flag must be updated in case of the creation or extinction of a state. At the time the flag was first adopted in 1889, it had 21 stars. It then received one more star in 1960 (representing the state of Guanabara), then another in 1968 (representing Acre), and finally four more stars in 1992 (representing Amapá, Roraima, Rondônia and  Tocantins), totaling 27 stars in its current version. The Portuguese territories in the Americas, corresponding roughly to what is now Brazil, never had their own official flag, since Portuguese tradition encouraged hoisting the flag of the Kingdom of Portugal in all territories of the Portuguese Crown.
Coat of arms of Brazil.   The coat of arms of Brazil (Portuguese: Brasão de Armas do Brasil) was created on 19 November 1889, four days after Brazil became a republic. It consists of the central emblem surrounded by coffee (Coffea arabica, at the left) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum, at the right) branches, which were important crops in Brazil at that time. In the round shield in the center, the Southern Cross (Cruzeiro do Sul) can be seen. The ring of 27 stars around it represents Brazils 26 states and the Federal District. The blue ribbon contains the official name of Brazil, República Federativa do Brasil — Federative Republic of Brazil, in its first line. Prior to 1964, this line contained the previous official name, Estados Unidos do Brasil — United States of Brazil. In the second line, the date of the proclamation of the Republic (15 November 1889) is written. The National Arms of the Republic were instituted by Decree No. 4, with alteration made by Law No. 5443 of 28 May 1968 (Annex No. 8) The making of the National Arms should conform to the proportions of 15 units of height by 14 of width and take into account the following provisions:
Tom Stoppard.  Sir Tom Stoppard (/ˈstɒˌpɑːd/;[1] born Tomáš Sträussler, 3 July 1937) is a Czech-born British playwright and screenwriter.[2] He has written for film, radio, stage, and television, finding prominence with plays. His work covers the themes of human rights, censorship, and political freedom, often delving into the deeper philosophical bases of society. Stoppard has been a playwright of the National Theatre and is one of the most internationally performed dramatists of his generation.[3] He was knighted for his contribution to theatre by Queen Elizabeth II in 1997. Born in Czechoslovakia, Stoppard left as a child refugee, fleeing imminent Nazi occupation. He settled with his family in Britain after the war, in 1946, having spent the previous three years (1943–1946) in a boarding school in Darjeeling in the Indian Himalayas. After being educated at schools in Nottingham and Yorkshire, Stoppard became a journalist, a drama critic and then, in 1960, a playwright. Stoppards most prominent plays include Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1966), Jumpers (1972), Travesties (1974), Night and Day (1978), The Real Thing (1982), Arcadia (1993), The Invention of Love (1997), The Coast of Utopia (2002), Rock n Roll (2006) and Leopoldstadt (2020). He wrote the screenplays for Brazil (1985), Empire of the Sun (1987), The Russia House (1990), Billy Bathgate (1991), Shakespeare in Love (1998), Enigma (2001), and Anna Karenina (2012), as well as the HBO limited series Parades End (2013). He directed the film Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1990), an adaptation of his own 1966 play, with Gary Oldman and Tim Roth as the leads.  Stoppard wrote the films screenplay. Stoppard has received numerous awards and honours including an Academy Award, three Laurence Olivier Awards, and five Tony Awards.[4] In 2008, The Daily Telegraph ranked him number 11 in their list of the 100 most powerful people in British culture.[5] It was announced in June 2019 that Stoppard had written a new play, Leopoldstadt, set in the Jewish community of early 20th-century Vienna. The play premiered in January 2020 at Wyndhams Theatre.[6] The play went on to win the Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play and later the 2022 Tony Award for Best Play.[7][8]
Breed registry.  A breed registry, also known as a herdbook, studbook or register, in animal husbandry, the hobby of animal fancy, is an official list of animals within a specific breed whose parents are known. Animals are usually registered by their breeders while they are young. The terms studbook and register are also used to refer to lists of male animals standing at stud, that is, those animals actively breeding, as opposed to every known specimen of that breed. Such registries usually issue certificates for each recorded animal, called a pedigree, pedigreed animal documentation, or most commonly, an animals papers. Registration papers may consist of a simple certificate or a listing of ancestors in the animals background, sometimes with a chart showing the lineage. There are breed registries and breed clubs for several species of animal, such as dogs, horses, cows and cats. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and the US Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) also maintains stud books for captive species on display ranging from aardvarks to zebras.[1] Kennel clubs always maintain registries, either directly or through affiliated dog breed clubs. Some multi-breed clubs also maintain registries, as do non-affiliated breed clubs, and there are a few registries that are maintained by other private entities such as insurance agencies; an example of this in the United States is the Field Dog Stud Book. Working dog organizations also maintain registries. There are also entities that refer to themselves as registries, but that are thinly veiled marketing devices for vendors of puppies and adult dogs, as well as a means of collecting registration fees from novice dog owners unfamiliar with reputable registries and breed clubs.[2] Although these entities generally focus on dogs, particularly in relationship to the puppy mill industry, some are marketed as cat registries. At least one group claims to register wild species (held by private individuals rather than by legitimate zoological parks, which use the AZA).
Brazilian Republic (disambiguation). Brazilian Republic is a sobriquet for Brazil. Brazilian Republic may also refer to:
Purebred. Purebreds are cultivars of an animal species achieved through the process of selective breeding. When the lineage of a purebred animal is recorded, that animal is said to be pedigreed. Purebreds breed true-to-type, which means the progeny of like-to-like purebred parents will carry the same phenotype, or observable characteristics of the parents. A group of like purebreds is called a pure-breeding line or strain. In the world of selective animal breeding, to breed true means that specimens of an animal breed will breed true-to-type when mated like-to-like; that is, that the progeny of any two individuals of the same breed will show fairly consistent, replicable and predictable characteristics, or traits with sufficiently high heritability.[1][2] A puppy from two purebred dogs of the same breed, for example, will exhibit the traits of its parents, and not the traits of all breeds in the subject breeds ancestry. Breeding from too small a gene pool, especially direct inbreeding, can lead to the passing on of undesirable characteristics or even a collapse of a breed population due to inbreeding depression. Therefore, there is a question, and often heated controversy, as to when or if a breed may need to allow outside stock in for the purpose of improving the overall health and vigor of the breed. Because pure-breeding creates a limited gene pool, purebred animal breeds are also susceptible to a wide range of congenital health problems.[3] This problem is especially prevalent in competitive dog breeding and dog show circles due to the singular emphasis on aesthetics rather than health or function. Such problems also occur within certain segments of the horse industry for similar reasons. The problem is further compounded when breeders practice inbreeding.[4] The opposite effect to that of the restricted gene pool caused by pure-breeding is known as hybrid vigor, which generally results in healthier animals.[3] A pedigreed animal is one that has its ancestry recorded. Often this is tracked by a major registry. The number of generations required varies from breed to breed, but all pedigreed animals have papers from the registering body that attest to their ancestry.
Ancient Greece.  Ancient Greece (Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, romanized: Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity (c. 600 AD), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related city-states and communities. Prior to the Roman period, most of these regions were officially unified only once under the Kingdom of Macedon from 338 to 323 BC.[a] In Western history, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period.[1] Three centuries after the decline of Mycenaean Greece during the Bronze Age collapse, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and the colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the age of Classical Greece, from the Greco-Persian Wars to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, and which included the Golden Age of Athens and the Peloponnesian War. The unification of Greece by Macedon under Philip II and subsequent conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great spread Hellenistic civilization across the Middle East. The Hellenistic period is considered to have ended in 30 BC, when the last Hellenistic kingdom, Ptolemaic Egypt, was annexed by the Roman Republic. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it throughout the Mediterranean and much of Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered the cradle of Western civilization, the seminal culture from which the modern West derives many of its founding archetypes and ideas in politics, philosophy, science, and art.[2][3][4] Classical antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC[5] (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD.
Tokyo Big Sight. Tokyo Big Sight (東京ビッグサイト, Tōkyō Biggu Saito), officially known as Tokyo International Exhibition Center (東京国際展示場, Tōkyō Kokusai Tenjijō), is a convention and exhibition center in Tokyo and the largest such venue in Japan. Opened in April 1996, the center is located in the Ariake Minami district of the Tokyo Waterfront City [ja] on the Tokyo Bay waterfront. Its most iconic feature is the visually distinctive Conference Tower. The name Tokyo Big Sight in Japanese eventually became the official name, and it also became the name of the operator in April 2003. The center hosts the Comiket convention since 1996 and the AnimeJapan convention since 2014. It previously hosted the Tokyo International Anime Fair from 2002 to 2013. It was a planned venue for the 2020 Summer Olympics hosting wrestling, fencing and taekwondo events, but the reduction of public funds forced the organization committee to choose an alternative location for these events; it instead served as the main broadcasting and press center for the Games.[2][failed verification] Located on the shore of Tokyo Bay, about 30 minutes by rail from Tokyo Station (12 minutes by car), Big Sight is Japans largest international convention venue.[3] Its most distinctive feature is the unique architecture of its 58 metres (190 ft) high eight-storey Conference Tower. The site utilizes steel frame with reinforced concrete construction, boasting a total floor area of 230,873 square metres (2,485,100 sq ft) which outsizes Makuhari Messes floor space by half,[4] and of which 35% is indoors. The convention center is divided into three main areas, each with their own restaurants and other supporting facilities: The East Exhibition Hall, the West Exhibition Hall and the Conference Tower.[5] The architectural element most associated with the Tokyo Big Sight name, the glass and titanium-panelled Conference Tower appears as a set of four inverted pyramids mounted upon large supports. The first floor comprises an 1,100-seat reception hall and four conference rooms of varying size. The second floor comprises the Entrance Plaza which is the main access area, the glass-roofed Event Plaza, the Entrance Hall which leads to the exhibition halls proper, and the Exhibition Plaza.[6] There are no floors three through five due to the structures above-ground stature. Floors six and seven can be directly accessed via escalator from the second-floor Entrance Hall, and comprise the main convention facilities of the Tower. The sixth floor houses ten conference rooms of small to medium size, some of which can be merged into larger spaces by removing intervening partitions.[6] Floor seven houses the 1,000-seat International Conference Room as well as three conference rooms of much smaller size. Floor eight houses five conference rooms.
Tragedy.  A tragedy is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character or cast of characters.[1] Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsis, or a pain [that] awakens pleasure, for the audience.[2][3] While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization.[2][4] That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity—the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common activity, as Raymond Williams puts it.[5] Originating in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, where only a fraction of the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides survive, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of Seneca; through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Jean Racine, and Friedrich Schiller to the more recent naturalistic tragedy of Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg; Natyaguru Nurul Momens Nemesis tragic vengeance & Samuel Becketts modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering; Heiner Müller postmodernist reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.[6][7] A long line of philosophers—which includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Voltaire, Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Freud, Benjamin,[8] Camus, Lacan, and Deleuze—have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.[9][10][11] In the wake of Aristotles Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.[11][12][13] Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialization from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed, respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.[7] The word tragedy appears to have been used to describe different phenomena at different times. It derives from Ancient Greek τραγῳδία goat song, which comes from τράγος tragos he-goat and ᾠδή ōidḗ singing, ode. Scholars suspect this may be traced to a time when a goat was either the prize[14] in a competition of choral dancing or was what a chorus danced around prior to the animals ritual sacrifice.[15] In another view on the etymology, Athenaeus of Naucratis (2nd–3rd century CE) says that the original form of the word was trygodia from trygos (grape harvest) and ode (song), because those events were first introduced during grape harvest.[16]
Brazilian National Anthem.  The Brazilian National Anthem (Hino Nacional Brasileiro), also known as the National anthem of Brazil, was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva in 1831 and had been given at least two sets of unofficial lyrics before a 1922 decree by president Epitácio Pessoa gave the anthem its definitive, official lyrics, by Joaquim Osório Duque-Estrada, after several changes were made to his proposal, written in 1909. The lyrics have been described as Parnassian in style and Romantic in content.[1] The melody of the Brazilian national anthem was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva, and was presented to the public for the first time in April 1831.[2] On 7 April 1831, the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I, abdicated the Crown and days later left for Europe, leaving behind the then-five-year-old Emperor Pedro II. From the Brazilian proclamation of independence in 1822 until the 1831 abdication, an anthem that had been composed by Pedro I himself, celebrating the countrys independence (and that now continues to be an official patriotic song, the Independence Anthem), was used as the national anthem. In the immediate aftermath of the abdication of Pedro I, the anthem composed by him fell in popularity.
Tectonic Plates (film). Tectonic Plates is a 1992 independent Canadian film directed by Peter Mettler. Mettler also wrote the screenplay based on the play by Robert Lepage. The film stars Marie Gignac, Céline Bonnier and Robert Lepage. The title of this film was created in terms of a metaphor, as it signifies the evolution of human life and the geology of human behavior.[1] Madeleine (played by Marie Gignac) is studying art in Montreal, Canada. When her beloved professor (played by Robert Lepage) disappears, Madeleine decides to kill herself in the romantic setting of Venice. However, drug addict Constance (played by Céline Bonnier) dissuades her. Meanwhile, the professor has moved to New York, where he becomes a successful transvestite talk show host under the name of Jennifer.  This article related to a Canadian film of the 1990s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Greek tragedy.  Greek tragedy (Ancient Greek: τραγῳδία, romanized: tragōidía) is one of the three principal theatrical genres from Ancient Greece and Greek-inhabited Anatolia, along with comedy and the satyr play. It reached its most significant form in Athens in the 5th century BC, the works of which are sometimes called Attic tragedy. Greek tragedy is widely believed to be an extension of the ancient rites carried out in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and theatre, and it heavily influenced the theatre of Ancient Rome and the Renaissance. Tragic plots were most often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics. In tragic theatre, however, these narratives were presented by actors. The most acclaimed Greek tragedians are Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. These tragedians often explored many themes of human nature, mainly as a way of connecting with the audience but also as way of bringing the audience into the play. The origin of the word tragedy has been a matter of discussion from ancient times. The primary source of knowledge on the question is the Poetics of Aristotle. Aristotle was able to gather first-hand documentation from theater performance in Attica, which is inaccessible to scholars today. His work is therefore invaluable for the study of ancient tragedy, even if his testimony is open to doubt on some points. According to Aristotle, tragedy evolved from the satyr dithyramb, an Ancient Greek hymn, which was sung along with dancing in honor of Dionysus. The term τραγῳδία, derived from τράγος goat and ᾠδή song, means song of the goats, referring to the chorus of satyrs. Others suggest that the term came into being when the legendary Thespis (the root for the English word thespian) competed in the first tragic competition for the prize of a goat (hence tragedy).[1]
Kennel club. A kennel club (known as a kennel council or canine council in some countries) is an organization for canine affairs that concerns itself with the breeding, showing and promotion of more than one breed of dog.[1][2] Kennel clubs became popular in the mid 19th century. All-encompassing kennel clubs are also referred to as all-breed clubs, although all means only those breeds that they have decided to recognize, and breed  means purebred dogs, not including dog hybrids and crossbreeds or mixed-breed dogs. A club that handles only one breed is known as a breed club.[3] Kennel clubs maintain breed standards, record pedigrees, and issue the rules for conformation dog shows and trials and accreditation of judges. They often serve as registries, which are lists of adult purebred dogs and lists of litters of puppies born to purebred parents.  A kennel club manages all these aspects of the dog breeds it claims to represent, either directly or through its member bodies. Todays kennel clubs specialize in working dogs or conformation show dogs. In todays parlance, dog clubs for mixed-breed dogs are gaining ground and are now sometimes categorized as kennel clubs. The original purpose of a kennel club, however, was the breeding and showing of conformation bench purebreds, and this remains the most widely accepted definition. Widely known kennel clubs such as The Kennel Club, the American Kennel Club, the United Kennel Club, and the Canadian Kennel Club each offer canine events and training programs as well as dog registration services. By the mid-19th century, ownership of selectively bred dogs was common among the affluent throughout Europe. Kennel clubs were founded from the necessity to bring order out of chaos to the sport of public competitive dog exhibitions.[4]  The first dog show in England was held in 1859, which was a social affair held by English aristocrats to raise funds for charity.[5][6] They grew in popularity over fourteen years and were held in a rather ad hoc manner.
Convergent boundary. A convergent boundary (also known as a destructive boundary) is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone.[1] These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types. Plate tectonics is driven by convection cells in the mantle. Convection cells are the result of heat generated by the radioactive decay of elements in the mantle escaping to the surface and the return of cool materials from the surface to the mantle.[2] These convection cells bring hot mantle material to the surface along spreading centers creating new crust. As this new crust is pushed away from the spreading center by the formation of newer crust, it cools, thins, and becomes denser. Subduction begins when this dense crust converges with a less dense crust. The force of gravity helps drive the subducting slab into the mantle.[3] As the relatively cool subducting slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it is heated, causing hydrous minerals to break down. This releases water into the hotter asthenosphere, which leads to partial melting of the asthenosphere and volcanism. Both dehydration and partial melting occur along the 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) isotherm, generally at depths of 65 to 130 km (40 to 81 mi).[4][5] Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. In some instances, initial convergence with another plate will destroy oceanic lithosphere, leading to convergence of two continental plates. Neither continental plate will subduct. It is likely that the plate may break along the boundary of continental and oceanic crust. Seismic tomography reveals pieces of lithosphere that have broken off during convergence. Subduction zones are areas where one lithospheric plate slides beneath another at a convergent boundary due to lithospheric differences. These plates dip at an average of 45° but can vary. Subduction zones are often marked by an abundance of earthquakes, the result of internal deformation of the plate, convergence with the opposing plate, and bending at the oceanic trench. Earthquakes have been detected to a depth of 670 km (416 mi). The relatively cold and dense subducting plates are pulled into the mantle and help drive mantle convection.[6] In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust. This water reduces the melting temperature of rocks in the asthenosphere and causes partial melting. Partial melt will travel up through the asthenosphere, eventually, reach the surface, and form volcanic island arcs.[citation needed]
Thuin. Thuin (French pronunciation: [tɥɛ̃] ⓘ or [twɛ̃]; Walloon: Twin) is a city and municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. The municipality consists of the following districts: Biercée, Biesme-sous-Thuin, Donstiennes, Gozée, Leers-et-Fosteau, Ragnies, Thuillies, and Thuin (including the hamlets of Hourpes and Maladrie. Thuin is the headquarters of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (International Canine Association). This area was already being used as a burial place in Gallo-Roman times, around the 2nd and 3rd century.  The earliest name of the settlement, Thudinium Castellum, referring to a Roman fortification, is found on a 9th-century offering in Lobbes Abbey, which lists various neighbouring towns and related tithe duties.  The village was a possession of the abbey of Lobbes and, together with the abbey, became part of the Bishopric of Liège in 888. The neighbouring Aulne Abbey, reputedly founded in the 7th century by Landelin, a repentant robber, was also made part of the Bishopric of Liège. A century later, Prince-Bishop Notger had a defensive wall built in Thuin, which then became the westernmost of the 23 bonnes villes (or principal cities) of the bishopric.
List of tectonic plates. This is a list of tectonic plates on Earths surface. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earths crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around 100 km (62 mi) thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with mafic basaltic rocks dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower-density felsic granitic rocks. Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on Earths surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates).[1] These plates comprise the bulk of the continents and the Pacific Ocean. For purposes of this list, a major plate is any plate with an area greater than 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi) These smaller plates are often not shown on major plate maps, as the majority of them do not comprise significant land area. For purposes of this list, a minor plate is any plate with an area less than 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi) but greater than 1 million km2 (0.39 million sq mi). These plates are often grouped with an adjacent principal plate on a tectonic plate world map. For purposes of this list, a microplate is any plate with an area less than 1 million km2. Some models identify more minor plates within current orogens (events that lead to a large structural deformation of Earths lithosphere) like the Apulian, Explorer, Gorda, and Philippine Mobile Belt plates.[2] The latest studies have shown that microplates are the basic elements of which the crust is composed and that the larger plates are composed of amalgamations of these, and a subdivision of ca. 1200 smaller plates has come forward.[3][4]
Divergent boundary.  In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary (also known as a constructive boundary or an extensional boundary) is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which eventually become rift valleys.  Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges.[1][2] Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earths mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary.[3][failed verification] This supplies the area with huge amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area, forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other. Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate. At divergent boundaries, two plates move away from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface, and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere.
Transform fault. A transform fault or  transform boundary, is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal.[1] It ends abruptly where it connects to another plate boundary, either another transform, a spreading ridge, or a subduction zone.[2] A transform fault is a special case of a strike-slip fault that also forms a plate boundary. Most such faults are found in oceanic crust, where they accommodate the lateral offset between segments of divergent boundaries, forming a zigzag pattern. This results from oblique seafloor spreading where the direction of motion is not perpendicular to the trend of the overall divergent boundary. A smaller number of such faults are found on land, although these are generally better-known, such as the San Andreas Fault and North Anatolian Fault. Transform boundaries are also known as conservative plate boundaries because they involve no addition or loss of lithosphere at the Earths surface.[3] Geophysicist and geologist John Tuzo Wilson recognized that the offsets of oceanic ridges by faults do not follow the classical pattern of an offset fence or geological marker in Reids rebound theory of faulting,[4] from which the sense of slip is derived.  The new class of faults,[5] called transform faults, produce slip in the opposite direction from what one would surmise from the standard interpretation of an offset geological feature.  Slip along transform faults does not increase the distance between the ridges it separates; the distance remains constant in earthquakes because the ridges are spreading centers.  This hypothesis was confirmed in a study of the fault plane solutions that showed the slip on transform faults points in the opposite direction than classical interpretation would suggest.[6] Transform faults are closely related to transcurrent faults and are commonly confused. Both types of fault are strike-slip or side-to-side in movement; nevertheless, transform faults always end at a junction with another plate boundary, while transcurrent faults may die out without a junction with another fault. Finally, transform faults form a tectonic plate boundary, while transcurrent faults do not.
Okimi. Ōkimi (大王, also read as Daiō), or Ame no shita Siroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王, Chi Tenka Daiō),[1] was the title of the head of the Yamato Kingship, or the monarch title of Wakoku (Old Japan).[2] This term was used from the Kofun period through the Asuka period in ancient Japan.[2] The title 大王 (Ōkimi or Daiō), which is an honorific title for the head (king) of the Yamato Kingship, was established around the 5th century and was used until the 680s. It was established when the compilation of the Asuka Kiyomihara Code started. There are several theories upon whether the title holder in the early period is a king of the unified kingship or not.  Ōkimi in Japanese reading is created by adding the prefix ō or oho which indicates greatness and particular nobleness, to the title kimi (lord), which indicates a master or nobleman. Another theory states that Ōkimi is only an honorific form of kimi, a title with Japanese origins, while Daiō is based on a king title which originated from China; the title of kango (Chinese word).[3] There are several instances of the use of Ōkimi, which is understood as a courtesy title of Emperor or royal family.[4] The kanji title 王 (Ō, Wang) originally designated a Master of Chūgen (中原, Zhongyuan) in Inner China. In the Zhou dynasty period, 王 (Wang) was the title of the sole Son of Heaven who rules the Tianxia. However, some great powers in the region of the Yangtze civilization did not want to stand in subordinate positions of the nations of the Yellow River civilization in North China, such as Chu, Wu and Yue. Some of their monarchs titled themselves Wang. When China entered into the Warring States period, the monarchs of the great nations among the states of North China who were originally subjects of the Zhou King, but achieved territorial statehood, called themselves sole Wang of the Tianxia in place of the Zhou King. Thus, there were numerous claims to the throne in mainland China. Thereafter, Ying Zheng (嬴政), the King of Qin (Emperor Shi Huang), who unified China for the first time in 221 BC, adopted the title Emperor (皇帝, Huángdì) instead of title King, which had been degraded. The King title Wang became the title granted to subjects of the Emperor, or that assigned to heads of neighboring states who recognized the authority of the Qin Emperor as Master of Tianxia, with a connotation of a subordinate rank. The latter usage was established thereafter. The monarch of Xiongnu stood on even ground with the Emperor of Qin, therefore his title was Chanyu, not Wang. The first appearance of King title related to old Japan is 漢委奴国王 (Kan no Wa no Na no kokuō, King of Na in Wa of Han) engraved on the gold seal which was bestowed on the king of Nakoku by the emperor Guangwu of Han in 57 AD.[5]
Oceania.  Oceania (UK: /ˌoʊsiˈɑːniə, ˌoʊʃi-, -ˈeɪn-/ OH-s(h)ee-AH-nee-ə, -⁠AY-, US: /ˌoʊʃiˈæniə, -ˈɑːn-/ ⓘ OH-shee-A(H)N-ee-ə)[5] is a geographical region including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.[6][7] Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered a continent, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its continental landmass.[8][9][10][11] Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, at the centre of the water hemisphere, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of about 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) and a population of around 46.3 million as of 2024. Oceania is the smallest continent in land area and the second-least populated after Antarctica. Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and globally competitive financial markets of Australia, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, which rank high in quality of life and Human Development Index,[12][13] to the much less developed economies of Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western New Guinea.[14] The largest and most populous country in Oceania is Australia, and the largest city is Sydney.[15] Puncak Jaya in Indonesia is the highest peak in Oceania at 4,884 m (16,024 ft).[16] The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago.[17] Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands and west New Guinea. Spanish and Dutch explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the 18th century, James Cook, who later arrived at the highly developed Hawaiian Islands, went to Tahiti and followed the east coast of Australia for the first time.[18] The arrival of European settlers in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The Pacific theatre saw major action during the First and Second World Wars. The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world.[19] Most Oceanian countries are parliamentary democracies, with tourism serving as a large source of income for the Pacific island nations.[20]
Emperor Sushun. Emperor Sushun (崇峻天皇, Sushun-tennō; died 592) was the 32nd Emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Sushuns reign spanned the years from 587 through 592.[3] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina)[4] was Hatsusebe-shinnō, also known as Hatsusebe no Waka-sazaki.[5] His name at birth was Hatsusebe (泊瀬部). He was the twelfth son of Emperor Kinmei. His mother was Empress Hirohime (蘇我小姉君), a daughter of Soga no Iname,[6] who was the chief, or Ōomi, of the Soga clan. He succeeded his half-brother, Emperor Yōmei in 587, and lived in the Kurahashi Palace (Kurahashi no Miya) in Yamato.[7]
Breed standard. In animal husbandry or animal fancy, a breed standard is a description of the characteristics of a hypothetical or ideal example of a breed.[1]: xix  The description may include physical or morphological detail, genetic criteria, or criteria of athletic or productive performance.[citation needed] It may also describe faults or deficiencies that would disqualify an animal from registration or from reproduction.[1]: xix  The hypothetical ideal example may be called a breed type.[citation needed] Breed standards are devised by breed associations or breed clubs, not by individuals, and are written to reflect the use or purpose of the species and breed of the animal. Breed standards help define the ideal animal of a breed and provide goals for breeders in improving stock.  In essence a breed standard is a blueprint for an animal fit for the function it was bred - i.e. herding, tracking etc.[2] Breed standards are not scientific documents, and may vary from association to association, and from country to country, even for the same species and breed. There is no one format for breed standards across all species, and breed standards do change and are updated over time.[2] Breed standards cover the externally observable qualities of the animal such as appearance, movement, and temperament. The exact format of the breed standard varies, as breed standards are not scientific documents and change as the needs of the members of the organization which authors them change. In general, a breed standard may include history of the breed, a narrative description of the breed, and details of the ideal externally observable structure and behavior for the breed. Certain deviations from the standard are considered faults. A large degree of deviation from the breed standard, an excess of faults, or certain defined major faults, may indicate that the animal should not be bred, although its fitness for other uses may not be impeded by the faults. An animal that closely matches (conforms to) the breed standard for its species and breed is said to have good conformation. In the American Poultry Association breed standards for poultry, for example, ducks and geese are divided by weight, and chicken breeds are divided by size. Chickens are also divided into egg laying, meat, and ornamental varieties.[3] In cattle, breed standards allow for comparisons and the selection of the best breeds to raise.[4] There is breed standard for dogs, cats, horses, chicken breeds, and others. The standard is used as a comparative parameter for judging animals in conformation shows competitions.[5]
Breed registry.  A breed registry, also known as a herdbook, studbook or register, in animal husbandry, the hobby of animal fancy, is an official list of animals within a specific breed whose parents are known. Animals are usually registered by their breeders while they are young. The terms studbook and register are also used to refer to lists of male animals standing at stud, that is, those animals actively breeding, as opposed to every known specimen of that breed. Such registries usually issue certificates for each recorded animal, called a pedigree, pedigreed animal documentation, or most commonly, an animals papers. Registration papers may consist of a simple certificate or a listing of ancestors in the animals background, sometimes with a chart showing the lineage. There are breed registries and breed clubs for several species of animal, such as dogs, horses, cows and cats. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and the US Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) also maintains stud books for captive species on display ranging from aardvarks to zebras.[1] Kennel clubs always maintain registries, either directly or through affiliated dog breed clubs. Some multi-breed clubs also maintain registries, as do non-affiliated breed clubs, and there are a few registries that are maintained by other private entities such as insurance agencies; an example of this in the United States is the Field Dog Stud Book. Working dog organizations also maintain registries. There are also entities that refer to themselves as registries, but that are thinly veiled marketing devices for vendors of puppies and adult dogs, as well as a means of collecting registration fees from novice dog owners unfamiliar with reputable registries and breed clubs.[2] Although these entities generally focus on dogs, particularly in relationship to the puppy mill industry, some are marketed as cat registries. At least one group claims to register wild species (held by private individuals rather than by legitimate zoological parks, which use the AZA).
Phenotype. In genetics, the phenotype (from Ancient Greek  φαίνω (phaínō) to appear, show and  τύπος (túpos) mark, type) is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism.[1][2] The term covers the organisms morphology (physical form and structure), its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, and its behavior. An organisms phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organisms genetic code (its genotype) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented example of polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. Richard Dawkins in 1978[3] and again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that one can regard bird nests and other built structures such as caddisfly larva cases and beaver dams as extended phenotypes. Wilhelm Johannsen proposed the genotype–phenotype distinction in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organisms hereditary material and what that hereditary material produces.[4][5] The distinction resembles that proposed by August Weismann (1834–1914), who distinguished between germ plasm (heredity) and somatic cells (the body). More recently in The Selfish Gene (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles. Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by Western blotting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human blood groups are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.[citation needed] The term phenotype has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its wild type, which would lead to the false statement that a mutation has no phenotype.[6] Behaviors and their consequences are also phenotypes, since behaviors are observable characteristics. Behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders[7] or syndromes.[8][9]
Lunar calendar. A lunar calendar is a calendar based on the monthly cycles of the Moons phases (synodic months, lunations), in contrast to solar calendars, whose annual cycles are based on the solar year, and lunisolar calendars, whose lunar months are brought into alignment with the solar year through some process of intercalation – such as by insertion of a leap month. The most widely observed lunar calendar is the Islamic calendar.[a] The details of when months begin vary from calendar to calendar, with some using new, full, or crescent moons and others employing detailed calculations. Since each lunation is approximately 29+1⁄2 days,[1] it is common for the months of a lunar calendar to alternate between 29 and 30 days. Since the period of 12 such lunations, a lunar year, is 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 34 seconds (354.36707 days),[1] lunar calendars are 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year. In lunar calendars, which do not make use of lunisolar calendars intercalation, the lunar months cycle through all the seasons of a solar year over the course of a 33–34 lunar-year cycle (see, e.g., list of Islamic years). Scholars have argued that ancient hunters conducted regular astronomical observations of the Moon back in the Upper Palaeolithic.[2] Samuel L. Macey dates the earliest uses of the Moon as a time-measuring device back to 28,000–30,000 years ago.[3] Lunar and lunisolar calendars differ as to which day is the first day of the month. Some are based on the first sighting of the lunar crescent, such as the Hijri calendar observed by most of Islam. Alternatively, in some lunisolar calendars, such as the Hebrew calendar and Chinese calendar, the first day of a month is the day when an astronomical new moon occurs in a particular time zone. In others, such as some Hindu calendars, each month begins on the day after the full moon. The length of each lunar cycle varies slightly from the average value. In addition, observations are subject to uncertainty and weather conditions. Thus, to minimise uncertainty, there have been attempts to create fixed arithmetical rules to determine the start of each calendar month. The best known of these is the Tabular Islamic calendar: in brief, it has a 30-year cycle with 11 leap years of 355 days and 19 years of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2,500 solar years or 2,570 lunar years. It also deviates from observation by up to about one or two days in the short term. The algorithm was introduced by Muslim astronomers in the 8th century to predict the approximate date of the first crescent moon, which is used to determine the first day of each month in the Islamic lunar calendar.[4]
Indonesia (disambiguation). Indonesia is an island chain country in Southeast Asia. Indonesia may also refer to:
Samaná (town). Samaná (old spelling: Xamaná), in full Santa Bárbara de Samaná, is a town and municipality in northeastern Dominican Republic and the capital of Samaná Province. It is on the northern coast of Samaná Bay. The town is an important tourism destination and the main center for whale-watching tours in the Caribbean region.[4][5] The town has three municipal districts: El Limón, Las Galeras, and Arroyo Barril. According to the 2012 population and housing census, the municipality has a total population of 108,179. Samaná is on a small plain close to the coast but most of the town is in the hills that enclose the plain. It is the largest municipality of the province. It has a total area of 412.11 km² (almost 49% of the total area of the province), including the three municipal districts that are part of the municipality. Most of the territory is occupied by the Sierra de Samaná, a short mountain range with steep slopes but no high mountains. The highest mountain is Monte Mesa (605 m).[2]
Shuihu.  A shuihu or shui hu (Chinese: 水虎; pinyin: shuǐhǔ; Wade–Giles: shui-hu; Japanese pronunciation: suiko; lit. water tiger),[b] is a legendary creature said to have inhabited river systems in what is now Hubei Province, China. The name shuihu (or suiko) derives from the creature possessing physical characteristics reminiscent of a tiger (虎, Chinese pronunciation: hu;  Japanese: ko/tora). The water tiger is described as similar (in size) to a 3 or 4-year old human child, with tiger-like head and lower limb, and covered with tough scales resisting arrows. It basks on sandbars, while keeping their claws submerged in water. If a human tries to tamper with he may be killed. Japanese books during the Tokugawa Period read the Chinese text rather differently. Wakan Sansai Zue, an influential encyclopedia of the early 18th-century, gave a considerably divergent reading and stated  that the suiko possessed kneecaps like tiger-claws. This odd feature was replicated in its woodcut illustration, and propagated in Toriyama Sekiens drawing of the suiko in his yōkai anthology.
Emperor Heizei.   Emperor Heizei (平城天皇, Heizei-tennō; 773 – August 5, 824), also known as Heijō-tennō, was the 51st emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Heizeis reign lasted from 806 to 809.[3] Heizei was the eldest son of the Emperor Kanmu and empress Fujiwara no Otomuro.[4] Heizei had three empresses and seven sons and daughters.[5] Heizei is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates Yamamomo no Misasagi (楊梅陵, Yamamomo Imperial Mausoleum), in Nara, as the location of Heizeis mausoleum.[1] The site is publicly accessible.[6] Although one of the largest kofun monuments in Japan, archaeological investigations in 1962–1963 indicate that it was constructed in the early 5th century, and that portions of it were destroyed during the construction of Heijō-kyō, calling into question the designation by the Imperial Household Agency.
Selective breeding.  Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant males and females will sexually reproduce and have offspring together. Domesticated animals are known as breeds, normally bred by a professional breeder, while domesticated plants are known as varieties, cultigens, cultivars, or breeds.[1] Two purebred animals of different breeds produce a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids. Flowers, vegetables and fruit-trees may be bred by amateurs and commercial or non-commercial professionals: major crops are usually the provenance of the professionals. In animal breeding artificial selection is often combined with techniques such as inbreeding, linebreeding, and outcrossing. In plant breeding, similar methods are used. Charles Darwin discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book, On the Origin of Species. Its first chapter discusses selective breeding and domestication of such animals as pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs. Darwin used artificial selection as an analogy to propose and explain the theory of natural selection but distinguished the latter from the former as a separate process that is non-directed.[2][3][4] The deliberate exploitation of selective breeding to produce desired results has become very common in agriculture and experimental biology. Selective breeding can be unintentional, for example, resulting from the process of human cultivation; and it may also produce unintended – desirable or undesirable – results. For example, in some grains, an increase in seed size may have resulted from certain ploughing practices rather than from the intentional selection of larger seeds. Most likely, there has been an interdependence between natural and artificial factors that have resulted in plant domestication.[5]
Emperor Saga.  Emperor Saga (嵯峨天皇, Saga-tennō; October 3, 786 – August 24, 842) was the 52nd emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Sagas reign lasted from 809 to 823.[3] Saga was the second son of Emperor Kanmu and Fujiwara no Otomuro.[4][5] His personal name was Kamino (神野).[6] Saga was an accomplished calligrapher able to compose in Chinese who held the first imperial poetry competitions (naien).[7] According to legend, he was the first Japanese emperor to drink tea. Saga is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates Saganoyamanoe no Misasagi (嵯峨山上陵, Saganoyamanoe Imperial Mausoleum), in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Sagas mausoleum.[1] Soon after his enthronement, Saga himself took ill. At the time the retired Heizei had quarreled with his brother over the ideal location of the court, the latter preferring the Heian capital, while the former was convinced that a shift back to the Nara plain was necessary, and Heizei, exploiting Sagas weakened health, seized the opportunity to foment a rebellion, known historically as the Kusuko Incident; however, forces loyal to Emperor Saga, led by taishōgun Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, quickly defeated the Heizei rebels which thus limited the adverse consequences which would have followed any broader conflict.[11]  This same Tamuramaro is remembered in Aomoris annual Nebuta Matsuri which feature a number of gigantic, specially-constructed, illuminated paper floats.  These great lantern-structures are colorfully painted with mythical figures; and teams of men carry them through the streets as crowds shout encouragement.  This early ninth century military leader is commemorated in this way because he is said to have ordered huge illuminated lanterns to be placed at the top of hills; and when the curious Emishi approached these bright lights to investigate, they were captured and subdued by Tamuramaros men.[12]
Fujiwara no Otomuro. Fujiwara no Otomuro (藤原乙牟漏; [ɸu͍ʑiwaɽa no otomuɽo], 760 – April 28, 790) was a Japanese noblewoman and empress consort of Japan.[1] Her sister was Fujiwara no Moroane. Fujiwara no Otomuro was a daughter of a noble called Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu;[2] her mother was the granddaughter of general Fujiwara no Umakai, who died in 737.[3] She married Emperor Kanmu.[4] Their children included: She also had a daughter, Princess Koshi. Her daughter-in-law was Lady Tachibana no Kachiko.[7]
Samaná Province. Samaná (Spanish pronunciation: [samaˈna]) is a province of the Dominican Republic in the Samaná Peninsula located in the eastern region. Its capital is Santa Bárbara de Samaná, usually known as Samaná.[1] The province is on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the northeastern part of the Dominican Republic. It is known for the mountains of which it is almost entirely formed. Samaná has numerous beaches. Samaná was originally larger covering the area of what is now the María Trinidad Sánchez province, before being divided during the Trujillo era. Samaná was also once known as the Samana Bay Company of Santo Domingo. The Samaná province is occupied by the Sierra de Samaná mountain range, which reaches many of the coastal areas. The highest mountain in this range (and in the province) is located in the eastern portion and is called La Meseta. Samaná has a tropical rainforest climate, with an annual average temperature of 25.9 degrees Celsius. Annual precipitation in the Sierra de Samaná is greater than 2,000 millimeters. There are numerous rivers and streams throughout the province, including the final part of the Yuna River, which flows into the western end of the Samaná Bay.
Emperor Kōnin.  Emperor Kōnin (光仁天皇, Kōnin-tennō; November 18, 708 – January 11, 782) was the 49th emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] Kōnins reign lasted from 770 to 781.[3] The personal name of Emperor Kōnin (imina) was Shirakabe (白壁).[4] As a son of Imperial Prince Shiki and a grandson of Emperor Tenji,[5] his formal style was Prince Shirakabe. Initially, he was not in line for succession, as Emperor Tenmu and his branch held the throne. He married Imperial Princess Inoe, a daughter of Emperor Shōmu, producing a daughter and a son. After his sister-in-law Empress Shōtoku died, he was named her heir. The high courtiers claimed the empress had left her will in a letter in which she had appointed him as her successor. Prior to this, he had been considered a gentle man without political ambition. Kōnin had five wives and seven Imperial sons and daughters.[6]
Flag of Indonesia.   The national flag of Indonesia is bicolor, with two horizontal bands, red (top) and white (bottom) with an overall ratio of 2:3.[1] It was introduced and hoisted in public during the proclamation of independence on 17 August 1945 at 56 Jalan Proklamasi (formerly Jalan Pegangsaan Timur) in Jakarta, and again when the Dutch formally transferred sovereignty on 27 December 1949. The design of the flag has remained unchanged since. The flag of Indonesia is graphically similar to the flag of Monaco, with a slight difference in the shade of red, and ratio of its dimensions. The flag of Poland has similar dimensions but has the colours reversed: white on top and red on the bottom. In both Monacos and Polands flags, the reds are of a slightly darker shade than that of Indonesia. The flag of Singapore has exactly the same dimensions as Indonesias, but supplemented with a white crescent moon and five stars in a pentagram at the upper left corner of the flag, of which the red is of a slightly lighter shade. The Naval Jack of Indonesia is reserved for sole use by the Indonesian Navy. It flies from the jackstaff of every active Indonesian warship while anchored or moored pierside and on special occasions. The design of the jack is described as nine alternating stripes, consisted of five red and four white stripes. It is nicknamed Sang Saka Merah Putih, lit. The Heirloom Red-White. The naval jack dates to the age of Majapahit Empire. This empire, renowned for its great maritime strength, flew similar jacks on its vessels.[2]
Gregorian calendar.  The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world.[1][a] It went into effect in October 1582 following the papal bull Inter gravissimas issued by Pope Gregory XIII, which introduced it as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years slightly differently to make the average calendar year 365.2425 days long rather than the Julian calendars 365.25 days, thus more closely approximating the 365.2422-day tropical or solar year that is determined by the Earths revolution around the Sun. The rule for leap years is that every year divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are divisible by 100, except in turn for years also divisible by 400. For example 1800 and 1900 were not leap years, but 2000 was.[2] There were two reasons to establish the Gregorian calendar. First, the Julian calendar was based on the estimate that the average solar year is exactly 365.25 days long, an overestimate of a little under one day per century, and thus has a leap year every four years without exception. The Gregorian reform shortened the average (calendar) year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes.[3] Second, in the years since the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325,[b] the excess leap days introduced by the Julian algorithm had caused the calendar to drift such that the March equinox was occurring well before its nominal 21 March date. This date was important to the Christian churches, because it is fundamental to the calculation of the date of Easter. To reinstate the association, the reform advanced the date by 10 days:[c] Thursday 4 October 1582 was followed by Friday 15 October 1582.[3] In addition, the reform also altered the lunar cycle used by the Church to calculate the date for Easter, because astronomical new moons were occurring four days before the calculated dates. Whilst the reform introduced minor changes, the calendar continued to be fundamentally based on the same geocentric theory as its predecessor.[4][failed verification] The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries also gradually moved to what they called the Improved calendar,[d] with Greece being the last European country to adopt the calendar (for civil use only) in 1923.[5] However, many Orthodox churches continue to use the Julian calendar for religious rites and the dating of major feasts. To unambiguously specify a date during the transition period (in contemporary documents or in history texts), both notations were given, tagged as Old Style or New Style as appropriate. During the 20th century, most non-Western countries also adopted the calendar, at least for civil purposes.
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika.  Bhinneka Tunggal Ika is the official national motto of Indonesia. It is inscribed in the national emblem of Indonesia, the Garuda Pancasila, written on the scroll gripped by the Garudas claws. The phrase comes from Old Javanese, meaning Unity in Diversity, and is enshrined in article 36A of the Constitution of Indonesia. The motto refers to the unity and integrity of Indonesia, a nation consisting of various cultures, regional languages, races, ethnicities, religions, and beliefs. The phrase is a quotation from an Old Javanese poem Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular, a famous poet of Javanese literature during the reign of the Majapahit empire in the 14th century, under the reign of King Rājasanagara (also known as Hayam Wuruk). Translated word for word, bhinnêka is a sandhi form of bhinna meaning different; the word tunggal means one and the word ika means it. Literally, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika is translated as It is different, [yet] it is one. Conventionally, the phrase is translated as Unity in Diversity,[1] which means that despite being diverse, the Indonesian people are still one unit. This motto describes the unity and integrity of Indonesia, which consists of various cultures, regional languages, races, ethnicities, religions, and beliefs. As head of the Faculty of Philosophy of Gadjah Mada University, Rizal Mustansyir, writes, the motto of Bhinneka Tunggal Ika explains clearly that there is diversity in various aspects of life that makes the Indonesian nation a unified nation.[2] The phrase originated from the Old Javanese poem Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular a famous poet of Javanese Literature during the reign of the Majapahit empire sometime in the 14th century, under the reign of King Rājasanagara, also known as Hayam Wuruk.[3] The Kakawin contains epic poems written in metres. The poem is notable as it promotes tolerance between Hindus (especially Shivaites) and Buddhists.[4]
Ingres (disambiguation). Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) was a French painter. Ingres may also refer to:
Film director. A film director or filmmaker is a person who controls a films artistic and dramatic aspects and visualizes the screenplay (or script) while guiding the film crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision. The director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design and all the creative aspects of filmmaking in cooperation with the producer.[1] The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay within the budget. There are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, producers, film editors or actors. Other film directors have attended film school. Directors use different approaches. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Other directors edit or appear in their films or compose music score for their films.[2] A film directors task is to envisage a way to translate a screenplay into a fully formed film, and then to realize this vision.[3] To do this, they oversee the artistic and technical elements of film production.[2][4] This entails organizing the film crew in such a way to achieve their vision of the film and communicating with the actors.[5][6] This requires skills of group leadership, as well as the ability to maintain a singular focus even in the stressful, fast-paced environment of a film set.[7] Moreover, it is necessary to have an artistic eye to frame shots and to give precise feedback to cast and crew,[8] thus, excellent communication skills are a must.[9] Because the film director depends on the successful cooperation of many different creative individuals with possibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions, they also need to possess conflict-resolution skills to mediate whenever necessary.[10] Thus the director ensures that all individuals involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film.[5] The set of varying challenges they have to tackle has been described as a multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown in for good measure.[11] It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when and how they will work again, if at all.[12]
National emblem of Indonesia.  The national emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda Pancasila in Indonesian.[2] The main part is the Garuda with a heraldic shield on its chest and a scroll gripped by its legs. The shields five emblems represent Pancasila, the five principles of Indonesias national ideology. The Garuda claws gripping a white ribbon scroll inscribed with the national motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika written in black text, which can be loosely translated as Unity in Diversity. Garuda Pancasila was designed by Sultan Hamid II from Pontianak, supervised by Sukarno, and was adopted as the national emblem on 11 February 1950. Garuda, the discipled carrier or vehicle (vahana) of the Hindu god Vishnu, appears in many ancient Hindu-Buddhist temples of ancient Indonesia. Temples such as Mendut, Borobudur, Sajiwan, Prambanan, Kidal, Penataran, Belahan, and Sukuh depict the images (bas-relief or statue) of Garuda. In Prambanan temple complex, there is a single temple located in front of Vishnu temple, dedicated to Garuda. However, there is no statue of Garuda inside the chamber today. In the Shiva temple, also in Prambanan complex, there is a relief telling an episode of Ramayana about Garudas nephew who also belongs to the bird-god race, Jatayu, tried to rescue Sita from Ravanas hand. The deified statue of King Airlangga depicted as Vishnu mounting Garuda from Belahan, probably the most famous statue of Garuda from ancient Java. Now the statue is one of the important collection of Trowulan Museum. Garuda appear in many traditions and stories, especially in Java and Bali. In many stories Garuda symbolises the virtue of knowledge, power, bravery, loyalty, and discipline. As the vehicle of Vishnu, Garuda also bears the attributes of Vishnu, which symbolise preservation of cosmic order. Balinese tradition venerated Garuda as the lord of all flying creatures, and the majestic king of birds. In Bali, Garuda traditionally portrayed as a divine creature with head, beak, wings, and claw of an eagle, while has the body of a human. Usually portrayed in intricate carving with golden and vivid colours, as the vehicle of Vishnu or in battle scene against Nāga (dragon) serpents. The important and noble position of Garuda in Indonesian tradition since ancient times has venerated Garuda as the national symbol of Indonesia, the embodiment of Indonesian ideology, Pancasila. Garuda also chosen as the name of Indonesian national airlines, Garuda Indonesia. After the Indonesian National Revolution ended and followed by the Dutch acknowledgement of the Indonesian independence in 1949, there was a need to create a national emblem of United States of Indonesia. On 10 January 1950 the Committee of State Seal was formed, under co-ordination of Sultan Hamid II of Pontianak as the State Minister of No Portfolio, with Muhammad Yamin as the chairman, and Ki Hajar Dewantara, M. A. Melkias Agustinus Pellaupessy, Mohammad Natsir, and Raden Mas Ngabehi Poerbatjaraka as committee members. The committee task is to select the proposals of United States of Indonesia national emblem to be presented to the government.
1988 in film.  The following is an overview of events in 1988 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of films released and notable deaths. The top 10 films released in 1988 by worldwide gross are as follows:[1] A World Apart Palme dOr (Cannes Film Festival)
1982 in film.  The following is an overview of events in 1982 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of films released and notable deaths. The top ten 1982 released films by box office gross in North America are as follows: The highest-grossing 1982 films in countries outside of North America. The following table lists known worldwide gross revenue figures for several high-grossing films that originally released in 1982. Note that this list is incomplete and is therefore not representative of the highest-grossing films worldwide in 1982.
Indonesian language.  Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) is the official and national language of Indonesia.[7] It is a standardized variety of Malay,[8] an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. With over 280 million inhabitants,[9] Indonesia ranks as the fourth-most populous nation globally. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian,[10] making it the largest language by number of speakers in Southeast Asia and one of the most widely spoken languages in the world.[11]: 14  Indonesian vocabulary has been influenced by various native regional languages such as Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Balinese, Banjarese, and Buginese, as well as by foreign languages such as  Arabic, Dutch, Hokkien, Portuguese, Sanskrit, and English. Many borrowed words have been adapted to fit the phonetic and grammatical rules of Indonesian, enriching the language and reflecting Indonesias diverse linguistic heritage. Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in at least one of the more than 700 indigenous local languages; examples include Javanese and Sundanese, which are commonly used at home and within the local community.[12][13] However, most formal education and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, and judiciary and other forms of communication are conducted in Indonesian.[14] Under Indonesian rule from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian was designated as the official language of East Timor. It has the status of a working language under the countrys constitution along with English.[6][15]: 3 [16] In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognized as one of the official languages of the UNESCO General Conference. The term Indonesian is primarily associated with the national standard dialect (bahasa baku).[17] However, in a looser sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago.[8][18] Standard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a diglossic relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and with Malay creoles;[17][12] standard Indonesian is spoken in informal speech as a lingua franca between vernacular Malay dialects, Malay creoles, and regional languages.
Kingdom of France. The Kingdom of France is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the medieval and early modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from the High Middle Ages to 1848 during its dissolution. It was also an early colonial power, with colonies in Asia and Africa, and the largest being New France in North America geographically centred on the Great Lakes. The Kingdom of France was descended directly from the western Frankish realm of the Carolingian Empire, which was ceded to Charles the Bald with the Treaty of Verdun (843). A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, when Hugh Capet was elected king and founded the Capetian dynasty. The territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum (king of the Franks) well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself rex Francie (King of France) was Philip II, in 1190, and officially from 1204. From then, France was continuously ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines under the Valois and Bourbon until the monarchy was abolished in 1792 during the French Revolution. The Kingdom of France was also ruled in personal union with the Kingdom of Navarre over two time periods, 1284–1328 and 1572–1620, after which the institutions of Navarre were abolished and it was fully annexed by France (though the King of France continued to use the title King of Navarre through the end of the monarchy). France in the Middle Ages was a decentralised, feudal monarchy. In Brittany, Normandy, Lorraine,  Provence,  East Burgundy and Catalonia (the latter now a part of Spain), as well as Aquitaine, the authority of the French king was barely felt. West Frankish kings were initially elected by the secular and ecclesiastical magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his fathers lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, which became codified in the Salic law. During the Late Middle Ages, rivalry between the Capetian dynasty, rulers of the Kingdom of France and their vassals the House of Plantagenet, who also ruled the Kingdom of England as part of their so-called competing Angevin Empire, resulted in many armed struggles. The most notorious of them all are the series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War (1337–1453) in which the kings of England laid claim to the French throne. Emerging victorious from said conflicts, France subsequently sought to extend its influence into Italy, but after initial gains was defeated by Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in the ensuing Italian Wars (1494–1559). France in the early modern era was increasingly centralised; the French language began to displace other languages from official use, and the monarch expanded his absolute power in an administrative system, known as the Ancien Régime, complicated by historic and regional irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions, and local prerogatives. Religiously, France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion (1562–1598). Subsequently, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas. In the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First French colonial empire stretched from a total area at its peak in 1680 to over 10 million square kilometres (3.9 million square miles), the second-largest empire in the world at the time behind the Spanish Empire. Colonial conflicts with Great Britain led to the loss of much of its North American holdings by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped the United States secure independence from King George III and the Kingdom of Great Britain, but was costly and achieved little for France.
Supernatural (film). Supernatural is a 1933 American pre-Code supernatural horror film directed by Victor Halperin, and starring Carole Lombard and Alan Dinehart. The film follows a woman who attends a staged séance only to find herself possessed by the spirit of an executed murderess. The film was the followup to Halperins White Zombie and uses many members of the crew from that film in its production. Trouble grew on the set between Carole Lombard and the director as Lombard felt she was more suited for comedy films. Tensions on the set were compounded by the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, which temporarily stopped production. The film was not as financially successful as White Zombie on its initial release. In New York City, Ruth Rogen is on death row for murdering three of her former lovers. Her fourth lover, a charlatan psychic named Paul Bavian, betrayed her to the police. Dr. Carl Houston believes the evil spirit of an executed murderer goes abroad to commit more crimes after death, and he gets permission to experiment on Rogens body after she is executed via the electric chair. Meanwhile, heiress Roma Courtney is contacted by Bavian, who claims her recently deceased twin brother, John, wants to send her a message. When Bavians landlady threatens to expose him, he murders her with a ring that has a poisoned needle. Roma and her fiancé, Grant Wilson, attend a séance performed by Bavian. Bavian tricks Roma into believing her brother was murdered by Hammond, manager of the Courtney estate. Roma and Grant leave the séance, and visit Dr. Houston. He is busy in his laboratory trying to reanimate Rogens body by pumping the corpse full of electricity. When Rogens eyes open, the shocked couple are asked to leave the lab as Dr. Houston explains what he is attempting to do. Suddenly, a wind bursts through the room and the spirit of Rogen tries to enter Romas body, leaving fingerprints on Romas neck. In an attempt to prove Bavian a fraud, Grant schedules a second séance at Romas home. Once more, Bavian uses tricks to convince Roma that Hammond is a murderer. Hammond scuffles with Bavian, and Bavian uses his ring to kill Hammond. At that moment, Rogens spirit enters Romas body. The possessed Roma agrees to leave with Bavian. They go to her former apartment. Bavian doesnt realize Roma is possessed and Bavian declares his disdain for Rogen and his desire for Roma. When the landlord tells them to leave, Bavian suggests they adjourn to Romas yacht. They passionately embrace. Meanwhile, Grant aided by Johns ghost, realizes Roma is possessed and rushes to the yacht. At the yacht during afterglow, Bavian and Roma exchange chatter and Bavian gets spooked by Romas mannerisms that seem similar to Rogens. Grant arrives just in time to prevent Rogen/Roma from strangling Bavian and Bavian from killing Roma. Exposed, Bavian runs and as he tries to leave, Rogens spirit follows and wraps a rope around his neck, hanging him. Rogens spirit departs. Johns spirit subtly urges the two to marry.
Montauban.  Montauban (US: /ˌmɒntoʊˈbɒn, ˌmoʊntoʊˈbɒ̃/,[3] French: [mɔ̃tobɑ̃] ⓘ; Occitan: Montalban [muntalˈβa]) is a commune in the southern French department of Tarn-et-Garonne. It is the capital of the department and lies  50 kilometres (31 mi) north of Toulouse. Montauban is the most populated town in Tarn-et-Garonne, and the sixth most populated of Occitanie behind Toulouse, Montpellier, Nîmes, Perpignan and Béziers. In 2019, there were 61,372 inhabitants, called Montalbanais. The town has been classified in the French Towns and Lands of Art and History network since 2015. The town, built mainly of a reddish brick, stands on the right bank of the Tarn at its confluence with the Tescou. Montauban is the second oldest (after Mont-de-Marsan) of the bastides of southern France. Its foundation dates from 1144 when Count Alphonse Jourdain of Toulouse, granted it a liberal charter. The inhabitants were drawn chiefly from Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of St Théodard. In the 13th century the town suffered much from the ravages of the Albigensian war and from the Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by John XXII as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of St Théodard became the cathedral.
Virtual Pro Wrestling. Virtual Pro Wrestling (Japanese: バーチャル・プロレスリング) is a professional wrestling video game series developed by AKI Corporation and published by Asmik Ace exclusively in Japan. The series started in 1996 with the release of the first Virtual Pro Wrestling for the PlayStation,[1] which was localized in the West as WCW vs. the World. Two other games in the series were released exclusively for the Nintendo 64, Virtual Pro Wrestling 64[2] and Virtual Pro Wrestling 2.[3] All games in the series feature characters largely based on real-life wrestlers working for Japanese professional wrestling promotions. The series has been highly regarded for its gameplay engine, featuring weak/strong attacks and maneuvers and the Nintendo 64 games have been popular import titles.[3][4] The games served as the basis for several games published by THQ and based on the American wrestling promotions World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). The first game in the series was released outside Japan as WCW vs. the World.[1] The last two games in the series had Western counterparts in WCW vs. nWo: World Tour[2] and WWF WrestleMania 2000.[3] Although AKI stopped producing Virtual Pro Wrestling titles, they continued to use tweaked versions of the gameplay system in newer titles such as Def Jam Vendetta,[5] Def Jam: Fight for NY[4] and games based on the Ultimate Muscle franchise such as Ultimate Muscle: Legends vs. New Generation.[6]
Dominican Republic.  The Dominican Republic[a] is a country in the Caribbean located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean. It shares a maritime border with Puerto Rico to the east and a land border with Haiti to the west, occupying the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola which, along with Saint Martin, is one of only two islands in the Caribbean shared by two sovereign states.[15][16] In the Antilles, the country is the second-largest nation by area after Cuba at 48,671 square kilometers (18,792 sq mi) and second-largest by population after Haiti with approximately 11.4 million people in 2024, of whom 3.6 million reside in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city.[4] The native Taíno people had inhabited Hispaniola prior to European contact, dividing it into five chiefdoms. Christopher Columbus claimed the island for Castile, landing there on his first voyage in 1492. The colony of Santo Domingo became the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of the island, which became the independent First Empire of Haiti in 1804. A group of Dominicans deposed the Spanish governor and declared independence from Spain in November 1821, but were annexed by Haiti in February 1822. Independence came 22 years later in 1844, after victory in the Dominican War of Independence. The next 72 years saw several civil wars, failed invasions by Haiti, and a brief return to Spanish colonial status, before permanently ousting the Spanish during the Dominican Restoration War of 1863–1865. From 1930, the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo ruled until his assassination in 1961. Juan Bosch was elected president in 1962 but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. The Dominican Civil War of 1965 preceded the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer (1966–1978 and 1986–1996). Since 1978, the Dominican Republic has moved towards representative democracy. The Dominican Republic has the largest economy in the Caribbean and the seventh-largest in Latin America.[17][18] Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in the Western Hemisphere – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5.3% between 1992 and 2018.[19] GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7.0%, respectively, the highest in the Western Hemisphere.[19] Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing, tourism, and mining. The country is the site of the third largest (in terms of production) gold mine in the world, the Pueblo Viejo mine.[20][21] The gold production of the country was 31 metric tonnes in 2015.[22] The Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean.[23] A geographically diverse nation, the Dominican Republic is home to both the Caribbeans tallest mountain peak, Pico Duarte, and the Caribbeans largest lake and lowest point, Lake Enriquillo.[24] The island has an average temperature of 26 °C (78.8 °F) and great climatic and biological diversity.[25] The country is also the site of the first cathedral, palace, monastery, and fortress built in the Americas, located in Santo Domingos Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site.[26][27]
Second French Empire.  The Second French Empire,[a] officially the French Empire,[b] was the government of France from 1852 to 1870. It was established on 2 December 1852 by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, president of France under the French Second Republic, who proclaimed himself Emperor of the French as Napoleon III. The period was one of significant achievements in infrastructure and economy, while France reasserted itself as the dominant power in mainland Europe. Historians in the 1930s and 1940s disparaged the Second Empire as a precursor of fascism,[5] but by the late 20th century it was re-evaluated as an example of a modernizing regime.[6][7] Historians have generally given the Second Empire negative evaluations on its foreign policy, and somewhat more positive assessments of domestic policies, especially after Napoleon III liberalised his rule after 1858. He promoted French business and exports. The greatest achievements included a railway network that facilitated commerce and tied the nation together with Paris as its hub. This stimulated economic growth and brought prosperity to most regions of the country. The Second Empire is credited with renovating Paris with broad boulevards, striking public buildings, and elegant residential districts for wealthier Parisians. Internationally, Napoleon III tried to emulate his uncle Napoleon Bonaparte, engaging in numerous imperial ventures around the world as well as several wars in Europe. He began his reign with French victories in Crimea and in Italy, gaining Savoy and Nice, and very briefly, Venetia (before in turn ceding to Italy). Using very harsh methods, he built up the French Empire in North Africa, in East Africa and in French Indochina. Napoleon III also launched an intervention in Mexico seeking to erect the Second Mexican Empire and bring it into the French orbit, but this ended in a fiasco. He mishandled the Prussian threat, and by the end of his reign, the French emperor found himself without allies in the face of overwhelming German forces.[8] The Second Empire came to an end during the Franco-Prussian War, following Napoleon IIIs capture at the Battle of Sedan and the proclamation of the Third French Republic on 4 September 1870. On 2 December 1851, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who had been elected President of the Republic in 1848, staged a coup détat by dissolving the National Assembly without having the constitutional right to do so. He thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions were popularly endorsed by a referendum later that month that attracted 92 percent support.[9]
Languedoc.  The Province of Languedoc (/ˌlɒ̃ɡ(ə)ˈdɒk/, French: [lɑ̃ɡ(ə)dɔk], locally [lãᵑɡəˈdɔk]; Occitan: Lengadòc [ˌleŋɡɔˈðɔ(k)]) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately 42,700 square kilometers (16,500 square miles). The Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis fell to the Visigothic Kingdom from the 5th to the 8th centuries. Occupied briefly by the Emirate of Córdoba between 719 and 759, it was conquered and incorporated into the Kingdom of the Franks by Pepin the Short in 759 following the Siege of Narbonne. The term Languedoc originated to describe a cultural region that was not necessarily politically unified. After the decline of the Carolingian Empire political rule fragmented into small territorial divisions.[1] King John of England lost his holdings in northern Languedoc to Philip II of France. He visited the region in 1214 seeking the restoration of those lands.[2]
Takaoka District, Kōchi. Takaoka (高岡郡, Takaoka-gun) is a district located in Kōchi Prefecture, Japan. As of the Shimanto merger but with 2003 population statistics, the district has an estimated population of 68,854 and a density of 45.1 persons per km2. The total area is 1,527.65 square kilometres (589.83 sq mi). As with the majority of Kochi, the terrain in Takaoka is mostly mountainous. The Shimanto River, that disperses further west in the Hata district, has its source in Tsuno. Like most rural areas in Kochi, transport is limited for residents and visitors without private vehicles.  The JR Dosan line that runs from Kochi passes through Hidaka, Sakawa and Kure (Nakatosa) on the way to Kubokawa (Shimanto Town). The other. Local buses do operate within areas of Takaoka, such as a regular but infrequent set of routes servicing Sakawa, Ochi and Niyodogawa.
Sakawa, Kōchi. Sakawa (佐川町, Sakawa-chō) is a town located in Takaoka District, Kōchi Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 August 2022[update], the town had an estimated population of 12,306 in 6036 households and a population density of 120 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the town is 100.8 square kilometres (38.9 sq mi). Sakawa is located in a basin along the Yanase River, a tributary of the Niyodo River, in the midwestern part of Kochi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. The landscape is hilly and the roads and footpaths are winding and narrow. The town is 28 km west of Kōchi City. The tallest mountain in Sakawa is Mt. Kokuzo, with an elevation of 675 meters. Many rivers also run through the town, which are tributaries of the Niyodo River. Kōchi Prefecture Sakawa has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Sakawa is 15.3 °C. The average annual rainfall is 2688 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.6 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.0 °C.[2] Sakawa experiences extreme seasons. Spring and Fall are mild and cool. Summer is very warm and temperatures routinely reach 35 °C with 100% humidity. The coldest months are January and February with temperatures around 10 °C during the day. There are usually one or two light snowfalls in January. The rainy season is from June to August and typhoons are common during this time. Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Sakawa has been decreasing slowly since the 1980s.
Naoki Prize. The Naoki Prize, officially Naoki Sanjugo Prize (直木三十五賞, Naoki Sanjūgo Shō), is a Japanese literary award presented biannually. It was created in 1935 by Kikuchi Kan, then editor of the Bungeishunjū magazine, and named in memory of novelist Naoki Sanjugo.[1] Sponsored by the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Literature, the award recognizes the best work of popular literature in any format by a new, rising, or (reasonably young) established author.[2] The winner receives a watch and one million yen.[3] Kikuchi founded the Naoki Prize with the Akutagawa Prize, which targets a new or rising author of literary fiction. The two prizes are viewed as two sides of the same coin and inseparable from one another. Because of the prestige associated with the Naoki Prize and the considerable attention the winner receives from the media, it, along with the Akutagawa Prize, is one of Japans most sought after literary awards of recognition.[3][4] Bungeishunjū maintains the official archive of past Naoki Prize winners.[5] (As of 2024)[39]
Supernatural. Supernatural phenomena or entities are those beyond the laws of the nature.[1] The term is derived from Medieval Latin supernaturalis, from Latin super- above, beyond, outside of + natura nature.[1] Although the corollary term nature has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term supernatural emerged in the Middle Ages[2] and did not exist in the ancient world.[3] The supernatural is featured in religious and folkloric contexts,[4] but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of superstitions or belief in the paranormal.[5] The term is attributed to non-physical entities, such as spirits, angels, demons, and gods. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including magic, telekinesis, levitation, precognition and extrasensory perception. The supernatural is hypernymic to religion. Religions are standardized supernaturalist worldviews, or at least more complete than single supernaturalist views. Supernaturalism is the adherence to the supernatural (beliefs, and not violations of causality and the physical laws). Occurring as both an adjective and a noun, antecedents of the modern English compound supernatural enter the language from two sources: via Middle French (supernaturel) and directly from the Middle Frenchs terms ancestor, post-Classical Latin (supernaturalis). Post-classical Latin supernaturalis first occurs in the 6th century, composed of the Latin prefix super- and nātūrālis (see nature). The earliest known appearance of the word in the English language occurs in a Middle English translation of Catherine of Sienas Dialogue (orcherd of Syon, around 1425; Þei haue not þanne þe supernaturel lyȝt ne þe liȝt of kunnynge, bycause þei vndirstoden it not).[6] The semantic value of the term has shifted over the history of its use. Originally the term referred exclusively to Christian understandings of the world. For example, as an adjective, the term can mean belonging to a realm or system that transcends nature, as that of divine, magical, or ghostly beings; attributed to or thought to reveal some force beyond scientific understanding or the laws of nature; occult, paranormal or more than what is natural or ordinary; unnaturally or extraordinarily great; abnormal, extraordinary. Obsolete uses include of, relating to, or dealing with metaphysics. As a noun, the term can mean a supernatural being, with a particularly strong history of employment in relation to entities from the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[6]
Nara Womens University. Nara Womens University (奈良女子大学, Nara joshi daigaku) is a national womens university located in Nara, Nara Prefecture, Japan. It is one of two national womens universities in the country, the other being Ochanomizu University.[1] Nara Womens University was originally created in 1908 with the aim of training women teachers for ordinary schools, later to be reorganized and renamed with its current name in 1949. Until 1949 there were only two womens imperial quasi-universities in Japan, the Ochanomizu University and Nara Womens University. Nara Womens University was formerly called Nara joshi kōtō shihan gakkō (奈良女子高等師範学校; Nara advanced teachers college for women). As of 2013, the university has three faculties: As of 2013, the university has two graduate programs:
Yokohama.  Yokohama (Japanese: 横浜; pronounced [jokohama] ⓘ) is the second-largest city in Japan by population[1] as well as by area, and the countrys most populous municipality.[a] It is the capital and most populous city in Kanagawa Prefecture, with a population of 3.7 million in 2023. It lies on Tokyo Bay, south of Tokyo, in the Kantō region of the main island of Honshu. Yokohama is also the major economic, cultural, and commercial hub of the Greater Tokyo Area along the Keihin Industrial Zone. Yokohama was one of the cities to open for trade with the West following the 1859 end of the policy of seclusion and has since been known as a cosmopolitan port city, after Kobe opened in 1853. Yokohama is the home of many Japans firsts in the Meiji era, including the first foreign trading port and Chinatown (1859), European-style sport venues (1860s), English-language newspaper (1861), confectionery and beer manufacturing (1865), daily newspaper (1870), gas-powered street lamps (1870s), railway station (1872), and power plant (1882). Yokohama developed rapidly as Japans prominent port city following the end of Japans relative isolation in the mid-19th century and is today one of its major ports along with Kobe, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Tokyo and Chiba. Yokohama is the largest port city and high tech industrial hub in the Greater Tokyo Area and the Kantō region. The city proper is headquarters to companies such as Isuzu, Nissan, JVCKenwood, Keikyu, Koei Tecmo, Sotetsu and Bank of Yokohama. Famous landmarks in Yokohama include Minato Mirai 21, Nippon Maru Memorial Park, Yokohama Chinatown, Motomachi Shopping Street, Yokohama Marine Tower, Yamashita Park, and Ōsanbashi Pier. Yokohama (横浜) means horizontal beach.[2] The current area surrounded by Maita Park, the Ōoka River and the Nakamura River have been a gulf divided by a sandbar from the open sea. This sandbar was the original Yokohama fishing village. Since the sandbar protruded perpendicularly from the land, or horizontally when viewed from the sea, it was called a horizontal beach.[3]
Kōchi Prefecture. Kōchi Prefecture (高知県, Kōchi-ken; Japanese pronunciation: [koꜜː.tɕi, koː.tɕi̥ꜜ.keɴ], locally [koː.tɕi][2]) is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Shikoku.[3] Kōchi Prefecture has a population of 669,516 (1 April 2023) and has a geographic area of 7,103 km2 (2,742 sq mi). Kōchi Prefecture borders Ehime Prefecture to the northwest and Tokushima Prefecture to the northeast. Kōchi is the capital and largest city of Kōchi Prefecture, with other major cities including Nankoku, Shimanto, and Kōnan.[4] Kōchi Prefecture is located on Japans Pacific coast surrounding a large bay in the south of Shikoku, with the southernmost point of the island located at Cape Ashizuri in Tosashimizu. Kōchi Prefecture is home to Kōchi Castle, considered the most intact Japanese castle, and the Shimanto River, one of the few undammed rivers in Japan. In the Kujiki, first recorded governments in Kōchi Prefecture were Hata (in the west) and Tosa (in the center). Hata was established first, so it is thought that it had more influence and contact with the Yamato court. Written records from this time period are sparse, however it is believed that the first governors of Hata and Tosa were from the Kamo clan based in modern Osaka. In the Nihon Shoki, the first report from an official in the Kōchi region described the damages caused by the 684 Hakuhō earthquake. From this report, it can be inferred that by 684 at the latest, the Tosa Province (a predecessor to modern-day Kōchi Prefecture) had been established. The first report from a named official was written by Hiketa no Mushiro in 743. Up until the Genpei War, 106 governors were appointed to govern the Tosa Province. Eventually, like many other provinces Tosa also was appointed absentee governors, given additional rights, and began amassing wealth. Due to being located far from the capital, many prisoners were exiled to the Tosa Province.
Romanticism (disambiguation). Romanticism was a cultural movement. Romanticism may also refer to:
The Snake Charmer. The Snake Charmer is an oil-on-canvas painting by French artist Jean-Léon Gérôme produced around 1879.[1] After it was used on the cover of Edward Saids book Orientalism in 1978, the work attained a level of notoriety matched by few Orientalist paintings,[2] as it became a lightning-rod for criticism of Orientalism in general and Orientalist painting in particular, although Said himself does not mention the painting in his book. It is in the collection of the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, which also owns another controversial Gérôme painting, The Slave Market. The painting depicts a naked boy standing on a small carpet in the center of a room with blue-tiled walls, facing away from the viewer, holding a python which coils around his waist and over his shoulder, while an older man sits to his right playing a fipple flute. The performance is watched by a motley group of armed men from a variety of Islamic tribes, with different clothes and weapons. Sarah Lees catalogue essay for the painting examines the setting as a conflation of Ottoman Turkey and Egypt, and also explains the young snake charmers nudity, not as an erotic display, but to obviate charges of fraud in his performance: The Snake Charmer…brings together widely disparate, even incompatible, elements to create a scene that, as is the case with much of his oeuvre, the artist could not possibly have witnessed. Snake charming was not part of Ottoman culture, but it was practiced in ancient Egypt and continued to appear in that country during the nineteenth century. Maxime du Camp, for example, described witnessing a snake charmer in Cairo during his 1849–51 trip with Gustave Flaubert in terms that are comparable to Gérôme’s depiction, including mention of the young male disrobing in order to obviate charges of fraud. The artist has placed this performance, however, in a hybrid, fictional space that derives from identifiably Turkish, as well as Egyptian, sources.[3] The blue tiles are inspired by İznik panels in the Altınyol (Golden Passage) and Baghdad Kiosk of Topkapı Palace in Ottoman-era Constantinople. Some parts of the inscriptions on the walls cannot easily be read, but the large frieze at the top of the painting, running from right to left, is perfectly legible. It is the famous Koranic verse 256 from Surah II, al-Baqara, The Cow, written in thuluth script, and reads
Film industry. The film industry or motion picture industry comprises the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking, i.e., film production companies, film studios, cinematography, animation, film production, screenwriting, pre-production, post-production, film festivals, distribution, and actors. Though the expense involved in making film almost immediately led film production to concentrate under the auspices of standing production companies, advances in affordable filmmaking equipment, as well as an expansion of opportunities to acquire investment capital from outside the film industry itself, have allowed independent film production to evolve. In 2019, the global box office was worth $42.2 billion.[1] When including box office and home entertainment revenue, the global film industry was worth $136 billion in 2018.[2] Hollywood is the worlds oldest national film industry, and largest in terms of box-office gross revenue. The worldwide theatrical market had a box office of US$42.2 billion in 2019. The top three continents/regions by box-office gross were Asia-Pacific with US$17.8 billion, the U.S. and Canada with US$11.4 billion, and Europe, the Middle East and North Africa with US$10.3 billion. As of 2019[update], the largest markets by box office were, in decreasing order, the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, France, and India.[1] As of 2019[update], the countries with the largest number of film productions were India, and the United States.[3] Artificial intelligence (AI) is potentially increasingly playing a role as technology advances. In Europe, significant centres of movie production are France, Germany, Spain, Italy, and the United Kingdom.[4] The cinema of China is one of three distinct historical threads of Chinese-language cinema together with the cinema of Hong Kong and the cinema of Taiwan. Cinema was introduced in China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was made in 1905, with the film industry being centered on Shanghai in the first decades. China is the home of one of the largest film studios in the world, the Hengdian World Studios, and in 2010 it had the third largest film industry by number of feature films produced annually. For the next decade, the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the Far East. In 1913, the first independent Chinese screenplay, The Difficult Couple, was filmed in Shanghai by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan.[5] As the Sixth Generation[clarification needed] gained international exposure, many subsequent films were joint ventures and projects with international backers but remained quite resolutely low-key and low-budget [citation needed]. Jias Platform (2000) was funded in part by Takeshi Kitanos production house,[6] while his Still Life was shot on HD video. Still Life was a surprise addition and Golden Lion winner of the 2006 Venice International Film Festival. Still Life, which concerns provincial workers around the Three Gorges region, sharply contrasts with the works of Fifth Generation Chinese directors like Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige who were at the time producing House of Flying Daggers (2004) and The Promise (2005). It featured no star of international renown and was acted mostly by non-professionals. In 2012 the country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts. In 2014, the gross box office in China was ¥29.6 billion (US$4.82 billion), with domestic films having a share of 55%.[7] China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios.[8][9]
Ghost.  In folklore, a ghost is the soul or spirit of a dead person or non-human animal that is believed by some people to be able to appear to the living. In ghostlore, descriptions of ghosts vary widely, from an invisible presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes to realistic, lifelike forms. The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a deceased person is known as necromancy, or in spiritism as a séance. Other terms associated with it are apparition, haunt, haint, phantom, poltergeist, shade, specter, spirit, spook, wraith, demon, and ghoul. The belief in the existence of an afterlife, as well as manifestations of the spirits of the dead, is widespread, dating back to animism or ancestor worship in pre-literate cultures. Certain religious practices—funeral rites, exorcisms, and some practices of spiritualism and ritual magic—are specifically designed to rest the spirits of the dead. Ghosts are generally described as solitary, human-like essences, though stories of ghostly armies and the ghosts of animals other than humans have also been recounted.[2][3] They are believed to haunt particular locations, objects, or people they were associated with in life. According to a 2009 study by the Pew Research Center, 18% of Americans say they have seen a ghost.[4] The overwhelming consensus of science is that there is no proof that ghosts exist.[5] Their existence is impossible to falsify,[5] and ghost hunting has been classified as pseudoscience.[6][7][8] Despite centuries of investigation, there is no scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by the spirits of the dead.[6][9] Historically, certain toxic and psychoactive plants (such as datura and hyoscyamus niger), whose use has long been associated with necromancy and the underworld, have been shown to contain anticholinergic compounds that are pharmacologically linked to dementia (specifically DLB) as well as histological patterns of neurodegeneration.[10][11] Recent research has indicated that ghost sightings may be related to degenerative brain diseases such as Alzheimers disease.[12] Common prescription medication and over-the-counter drugs (such as sleep aids) may also, in rare instances, cause ghost-like hallucinations, particularly zolpidem and diphenhydramine.[13] Older reports linked carbon monoxide poisoning to ghost-like hallucinations.[14] In folklore studies, ghosts fall within the motif index designation E200–E599 (Ghosts and other revenants).
Orientalism (book). Orientalism is a 1978 book by Edward Said, in which he establishes the term Orientalism as a critical concept to describe the Western worlds commonly contemptuous depiction and portrayal of the Eastern world—that is, the Orient. Societies and peoples of the Orient are those who inhabit regions throughout Asia and North Africa. Said argues that Orientalism, in the sense of the Western scholarship about the Eastern world, is inextricably tied to the imperialist societies that produced it, which makes much Orientalist work inherently political and servile to power.[1] According to Said, in the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the ruling Arab elites indicate they are imperial satraps who have internalized a romanticized version of Arab culture created by French and British (and later, American) Orientalists. Examples used in the book include critical analyses of the colonial literature of Gustave Flaubert. Through the critical application of post-structuralism in its scholarship, Orientalism influenced the development of literary theory, cultural criticism, and the field of Middle Eastern studies, especially with regard to how academics practice their intellectual inquiries when examining, describing, and explaining the Middle East.[2] Moreover, the scope of Saids scholarship established Orientalism as a foundational text in the field of post-colonial studies by denoting and examining the connotations of Orientalism, and the history of a given countrys post-colonial period.[3] As a public intellectual, Said debated historians and scholars of area studies, notably historian Bernard Lewis, who described the thesis of Orientalism as anti-Western in nature.[4] For subsequent editions of Orientalism, Said wrote an Afterword (1995)[5]: 329–52  and a Preface (2003)[5]: xi–xxiii  addressing discussions of the book as cultural criticism. The term Orientalism denotes the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western superiority, and the application of clichéd analytical models for perceiving the Oriental world. This intellectual tradition is the background for Saids presentation of Orientalism as a European viewpoint reflecting a contrived Manichean duality.
Deity.  A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life.[1][2] The Oxford Dictionary of English defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine.[3] C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life.[4] Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as God),[5][6] whereas polytheistic religions accept multiple deities.[7] Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as aspects of the same divine principle.[8][9] Nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity, but may accept a pantheon of deities which live, die and may be reborn like any other being.[10]: 35–37 [11]: 357–358 Although most monotheistic religions traditionally envision their god as omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, and eternal,[12][13] none of these qualities are essential to the definition of a deity[14][15][16] and various cultures have conceptualized their deities differently.[14][15] Monotheistic religions typically refer to their god in masculine terms,[17][18]: 96  while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways—male, female, hermaphroditic, or genderless.[19][20][21] Many cultures—including the ancient Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Germanic peoples—have personified natural phenomena, variously as either deliberate causes or effects.[22][23][24] Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts.[22][23] In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs and mind.[25][26][27] Deities are envisioned as a form of existence (Saṃsāra) after rebirth, for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven, but are also subject to death when their merit is lost.[10]: 35–38 [11]: 356–359
Jean-Léon Gérôme.  Jean-Léon Gérôme (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ leɔ̃ ʒeʁom]; 11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as academicism. His paintings were so widely reproduced that he was arguably the worlds most famous living artist by 1880.[1] The range of his works includes historical paintings, Greek mythology, Orientalism, portraits, and other subjects. He is considered among the most important painters from the academic period and was, with Meissonier and Cabanel, one of the three most successful artists of the Second Empire.[2] He was also a teacher with a long list of students, including Mary Cassatt, Thomas Eakins, and Osman Hamdi Bey, among others. Jean-Léon Gérôme was born at Vesoul, Haute-Saône. It was here that Gérôme first received instruction in drawing during his youth in school. He was instructed by local artist and teacher Claude-Basile Cariage, under whom he produced work of sufficient quality to merit more auspicious tutelage.[3] In 1840 he was sent to Paris at the age of 16 where he studied under Paul Delaroche, whom he later accompanied to Italy in 1843. He visited Florence, Rome, the Vatican and Pompeii. On his return to Paris in 1844, like many students of Delaroche, he joined the atelier of Charles Gleyre and studied there for a brief time. He then attended the École des Beaux-Arts. In 1846 he tried to enter the prestigious Prix de Rome, but failed in the final stage because his figure drawing was inadequate.[4] His painting The Cock Fight (1846) is an academic exercise depicting a nude young man and a very thinly draped young woman with two fighting cocks, with the Bay of Naples in the background. He sent this painting to the Paris Salon of 1847, where it gained him a third-class medal. This work was seen as the epitome of the Neo-Grec movement that had formed out of Gleyres studio (including Henri-Pierre Picou and Jean-Louis Hamon), and was championed by the influential French critic Théophile Gautier, whose review made Gérôme famous and effectively launched his career.[5]
Clark Art Institute.  The Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, commonly referred to as the Clark, is an art museum and research institution located in Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States. Its collection consists of European and American paintings, sculpture, prints, drawings, photographs, and decorative arts from the fourteenth to the early twentieth century. The Clark, along with the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art (MASS MoCA) and the Williams College Museum of Art (WCMA), forms a trio of art museums in the Berkshires. The institute also serves as a center for research and higher learning. It is home to various research and academic programs, which include the Fellowship Program and the Williams College Graduate Program in the History of Art, as well as one of the most distinguished research libraries in the country, with more than 295,000 volumes in over 72 languages.[1] The Clark is visited by 200,000 people a year, and offers many educational programs for visitors of all ages throughout the year.[2] The Clark was created in 1955 in association with Williams College by entrepreneur, soldier and prominent art collector Robert Sterling Clark, and his wife, Francine. After traveling in the Far East, Sterling settled in Paris in 1911 and used a considerable fortune inherited from his grandfather (a principal in the Singer Sewing Machine Company) to begin amassing a private art collection. Francine joined him in collecting works of art after their marriage in 1919. The Clarks kept their collection largely private, rarely lending out any works. With the onset of the Cold War and rapid nuclear armament, they became increasingly worried about the safety of their artworks. They wanted to protect their collection from a possible attack on New York City, where they lived and where the expected heir of their collection, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, was located. As such, the Clarks began looking at sites in rural New York and Massachusetts with the intention of founding a museum for their art. They visited Williamstown, Massachusetts in 1949 and began having conversations with town leaders and the administrators of Williams College and the Williams College Museum of Art. Sterling had ties to the college through his grandfather and father, both of whom had been trustees. A charter for the Robert Sterling Clark Art Institute was signed on March 14, 1950, incorporating the organization with the intention of becoming both a museum and educational institution. A special meeting was held by Sterling soon after the first cornerstone was laid in 1953 that changed the name to the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, as it is today. Sterling wrote that Francines inclusion was because of her constant enthusiasm for the Institutes objectives, her participation in the accumulation of the collections which the Institute will house and her contributions to the planning of the project.[3]
Fukuoka Stock Exchange. Fukuoka Stock Exchange (FSE) is a stock exchange located in Fukuoka, Japan. It operates Q-Board, a special market for new companies.[2] In August 2000, the exchange closed its trading floor and adopted the electronic trading system of Tokyo Stock Exchange.[3] In January 2002, FSE reached an agreement with the four other Japanese stock exchanges and Japan Securities Dealers Association, JSDA to establish Japan Securities Clearing Corporation (JSCC).[4] This article about stock exchanges is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article about a Japanese corporation- or company-related topic is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog[a] is a painting by German Romanticist artist Caspar David Friedrich made in 1818.[2] It depicts a man standing upon a rocky precipice with his back to the viewer; he is gazing out on a landscape covered in a thick sea of fog through which other ridges, trees, and mountains pierce, which stretches out into the distance indefinitely. It has been considered one of the masterpieces of the Romantic movement and one of its most representative works. The painting has been interpreted as an emblem of self-reflection or contemplation of lifes path, and the landscape is considered to evoke the sublime. Friedrich was a common user of Rückenfigur (German: Rear-facing figure) in his paintings; Wanderer above the Sea of Fog is perhaps the most famous Rückenfigur in art due to the subjects prominence. The painting has also been interpreted as an expression of Friedrichs German liberal and nationalist feeling. While Friedrich was respected in German and Russian circles, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog and Friedrichs work in general were not immediately regarded as masterpieces. Friedrichs reputation improved in the early 20th century, and in particular during the 1970s; Wanderer became particularly popular, appearing as an example of popular art as well as high culture on books and other works. The provenance of the artwork after its creation is unknown, but by 1939, it was on display in the gallery of Wilhelm August Luz in Berlin, and in 1970, it was acquired by the Hamburger Kunsthalle in Hamburg, Germany, where it has been displayed ever since. In the foreground, a man stands upon a rocky precipice with his back to the viewer. He is wrapped in a dark green overcoat, and grips a walking stick in his right hand.[3] His hair caught in a wind, the wanderer gazes out on a landscape covered in a thick sea of fog. In the middle ground, several other ridges, perhaps not unlike the ones the wanderer himself stands upon, jut out from the mass.[4] Through the wreaths of fog, forests of trees can be perceived atop these escarpments. In the far distance, faded mountains rise in the left, gently leveling off into lowland plains in the right. Beyond here, the pervading fog stretches out indefinitely, eventually commingling with the horizon and becoming indistinguishable from the cloud-filled sky.[3] The painting is composed of various elements from the Elbe Sandstone Mountains in Saxony and Bohemia, sketched in the field but in accordance with his usual practice, rearranged by Friedrich himself in the studio for the painting. In the background to the right is the Zirkelstein.[5] The mountain in the background to the left could be either the Rosenberg or the Kaltenberg. The group of rocks in front of it represent the Gamrig near Rathen. The rocks on which the traveller stands are a group on the Kaiserkrone.[6]
Caspar David Friedrich.  Caspar David Friedrich (German: [ˌkaspaʁ ˌdaːvɪt ˈfʁiːdʁɪç] ⓘ; 5 September 1774 – 7 May 1840) was a German Romantic landscape painter, generally considered the most important German artist of his generation, whose often symbolic, and anti-classical work, conveys a subjective, emotional response to the natural world. Friedrichs paintings often set contemplative human figures silhouetted against night skies, morning mists, barren trees or Gothic ruins. Art historian Christopher John Murray described their presence, in diminished perspective, amid expansive landscapes, as reducing the figures to a scale that directs the viewers gaze towards their metaphysical dimension.[1] Friedrich was born in the town of Greifswald on the Baltic Sea in what was at the time Swedish Pomerania. He studied in Copenhagen 1794–1798, before settling in Dresden. He came of age during a period when, across Europe, a growing disillusionment with materialistic society was giving rise to a new appreciation of spirituality. This shift was often expressed through a reevaluation of the natural world, as artists such as Friedrich, J. M. W. Turner and John Constable sought to depict nature as a divine creation, to be set against the artifice of human civilization.[2] Friedrichs work brought him renown early in his career. Contemporaries such as the French sculptor David dAngers spoke of him as having discovered the tragedy of landscape. His work nevertheless fell from favour during his later years, and he died in obscurity.[3] As Germany moved towards modernisation in the late 19th century, a new sense of urgency characterised its art, and Friedrichs contemplative depictions of stillness came to be seen as products of a bygone age. The early 20th century brought a renewed appreciation of his art, beginning in 1906 with an exhibition of thirty-two of his paintings in Berlin. His work influenced Expressionist artists and later Surrealists and Existentialists. The rise of Nazism in the early 1930s saw a resurgence in Friedrichs popularity, but this was followed by a sharp decline as his paintings were, by association with the Nazi movement, seen as promoting German nationalism.
The Death of Sardanapalus. The Death of Sardanapalus (La Mort de Sardanapale) is an 1827 oil painting on canvas by the French artist Eugène Delacroix, now in the Musée du Louvre, Paris.[1] A smaller replica he made in 1844 is in the Philadelphia Museum of Art.[2] It is a work of Romanticism based on the tale of Sardanapalus, a king of Assyria, from Greek historian Diodorus Siculuss library. It uses rich, vivid and warm colours and broad brushstrokes, was inspired by Lord Byrons play Sardanapalus (1821) and inspired a Hector Berlioz cantata, Sardanapale (1830), and an unfinished Franz Liszt opera, Sardanapalo (1845–1852). The main focus of Death of Sardanapalus is a large bed draped in rich red fabric. On it lies a man with a disinterested eye overseeing a scene of chaos. He is dressed in flowing white fabrics and sumptuous gold around his neck and head. A woman lies dead at his feet, prone across the lower half of the large bed. She is one of six in the scene, all in various shades of undress, and all in assorted throes of death by the hands of the half dozen men in the scene. Several people are being stabbed with knives and one man is dying from a self-inflicted wound from a sword, and a man in the left foreground is attempting to kill an intricately adorned horse. A young man by the kings right elbow is standing behind a side table which has an elaborate golden decanter and a cup. There are golden elephant heads at the base of the bed, as well as various valuable trinkets scattered amongst the carnage. In the background, several architectural elements are visible but difficult to discern. Delacroix used a painterly brushstroke in this painting, which allows for a strong sense of movement in the work. This scene is chaotic and violent, as showcased by the movement, weapons, and the colors used. The redness of the bed stands out against the somewhat obscured, dark background. The whiteness of Sardanapaluss robe, the creamy lines of the dying womens limbs, and the shimmers of gold objects throughout the scene pull the viewers eye quickly around the painting. There is asymmetry in the work, but the composition remains balanced. One woman reclined by an elephant head on the end of the bed is the only figure to engage with the viewer. Everyone else in the painting is focused on the task at hand: death.
Toho (disambiguation). Toho is a Japanese film production and distribution company. Toho or Tōhō may also refer to:
Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Oriental Orthodox Churches are Eastern Christian churches adhering to Miaphysite Christology,[1] with approximately 50 million members worldwide.[2][3] The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to the Nicene Christian tradition. Oriental Orthodoxy is one of the oldest branches in Christianity.[4] As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of countries and regions such as Armenia, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, the Levant, Iraq and the Malabar region of southern India. As autocephalous churches, their bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination. Their doctrines recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils.[5][1] The Oriental Orthodox communion is composed of six autocephalous national churches: the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria; the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch; the Armenian Apostolic Church comprising the autocephalous Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin in Armenia and the Catholicosate of Cilicia in the Levant and of diaspora; the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[6][4] The Malabar Independent Syrian Church—based in India—and the British Orthodox Church in the UK are independent Oriental Orthodox churches, having formerly been part of one of the mainstream Oriental Orthodox churches.[7] Oriental Orthodox Christians consider themselves to be the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, and its bishops as the successors of Christs apostles. Three primary rites are practiced by the churches: the western-influenced Armenian Rite, the West Syriac Rite of the Syriac Church (including its Malankara Rite) and the Alexandrian Rite of the Copts, Ethiopians and Eritreans.
Media conglomerate.  A media conglomerate, media company, media group, or media institution is a company that owns numerous companies involved in mass media enterprises, such as music, television, radio, publishing, motion pictures, video games, amusement parks, or the Internet. The weekly magazine The Nation commented, Media conglomerates strive for policies that facilitate their control of the markets around the world.[1] A conglomerate is a large company composed of a number of companies (subsidiaries) engaged in generally unrelated businesses. Some media conglomerates use their access in multiple areas to share various kinds of content such as: news, video and music, between users. The media sectors tendency to consolidate has caused formerly diversified companies to appear less diverse to prospective investors in comparison with similar companies that are traded publicly and privately. Therefore, the term media group may also be applied, however, it has not yet replaced the more traditional term.[2] Critics have accused the large media conglomerates of dominating the media and using unfair practices. During a protest in November 2007, critics such as Jesse Jackson spoke out against consolidation of the media.[3] This can be seen in the news industry, where corporations refuse to publicize information that would be harmful to their interests. Because some corporations do not publish any material that criticizes them or their interests, media conglomerates have been criticized for limiting free speech or not protecting free speech.[4] These practices are also suspected of contributing to the merging of entertainment and news (sensationalism[5]) at the expense of the coverage of serious issues. They are also accused of being a leading force behind the standardization of culture (see globalization,[4] Americanization) and are frequently criticized by groups that perceive news organizations as being biased toward special interests of the owners.[4]
Shuto Expressway. The Shuto Expressway (首都高速道路, Shuto Kōsoku-dōro; Metropolitan Expressway, lit. Capital Expressway) is a network of tolled expressways in the Greater Tokyo Area of Japan. It is operated and maintained by the Metropolitan Expressway Company Limited (首都高速道路株式会社, Shuto Kōsoku-dōro Kabushiki-gaisha). Most routes are grade separated and have many sharp curves and multi-lane merges that require caution to drive safely. The speed limit is 60 km/h on most routes, 80 km/h on the Bayshore Route, and 50 km/h on the Inner Circular Route. As of 2014, the cash toll for a standard-size car is ¥1300 regardless of distance traveled. Vehicles using the ETC toll-collection system pay a distance-based toll ranging from ¥300 to ¥1300 for ordinary vehicles (see toll price) – in some cases substantially less than the previous fixed-rate toll. Lower cash rates exist for certain radial routes (where there are only a few kilometers of expressway remaining) and ETC users have various time-of-day discounts. For large vehicles, the toll is doubled. There are 24 routes currently in operation: The Metropolitan Expressway was first built between Kyobashi Exit in Chūō, Tokyo and Shibaura Exit in Minato, Tokyo in 1962 for the purpose of increasing traffic flow efficiency in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area, thus optimizing and improving the functionality of the traffic system. Since then, 280 kilometers of highway network has been built in the Tokyo metropolitan area; 30 kilometers more of highway are either constructed or planned, making the Metropolitan Expressway a vast network of urban expressways in the Tokyo region.
Eugène Delacroix.  Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (/ˈdɛləkrwɑː, ˌdɛləˈkrwɑː/ DEL-ə-krwah, -⁠KRWAH;[1] French: [øʒɛn dəlakʁwa]; 26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist who was regarded as the leader of the French Romantic school.[2] In contrast to the Neoclassical perfectionism of his chief rival Ingres, Delacroix took for his inspiration the art of Rubens and painters of the Venetian Renaissance, with an attendant emphasis on colour and movement rather than clarity of outline and carefully modelled form. Dramatic and romantic content characterized the central themes of his maturity, and led him not to the classical models of Greek and Roman art, but to travel in North Africa, in search of the exotic.[3] Friend and spiritual heir to Théodore Géricault, Delacroix was also inspired by Lord Byron, with whom he shared a strong identification with the forces of the sublime, of nature in often violent action.[4] However, Delacroix was given to neither sentimentality nor bombast, and his Romanticism was that of an individualist. In the words of Baudelaire, Delacroix was passionately in love with passion, but coldly determined to express passion as clearly as possible.[5] Together with Ingres, Delacroix is considered one of the last old Masters of painting and is one of the few who was ever photographed. As a painter and muralist, Delacroixs use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of colour profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer, Delacroix illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish author Walter Scott, and the German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
Polignac (card game). Polignac (a.k.a. Jeux des Valets) is a French 18th century trick-taking card game ancestral to Hearts and  Black Maria.[1] It is played by 3-6 players with a 32-card deck. It is sometimes played as a party game with the 52-card pack; however, it is better as a serious game for four, playing all against all. Other names  for this game include Quatre Valets and Stay Away.[2] Knaves is a variant and it is also similar to the Austrian and German games, Slobberhannes, Eichelobern and Grasobern.[3] Polignac is named after an ultra-royalist French politician, Count Jules de Polignac, who incensed the local population in 1830 and was imprisoned following the July Revolution. The game, however, is far older.[4] The aim of the game is to avoid capturing any Jacks in tricks, especially the J♠, called Polignac. Polignac is played with a Piquet pack of 32 cards. However, unless four play, remove the black Sevens. The rank of the cards are: K Q J A T 9 8 7 in each suit. The turn to deal and play passes always to the left. The cards should be divided evenly among the players, with the dealer dealing the cards in 2s and 3s.
Yurikamome.  New Transit Yurikamome (新交通ゆりかもめ, Shinkōtsū Yurikamome), formerly the Tokyo Waterfront New Transit Waterfront Line (東京臨海新交通臨海線, Tōkyō Rinkai Shinkōtsū Rinkai-sen), is an automated guideway transit service operated by Yurikamome, Inc. in Tokyo, Japan. It connects Shimbashi to Toyosu, via the artificial island of Odaiba, a market in which it competes with the Rinkai Line. The line is named after the black-headed gull (yurikamome in Japanese),[3] a common denizen of Tokyo Bay and the official metropolitan bird.[4] The line was one of the two lines constructed to transport people into the Rinkai subcenter, the other line being the Rinkai Line. The Rinkai subcenter was planned to be the seventh subcenter of Tokyo as far as back in 1979. In April 1989, the subcenter was planned to have 60,000 residents and 110,000 workers by the start of the 21st century. This plan was forced to be revised upon the collapse of the asset price bubble. The opening of the Yurikamome and the Rinkai line in 1995 and 1996 was planned to be ready by the start of the World City Expo [ja] in 1996. However, the expo was cancelled by Yukio Aoshima in April 1995.[5] On 1 November 1995, the section between Shimbashi and Ariake opened, using a temporary Shimbashi station. In the first few months of operation, ridership hovered around 27,000 passengers per day.[6] In 1996, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government re-zoned Odaiba from pure business and residential to also permit entertainment zones. The island provided Tokyo with a strip of livable seaside, and within one year, ridership doubled to 60,000. As more and more restaurants, shopping malls, exhibition centers and museums opened, traffic continued to grow.[6] On 22 March 2001, the current Shimbashi station opened and the temporary station closed. Shiodome Station opened on 2 November 2002. [7] On 27 March 2006, the section between Ariake and Toyosu opened and stations adopted letter and number codes based on Tokyo Metro.[8]
Reversi.  Reversi is a strategy board game for two players, played on an 8×8 uncheckered board. It was invented in 1883. Othello, a variant with a fixed initial setup of the board, was patented in 1971. Two players compete, using 64 identical game pieces (disks) that are light on one side and dark on the other. Each player chooses one color to use throughout the game. Players take turns placing one disk on an empty square, with their assigned color facing up. After a play is made, any disks of the opponents color that lie in a straight line bounded by the one just played and another one in the current players color are turned over. When all playable empty squares are filled, the player with more disks showing in their own color wins the game. Englishmen Lewis Waterman and John W. Mollett[citation needed] both claim to have invented the game of reversi in 1883, each denouncing the other as a fraud. The game gained considerable popularity in England at the end of the 19th century.[1] The games first reliable mention is in the 21 August 1886 edition of The Saturday Review. Later mention includes an 1895 article in The New York Times, which describes reversi as something like Go Bang, [...] played with 64 pieces.[2] In 1893, the German games publisher Ravensburger started producing the game as one of its first titles. Two 18th century continental European books dealing with a game that may or may not be reversi are mentioned on page fourteen of the Spring 1989 Othello Quarterly, and there has been speculation, so far without documentation, that the game has older origins.[citation needed] A Japanese publication in 1907 titled World Games Rules Complete Collection (世界遊戯法大全) describes the board game reversi with the same rules as Othello where the first four pieces go in the center in a diagonal pattern and the player who cannot make a move simply passes.[3]
Daiba Route.  The Daiba Route (台場線, Daiba-sen), signed as Route 11, is one of the tolled routes of the Shuto Expressway system serving the Greater Tokyo Area. Route 11 runs from Shibaura Junction (with the Haneda Route) in Minato-ku and runs for 3.9 km through the Rainbow Bridge. Route 11 ends at the Ariake Junction connecting with the Bayshore Route in Kōtō-ku. Originally, the route number was 12 in urban planning. It runs through Rainbow Bridge which is renowned for its scenery. The entirety of the Daiba Route was opened to traffic on 26 August 1993. Instead of being opened in phases, like many of the other routes in the Shuto Expressway network.[1]
Royal household. A royal household or imperial household  is the residence and administrative headquarters in ancient and post-classical monarchies, and papal household for popes, and formed the basis for the general government of the country as well as providing for the needs of the sovereign and their relations. It is the core of the royal court, though a court includes many courtiers who are not directly employed by the monarch as part of the household. Traditionally there often have been large numbers of employees in the household, strictly differentiated by rank, from nobles with highly sought-after positions that gave close access to the monarch, to all the usual servants such as cooks, footmen, and maids. Traditionally the household typically includes military forces providing security.  Specialists such as artists, clock-makers and poets might be given a place in the household, often by appointing them as valet de chambre or the local equivalent. Among many of these households there are certain great offices which have become, in course of time, merely hereditary. In most cases, as the name of the office would suggest, they were held by those who discharged personal functions about the sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary in each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either ceasing to be necessary or being transferred to officers of less exalted station.[1] In the modern period, royal households have evolved into entities which are variously differentiated from national governments. Most modern households have become merely titular. An example of a present-day royal household that employs hundreds of people, with many job descriptions, is the household of Charles III. In Japan, the Imperial Household Agency (宮内庁, Kunaichō) is the agency within the Government of Japan responsible for supporting the Emperor and the Imperial Family as well as keeping the Privy Seal and Great Seal of Japan.
Suspension bridge.  A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders.[5] The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 1800s.[6][7] Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world. Besides the bridge type most commonly called suspension bridges, covered in this article, there are other types of suspension bridges.  The type covered here has cables suspended between towers, with vertical suspender cables that transfer the live and dead loads of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. Like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without the use of falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the bridge is transformed into tension in these main cables. The main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers. In some circumstances, the towers may sit on a bluff or canyon edge where the road may proceed directly to the main span. Otherwise, the bridge will typically have two smaller spans, running between either pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by suspender cables or their own trusswork. In cases where trusswork supports the spans, there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the same level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape.
French-suited playing cards. French-suited playing cards or French-suited cards are cards that use the French suits of trèfles (clovers or clubs ♣), carreaux (tiles or diamonds ♦), cœurs (hearts ♥), and piques (pikes or spades ♠). Each suit contains three or four face/court cards. In a standard 52-card deck these are the valet (knave or jack), the dame (lady or queen), and the roi (king). In addition, in Tarot packs, there is a cavalier (knight) ranking between the queen and the jack. Aside from these aspects, decks can include a wide variety of regional and national patterns, which often have different deck sizes. In comparison to Spanish, Italian, German, and Swiss playing cards, French cards are the most widespread due to the geopolitical, commercial, and cultural influence of France, the United Kingdom, and the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. Other reasons for their popularity were the simplicity of the suit insignia, which simplifies mass production, and the popularity of whist and contract bridge. The English pattern of French-suited cards is so widespread that it is also known as the International or Anglo-American pattern. Playing cards arrived in Europe from Mamluk Egypt around 1370 and were already reported in France in 1377. The French suit insignia was derived from German suits around 1480. Between the transition from the suit of bells to tiles there was a suit of crescents.[1] One of the most distinguishing features of the French cards is the queen. Mamluk cards and their derivatives, the Latin-suited and German-suited cards, all have three male face cards. Queens began appearing in Italian tarot decks in the mid-15th century and some German decks replaced two kings with queens. While other decks abandoned the queen in non-tarot decks, the French kept them and dropped the knight as the middle face card. Face card design was heavily influenced by Spanish cards that used to circulate in France. One of the most obvious traits inherited from Spain are the standing kings; kings from Italian, Portuguese, or Germanic cards are seated. Spanish-suited cards are still used in France, mostly in Northern Catalonia, and Brittany and the Vendée with the latter two using the archaic Aluette cards. In the 19th century, corner indices and rounded corners were added and cards became reversible, relieving players from having to flip face cards right-side up. The index for aces and face cards usually follow the local language but most decks of the Paris pattern use the numeral 1 for aces. The French suited pack has spawned many regional variations known as standard patterns based on their artwork and deck size. The Paris pattern was heavily exported throughout continental Europe which is why most French-suited patterns share a similar appearance. The English pattern, based on the extinct Rouennais pattern, is the most well known pattern in the world. It is also called the International or Anglo-American pattern.
Minato, Tokyo. Minato (港区, Minato-ku) [minato] ⓘ is a special ward of Tokyo, Japan. It is also called Minato City in English. Minato was formed in 1947 as a merger of Akasaka, Azabu and Shiba wards following Tokyo Citys transformation into Tokyo Metropolis. The modern Minato ward exhibits the contrasting Shitamachi and Yamanote geographical and cultural division. The Shinbashi neighborhood in the wards northeastern corner is attached to the core of Shitamachi, the original commercial center of Edo-Tokyo. On the other hand, the Azabu and Akasaka areas are typically representative Yamanote districts.[2] As of 1 July 2015[update], Minato had an official population of 243,094,[3] and a population density of 10,850 persons per km2. The total area is 20.37 km2.[4] Known as one of Tokyos largest business areas, Minato is home to the headquarters of many large domestic companies, including Honda, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, NEC, Nikon, SoftBank Group,[5] Sony[6] and Fujitsu.[7] Minato is also known for being one of the wealthiest residential areas in Japan, and for its relatively high concentration of foreign expats due to the number of embassies and multinational corporations located in and around the area.[8][9] Notable neighborhoods and districts of Minato include Akasaka, Aoyama, Azabu, Roppongi and Toranomon. Minato is located southwest of the Imperial Palace and has boundaries with the special wards of Chiyoda, Chūō, Kōtō (in Odaiba), Shinagawa, Shibuya, and Shinjuku.
Yasuhiko Nishimura. Yasuhiko Nishimura (Japanese: 西村 泰彦, Hepburn: Nishimura Yasuhiko; born 29 June 1955) is a Japanese official who has served as the Grand Steward of the Imperial Household since 2019.[1] Yasuhiko Nishimura was born in Toba, Mie.[2] He was educated at Faculty of Law, University of Tokyo, graduating in March 1979.[3] Yasuhiko started off as a top law enforcement official for the National Police Agency, holding many roles such as superintendent general of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police.[3][4] At a 2010 conference, Yasuhiko, responding to a question by Hiroshi Nakai about Japanese right wing groups, asking if it was appropriate to call them right wing, he expressed that They are not engaged in violent destructive activities, so the term extreme right-wing does not fit. [5] He would later retire from this role in 2014.[6] In the same year, he would become the Cabinet Crisis Management Officer.[7][2][8] In 2016 he became Deputy Director-General of the Imperial Household Agency.[9] Yasuhiko was appointed on the 17 of December 2019 as Grand Steward of the Imperial Household.[1] The beginning of his role as Grand Steward coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic.[10] Because it was so close to the 2020 Summer Olympics, the event was postponed until 2021.[11] Yasuhiko released a statement about the Olympics saying “From what I gather, the emperor is concerned about holding the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games, for which he serves as honorary president, while people are voicing anxiety over whether it will lead to a spread of infections,”. To which the then Prime Minister of Japan, Yoshihide Suga, said that “Nishimura had purely voiced his personal views.”[12] An argument was also made against his comments, saying, “The Japanese Emperor is not allowed to engage politically according to the Constitution. He must make sure to observed it.”[12][13] In April 2021, Yasuhiko also precised over the marriage of then Princess Mako of Akishino, to Kei Komuro. He said that a previous statement she made on her marriage was “Explained very well” but also said that “The public will make their own assessment”.[14] The marriage later went through.[15] After Kei Komuro released documents explaining his mothers financial issues, which were put into question and quite controversial, Yasuhiko said that This document has allowed me to understand the facts and circumstances.[16] In 2024, he went on to speak about the Japanese imperial succession debate by saying that it was an “Extremely important matter” and “Steps will be taken after sufficient debate has occurred.”[17]
Ministry of the Imperial Household.  The Ministry of the Imperial Household (宮内省, Kunai-shō) was a division of the eighth century Japanese government of the Imperial Court in Kyoto,[1] instituted in the Asuka period and formalized during the Heian period.  The Ministry was reorganized in the Meiji period and existed until 1947, before being replaced by the Imperial Household Agency. The needs of the Imperial Household has changed over time. The ambit of the Ministrys activities encompassed, for example: When this government agency was initially established in 645, it functioned as a tax collector on Imperial land.[3] The organization and functions of the Imperial Household were refined and regulated in the Taiho Code, which was promulgated in 701–702 during the reign of Emperor Monmu. The fundamental elements of this system evolved over the course of centuries, but the basic structures remained in place until the Meiji Restoration.[4] This Ministry came to be responsible for everything to do with supporting the Emperor and the Imperial Family.[3] Significant modifications were introduced in 1702, 1870, and 1889.[5] It was reorganized into the Imperial Household Office (宮内府, Kunai-fu) in 1947, with its staff size was downscaled from 6,200 to less than 1,500, and the Office was placed under the Prime Minister. In 1949, the Imperial Household Office became the Imperial Household Agency (the current name), and placed under the fold of the newly created Prime Ministers Office (総理府, Sōri-fu), as an external agency attached to it.
Imperial Household Department. The Imperial Household Department (traditional Chinese: 內務府; simplified Chinese: 内务府; pinyin: Nèiwùfǔ; Manchu: ᡩᠣᡵᡤᡳᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠᠪᡝᡠᡥᡝᡵᡳᡴᠠᡩᠠᠯᠠᡵᠠᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ, Möllendorff: dorgi baita be uheri kadalara yamun) was an institution of the Qing dynasty of China. Its primary purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the Qing imperial family and the activities of the inner palace (in which tasks it largely replaced eunuchs), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with Tibet and Mongolia, engaged in trading activities (jade, ginseng, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the Jiangnan region, and even published books.[1] This department was also in charge of the ceremonial and spiritual activities of the Qing imperial household. These activities include the maintenance of the mausoleums of Qing emperors, polytheist worships and posthumous affairs of the royal family (the giving of temple names and posthumous names).[2] The department was established before[when?] the Manchu-led Qing dynasty defeated the Ming dynasty in 1644, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the Shunzhi Emperor and the accession of his son, who reigned as the Kangxi Emperor.[3] In 1654, the department was temporarily substituted by the Thirteen Yamen (十三衙門) which had similar functions. In 1661, the thirteen yamen were abolished with the re-establishment of the imperial household department.[4] The department was manned by booi (Manchu: booi, Chinese: 包衣; pinyin: baoyi), or bondservants, who were selected from the bondservants of the upper three banners.[5] Booi was sometimes synonymous with booi aha, which literally means household person, but aha usually referred to the hereditary and legally servile people who worked in fields, whereas booi usually referred to household servants who performed domestic service.[6] The booi who operated the Imperial Household Department can be divided into roughly four groups:
Tokyo City.  Tokyo City (東京市, Tōkyō-shi) was a municipality in Japan and capital of Tokyo Prefecture (or Tokyo-fu) which existed from 1 May 1889 until the establishment of Tokyo Metropolis on 1 July 1943.[1] The historical boundaries of Tokyo City are now occupied by the special wards of Tokyo. The defunct city and its prefecture became what is now Tokyo, also known as the Tokyo Metropolis or, ambiguously, Tokyo Prefecture. In 1868, the city of Edo, seat of the Tokugawa government, was renamed Tokyo, and the offices of Tokyo Prefecture (-fu) were opened.[1] The extent of Tokyo Prefecture was initially limited to the former Edo city, but rapidly augmented to be comparable with the present Tokyo Metropolis. In 1878, the Meiji governments reorganization of local governments[a] subdivided prefectures into counties or districts (gun, further subdivided into towns and villages, later reorganized similar to Prussian districts) and districts or wards (ku) which were in ordinary prefectures cities as a whole, e.g. todays Hiroshima City (-shi) was then Hiroshima-ku; the three major cities of Tokyo, Osaka and Kyoto were each subdivided into several such wards. In Tokyo Prefecture, this created 15 wards (listed below) and six counties/districts.[2] In 1888, the central government created the legal framework for the current system of cities (shi)[b] that granted some basic local autonomy rights – with some similarities to Prussias system of local self-government as Meiji government advisor Albert Mosse heavily influenced the organization of local government.[3] But under a special imperial regulation,[c] Tokyo City, like Kyoto City and Osaka City, initially did not maintain a separate mayor; instead, the (appointed) governor of Tokyo Prefecture served as mayor of Tokyo City. The Tokyo city council/assembly (Tōkyō-shikai) was first elected in May 1889.[2] Each ward also retained its own assembly. City and prefectural government were separated in 1898.,[2] and the government began to appoint a separate mayor of Tokyo City in 1898, but retained ward-level legislation, which continues to this day in the special ward system. From 1926, the mayor was elected by the elected city council/assembly from its own ranks. The city hall of Tokyo was located in the Yūrakuchō district, on a site now occupied by the Tokyo International Forum.[4] Tokyo became the second-largest city in the world (population 4.9 million) upon absorbing several outlying districts in July 1932, giving the city a total of 35 wards.[1]
Tokyo Prefecture (1868–1943).  Tokyo Prefecture (東京府, Tōkyō-fu) was a Japanese government entity that existed between 1868 and 1943.[1] When the prefecture was established with the merger of the two shogunate city administrations in the Meiji restoration in 1868, Tokyo initially consisted only of the former city area of the shogunate capital Edo. Beginning in 1871, the territory of Tokyo was expanded beyond Edo in several steps to reach roughly its present extent with the Tama transfer in 1893.  The surrounding former shogunate domain (incl. hatamoto fiefs) in Musashi province was initially administered by Musashi governors, but then split up between the prefectures Shinagawa, Kosuge and Ōmiya/Urawa. In 1871/72, the surrounding rural areas from these three prefectures and the Setagaya exclave of Hikone ex-domain/prefecture were merged into Tokyo. The system of large and small/major and minor districts (大区小区制, daiku-shōku-sei) which was tied to the modernized family registration system (koseki) created an (unpopular) subdivision of all prefectures into numbered subunits. In 1878, the ancient ritsuryō districts were reactivated as administrative units in rural areas, and the status of urban districts (-ku) was newly introduced for major cities. Under the gunkuchōson-hensei-hō (郡区町村編制法, Law on the organization of -gun/-ku/-chō/-son), both urban and rural districts were further subdivided into urban and rural units (-machi and -mura, i.e. towns and villages in the countryside, but neighbourhood-sized units in larger settlements; for example, there were 13 -machi/-chō and 93 -mura in Ebara District in the 1870s, including five (one North, three South, one New) for Shinagawa alone; the >100 subdivisions of Ebara were merged into only 1 town and 18 villages in 1889, today there are only four special wards left in its former territory: Shinagawa, Meguro, Ōta, Setagaya). Initially, Tokyo contained only six [rural] districts, but other rural areas were added to Tokyo later (Izu & Ogasawara islands 1878/80, the three Tama districts 1893).
Enthronement of the Japanese emperor.  The Enthronement ceremony (即位の礼, Sokui no rei) is an ancient ceremony that marks the accession of a new emperor to the Chrysanthemum Throne. The Three Sacred treasures are given to the new sovereign during the course of the rite. It is the most important out of the Japanese Imperial Rituals. The most recent enthronement was that of Emperor Naruhito on 22 October 2019. The enthronement ceremony consist of five sub-ceremonies, which are conducted as constitutional functions (国事行為) based on Article 3 of the Constitution of Japan as follows:[1] The presentation of the Three Sacred Treasures (剣璽等承継の儀, Kenji-tō-Shōkei-no-gi) takes place immediately after the death or abdication of the previous sovereign. The successor is formally presented with boxes containing two of the three items that compose the Imperial Regalia of Japan: The three items of the imperial regalia were originally said to have been given by the Sun goddess, Amaterasu, to her grandson when he first descended to earth and became the founder of the imperial dynasty.
Yata no Kagami.  Yata no Kagami (八咫鏡) is a sacred bronze mirror that is part of the Imperial Regalia of Japan.[1][2] The Yata no Kagami represents wisdom or honesty, depending on the source.[2] Its name literally means The Eight Ata Mirror, a reference to its size.[3][4] Mirrors in ancient Japan represented truth because they merely reflected what was shown, and were objects of mystique and reverence (being uncommon items). According to Shinsuke Takenaka at the Institute of Moralogy, Yata no Kagami is considered the most precious of the three sacred treasures.[5] In the year 1040 (Chōkyū 1, 9th month), the compartment which contained the Sacred Mirror was burned in a fire.[6] The mirror was not damaged and managed to survive the incident. It is considered to be housed today in Ise Grand Shrine, in Mie Prefecture, Japan,[1] although a lack of public access makes this difficult to verify. Concurrently, a replica is enshrined in Three Palace Sanctuaries of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo.[2]
Amaterasu. Amaterasu Ōmikami (天照大（御）神; Japanese pronunciation: [aꜜ.ma.te.ɾa.sɯ | oː.mʲiꜜ.ka.mʲi][2][3]), often called Amaterasu ([aꜜ.ma.te.ɾa.sɯ]) for short, also known as Amateru Kami (天照神)[4] and Ōhirume no Muchi (大日孁貴),[5] is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. Often considered the chief deity (kami) of the Shinto pantheon,[6][7][8] she is also portrayed in Japans earliest literary texts, the Kojiki (c. 712 CE) and the Nihon Shoki (720 CE), as the ruler (or one of the rulers) of the heavenly realm Takamagahara and as the mythical ancestress of the Imperial House of Japan via her grandson Ninigi. Along with two of her siblings (the moon deity Tsukuyomi and the impetuous storm-god Susanoo) she ranks as one of the Three Precious Children (三貴子, mihashira no uzu no miko / sankishi), the three most important offspring of the creator god Izanagi. Amaterasus chief place of worship, the Grand Shrine of Ise in Ise, Mie Prefecture, is one of Shintos holiest sites and a major pilgrimage center and tourist spot. As with other Shinto kami, she is also enshrined in a number of Shinto shrines throughout Japan. The goddess is referred to as Amaterasu Ōmikami (天照大御神 / 天照大神; historical orthography: あまてらすおほみかみ, Amaterasu Ohomikami; Old Japanese: Amaterasu Opomi1kami2) in the Kojiki, while the Nihon Shoki gives the following variant names: Amaterasu is thought to derive from the verb amateru to illuminate / shine in the sky (ama sky, heaven + teru to shine) combined with the honorific auxiliary verb -su,[11] while Ōmikami means great august deity (ō great + honorific prefix mi-[a] + kami). Notably, Amaterasu in Amaterasu Ōmikami is not technically a name the same way Susanoo in Susa no O no Mikoto or Ōkuninushi in Ōkuninushi no Kami is. Amaterasu is an attributive verb form that modifies the noun after it, ōmikami. This epithet is therefore, much more semantically transparent than most names recorded in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, in that it means exactly what it means, without allusion, inference or etymological opacity, literally The Great August Goddess Who Shines in Heaven. This usage is analogous to the use of relative clauses in English, only different in that Japanese clauses are placed in front of the noun they modify. This is further exemplified by (1) an alternative epithet, Amateru Kami (天照神,[12] The Goddess Who Shines in Heaven), which is a plain, non-honorific version of Amaterasu Ōmikami, (2) alternative forms of the verb amaterasu used elsewhere, for example its continuative form amaterashi (天照之) in the Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku,[13] and (3) similar uses of attributive verb forms in certain epithets, such as Emperor Jimmus Hatsu Kunishirasu Sumeramikoto (始馭天下之天皇,[14] His Majesty Who First Rules the Land). There are, still, certain verb forms that are treated as proper names, such as the terminal negative fukiaezu in Ugayafukiaezu no Mikoto (鸕鷀草葺不合尊, His Augustness, Incompletely-Thatched-with-Cormorant-Feathers). Her other name, Ōhirume, is usually understood as meaning great woman of the sun / daytime (cf. hiru day(time), noon, from hi sun, day + me woman, lady),[15][16][17] though alternative etymologies such as great spirit woman (taking hi to mean spirit) or wife of the sun (suggested by Orikuchi Shinobu, who put forward the theory that Amaterasu was originally conceived of as the consort or priestess of a male solar deity) had been proposed.[15][18][19][20] A possible connection with the name Hiruko (the child rejected by the gods Izanagi and Izanami and one of Amaterasus siblings) has also been suggested.[21] To this name is appended the honorific muchi,[22] which is also seen in a few other theonyms such as Ō(a)namuchi[23] or Michinushi-no-Muchi (an epithet of the three Munakata goddesses[24]).
Palace (disambiguation). A palace is a grand residence, usually for royalty or other high-ranking dignitaries. Palace may also refer to:
Italy.  Italy,[a] officially the Italian Republic,[b] is a country in Southern and Western Europe.[c] It consists of a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land border, as well as nearly 800 islands, notably Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares land borders with France to the west; Switzerland and Austria to the north; Slovenia to the east; and the two enclaves of Vatican City and San Marino. It is the tenth-largest country in Europe by area, covering 301,340 km2 (116,350 sq mi), and the third-most populous member state of the European Union, with nearly 59 million inhabitants. Italys capital and largest city is Rome; other major cities include Milan, Naples, Turin, Palermo, Bologna, Florence, Genoa, and Venice. The history of Italy goes back to numerous Italic peoples – notably including the ancient Romans, who conquered the Mediterranean world during the Roman Republic and ruled it for centuries during the Roman Empire. With the spread of Christianity, Rome became the seat of the Catholic Church and the Papacy. Barbarian invasions and other factors led to the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire between late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. By the 11th century, Italian city-states and maritime republics expanded, bringing renewed prosperity through commerce and laying the groundwork for modern capitalism. The Italian Renaissance flourished during the 15th and 16th centuries and spread to the rest of Europe. Italian explorers discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, contributing significantly to the Age of Discovery. After centuries of political and territorial divisions, Italy was almost entirely unified in 1861, following wars of independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, establishing the Kingdom of Italy. From the late 19th to the early 20th century, Italy industrialised – mainly in the north – and acquired a colonial empire, while the south remained largely impoverished, fueling a large immigrant diaspora to the Americas. From 1915 to 1918, Italy took part in World War I with the Entente against the Central Powers. In 1922, the Italian fascist dictatorship was established. During World War II, Italy was first part of the Axis until an armistice with the Allied powers (1940–1943), then a co-belligerent of the Allies during the Italian resistance and the liberation of Italy (1943–1945). Following the war, the monarchy was replaced by a republic and the country made a strong recovery. A developed country with an advanced economy, Italy has the eighth-largest nominal GDP in the world, the second-largest manufacturing sector in Europe, and plays a significant role in regional and – to a lesser extent – global economic, military, cultural, and political affairs. It is a founding and leading member of the European Union, and is part of numerous other international organizations and forums. As a cultural superpower, Italy has long been a renowned global centre of art, music, literature, cuisine, fashion, science and technology, and the source of multiple inventions and discoveries. It has the highest number of World Heritage Sites (60) and is the fifth-most visited country in the world.
Ōta Dōkan. Ōta Dōkan (太田 道灌; Japanese pronunciation: [oː.ta (|) doꜜː.kaɴ],[1] 1432 - August 25, 1486), also known as Ōta Sukenaga (太田 資長),[2] was a Japanese samurai lord, poet and Buddhist monk. He took the tonsure as a Buddhist priest in 1478, and he also adopted the Buddhist name, Dōkan, by which he is known today.[3] Dōkan is best known as the architect and builder of Edo Castle (now the Imperial Palace) in what is today modern Tokyo; and he is considered the founder of the castle town which grew up around that Ōnin era fortress. The Ōta clan originated in 15th-century Musashi Province.[4]  They claimed descent from Minamoto no Yorimasa, and through that branch of the Minamoto they claimed kinship with the Seiwa-Genji.[5] The feudal progenitor of the clan name, Ōta Sukekuni, established himself at Ōta in Tanba Province, and he adopted this location name as his own.  He traced his lineage as a fifth-generation descendant of Yorimasa.[5] In a special context created by the Tokugawa shogunate, the Ōta clan were identified as tozama or outsiders, in contrast with the fudai or insider daimyō clans which were hereditary vassals or allies of the Tokugawas.[4] In, 1638, Ōta Sukemune, the grandson of Ōta Yasusuke, was granted Nishio Domain in Mikawa Province; and then, in 1645, he and his family was transferred to Hamamatsu Domain (35,000 koku) in Tōtōmi Province. Yasusukes descendants were moved several times by shogunate decree, residing successively in 1687 at Tanaka Domain in Suruga Province, in 1703 at Tanakura Domain in Mutsu Province, and in 1728 at Tatebayashi Domain in Kōzuke Province.[5]  Then, in the period spanning the years 1746 through 1868, this branch of the Ōta clan established itself at Kakegawa Domain (53,000 koku)[6] in Tōtōmi.[4]
Observation tower. An observation tower is a tower used to view events from a long distance and to create a full 360 degree range of vision to conduct long distance observations. Observation towers are usually at least 20 metres (66 ft) tall and are made from stone, iron, and wood. Many modern towers are also used as TV towers, restaurants, or churches. The towers first appeared in the ancient world, as long ago as the Babylonian Empire. Observation towers that are used as guard posts or observation posts over an extended period to overlook an area are commonly called watchtowers instead. Similar instances of observation towers are recognised as crows nests, observatories, viewing platforms, etc. Observation towers are an easily visible sight on the countryside, as they must rise over trees and other obstacles to ensure clear vision. Older control rooms have often been likened to medieval chambers. The heavy use of stone, iron, and wood in their construction helps to create this illusion. Modern towers frequently have observation decks or terraces with restaurants or on the roof of mountain stations of an aerial ropeway. Frequently observation towers are used also as location of radio services within the UHF/VHF range (FM sound broadcasting, TV, public rural broadcasting service, and portable radio service). In some cases this usage of the tower is at least as important as its use as an observation tower. Such towers are usually called TV towers or telecommunication towers. Many towers are also equipped with a tower restaurant and allow visitors access via elevators. Also common is the usage of water towers as observation towers. As in the case of TV towers the visitor will usually reach the observation deck by elevator, which is usually at a lower height above ground The typical height of the observation deck of water towers is 20 metres up to 50 metres, while the typical height of the platform of TV towers is from 80 metres up to 200 metres. Finally, some church towers may have observation decks, albeit often without an elevator. Many other buildings may have towers which allow for observation. In particular prior to World War I rambler associations, and some municipalities, built observation towers on numerous summits. Usually these towers were built of stone, however sometimes wood or iron was also used. At nearly all these towers access to the observation deck, usually at a height of between 5 and 40 metres, is only possible by way of stairs. Most of these towers are used only for tourism, however some of these towers might also be used, at times of high forest fire risk, as fire observation posts or in times of war as military observation posts with anti-aircraft positions placed beside it. Further uses were not intended at most of these buildings, although some of these towers today now carry antennas for police/fire engine radios, portable radio or low power FM- and TV-transmitters. Older observation towers frequently have a flag pole at its top.
Little Tokyo, Los Angeles.  Little Tokyo (Japanese: リトル・トーキョー), also known as Little Tokyo Historic District, is an ethnically Japanese American district in downtown Los Angeles and the heart of the largest Japanese-American population in North America.[4] It is the largest and most populous of only three official Japantowns in the United States, all of which are in California (the other two are Japantown, San Francisco, and Japantown, San Jose).[citation needed] Founded around the beginning of the 20th century, the area, sometimes called Lil Tokyo, J-Town, Shō-Tōkyō (小東京), is the cultural center for Japanese Americans in Southern California. It was declared a National Historic Landmark District in 1995.[3] The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 played a pivotal role in the first large wave of Japanese Immigration to the United States as the Japanese were heavily recruited to serve as cheap labor in place of the now excluded Chinese laborers.[5] One of the people influenced by this first wave of Japanese Immigration was Hamanosuke Shigeta, a Japanese seaman who settled in southeast Los Angeles, an area which would eventually become Little Tokyo.[6] There Shigeta established the first Japanese-owned business in LA, Kame Restaurant, along First Street. Attracted by the restaurant and nearby demands for labor, other Japanese immigrant men followed suit as they settled along First Street in nearby boarding houses.[7] The first Japanese boarding house in Los Angeles was established by Sanjuro Mizuno, who opened the Santa Fe Boarding House in 1898 to cater to Japanese laborers.[8] To house the wave of new immigrants coming to Little Tokyo, early immigrants also opened more of them.
Tokyo Tower (disambiguation). Tokyo Tower is a communications and observation tower located in Shiba Park, Minato, Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo Tower may also refer to:
Emperor of Russia. The emperor and autocrat of all Russia[1] (Russian: Император и Самодержец Всероссийский, romanized: Imperator i Samoderzhets Vserossiyskiy, IPA: [ɪm⁽ʲ⁾pʲɪˈratər ɪ səmɐˈdʲerʐɨt͡s fsʲɪrɐˈsʲijskʲɪj]),[a] also translated as emperor and autocrat of all the Russias,[2] was the official title of the Russian monarch from 1721 to 1917. The title originated in connection with Russias victory in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) and appeared as an adaptation of the tsars title under the accepted system of titling in Europe. The title was transformed from the previous title of tsar and grand prince of all Russia. The old title tsar (or tsaritsa) continued to be popularly used to refer to the emperor (or empress) until the monarchy was abolished in 1917. Article 1 of the Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire stated that the Emperor of All Russia is an autocratic and unrestricted monarch. To obey his supreme authority, not only out of fear but out of conscience as well, God himself commands.[3] The full title of the emperor in the 20th century (Art. 37 of the Fundamental Laws) was: By the Grace of God, We, NN, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Chersonese Taurian, Tsar of Georgia; Lord of Pskov and Grand Prince of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, Finland; Prince of Estland, Livland, Courland, Semigalia, Samogitia, Belostok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bolgar and others; Lord and Grand Prince of Nizhny Novgorod, Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislav, and all of the northern countries Master; and Lord of Iberia, Kartli, and Kabardia lands and Armenian provinces; hereditary Sovereign and ruler of the Circassian and Mountainous Princes and of others; Lord of Turkestan; Heir of Norway; Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, and Oldenburg, and others, and others, and others.[4]
Radio masts and towers.  Radio masts and towers are typically tall structures designed to support antennas for telecommunications and broadcasting, including television. There are two main types: guyed and self-supporting structures. They are among the tallest human-made structures. Masts are often named after the broadcasting organizations that originally built them or currently use them. A mast radiator or radiating tower is one in which the metal mast or tower itself is energized and functions as the transmitting antenna. The terms mast and tower are often used interchangeably. However, in structural engineering terms, a tower is a self-supporting or cantilevered structure, while a mast is held up by stays or guy-wires.[1] There are a few borderline designs that are partly free-standing and partly guyed, called additionally guyed towers. Examples:
Japanese castle. Japanese castles (城, shiro or jō) are fortresses constructed primarily of wood and stone. They evolved from the wooden stockades of earlier centuries and came into their best-known form in the 16th century. Castles in Japan were built to guard important or strategic sites, such as ports, river crossings, or crossroads, and almost always incorporated the landscape into their defenses. Though they were built to last and used more stone in their construction than most Japanese buildings, castles were still constructed primarily of wood, and many were destroyed over the years. This was especially true during the Sengoku period (1467–1603), when many of these castles were first built. However, many were rebuilt, either later in the Sengoku period, in the Edo period (1603–1867) that followed, or more recently, as national heritage sites or museums. Today there are more than one hundred castles extant, or partially extant, in Japan; it is estimated that once there were five thousand.[1] Some castles, such as the ones at Matsue and Kōchi, both built in 1611, have main keeps or other buildings that remain extant in their historical forms, not having suffered any damage from sieges or other threats. Hiroshima Castle, on the opposite end of the spectrum, was destroyed in the atomic bombing, and was rebuilt in 1958 as a museum, though it does retain many of its original stone walls.[2] The character for castle, 城, is pronounced shiro (its kunyomi) when used as a standalone word. However, when attached to another word (such as in the name of a particular castle), it is read as jō (its Chinese-derived onyomi). Thus, for example, Osaka Castle is called Ōsaka-jō (大阪城) in Japanese. Originally conceived as fortresses for military defense, Japanese castles were placed in strategic locations, typically along trade routes, roads, and rivers. Though castles continued to be built with these considerations, for centuries, fortresses were also built as centres of governance. By the Sengoku period, they had come to serve as the homes of daimyo (大名, feudal lords), to impress and to intimidate rivals not only with their defences but also with their sizes, architecture, and elegant interiors. In 1576, Oda Nobunaga was among the first to build one of these palace-like castles: Azuchi Castle was Japans first castle to have a tenshu (天守, main keep), and it inspired both Toyotomi Hideyoshis Osaka Castle and Tokugawa Ieyasus Edo Castle.[3] Azuchi served as the governing center of Odas territories, and as his lavish home, but it was also very keenly and strategically placed. A short distance away from the capital of Kyoto, which had long been a target of violence, Azuchis carefully chosen location allowed it a great degree of control over the transportation and communication routes of Odas enemies. The tenshu (main keep) was used as a storehouse in times of peace and as a fortified tower in times of war, and the daimyo (feudal lords)s government offices and residences were located in a group of single-story buildings near the tenshu and the surrounding yagura (櫓, turrets). The only exception was Oda Nobunagas Azuchi-Momoyama Castle, where he lived in the tenshu (main keep).[4]
Telephone numbering plan. A telephone numbering plan is a type of numbering scheme used in telecommunication to assign telephone numbers to subscriber telephones or other telephony endpoints.[1] Telephone numbers are the addresses of participants in a telephone network, reachable by a system of destination code routing. Telephone numbering plans are defined world-wide, as well as within each of the administrative regions of the public switched telephone network (PSTN), and in private telephone networks. In public numbering systems, geographic location typically plays a role in the sequence of numbers assigned to each telephone subscriber. Many numbering plan administrators subdivide their territory of service into geographic regions designated by a prefix, often called an area code or city code, which is a set of digits forming the most-significant part of the dialing sequence to reach a telephone subscriber. Within such regions designated by area codes, locally unique telephone numbers are assigned based on locally determined principles, but in agreement with the larger-network rules. Numbering plans may follow a variety of design strategies which have often arisen from the historical evolution of individual telephone networks and local requirements. A broad division is commonly recognized between closed and open numbering plans. A closed numbering plan, as found in North America, features fixed-length area codes and local numbers, while an open numbering plan has a variance in the length of the area code, local number, or both of a telephone number assigned to a subscriber line. The latter type developed predominantly in Europe. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has established a comprehensive numbering plan, designated E.164, for uniform interoperability of the networks of its member state or regional administrations. It is an open numbering plan but imposes a maximum length of 15 digits to telephone numbers. The standard defines a country code for each member region which is prefixed to each national telephone number for international destination routing. Private numbering plans exist in telephone networks that are privately operated in an enterprise or organizational campus. Such systems may be supported by a private branch exchange (PBX), which provides a central access point to the PSTN and also controls internal calls between telephone extensions.
Toei Company.  Toei Company, Ltd. (東映株式会社, Tōei Kabushiki-gaisha; an acronym for Tōkyō Eiga Haikyū (東京映画配給) lit. Tokyo Film Distribution; /ˈtoʊ.eɪ/), simply known as Toei Company or Toei, is a Japanese entertainment company. Headquartered in Kyōbashi, Chūō, Tokyo, it is involved in film and television production, distribution, video game development, publishing, and ownership of 34 movie theaters. Toei also owns and operates studios in Tokyo and Kyoto and holds shares in several television companies. The company is renowned for its production of anime and live-action dramas known as tokusatsu, which incorporate special visual effects. It is also known for producing period dramas. Toei is the majority shareholder of Toei Animation and is recognized for its franchises such as Kamen Rider and Super Sentai. Toei is one of the four members of the Motion Picture Producers Association of Japan (MPPAJ 日本映画製作者連盟), and is therefore one of Japans Big Four film studios, alongside Kadokawa, Shochiku and Toho. Toei is a pioneer in the use of Henshin/character transformation in Live Action Television (TV) Film Video Game and Others, Etc. Superhero martial-arts Mecha drama Franchises, a technique developed for the Kamen Rider, Metal Hero and Super Sentai series; the genre currently continues with Kamen Rider and Super Sentai.[3][4] Toeis predecessor, the Toyoko Eiga Company, Ltd. (東横映画, Tō-Yoko Eiga; Toyoko Films), was incorporated in 1938. It was founded by Keita Goto, CEO of Tokyo-Yokohama Electric Railway [ja], the direct predecessor to the Tokyu Corporation. It had erected its facilities immediately east of the Tōkyū Tōyoko Line; they managed the prewar Tōkyū Shibuya Yokohama studio system. From 1945 through the Toei merger, Tokyo-Yokohama Films leased from the Daiei Motion Picture Company a second studio in Kyoto.
Castle.  A castle is a type of fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by military orders. Scholars usually consider a castle to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a mansion, palace, and villa, whose main purpose was exclusively for pleasance and are not primarily fortresses but may be fortified.[a] Use of the term has varied over time and, sometimes, has also been applied to structures such as hill forts and 19th- and 20th-century homes built to resemble castles. Over the Middle Ages, when genuine castles were built, they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls, arrowslits, and portcullises, were commonplace. European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries after the fall of the Carolingian Empire, which resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. These nobles built castles to control the area immediately surrounding them and they were both offensive and defensive structures: they provided a base from which raids could be launched as well as offering protection from enemies. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures also served as centres of administration and symbols of power. Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source. Many northern European castles were originally built from earth and timber but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits and relying on a central keep. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire. Many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castles firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as Roman forts. Not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape. Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls. While castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into a decline and were replaced by artillery star forts with no role in civil administration, and château or country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of mock castles, part of a Romantic revival of Gothic architecture, but they had no military purpose.
Paris (disambiguation). Paris is the capital of France, which may consist of : Paris may also refer to:
ZIP Code.  The ZIP Code system (an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan[1]) is the system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service (USPS). The term ZIP was chosen to suggest that the mail travels more efficiently and quickly[2] (zipping along) when senders include the code in the postal address. ZIP+4 is a registered trademark of the United States Postal Service, which also registered ZIP Code as a service mark until 1997,[3] and which claims ZIP Code as a trademark though it is not registered.[4] Introduced on July 1, 1963, the basic format was five digits, the first designating a region of the country and subsequent digits localizing the destination further.[5][6][7] In 1983, an extended code was introduced named ZIP+4; it included the five digits of the ZIP Code, followed by a hyphen and four digits that designated a location even more specific than the original five. Private carriers and the USPS use ZIP Codes to route deliveries. In addition, ZIP Codes have become a basis for breaking down demographic, marketing, and sales data for analytical purposes. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers. The United States Post Office Department (USPOD) implemented postal zones for 124 large cities in May 1943.[8] Postmaster General Frank C. Walker explained that many experienced postal clerks were going into the army, and the zone system would enable inexperienced clerks to sort mail without having to learn the delivery area of each city carrier.[9]
Winter Palace.  The Winter Palace[1] is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the House of Romanov, previous emperors, from 1732 to 1917. The palace and its precincts now house the Hermitage Museum. The floor area is 233,345 square metres (it has been calculated that the palace contains 1,886 doors, 1,945 windows, 1,500 rooms and 117 staircases).[2][3] The total area of the Winter Palace is 14.2 hectares. (aproximately 1.52 million square feet)[4] Situated between Palace Embankment and Palace Square, adjacent to the site of Peter the Greats original Winter Palace, the present and fourth Winter Palace was built and altered almost continuously between the late 1730s and 1837, when it was severely damaged by fire and immediately rebuilt.[5] The storming of the palace in 1917, as depicted in Soviet art and in Sergei Eisensteins 1928 film October, became a symbol of the October Revolution. The emperors constructed their palaces on a monumental scale that aimed to reflect the might and power of Imperial Russia. From the palace, the tsars[6] ruled over 22,800,000 square kilometers (8,800,000 sq mi)[7][8] (almost 1/6 of the Earths landmass) and 125 million subjects by the end of the 19th century. Several architects participated in designing the Winter Palace—most notably the Italian Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700–1771)—in what became known as the Elizabethan Baroque style. The green-and-white palace has the overall shape of an elongated rectangle, and its principal façade is 215 metres (705 ft) long and 30 m (98 ft) high. Following a serious fire, the palaces rebuilding of 1837 left the exterior unchanged, but large parts of the interior were redesigned in a variety of tastes and styles, leading the palace to be described as a 19th-century palace inspired by a model in Rococo style.[9] In 1905, the Bloody Sunday events occurred when demonstrators marched toward the Winter Palace, but by this time the Imperial Family had chosen to live in the more secure and secluded Alexander Palace at Tsarskoe Selo (lit. imperial village), and returned to the Winter Palace only for formal and state occasions. Following the February Revolution of 1917, the palace operated for a short time as the seat of the Russian Provisional Government, ultimately led by Alexander Kerensky. Later that same year a detachment of Red Guard soldiers and sailors stormed the palace—a defining moment in the birth of the Soviet state, overthrowing the Provisional Government. Upon returning from his Grand Embassy in 1698, Peter I of Russia embarked on a policy of Westernization and expansion that was to transform the Tsardom of Russia into the Russian Empire and a major European power.[10] This policy was manifested in bricks and mortar by the creation of a new city, Saint Petersburg, in 1703.[11] The culture and design of the new city was intended as a conscious rejection of traditional Byzantine-influenced Russian architecture, such as the then-fashionable Naryshkin Baroque, in favour of the classically inspired architecture prevailing in the great cities of Europe. The Tsar intended that his new city would be designed in a Flemish renaissance style, later known as Petrine Baroque, and this was the style he selected for his new palace in the city. The first Royal residence on the site had been a humble log cabin then known as the Domik Petra I, built in 1704, which faced the River Neva. In 1711, it was transported to the Petrovskaya Naberezhnaya,[12] where it still stands.[13] With the site cleared, the Tsar then embarked on the building of a larger house between 1711 and 1712. This house, today referred to as The First Winter Palace, was designed by Domenico Trezzini.[14]
Official residence. An official residence is a residence designated by an authority and assigned to an official (such as a head of state, head of government, governor, or other senior figures), and may be the same place where the office holder conducts their work functions or lives.[1][2][3][4] The provinces of Ontario and Quebec no longer have official residences for their lieutenant governors, but do provide them with accommodations; in the case of Ontario, only if necessary. There is a Government House in Regina, Saskatchewan, though it does not serve as a residence, containing only the lieutenant governors offices. Alberta also has a Government House, but it is used solely for official entertaining and meetings. French Polynesia The following are official residences maintained by private, nongovernmental institutions: Federal
Parisien (disambiguation). Parisien may refer to:
Communes of France.  A commune (French pronunciation: [kɔmyn] ⓘ) is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are analogous to civil townships and incorporated municipalities in Canada and the United States; Gemeinden in Germany; comuni in Italy; municipios in Spain; or civil parishes in the United Kingdom. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and are vested with significant powers to manage the populations and land of the geographic area covered. The communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. Communes vary widely in size and area, from large sprawling cities with millions of inhabitants like Paris, to small hamlets with only a handful of inhabitants. Communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes (lieu dit or bourg), the difference residing in the lack of administrative powers. Except for the municipal arrondissements of its largest cities, the communes are the lowest level of administrative division in France and are governed by elected officials including a mayor (maire) and a municipal council (conseil municipal). They have extensive autonomous powers to implement national policy. A commune is the smallest and oldest administrative division in France.[1] The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, for a large gathering of people sharing a common life; from Latin communis, things held in common.
Dog (disambiguation).  The dog is a domesticated canid species, Canis familiaris. Dog, dogs, DOG, or DOGS may also refer to:
Arrondissements of France.  An arrondissement (English: /əˈrɒndɪsmənt/, French: [aʁɔ̃dismɑ̃] ⓘ)[1] is the third level of administrative division in France generally corresponding to the territory overseen by a subprefect. As of 2023, the 101 French departments are divided into 333 arrondissements (including 13 overseas).[2] The capital of an arrondissement is called a subprefecture. When an arrondissement contains the prefecture (capital) of the department, that prefecture is the capital of the arrondissement, acting both as a prefecture and as a subprefecture. Arrondissements are further divided into communes. The term arrondissement can be roughly translated into English as district.[3] Some municipalities in Quebec are divided into arrondissements, reflecting the province’s historical link to New France.
Skyscraper.  Row 1: Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong; 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York City; King Power MahaNakhon, Bangkok Row 2: Commercial Bank of Ethiopia Headquarters, Addis Ababa; Premier Tower, Melbourne; Torre Colpatria, Bogotá A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable building having multiple floors. Most modern sources define skyscrapers as being at least 100 metres (330 ft)[1] or 150 metres (490 ft)[2] in height, though there is no universally accepted definition, other than being very tall high-rise buildings. Skyscrapers may host offices, hotels, residential spaces, and retail spaces. Skyscrapers are a common feature of large cities, often due to a high demand for space and limited availability of land. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel frame that supports curtain walls. These curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a steel frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscraper walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by large surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames and curtain walls. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a small surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a tubular structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic, and other lateral loads. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, which in some cases is also structurally required.
Mind games. Mind games (also power games or head games) are behaviors intended to influence an individual into performing a certain action, therefore giving the perpetrator the upper hand in a situation.[1][2] The first known use of the term mind game dates from 1963,[3] and head game from 1977.[4] In intimate relationships, mind games can be used to undermine one partners belief in the validity of their own perceptions.[5] Personal experience may be denied and driven from memory,[6] and such abusive mind games may extend to the denial of the victims reality, social undermining, and downplaying the importance of the other partners concerns or perceptions.[7] Both sexes have equal opportunities for such verbal coercion[8] which may be carried out unconsciously as a result of the need to maintain ones own self-deception.[9] Office mind games are often hard to identify clearly, as strong management blurs with over-direction, and healthy rivalry with manipulative head games and sabotage.[10] The wary salesman will be consciously and unconsciously prepared to meet a variety of challenging mind games and put-downs in the course of their work.[11] The serious sportsman will also be prepared to meet a variety of gambits and head games from their rivals, attempting to tread the fine line between competitive psychology and paranoia.[12] Eric Berne described a psychological game as an organized series of ulterior transactions taking place on twin levels: social and psychological, and resulting in a dramatic outcome when the two levels finally came to coincide.[13] He described the opening of a typical game like flirtation as follows: Cowboy: Come and see the barn. Visitor: Ive loved barns ever since I was a little girl.[14] At the social level a conversation about barns, at the psychological level one about sex play, the outcome of the game – which may be comic or tragic, heavy or light – will become apparent when a switch takes place and the ulterior motives of each become clear. Between thirty and forty such games (as well as variations of each) were described and tabulated in Bernes best seller on the subject titled Games People Play: The Psychology of Human Relationships.[15] According to one transactional analyst, Games are so predominant and deep-rooted in society that they tend to become institutionalized, that is, played according to rules that everybody knows about and more or less agrees to. The game of Alcoholic, a five-handed game, illustrates this...so popular that social institutions have developed to bring the various players together[16] such as Alcoholics Anonymous and Al-anon.
Pooch (disambiguation). Pooch is a  colloquial term for a dog. Pooch also refers to:
Doggy (disambiguation). Doggy is a name for a dog in baby talk, but can also be related to a member of the canine family. Doggy, Doggie, or doggies may also refer to:
Mind Sports Olympiad.  The Mind Sports Olympiad (MSO) is an annual international multi-disciplined competition and festival for games of mental skill and mind sports by Mind Sports Organisation. The inaugural event was held in 1997 in London with £100,000 prize fund[1] and was described as possibly the biggest games festival ever held.[2] The MSO was the first event of its kind[3] celebrating mental skills and awarding gold, silver and bronze medals for each event[4] and was highly influential on the mind sports movement and competitions that have followed since. The main MSO tournament has been held every year in England.[5][6] In 2020,  due to the COVID-19 pandemic, for the first time, the entire MSO tournament was held online.[7] The first Mind Sports Olympiad was held in Londons Royal Festival Hall in 1997. It brought together an unprecedented number of strategy games and events. William Hartston in The Independent said, The biggest gamesfest ever to hit these (or perhaps any other) shores.[2]
Saint Petersburg.  Saint Petersburg,[c] formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad,[d] is the second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea. With an area of  1,439 sq km (556 sq mi), Saint Petersburg is the smallest administrative division of Russia by area. The city had a population of 5,601,911 residents as of 2021,[4] with more than 6.4 million people living in the metropolitan area. Saint Petersburg is the fourth-most populous city in Europe, the most populous city on the Baltic Sea, and the worlds northernmost city of more than 1 million residents. As the former capital of the Russian Empire, and a historically strategic port, it is governed as a federal city. The city was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27 May 1703 on the site of a captured Swedish fortress, and was named after the apostle Saint Peter.[8] In Russia, Saint Petersburg is historically and culturally associated with the birth of the Russian Empire and Russias entry into modern history as a European great power.[9] It served as a capital of the Tsardom of Russia, and the subsequent Russian Empire, from 1712 to 1918 (being replaced by Moscow for a short period between 1728 and 1730).[10] After the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks moved their government to Moscow.[11] The city was renamed Leningrad after Lenins death in 1924. It was the site of the siege of Leningrad during World War II, the most lethal siege in history.[12] In June 1991, only a few months before the Belovezha Accords and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, voters in a city-wide referendum supported restoring the citys original name.[13] As Russias cultural centre,[14] Saint Petersburg received over 15 million tourists in 2018.[15][16] It is considered an important economic, scientific, and tourism centre of Russia and Europe. In modern times, the city has the nickname of being the Northern Capital of Russia and is home to notable federal government bodies such as the Constitutional Court of Russia and the Heraldic Council of the President of the Russian Federation. It is also a seat for the National Library of Russia and a planned location for the Supreme Court of Russia, as well as the home to the headquarters of the Russian Navy, and the Leningrad Military District of the Russian Armed Forces. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Saint Petersburg is home to the Hermitage (one of the largest art museums in the world), the Lakhta Center (the tallest skyscraper in Europe), and was one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup and the UEFA Euro 2020. The name day of Peter I falls on 29 June, when the Russian Orthodox Church observes the memory of apostles Peter and Paul. The consecration of the small wooden church in their names (its construction began at the same time as the citadel) made them the heavenly patrons of the Peter and Paul Fortress, while Saint Peter at the same time became the eponym of the whole city. When in June 1703 Peter the Great renamed the site after Saint Peter, he did not issue a naming act that established an official spelling; even in his own letters he used diverse spellings, such as Санктьпетерсьбурк (Sanktpetersburk), emulating German Sankt Petersburg, and Сантпитербурх (Santpiterburkh), emulating Dutch Sint-Pietersburgh, as Peter was multilingual and a Hollandophile. The name was later normalized and russified to Санкт-Петербург (Sankt-Peterburg).[17][18][19]
Culture of Paris. The culture of Paris concerns the arts, music, museums, festivals and other entertainment in Paris, the capital city of France. The city is today one of the worlds leading business and cultural centers; entertainment, music, media, fashion, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the worlds major global cities. Paris is also home to notable cultural attractions such as the Louvre, Musée Picasso, Musée Rodin, Musée du Montparnasse, and Musée National dArt Moderne. The Musée dOrsay and Musée de lOrangerie are notable for housing Impressionist era masterpieces, while art and artifacts from the Middle Ages can be seen in Musée Cluny. A variety of landmarks and objects are cultural icons associated with Paris, such as Eiffel Tower, Notre Dame de Paris and Opéra Garnier. Many of Pariss once-popular local establishments have come to cater to the tastes and expectations of tourists, rather than local patrons. Le Lido, the cabaret-dance hall, for example, is a staged dinner theater spectacle, a dance display that was once but one aspect of the cabarets former atmosphere. All of the establishments former social or cultural elements, such as its ballrooms and gardens, are gone today. Much of Pariss hotel, restaurant, and night entertainment trades have become heavily dependent on tourism. Haussmanns renovation of Paris during the mid-19th century created many of its wide boulevards and characteristic multi-level housing, often with shops and cafes at the ground level. The purpose of the renovations was to replace crowded, dilapidated Medieval-era housing, but some areas, such as the Marais, were untouched by the renovation of Paris. Other notable landmarks erected during the 19th century feature elaborate Art Nouveau designs popular during the Belle Epoque, such as the Palais Garnier (Paris Opera) and the Galeries Lafayette shopping center.[citation needed] The citys cathedrals are another main attraction; its Notre Dame de Paris and the Basilique du Sacré-Coeur receive twelve million and eight million visitors, respectively.[citation needed]
Strategy game. A strategy game or strategic game is a game in which the players uncoerced, and often autonomous, decision-making skills have a high significance in determining the outcome. Almost all strategy games require internal decision tree-style thinking, and typically very high situational awareness. Strategy games are also seen as a descendant of war games, and define strategy in terms of the context of war, but this is more partial. A strategy game is a game that relies primarily on strategy, and when it comes to defining what strategy is, two factors need to be taken into account: its complexity and game-scale actions, such as each placement in the Total War video game series. The definition of a strategy game in its cultural context should be any game that belongs to a tradition that goes back to war games, contains more strategy than the average video game, contains certain gameplay conventions, and is represented by a particular community. Although war is dominant in strategy games, it is not the whole story.[1] The history of turn-based strategy games goes back to the times of ancient civilizations found in places such as Rome, Greece, Egypt, the Levant, and India. Many were played widely through their regions of origin, but only some are still played today.[2] According to Thierry Depaulis, oldest strategy games would be the Greek game of polis (πόλις), which appears in the literature around 450 BCE, and the more or less contemporary Chinese game of weiqi (‘go’), which, under the name of yi (弈), is mentioned in Confucius’s Analects (Lunyu) compiled between ca 470/50 and 280 BCE.[2] The Royal Game of Ur from c. 2500 BCE which often been called one of the oldest board games, likely had some strategy elements as well, although it is generally seen as a luck-based race game.[3][4]
Game of skill. A game of skill is a game where the outcome is determined mainly by mental or physical skill, rather than chance.[2] [3] Alternatively, a game of chance is one where its outcome is strongly influenced by some randomizing device, such as dice, spinning tops, playing cards, roulette wheels, or numbered balls drawn from a container. While a game of chance may have some skill element to it, chance generally plays a greater role in determining its outcome. A game of skill may also have elements of chance, but skill plays a greater role in determining its outcome. Some commonly played games of skill and chance include: poker, collectible card games, contract bridge, backgammon and mahjong.[4] Most games of skill also involve a degree of chance, due to natural aspects of the environment, a randomizing device (such as dice, playing cards or a coin flip), or guessing due to incomplete information. For many games where skill is a component alongside chance, such as card games like poker but also some physical games, the skills needed to play the game well include the calculation of mathematical probabilities and the application of game theory. Game theory often leads to tactics such as bluffing and other forms of deception.
Intellect. Intellect is a faculty of the human mind that enables reasoning, abstraction, conceptualization, and judgment.[1] It enables the discernment of truth and falsehood, as well as higher-order thinking beyond immediate perception.[2] Intellect is distinct from intelligence, which refers to the general ability to learn, adapt, and solve problems, whereas intellect concerns the application of reason to abstract or philosophical thought.[3] In philosophy, intellect (Ancient Greek: dianoia) has often been contrasted with nous, a term referring to the faculty of direct intuitive knowledge.[4] While intellect engages in discursive reasoning, breaking down concepts into logical sequences, nous is considered a higher cognitive faculty that allows for direct perception of truth,[4] especially in Platonism and Neoplatonism.[5] Aristotle[6] distinguished between the active intellect (intellectus agens), which abstracts universal concepts, and the passive intellect, which receives sensory input.[7] During late antiquity and the Middle Ages, the intellect was considered the bridge between the human soul and divine knowledge, particularly in religious and metaphysical contexts.[7] Thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas and Averroes explored intellect as the means by which humans engage in higher reasoning and theological contemplation. This intellectual tradition influenced both Christian Scholasticism and Islamic philosophy, where intellect was linked to the understanding of divine truth.[8] In modern psychology and neuroscience, the term intellect is sometimes used to describe higher cognitive functions related to abstract thought and logical reasoning. However, contemporary research primarily focuses on general intelligence (g-factor) and cognitive abilities rather than intellect as a separate faculty.[9] While theories such as Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences address diverse ways of processing information, they do not equate directly to historical or philosophical notions of intellect.[10] In Platonism, dianoia (Greek: διάνοια) is the human cognitive capacity for, process of, or result of discursive reasoning, specifically about mathematical and technical subjects. It stands in contrast to the immediate, cognitive process of intuitive apprehension or noesis (noesis).[4][a]
Theme (narrative). In contemporary literary studies, a theme is a main topic, subject, or message within a narrative.[1] Themes are ideas that are central to a story, which can often be summed in a single abstract noun (for example, love, death, betrayal, nostalgia, or parenthood) or noun phrase (for example, coming of age, humans in conflict with technology, seeking spirituality in the modern era, or the dangers of unchecked ambition).[2][3] A theme may be exemplified by the actions, utterances, or thoughts of characters, as in the theme of loneliness in John Steinbecks Of Mice and Men, wherein many of the characters seem isolated and long for community with others. It may or may not differ from the thesis—the texts or authors implied worldview.[4][example needed] A story may have several themes and generally longer works, such as novels, plays, films, or television series, do. Themes often explore historically common or cross-culturally recognizable ideas, such as ethical questions, and are usually implied rather than stated explicitly.[5] An example of this would be whether one should live a seemingly better life, at the price of giving up parts of ones humanity, which is a theme in Aldous Huxleys Brave New World. Along with plot, character, setting, and style, theme is considered one of the components of fiction.[6] Themes can be divided into two categories: a works thematic concept is what readers think the work is about and its thematic statement being what the work says about the subject.[7] Some common themes in literature are love, war, revenge, betrayal,[8] grace, isolation, parenthood, forgiveness, loss,[9] treachery, rich versus poor, appearance versus reality, and help from otherworldly powers.[10] Various techniques may be used to express literary themes. Leitwortstil, which means leading word style in German,[11] is the repetition of a wording, often with a theme, in a narrative to make sure it catches the readers attention.[12] An example of a leitwortstil is the recurring phrase, So it goes, in Kurt Vonneguts novel Slaughterhouse-Five. Its seeming message is that the world is deterministic: that things only could have happened in one way, and that the future already is predetermined. But given the anti-war tone of the story, the message perhaps is on the contrary, that things could have been different. Its use in Scheherazades Arabian Nights demonstrates how the technique can result to the unification of the constituent members of story cycles.[11] In the Bible, various forms of the verb to see also recur and underscore the idea of Abraham as a seer.[13] There is also the repeated use of the root kbd in Samuel I, to indicate weightiness, honor, glory.[14]
Perfect information. Perfect information is a concept in game theory and economics that describes a situation where all players in a game or all participants in a market have knowledge of all relevant information in the system. This is different than complete information, which implies common knowledge of each agents utility functions, payoffs, strategies and types. A system with perfect information may or may not have complete information. In economics this is sometimes described as no hidden information and is a feature of perfect competition. In a market with perfect information all consumers and producers would have complete and instantaneous knowledge of all market prices, their own utility and cost functions. In game theory, a sequential game has perfect information if each player, when making any decision, is perfectly informed of all the events that have previously occurred, including the initialisation event of the game (e.g. the starting hands of each player in a card game).[1][2][3][4] Games where some aspect of play is hidden from opponents – such as the cards in poker and bridge – are examples of games with imperfect information.[5][6] Chess is an example of a game with perfect information, as each player can see all the pieces on the board at all times.[2] Other games with perfect information include tic-tac-toe, Reversi, checkers, and Go.[3]
Year.   A year is a unit of time based on how long it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.[1]  In scientific use, the tropical year (approximately 365 solar days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds) and the sidereal year (about 20 minutes longer) are more exact. The modern calendar year, as reckoned according to the Gregorian calendar, approximates the tropical year by using a system of leap years. The term year is also used to indicate other periods of roughly similar duration, such as the lunar year (a roughly 354-day cycle of twelve of the Moons phases – see lunar calendar), as well as periods loosely associated with the calendar or astronomical year, such as the seasonal year, the fiscal year, the academic year, etc. Due to the Earths axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by changes in weather, the hours of daylight, and, consequently, vegetation and soil fertility. In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in the seasonal tropics, the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked.
Randomness.  In common usage, randomness is the apparent or actual lack of definite pattern or predictability in information.[1][2] A random sequence of events, symbols or steps often has no order and does not follow an intelligible pattern or combination. Individual random events are, by definition, unpredictable, but if there is a known probability distribution, the frequency of different outcomes over repeated events (or trials) is predictable.[note 1] For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will tend to occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is not haphazardness; it is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome. Randomness applies to concepts of chance, probability, and information entropy. The fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal definitions of randomness, typically assuming that there is some objective probability distribution. In statistics, a random variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events. Random variables can appear in random sequences. A random process is a sequence of random variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern, but follow an evolution described by probability distributions. These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the various applications of randomness. Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties. Monte Carlo methods, which rely on random input (such as from random number generators or pseudorandom number generators), are important techniques in science, particularly in the field of computational science.[3] By analogy, quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasi-random number generators. Random selection, when narrowly associated with a simple random sample, is a method of selecting items (often called units) from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population. For example, with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles, a random selection mechanism would choose a red marble with probability 1/10. A random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable, a random selection mechanism requires equal probabilities for any item to be chosen. That is, if the selection process is such that each member of a population, say research subjects, has the same probability of being chosen, then we can say the selection process is random.[2]
Archipelago (disambiguation). An archipelago is a landform which consists of a chain or cluster of islands. Archipelago(s) may also refer to:
Backgammon. Backgammon is a two-player board game played with counters and dice on tables boards. It is the most widespread Western member of the large family of tables games, whose ancestors date back at least 1,600 years. The earliest record of backgammon itself dates to 17th-century England, being descended from the 16th-century game of Irish.[2] Backgammon is a two-player game of contrary movement in which each player has fifteen pieces known traditionally as men (short for tablemen), but increasingly known as checkers in the United States in recent decades.[citation needed] The backgammon table pieces move along twenty-four points according to the roll of two dice. The objective of the game is to move the fifteen pieces around the board and be first to bear off, i.e., remove them from the board. The achievement of this while the opponent is still a long way behind results in a triple win known as a backgammon, hence the name of the game. Backgammon involves a combination of strategy and luck from rolling of the dice. While the dice may determine the outcome of a single game, the better player will accumulate the better record over a series of many games. With each roll of the dice, players must choose from numerous options for moving their pieces and anticipate possible counter-moves by the opponent. The optional use of a doubling cube allows players to raise the stakes during the game. The earliest specific reference to backgammon was in a letter dated 1635, when it was emerging as a variant of the popular medieval Anglo-Scottish game of Irish; the latter was described as a better game.[3] By the 19th century, however, backgammon had spread to Europe, where it rapidly superseded other tables games like Trictrac in popularity, and also to America, where the doubling cube was introduced. In other parts of the world, different tables games such as Nard or Nardy are better known. Backgammon is a recent member of the large family of tables games that date back to ancient times. Its equipment is similar or identical to earlier tables games that have been depicted for centuries in art, leading to the mistaken belief that backgammon itself is much older.
Tokugawa Ieyasu.  Tokugawa Ieyasu[a][b] (born Matsudaira Takechiyo;[c][d] January 31, 1543 – June 1, 1616) was the founder and first shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three Great Unifiers of Japan, along with his former lord Oda Nobunaga and fellow Oda subordinate Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The son of a minor daimyo, Ieyasu once lived as a hostage under daimyo Imagawa Yoshimoto on behalf of his father. He later succeeded as daimyo after his fathers death, serving as ally, vassal, and general of the Oda clan,[5] and building up his strength under Oda Nobunaga.[6] After Oda Nobunagas death, Ieyasu was briefly a rival of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, before declaring his allegiance to Toyotomi and fighting on his behalf. Under Toyotomi, Ieyasu was relocated to the Kanto plains in eastern Japan, away from the Toyotomi power base in Osaka. He built his castle in the fishing village of Edo (now Tokyo). He became the most powerful daimyo and the most senior officer under the Toyotomi regime. Ieyasu preserved his strength during Toyotomis failed attempts to conquer Korea. After Hideyoshis death and the Battle of Sekigahara, Ieyasu seized power in 1600.[5] He received appointment as shōgun in 1603, and voluntarily resigned from his position in 1605, although he still held the de facto control of government until his death in 1616. He implemented a set of careful rules known as the bakuhan system. This system used precisely graded rewards and punishments to encourage (or compel) the daimyo and samurai to live in peace with each other under the Tokugawa Shogunate.[5][6] Tokugawa Ieyasu was born in Okazaki Castle on the 26th day of the twelfth month of the eleventh year of Tenbun, according to the Japanese calendar, January 31, 1543 according to the Western calendar. Originally named Matsudaira Takechiyo (松平 竹千代), he was the son of Matsudaira Hirotada (松平 広忠), the daimyo of Mikawa of the Matsudaira clan, and Odai no Kata (於大の方; Lady Odai), the daughter of a neighbouring samurai lord, Mizuno Tadamasa (水野 忠政). His mother and father were step-siblings. They were 17 and 15 years old, respectively, when Takechiyo was born.[7]
Island chain strategy.  The island chain strategy is a strategic maritime containment plan first conceived by American foreign policy statesman John Foster Dulles in 1951, during the Korean War.[1] It proposed surrounding the Soviet Union and China with naval bases in the West Pacific to project power and restrict sea access.[2] The island chain concept did not become a major theme in American foreign policy during the Cold War, but after the dissolution of the Soviet Union has remained a major focus of both American and Chinese geopolitical and military analysts to this day. For the United States, the island chain strategy is a significant part of the force projection of the U.S. military in the Far East.  For China, the concept is integral to its maritime security and fears of strategic encirclement by U.S. armed forces. For both sides, the island chain strategy emphasizes the geographical and strategic importance of Taiwan.[3] The first island chain is the first string of major Pacific archipelagos out from the East Asian continental mainland coast. It is principally composed of the Kuril Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan (Formosa), the northern Philippines, and Borneo, hence extending all the way from the Kamchatka Peninsula in the northeast to the Malay Peninsula in the southwest. The first island chain forms one of three island chain doctrines within the island chain strategy in the U.S. foreign policy.[4][5] It is considered a strategic military barrier to accessing the wider Pacific Ocean given the relative shallowness of waters to the west of the first island chain, which has important implications for submarine detection.[6] The second island chain, also called the second island cloud by Earl Hancock Ellis,[8] has two different interpretations, but the version most commonly used refers to the island chain which is formed by Japans Bonin Islands and Volcano Islands, in addition to the Mariana Islands (most notably Guam, an unincorporated American overseas territory with a heavily fortified military base), western Caroline Islands (Yap and Palau), and extends to Western New Guinea.[1] The chain serves as the eastern maritime boundary of the Philippine Sea.[citation needed]
Arpeggio.  An arpeggio (Italian: [arˈpeddʒo]) is a type of chord in which the notes that compose a chord are individually sounded in a progressive rising or descending order. Arpeggios on keyboard instruments may be called rolled chords. Arpeggios may include all notes of a scale or a partial set of notes from a scale, but must contain notes of at least three pitches (two-pitch sequences are known as trills or tremolos). Arpeggios may sound notes within a single octave or span multiple octaves, and the notes may be sustained and overlap or be heard separately. An arpeggio for the chord of C major going up two octaves would be the notes (C, E, G, C, E, G, C). In musical notation, a very rapid arpeggiated chord may be written with a wavy vertical line in front of the chord. Typically these are read as to be played from the lowest to highest note, though composers may specify a high to low sequence by adding an arrow pointing down. Arpeggios enable composers writing for monophonic instruments that play one note at a time (such as the trumpet) to voice chords and chord progressions in musical pieces. Arpeggios are also used to help create rhythmic interest, or as melodic ornamentation in the lead or accompaniment.
A cappella.  Music performed a cappella (/ˌɑː kəˈpɛlə/ AH kə-PEL-ə, UK also /ˌæ kəˈpɛlə/ AK ə-PEL-ə, Italian: [a kkapˈpɛlla];[1] lit. in [the style of] the chapel), less commonly spelled acapella in English,[2] is music performed by a singer or a singing group without instrumental accompaniment. The term a cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphonic and Baroque concertato musical styles. In the 19th century, a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony, coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists, led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music.[1] The term is also used, rarely, as a synonym for alla breve.[3] Research suggests that singing and vocables may have been what early humans used to communicate before the invention of language.[4] The earliest piece of sheet music is thought to have originated from times as early as 2000 BC,[5] while the earliest that has survived in its entirety is from the first century AD: a piece from Greece called the Seikilos epitaph.[5] A cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially church music as well as anasheed and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of secular vocal music from the Renaissance. The madrigal, up until its development in the early Baroque into an instrumentally accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. The Psalms note that some early songs were accompanied by string instruments, though Jewish and Early Christian music was largely a cappella;[6] the use of instruments has subsequently increased within both of these religions as well as in Islam. The polyphony of Christian (predominantly Catholic) a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the 9th century AD with the practice of organum, reaching its height between the 14th and 16th centuries with compositions by composers of the Franco-Flemish school (such as Guillaume Du Fay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Josquin des Prez).[7] The early a cappella polyphonies were sometimes doubled with other instruments, which were often wind or string instruments, or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.[7] Sixteenth-century a cappella polyphony, nonetheless, continued to influence church composers throughout this period and to the present day. Recent evidence has shown that some of the early pieces by Palestrina, such as those written for the Sistine Chapel, were intended to be accompanied by an organ doubling for some or all of the voices.[7]
Go (game). Go is an abstract strategy board game for two players in which the aim is to fence off more territory than the opponent. The game was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago and is believed to be the oldest board game continuously played to the present day.[1][2][3][4][5] A 2016 survey by the International Go Federations 75 member nations found that there are over 46 million people worldwide who know how to play Go, and over 20 million current players, the majority of whom live in East Asia.[6] The playing pieces are called stones. One player uses the white stones and the other black stones. The players take turns placing their stones on the vacant intersections (points) on the board. Once placed, stones may not be moved, but captured stones are immediately removed from the board. A single stone (or connected group of stones) is captured when surrounded by the opponents stones on all orthogonally adjacent points.[7] The game proceeds until neither player wishes to make another move. When a game concludes, the winner is determined by counting each players surrounded territory along with captured stones and komi (points added to the score of the player with the white stones as compensation for playing second).[8] Games may also end by resignation.[9] The standard Go board has a 19×19 grid of lines, containing 361 points. Beginners often play on smaller 9×9 or 13×13 boards,[10] and archaeological evidence shows that the game was played in earlier centuries on a board with a 17×17 grid. The 19×19 board had become standard by the time the game reached Korea in the 5th century CE and Japan in the 7th century CE.[11] Go was considered one of the four essential arts of the cultured aristocratic Chinese scholars in antiquity. The earliest written reference to the game is generally recognized as the historical annal Zuo Zhuan[12][13] (c. 4th century BCE).[14]
Periodical literature.  Periodical literature (singularly called a periodical publication or simply a periodical) consists of published works that appear in new releases on a regular schedule (issues or numbers, often numerically divided into annual volumes). The most familiar example of periodical literature is the newspaper, but the magazine and the academic journal are also periodicals, as are some modern websites, e-journals, and other electronic-only publications produced recurrently on a schedule. Periodical publications cover a wide variety of topics, from academic, technical, and trade, to general-interest subjects such as leisure and entertainment. Articles within a periodical are usually organized around a single main subject or theme and include a title, date of publication, author(s), and brief summary of the article. A periodical typically contains an editorial section that comments on subjects of interest to its readers. Other common features are reviews of recently published books and films, columns that express the authors opinions about various topics, and advertisements. A periodical is a serial publication. A book series is also a serial publication, but is not typically called a periodical. An encyclopedia or dictionary is also a book, and might be called a serial publication if it is published in many different editions over time. A periodical series, such as a journal series, is a sequence of journals having certain characteristics in common that are formally identified together as a group (see academic journal series). Periodicals are typically published and referenced by volume and issue (also known as issue number or number). Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, and issue refers to how many times that periodical has been published during that year. For example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, volume 10, issue 4. Roman numerals are sometimes used in reference to the volume number.[1]
Eiger. The Eiger (Swiss Standard German pronunciation: [ˈaɪɡər] ⓘ) is a 3,967-metre (13,015 ft) mountain of the Bernese Alps, overlooking Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland, just north of the main watershed and border with Valais. It is the easternmost peak of a ridge crest that extends across the Mönch to the Jungfrau at 4,158 m (13,642 ft), constituting one of the most emblematic sights of the Swiss Alps. While the northern side of the mountain rises more than 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the two valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, the southern side faces the large glaciers of the Jungfrau-Aletsch area, the most glaciated region in the Alps. The most notable feature of the Eiger is its nearly 1,800-metre-high (5,900 ft) north face of rock and ice, named Eiger-Nordwand, Eigerwand or just Nordwand, which is the biggest north face in the Alps.[3] This substantial face towers over the resort of Kleine Scheidegg at its base, on the eponymous pass connecting the two valleys. The first ascent of the Eiger was made by Swiss guides Christian Almer and Peter Bohren and Irishman Charles Barrington, who climbed the west flank on August 11, 1858. The north face, the last problem of the Alps, considered amongst the most challenging and dangerous ascents, was first climbed in 1938 by an Austrian-German expedition.[4] The Eiger has been highly publicized for the many tragedies involving climbing expeditions. Since 1935, at least 64 climbers have died attempting the north face, earning it the German nickname Mordwand, literally murder(ous) wall—a pun on its correct title of Nordwand (North Wall).[5] Although the summit of the Eiger can be reached by experienced climbers only, a railway tunnel runs inside the mountain, and two internal stations provide easy access to viewing-windows carved into the rock face. They are both part of the Jungfrau Railway line, running from Kleine Scheidegg to the Jungfraujoch, between the Mönch and the Jungfrau, at the highest railway station in Europe. The two stations within the Eiger are Eigerwand (behind the north face) and Eismeer (behind the south face), at around 3,000 metres. The Eigerwand station has not been regularly served since 2016. The first mention of Eiger, appearing as mons Egere, was found in a property sale document of 1252, but there is no clear indication of how exactly the peak gained its name.[6] The three mountains of the ridge are commonly referred to as the Virgin (German: Jungfrau – translates to virgin or maiden), the Monk (Mönch), and the Ogre (Eiger; the standard German word for ogre is Oger). The Eiger is located above the Lauterbrunnen Valley to the west and Grindelwald to the north in the Bernese Oberland region of the canton of Bern.[7] It forms a renowned mountain range of the Bernese Alps together with its two companions: the Jungfrau (4,158 m (13,642 ft)) about 5.6 kilometres (3.5 mi) southwest of it and the Mönch (4,107 m (13,474 ft)) about in the middle of them.[8] The nearest settlements are Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen (795 m (2,608 ft)) and Wengen (1,274 m (4,180 ft)). The Eiger has three faces: north (or more precisely NNW), east (or more precisely ESE), and west (or more precisely WSW). The northeastern ridge from the summit to the Ostegg (lit.: eastern corner, 2,709 m (8,888 ft)), called Mittellegi, is the longest on the Eiger. The north face overlooks the gently rising Alpine meadow between Grindelwald (943 m (3,094 ft)) and Kleine Scheidegg (2,061 m (6,762 ft)), a mountain railways junction and a pass, which can be reached from both sides, Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen/Wengen – by foot or train.[7]
Roman type. In Latin script typography, roman is one of the three main kinds of historical type, alongside blackletter and italic. Sometimes called normal or regular, it is distinct from these two for its upright style (relative to the calligraphy-inspired italic) and its simplicity (relative to blackletter). During the early Renaissance, roman (in the form of Antiqua) and italic type were used separately. Today, roman and italic type are mixed, and most typefaces are composed of both an upright roman style and an associated italic or oblique style. Roman type was modelled from a European scribal manuscript style of the 15th century, based on the pairing of inscriptional capitals used in ancient Rome with Carolingian minuscules. Early roman typefaces show a variety of designs, for instance resembling what would now be considered blackletter.[5][6][7] Printers and typefounders such as Nicolas Jenson and Aldus Manutius in Venice and later Robert Estienne in France codified the modern characteristics of Roman type, for instance an h with a nearly straight right leg, serifs on the outside of the capital M and N, and e with level cross stroke, by the 1530s.[8][9] Popular roman typefaces include Bembo, Baskerville, Caslon, Jenson, Times New Roman and Garamond.
Taylor & Francis.  Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom that publishes books and academic journals. Its parts include Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, Routledge, F1000 Research and Dovepress.[6] It is a division of Informa, a United Kingdom-based publisher and conference company.[7] The company was founded in 1852 when William Francis joined Richard Taylor in his publishing business. Taylor had founded his company in 1798. Their subjects covered agriculture, chemistry, education, engineering, geography, law, mathematics, medicine, and social sciences.[8] Publications included the Philosophical Magazine. Franciss son, Richard Taunton Francis (1883–1930), was sole partner in the firm from 1917 to 1930.[9] In 1965, Taylor & Francis launched Wykeham Publications and began book publishing. T&F acquired Hemisphere Publishing in 1988, and the company was renamed Taylor & Francis Group to reflect the growing number of imprints. Taylor & Francis left the printing business in 1990, to concentrate on publishing. In 1998 it went public on the London Stock Exchange and in the same year bought its academic publishing rival Routledge for £90 million.[10] Acquisition of other publishers has remained a core part of the groups business strategy.[10] It merged with Informa in 2004 to create a new company called T&F Informa, since renamed back to Informa.[10] Following the merger, T&F closed the historic Routledge office at New Fetter Lane in London, and moved to its current headquarters in Milton Park, Oxfordshire.[11]
Matterhorn. The Matterhorn[note 3] is a mountain of the Alps, straddling the main watershed and border between Switzerland and Italy.[note 4] It is a large, near-symmetric pyramidal peak in the extended Monte Rosa area of the Pennine Alps, whose summit is 4,478 metres (14,692 ft) above sea level, making it one of the highest summits in the Alps and Europe.[note 5] Sometimes referred to as the Mountain of Mountains (German: Berg der Berge),[5] it has become an indelible emblem of the Alps and stands as the most photographed mountain in the world.[6] The Matterhorn has four faces, each roughly oriented toward one of the four cardinal points. Three of these (north, east, and west) are on the Swiss side of the border and watershed, while the south face lies on the Italian side.[7][8] These four steep faces, rising above the surrounding glaciers, are separated by the Hörnli, Furggen, Zmutt, and Leone (Lion) ridges. The mountain overlooks the Swiss town of Zermatt, in the canton of Valais, to the northeast, and the Italian town of Breuil-Cervinia in the Aosta Valley to the south. Just east of the Matterhorn is Theodul Pass, the main passage between the two valleys on its north and south sides, which has been a trade route since the Roman era. The Matterhorn was studied by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the late 18th century; this was followed by other renowned naturalists and artists, such as John Ruskin, in the 19th century. It remained unclimbed after most of the other great Alpine peaks had been attained and became the subject of an international competition for the summit. The first ascent of the Matterhorn was in 1865 from Zermatt by a party led by Edward Whymper, but during the descent, a sudden fall claimed the lives of four of the seven climbers. This disaster, later portrayed in several films, marked the end of the golden age of alpinism.[9] The north face was not climbed until 1931 and is among the three biggest north faces of the Alps, known as The Trilogy. The west face, the highest of the Matterhorns four faces, was completely climbed only in 1962. It is estimated that over 500 alpinists have died on the Matterhorn, making it one of the deadliest peaks in the world.[10] The Matterhorn is mainly composed of gneisses (originally fragments of the African plate before the Alpine orogeny) from the Dent Blanche nappe, lying over ophiolites and sedimentary rocks of the Penninic nappes. The mountains current shape is the result of cirque erosion due to multiple glaciers diverging from the peak, such as the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face. Since the end of the 19th century, when railways were built in the area, the mountain has attracted increasing numbers of visitors and climbers. Each year, numerous mountaineers try to climb the Matterhorn from the Hörnli Hut via the northeast Hörnli ridge, the most popular route to the summit. Many trekkers also undertake the 10-day-long circuit around the mountain. The Matterhorn has been part of the Swiss Federal Inventory of Natural Monuments since 1983. The name Matterhorn derives from the German words Matte (meadow) and Horn (horn),[11] and is often translated as the peak of the meadows.[2] In the Schalbetter map, printed by Sebastian Münster in 1545, the valley is labelled Mattertal, but the mountain has the Latin name Mons Silvius as well as the German name Augstalberg, in concord with the Aosta Valley (German Augstal). The 1548 map by Johannes Stumpf gives only Mons Silvius.
Indonesian archipelago. The Indonesian archipelago (Indonesian: Kepulauan Indonesia) is a large collection of over 17,000 to 18,000 islands[6][7] located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans in Southeast Asia and Oceania.[8] It is the worlds largest archipelago,[9] with five main islands—Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia is famous for its biodiversity, unique animals and ecosystems that range from tropical rainforests to volcanoes, making it one of the most biodiverse countries in the world.[10][11] The cultural heritage of the Indonesian archipelago reflects a profound diversity, encompassing hundreds of distinct ethnic groups and languages. Its strategic location and natural resources have long made Indonesia an important trading center and a major player in regional and global affairs. Influenced by Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and European colonial cultures, Indonesia gained independence in 1945. The Indonesian archipelago consists of about 6,000 inhabited islands, with many others that are uninhabited.[3] These islands range from densely populated Java—often regarded as the economic and cultural heart of Indonesia, home to numerous candi (temples), including Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist temple—to small, remote islands. Bali is known as a tourist destination, famous for its nature and culture making it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world, Sumatra with its natural resources and strategic position on the Malacca Strait, and Komodo with its unique lizards. The Maluku Islands, or Rem-pah Islands, have an important history in the world spice trade.[12] The term Indonesian Archipelago, derived from the Greek Indos meaning India referring to the Indian subcontinent and nesos meaning island, literally translating to Indian Archipelago.[13] The Indonesian archipelago is the largest archipelago in the world, consisting of large islands such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, as well as 17,000 to 18,000 medium-sized and small islands spread across the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Within the Indonesian archipelago, the “Sunda Islands” form an important subgroup, divided into the Greater Sunda Islands -islands in the western part of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), and Sulawesi - known for their large size and dense population and the Lesser Sunda Islands, which extend eastward from Bali and are characterized by smaller islands such as Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Timor, each of which has a distinct ecology. The term Nusantara, often an alternative name for the Indonesian archipelago, comes from Old Javanese,[14][15] which emphasizes unity as a maritime nation with diverse cultures and vast landscapes. The term is closely associated with the Majapahit era in Java, a period characterized by extensive maritime dominance in the region, which matched the boundaries of present-day Indonesia. Majapahits influence extended through trade networks, maritime routes and the influence of a shared cultural heritage that shaped its identity.[16]
Tabletop game.  Tabletop games or tabletops are games that are normally played on a table or other flat surface, such as board games, card games, dice games, miniature wargames, tabletop role-playing games, or tile-based games.[1][2] Tabletop games can be classified according to the general form, or equipment utilized:[3] Games like chess and draughts are examples of games belonging to the board game category. Other games, however, use various attributes and cannot be classified unambiguously (e.g. Monopoly and many modern eurogames utilize a board as well as dice and cards). For several of these categories there are sub-categories and even sub-sub-categories or genres. For instance, German-style board games, board wargames, and roll-and-move games are all types of board games that differ markedly in style and general interest.
Iisalmi.  Iisalmi (Finnish: [ˈiːsɑlmi]; Swedish: Idensalmi)[5] is a town and municipality in the region of Northern Savonia in Finland. It is located 87 kilometres (54 mi) north of Kuopio and south of Kajaani. The municipality has a population of 20,330 (30 June 2025),[2] which makes it the second largest of the five towns in Northern Savonia in population, only Kuopio being larger. It covers an area of 872.20 square kilometres (336.76 sq mi)  of which 109.22 km2 (42.17 sq mi) is water.[1] The population density is 26.65 inhabitants per square kilometre (69.0/sq mi). The municipality is unilingually Finnish. In the 2010s, Iisalmi is known as an export industry town,[6][7] as well as a significant study town in the region.[8] Iisalmi traces its roots back to 1627, when the parish of Iisalmi was formed around the local church.[9] The towns old wooden church, Gustav Adolf Church, was consecrated in 1780.[10] In the 18th century, when Finland was under Swedish control, Sweden was frequently at war with Imperial Russia, and the area of Koljonvirta in Iisalmi was a battlefield on which one of the greatest Swedish victories (and the last Swedish victory on Finnish soil) occurred. However, Sweden lost its last war with Russia and had to surrender Finland to the Russian Empire in 1809.
Glossary of board games.  This glossary of board games explains commonly used terms in board games, in alphabetical order. For a list of board games, see List of board games; for terms specific to chess, see Glossary of chess; for terms specific to chess problems, see Glossary of chess problems.
Summit (disambiguation). A summit is the highest point of a mountain, hill, road, or railway. Summit may also refer to:
East Sea (Chinese literature). The East Sea (simplified Chinese: 东海; traditional Chinese: 東海; pinyin: Dōng Hǎi), one of the Four Seas, is identified as the body of water east of the mainland according to ancient Chinese geography. In Chinese literature, the Four Seas are a metaphor for the boundaries of China.[1] It contains modern day East China Sea as well as the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. In Chinese mythology, East Sea is the domain of Ao Guang, the Donghai Longwang (東海龍王), or the Dragon King of the Eastern Sea, who is responsible for controlling its storms and tides. Supposedly, the Dragon King resides in a large Dragon Palace, the Donghai Longgong (東海龍宮), located at its bottom. In the Classic of Mountains and Seas（《山海经》）, the Dragon King of the East China Sea is the god of the rain department, but it maintains a greater special freedom, and human rainfall is completed by the dragon King of other rivers, lakes and Wells, and rarely needs the East Sea Dragon King to rain himself. The power of maritime jurisdiction is owned by the dragon King, and the Heavenly Court is generally autonomous. Ruling the sea of the East China Sea, dominating rain, thunder, floods, tides, tsunamis, etc. In China, the eastern Wei is respected, and according to the Zhouyi《周易》, the East is Yang, so it is natural that the Dragon King of the East China Sea ranks first.  This article related to Chinese mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Imja Tse. Imja Tse, better known as Island Peak, is a mountain in Sagarmatha National Park in the Himalayas of eastern Nepal. The peak was named Island Peak in 1953 by members of the British Mount Everest expedition because it appears as an island in a sea of ice when viewed from Dingboche.[4] The peak was later renamed in 1983 to Imja Tse but Island Peak remains the popular choice.[5] The peak is actually an extension of the ridge coming down off the south end of Lhotse Shar. The southwest summit of Imja Tse was first climbed in 1953 as part of a training exercise by a British expedition that went on to summit Mount Everest. The team that climbed Imja Tse comprised Tenzing Norgay, Charles Evans, Alfred Gregory, Charles Wylie and seven other Sherpas. The main summit was first climbed in 1956 by Hans-Rudolf Von Gunten and two unknown Sherpas, members of a Swiss team that went on to make the second ascent of Everest and the first ascent of Lhotse.[6][7] To climb Island Peak, one has the option of starting from a base camp at 5,087 metres (16,690 ft) called Pareshaya Gyab and starting the climb between 2 and 3 A.M. Another popular option is to ascend to High Camp at around 5,600 metres (18,400 ft) to reduce the amount of effort and time needed for summit day. However, an adequate water supply and concerns about sleeping at a higher altitude may dictate starting from base camp. Base camp to high camp is basically a hike but just above high camp, some rocky steps require moderate scrambling up through a broad open gully. At the top of the gully, glacier travel begins and proceeds up a steep snow and ice slope. From here, fixed ropes may be set up by the guides for the strenuous ascent of nearly 100 metres (330 ft) to the summit ridge. The climb to the summit is somewhat difficult due to steep climbing. On top, while Mount Everest is a mere ten kilometres away to the north, the view is blocked by the massive wall of Lhotse, towering 2,300 m (7,500 ft) above the summit. A substantial crevasse along most of the headwall leading to the summit ridge has sometimes caused teams to turn back. In April 2009, the Nepal Mountaineering Association tasked the Nepal Mountaineering Instructors Association with installing stairs (ladders) at the crevasse.[8] As of the 2016 fall climbing season, a 5-metre high fixed aluminum ladder is being used to cross the crevasse.
Sea of Japan naming dispute.  A dispute exists over the international name for the body of water which is bordered by Japan, Korea (North and South) and Russia. In 1992, objections to the name Sea of Japan were first raised by North Korea and South Korea at the Sixth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names.[1] The Japanese government supports the exclusive use of the name Sea of Japan (Japanese: 日本海, Hepburn: Nihon-kai), while South Korea supports the alternative name East Sea (Korean: 동해; Hanja: 東海), and North Korea supports the name Korean East Sea (조선동해; 朝鮮東海). Currently, most international maps and documents use either the name Sea of Japan (or equivalent translation) by itself, or include both the name Sea of Japan and East Sea, often with East Sea listed in parentheses or otherwise marked as a secondary name. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) adopted the name “Japan Sea” in 1929 publication “Limits of Oceans and Seas (S-23)”, and maintained it in subsequent editions in 1939 and 1953. The primary reasons for this adoption was that Japan was an emerging global power with significant international influence, while Korea was under Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945) and Korean War (1950-1953). South Korea has challenged this since gaining independence, arguing they had no opportunity to participate in the naming process. Their diplomatic efforts have led the IHO to acknowledge the dispute. The attempt to publish a new edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas has been delayed for decades because of the inability to resolve this naming dispute. [2][3][4][5] In 2020, the IHO has moved toward a new standard (S-130), which uses numerical identifiers for sea areas instead of sea area names in S-23.[6] The involved countries (especially Japan and South Korea) have advanced a variety of arguments to support their preferred name(s). Many of the arguments revolve around determining when the name Sea of Japan became the common name. South Korea argues that historically the more common name was East Sea, Sea of Korea, or another similar variant. South Korea further argues that the name Sea of Japan did not become common until Korea was under Japanese rule, at which time it had no ability to influence international affairs. Japan argues that the name Sea of Japan has been the most common international name since at least the beginning of the 19th century, long before its annexation of Korea, and it was in use during its period of isolation when Japan had little to no contact with foreign nations.[6] Both sides have conducted studies of antiquarian maps, but the two countries have produced divergent research results. Additional arguments have been raised regarding the underlying geography of the sea as well as potential problems regarding the ambiguity of one name or the other. Both sides in the dispute have put forward a number of arguments to support their claims.
Summit (meeting). A summit meeting (or just summit) is an international meeting of heads of state or government, usually with considerable media exposure, tight security, and a prearranged agenda. Notable summit meetings include those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin during World War II. However, the term summit was not commonly used for such meetings until the Geneva Summit (1955).[1] During the Cold War, when American presidents joined with Soviet or Chinese counterparts for one-on-one meetings, the media labelled the event as a summit. The post–Cold War era has produced an increase in the number of summit events. Nowadays, international summits are the most common expression for global governance.[2] Summit diplomacy not only fosters interpersonal trust between leaders but also reinforces system trust in the state-as-person construct, which is identified as the implicit glue holding the international system together.[3]    
Katakana.  Katakana (片仮名、カタカナ; IPA: [katakaꜜna, kataꜜkana]) is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana,[2] kanji and in some cases the Latin script (known as rōmaji). The word katakana means fragmentary kana, as the katakana characters are derived from components or fragments of more complex kanji. Katakana and hiragana are both kana systems. With one or two minor exceptions, each syllable (strictly mora) in the Japanese language is represented by one character or kana in each system. Each kana represents either a vowel such as a (katakana ア); a consonant followed by a vowel such as ka (katakana カ); or n (katakana ン), a nasal sonorant which, depending on the context, sounds like English m, n or ng ([ŋ]) or like the nasal vowels of Portuguese or Galician.[3] In contrast to the hiragana syllabary, which is used for Japanese words not covered by kanji and for grammatical inflections, the katakana syllabary usage is comparable to italics in English; specifically, it is used for transcription of foreign-language words into Japanese and the writing of loan words (collectively gairaigo); for emphasis; to represent onomatopoeia; for technical and scientific terms; and for names of plants, animals, minerals and often Japanese companies. Katakana evolved from Japanese Buddhist monks transliterating Chinese texts into Japanese.[4]
Geomorphology (journal).  Geomorphology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal about geomorphology.  This article about a journal on geomorphology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. See tips for writing articles about academic journals. Further suggestions might be found on the articles talk page.
Monopoly (game).  Monopoly is a multiplayer economics-themed board game. In the game, players roll two dice (or 1 extra special red die) to move around the game board, buying and trading properties and developing them with houses and hotels. Players collect rent from their opponents and aim to drive them into bankruptcy. Money can also be gained or lost through Chance and Community Chest cards and tax squares. Players receive a salary every time they pass Go and can end up in jail, from which they cannot move until they have met one of three conditions. House rules, hundreds of different editions, many spin-offs, and related media exist. Monopoly has become a part of international popular culture, having been licensed locally in more than 113 countries and printed in more than 46 languages. As of 2015[update], it was estimated that the game had sold 275 million copies worldwide.[6] The properties on the original game board were named after locations in and around Atlantic City, New Jersey. The game is named after the economic concept of a monopoly—the domination of a market by a single entity. The game is derived from The Landlords Game, created in 1903 in the United States by Lizzie Magie, as a way to demonstrate that an economy rewarding individuals is better than one where monopolies hold all the wealth.[1][7] It also served to promote the economic theories of Henry George—in particular, his ideas about taxation.[8] The Landlords Game originally had two sets of rules, one with tax and another on which the current rules are mainly based. Parker Brothers first published Monopoly in 1935. Parker Brothers was eventually absorbed into Hasbro in 1991. The history of Monopoly can be traced back to 1903,[1][9] when American anti-monopolist Lizzie Magie created a game called The Landlords Game that she hoped would explain the single-tax theory of Henry George as laid out in his book Progress and Poverty. She devised the key features of the game. It was intended as an educational tool to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies. She took out a patent in 1904. This shows the games characteristic features of a square circuit consisting of corner squares (one the starting point) and a series of intervening spaces where players went round and round until the games goal was reached. The railway stations were hazards, demanding a $5 fine. Players received money after completing each circuit. This design was different from other board games of the time. It is possible, but not definitely known, that she was inspired by a game called Zohn Ahl, played by the Kiowa which had a similar shaped board but different rules, and was described in a book about games in 1898.[10][11] Her game was self-published beginning in 1906.[12][13]
Badlands. Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded.[1] They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density.[2] Ravines, gullies, buttes, hoodoos and other such geologic forms are common in badlands. Badlands are found on every continent except Antarctica, being most common where there are unconsolidated sediments. They are often difficult to navigate by foot, and are unsuitable for agriculture. Most are a result of natural processes, but destruction of vegetation by overgrazing or pollution can produce anthropogenic badlands. Badlands are characterized by a distinctive badlands topography.[3][4]  This is terrain in which water erosion has cut a very large number of deep drainage channels, separated by short, steep ridges (interfluves).[5] Such a drainage system is said to have a very fine drainage texture,[6] as measured by its drainage density. Drainage density is defined as the total length of drainage channels per unit area of land surface. Badlands have a very high drainage density of 48 to 464 kilometres per square kilometre (77 to 747 miles per square mile).[5] The numerous deep drainage channels and high interfluves creates a stark landscape of hills, gullies, and ravines.[3] In addition to a dense system of drainages and interfluves, badlands often contain buttes and hoodoos. These are formed by resistant beds of sandstone, which form the caprock of the buttes and hoodoos.[4] Badlands arise from a combination of an impermeable but easily eroded ground surface, sparse vegetation, and infrequent but heavy rainfall.[6] The surface bedrock is typically mudrock, sometimes with evaporites, with only occasional beds of more resistant sandstone.[5] Infrequent heavy rains lead to heavy erosional dissection. Where sudden precipitation cannot penetrate impermeable clays, it is channeled into a very dense system of streamlets that erode a dense system of ever-enlarging, coalescing gulleys and ravines. Erosion is enhanced by pelting raindrops that dislodge soft sediments. The presence of bentonite clay further increases erodibility, as can rejuvenation of the drainage system from regional uplift, as occurred at Badlands National Park.[4]
Grove Karl Gilbert.  Grove Karl Gilbert (May 6, 1843 – May 1, 1918), known by the abbreviated name G. K. Gilbert in academic literature, was an American geologist. Gilbert was born in Rochester, New York, the youngest of three kids of the painter Grove Sheldon Gilbert, and his wife, Eliza.[1] He graduated from the University of Rochester. During the American Civil War, he was twice listed for the draft, but his name was drawn neither time.[2] In 1871, he joined George M. Wheelers geographical survey as its first geologist. Gilbert joined the Powell Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region in 1874, becoming Powells primary assistant, and stayed with the survey until 1879.[3] During this time he published an important monograph, The Geology of the Henry Mountains (1877). After the U.S. Geological Survey was created in 1879, he was appointed to the position of Senior Geologist and worked for the USGS until his death (including a term as acting director). Gilbert published a study of the former ancient Lake Bonneville in 1890 (the lake existed during the Pleistocene), of which the Great Salt Lake is a remnant. He named it after the army captain Benjamin Bonneville, who had explored the region. The type of river delta that Gilbert described at this location has since become known to geomorphologists as a Gilbert delta.[4]
Shale.  Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g., kaolin, Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite.[1]  Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers (laminae) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called fissility.[1] Shale is the most common sedimentary rock.[2] The term shale is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock, rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock.[3] Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of the parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to the otherwise indistinguishable bedding planes.[4] Non-fissile rocks of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as mudstones (1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or claystones (less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are siltstones.[4][5] Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters the color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide (hematite – reds), iron hydroxide (goethite – browns and limonite – yellow), or micaceous minerals (chlorite, biotite and illite – greens).[4] The color shifts from reddish to greenish as iron in the oxidized (ferric) state is converted to iron in the reduced (ferrous) state.[6] Black shale results from the presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment.[4] Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in carbonate minerals.[7]
Fremont River. The Fremont River is a 95-mile (153 km) long river in southeastern Utah, United States that flows from the Johnson Valley Reservoir, which is located on the Wasatch Plateau near Fish Lake, southeast through Capitol Reef National Park to the Muddy Creek near Hanksville where the two rivers combine to form the Dirty Devil River, a tributary of the Colorado River.[2][3][4][5] The Johnson Valley Reservoir is fed by Sevenmile Creek (from the north) and Lake Creek (from the southwest). The Fremont River passes through Fremont, Loa, Lyman, Bicknell, Teasdale, and Torrey and provides year-round irrigation for the agricultural lands of Rabbit Valley and Caineville. Then it heads through Hanksville and afterward to its mouth. The Fremont River has a drainage area of 751 square miles (1,950 km2) fed by spring snowmelt off Thousand Lake Mountain, Boulder Mountain, and the northern Henry Mountains. The river is named after John Charles Frémont.[4] It gives its name to the Fremont culture, a Precolumbian archaeological culture. Flow (ft^3/s), by month (1977–2003), at Bicknell gauging station:[1] Media related to Fremont River (Utah) at Wikimedia Commons
Washington (state).  Washington, officially the State of Washington,[5] is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is often referred to as Washington state[a] to distinguish it from the national capital,[6] both named after George Washington (the first U.S. president). Washington borders the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon to the south, Idaho to the east, and shares an international border with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north. Olympia is the state capital, and the most populous city is Seattle. Washington is the 18th-largest state, with an area of 71,362 square miles (184,830 km2), and the 13th-most populous state, with a population of just less than 8 million.[2] The majority of Washingtons residents live in the Seattle metropolitan area, the center of transportation, business, and industry on Puget Sound,[7][8] an inlet of the Pacific Ocean consisting of numerous islands, deep fjords and bays carved out by glaciers. The remainder of the state consists of deep temperate rainforests in the west; mountain ranges in the west, center, northeast, and far southeast, and a semi-arid basin region in the east, center, and south, given over to intensive agriculture. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, after California. Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at 14,411 feet (4,392 meters), and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous U.S. Washington is a leading lumber producer, the largest producer of apples, hops, pears, blueberries, spearmint oil, and sweet cherries in the U.S., and ranks high in the production of apricots, asparagus, dry edible peas, grapes, lentils, peppermint oil, and potatoes.[9][10] Livestock, livestock products, and commercial fishing—particularly of salmon, halibut, and bottomfish—are also significant contributors to the states economy.[11] Washington ranks third in wine production. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft, missiles, shipbuilding, and other transportation equipment, food processing, metals, and metal products, chemicals, and machinery.[12] The state was formed from the western part of the Washington Territory, which was ceded by the British Empire in the Oregon Treaty of 1846. It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. One of the wealthiest and most socially liberal states in the country,[13] Washington consistently ranks among the top states for highest life expectancy and employment rates.[14] It was one of the first states (alongside Colorado) to legalize medicinal and recreational cannabis,[15] was among the first states to introduce same-sex marriage,[16] and permitted legal abortions on request before Roe v. Wade in 1973.[17]
Geography (disambiguation). Geography is the study of Earth and its features, inhabitants, and phenomena. Geography may also refer to: 
List of seas on Earth.  This is a list of seas of the World Ocean, including marginal seas, areas of water, various gulfs, bights, bays, and straits.[2] In many cases it is a matter of tradition for a body of water to be named a sea or a bay, etc., therefore all these types are listed here.  Entities called seas which are not divisions of the World Ocean are not included in this list, nor are ocean gyres. There are several terms used for bulges of ocean that result from indentations of land, which overlap in definition, and which are not consistently differentiated:[12] Many features could be considered to be more than one of these, and all of these terms are used in place names inconsistently; especially bays, gulfs, and bights, which can be very large or very small. This list includes large areas of water no matter the term used in the name. The largest terrestrial seas, in decreasing order of area, are:
Finland.  – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend] Finland,[a] officially the Republic of Finland,[b][c] is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, opposite Estonia. Finland has a population of 5.6 million,[13] the majority being ethnic Finns. Its capital and largest city is Helsinki. The official languages are Finnish and Swedish, the mother tongues of 84.1 percent and 5.1 percent of the population, respectively.[1][14] Finlands climate varies from humid continental in the south to boreal in the north. Its land is predominantly covered by boreal forest, with over 180,000 recorded lakes.[15][16] Finland was first settled around 9000 BC after the last Ice Age.[17] During the Stone Age, various cultures emerged, distinguished by different styles of ceramics. The Bronze Age and Iron Ages were marked by contacts with other cultures in Fennoscandia and the Baltic region.[18] From the late 13th century, Finland became part of Sweden following the Northern Crusades. In 1809, as a result of the Finnish War, Finland was captured from Sweden and became an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. During this period, Finnish art flourished and an independence movement gradually developed. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Finland declared its independence. A civil war ensued the following year, with the anticommunist Whites emerging victorious. Finlands status as a republic was confirmed in 1919. During World War II, Finland fought against the Soviet Union in the Winter War and the Continuation War, and later against Nazi Germany in the Lapland War. As a result, it lost parts of its territory to the Soviet Union but retained its independence and democracy. During the Cold War, Finland embraced an official policy of neutrality. After the Cold War, Finland became a member of the European Union in 1995 and the Eurozone in 1999. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Finland joined NATO in 2023.
Batuan, Bohol. Batuan, officially the Municipality of Batuan (Cebuano: Lungsod sa Batuan; Tagalog: Bayan ng Batuan),  is a  municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 13,845 people.[5] Batuan covers a total area of 7,908 hectares (19,540 acres) comprising fifteen barangays as per the Municipal Comprehensive Development Plan for 1983–1992. However, a certification of the land area of Batuan, issued by ARED for operations, DENR Regional Office Region No. 7 Cebu City on 26 November 2001 at the instance of the LGU in connection with its Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) preparation work, showed a land area of only 4,878 hectares (12,050 acres), but that included only eleven barangays and excluded four—Quirino, Aloja, Behind the Clouds and Garcia. Located within the provinces tourist area, Batuan is the gateway to the Chocolate Hills, being only about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the Chocolate Hills complex in Carmen. Batuan celebrates its fiesta on July 25, to honor the town patron Saint James.[6] This interior town used to be a barrio of Bilar during the Spanish regime and was called Lindugon. During the early years of the American regime, this barrio was made into a municipality by Act No. 968 dated Oct 31, 1903 that provided the following: “The Municipality of Batuan shall consist of the territory of the barrio of Batuan in the present Municipality of Bilar, with the seat of the municipal government at the present barrio of Batuan.” (Acts of the Philippine Commission, Vol. XIV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904).
Bilar, Bohol. Bilar, officially the Municipality of Bilar (Cebuano: Munisipalidad sa Bilar; Tagalog: Bayan ng Bilar), is a  municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 18,512 people.[5] Bilar is 42 kilometres (26 mi) from Tagbilaran. Bilar celebrates its fiesta on May 15, to honor the town patron Saint Isidore the Farmer.[6] Bilar is politically subdivided into 19 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios. 
Geo. Geo- is a prefix derived from the Greek word γη or γαια, meaning earth, usually in the sense of  ground or land”. GEO or Geo may also refer to:
Sagbayan. Sagbayan, officially the Municipality of Sagbayan (Cebuano: Munisipyo sa Sagbayan; Tagalog: Bayan ng Sagbayan),  is a  municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 24,335 people.[6] Its main attraction is Sagbayan Peak, a tourism site overlooking a scenic valley with an observation platform and childrens playground.[7] While some similar hill formations are visible, it is not within the main Chocolate Hills area. Sagbayan is 74 kilometres (46 mi) from Tagbilaran. Sagbayan celebrates its feast on May 4/August 28, to honor the town patron San Agustin.[8] The name Sagbayan came from the combination of the local words Sag which means nest, and Bay (short of Balay) which means house. Therefore, Sagbayan means a place for making tree-houses.
North Asia. North Asia or Northern Asia (Russian: Северная Азия) is the northern region of Asia, which is defined in geographical terms and consists of three federal districts of Russia: Ural, Siberian, and the Far Eastern. North Asia is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to its north; by Eastern Europe to its west; by Central Asia and East Asia to its south; and by the Pacific Ocean and Northern America to its east. It covers an area of 13,100,000 square kilometres (5,100,000 sq mi), or 8.8% of Earths total land area; and is the largest subregion of Asia by area, occupying approx. 29.4% of Asias land area, but is also the least populated, with a population of around 37 million, accounting for merely 0.74% of Asias population. Topographically, the region is dominated by the Eurasian Plate, except for its eastern part, which lies on the North American, Amurian, and Okhotsk Plates. It is divided by three major plains: the West Siberian Plain, Central Siberian Plateau, and Verhoyansk-Chukotka collision zone. The Uralian orogeny in the west raised Ural Mountains, the informal boundary between Asia and Europe. Tectonic and volcanic activities are frequently occurred in the eastern part of the region as part of the Ring of Fire, evidenced by the formation of island arcs such as the Kuril Islands and ultra-prominent peaks such as Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Kronotsky, and Koryaksky. The central part of North Asia is a large igneous province called the Siberian Traps, formed by a massive eruption which occurred 250 million years ago. The formation of the traps coincided with the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Geographically, North Asia is a subregion of Asia. Historically, it has been home to various East Asian-related ethnic groups from a diverse range of language families, including the Ainu, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Mongolic, Nivkh, Tungusic, Turkic, Uralic, Yeniseian, Yukaghir, and Eskaleut peoples. However, due to the Russian conquest of Siberia, the entirety of North Asia was colonised and incorporated into Russia. Consequently, some international organisations classify North Asia as part of Eastern Europe along with European Russia, rather than as a part of Asia. European cultural influences, specifically Russian, are predominant in the entire region, due to it experiencing Russian emigration from Europe starting from the 16th century.[2] Slavs and other Indo-Europeans make up the vast majority of North Asias population, and over 85% of the regions population is of European descent,[3][4] whereas the indigenous peoples comprise only about 5% of the North Asian population.[5] The region was first populated by hominins in the Late Pleistocene, approximately 100,000 years ago,[6] and modern humans are confirmed to arrived in the region by 45,000 years ago[7][8] with the first humans in the region having West Eurasian origins.[9] Its Neolithic culture is characterized by characteristic stone production techniques and the presence of pottery of eastern origin.[9] The Bronze Age began during the 3rd millennium BCE,[10] with influences of Indo-Iranian cultures as evidenced by the Andronovo culture. During the 1st millennium BCE, polities such as the Scythians and Xiongnus emerged in the region, who often clashed with its Persian and Chinese neighbors in the south.
East Asia. East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia,  North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan,[2][3] plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are among the worlds largest and most prosperous. East Asia borders North Asia to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To its east is the Pacific Ocean. East Asia, especially Chinese civilization, is regarded as one of the earliest cradles of civilization. Other ancient civilizations in East Asia that still exist as independent countries in the present day include the Japanese, Korean, and Mongolian civilizations. Various other civilizations existed as independent polities in East Asia in the past but have since been absorbed into neighbouring civilizations in the present day, such as Tibet, Manchuria, and Ryukyu (Okinawa), among many others. Taiwan has a relatively young history in the region after the prehistoric era; originally, it was a major site of Austronesian civilisation prior to colonisation by European colonial powers and China from the 17th century onward. For thousands of years, China was the leading civilization in the region, exerting influence on its neighbours.[5][6][7] Historically, societies in East Asia have fallen within the Chinese sphere of influence, and East Asian vocabularies and scripts are often derived from Classical Chinese and Chinese script. The Chinese calendar serves as the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived. Major religions in East Asia include Buddhism (mostly Mahayana),[8] Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Taoism,[9] ancestral worship, and Chinese folk religion in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, and Christianity and Musok in Korea.[10][11][12] Tengerism and Tibetan Buddhism are prevalent among Mongols and Tibetans while other religions such as Shamanism are widespread among the indigenous populations of northeastern China such as the Manchus.[13] The major languages in East Asia include Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. The major ethnic groups of East Asia include the Han in China and Taiwan, Yamato in Japan, Koreans in North and South Korea, and Mongols in Mongolia. There are 76 officially-recognized minority or indigenous ethnic groups in East Asia; 55 native to mainland China (including Hui, Manchus, Chinese Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Zhuang in the frontier regions), 16 native to the island of Taiwan (collectively known as Taiwanese indigenous peoples), one native to the major Japanese island of Hokkaido (the Ainu) and four native to Mongolia (Turkic peoples). The Ryukyuan people are an unrecognized ethnic group indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, which stretch from Kyushu to Taiwan. There are also several unrecognized indigenous ethnic groups in mainland China and Taiwan. East Asians comprise around 1.7 billion people, making up about 33% of the population in continental Asia and 20% of the global population.[14][needs update] The region is home to major world metropolises such as Beijing–Tianjin, Busan–Daegu–Ulsan–Changwon, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Osaka–Kyoto–Kobe, Seoul, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Taipei, and Tokyo. Although the coastal and riparian areas of the region form one of the worlds most populated places, the population in Mongolia and Western China, both landlocked areas, is very sparsely distributed, with Mongolia having the lowest population density of a sovereign state. The overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre (340/sq mi), about three times the world average of 45/km2 (120/sq mi).[when?][citation needed] China was the first region settled in East Asia and was undoubtedly the core of East Asian civilization from where other parts of East Asia were formed. The various other regions in East Asia were selective in the Chinese influences they adopted into their local customs. Historian Ping-ti Ho referred to China as the cradle of Eastern civilization, in parallel with the cradle of Middle Eastern civilization along the Fertile Crescent encompassing Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt[15] as well as the cradle of Western civilization encompassing Ancient Greece.
Carmen, Bohol. Carmen, officially the Municipality of Carmen (Cebuano: Munisipalidad sa Carmen; Tagalog: Bayan ng Carmen),  is a  municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 49,191 people.[5] Carmen celebrates its fiesta on January 17, to honor the town patron Saint Anthony de Abbot.[6] Carmen was originally part of the municipality of Bilar and called Imbaya, after the name of a stream in the settlement.[7] During the Spanish time, it was inhabited by not more than fifty families. In 1868, the people of Carmen petitioned for its independence since its population grew to an unprecedented number. The town of Carmen was founded on 1 March 1869 by final order of Governor General Jose de la Gandara and renamed at the same time in honor of the Lady of Carmel of Spain. In 1874, Carmen had its separate parish with Father Pedro Nolasco San Juan as the first parish priest. Due to the influence of Spanish culture and tradition, all barangays of Carmen have a patron saint as well as a Spanish name, who are celebrated in an annual barangay fiesta. In World War II, Carmen served as the stronghold of the guerrilla resistance movement and the local civil government because of its strategic location.
Hirohito Ōta. Hirohito Ōta (太田宏人, ōta hirohito; April 1, 1970 – 2018) was a Japanese freelance writer and Zen monk. Hirohito was a researcher of Japanese graves and missionary history in South America with a focus on Peru. He was the Japanese editor for the Japanese-language Peru newspaper Peru Shinpō. He graduated from Kokugakuin University with a degree in Shintō studies. He was devoted to the study of Suika Shintō, a branch of Shintō developed by Yamazaki Ansai, religious sociality, and the religious activities of Lafcadio Hearn. Many of his articles dealt with Japanese Peruvians, Japanese Buddhism, and Peruvians in Japan.  This article about a Japanese writer, poet, or screenwriter is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Cebuano language.  Cebuano (/sɛˈbwɑːnoʊ/ se-BWAH-noh)[2][3][4] is an Austronesian language spoken in the southern Philippines by Cebuano people and other ethnic groups as a secondary language. It is natively, though informally, called by the generic name Bisayâ (Cebuano pronunciation: [bisəˈjaʔ] ⓘ), or Binisayâ ([bɪniːsəˈjaʔ]) (both terms are translated into English as Visayan, though this should not be confused with other Bisayan languages)[a] and sometimes referred to in English sources as Cebuan (/sɛˈbuːən/ seb-OO-ən). It is spoken by the Visayan ethnolinguistic groups native to the islands of Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, the eastern half of Negros, the western half of Leyte, the northern coastal areas of Northern Mindanao and the eastern part of Zamboanga del Norte due to Spanish settlements during the 18th century. In modern times, it has also spread to the Davao Region, Cotabato, Camiguin, parts of the Dinagat Islands, and the lowland regions of Caraga, often displacing native languages in those areas (most of which are closely related to it).[5][6] While Tagalog has the largest number of native speakers among the languages of the Philippines today, Cebuano had the largest native-language-speaking population from the 1950s until about the 1980s.[7][failed verification] It is by far the most widely spoken of the Bisayan languages.[8] Cebuano is the lingua franca of Central Visayas, the western parts of Eastern Visayas, some western parts of Palawan, and most parts of Mindanao. The name Cebuano is derived from the island of Cebu, which is the source of Standard Cebuano.[5] Cebuano is also the primary language in Western Leyte—noticeably in Ormoc. Cebuano is assigned the ISO 639-2 three-letter code ceb but not an ISO 639-1 two-letter code. The Commission on the Filipino Language, the Philippine government body charged with developing and promoting the national and regional languages of the country, spells the name of the language in Filipino as Sebwano.
Nepal.  Nepal,[a] officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal,[b] is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north, and India to the south, east, and west, while it is narrowly separated from Bangladesh by the Siliguri Corridor, and from Bhutan by the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten highest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point above mean sea level on Earth.[16] Kathmandu is the nations capital and its largest city. Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, and multi-cultural state, with Nepali as the official language. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic period of the Indian subcontinent, the era in ancient Nepal when Hinduism was founded, the predominant religion of the country. In the middle of the first millennium BC, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in Lumbini in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet. The centrally located Kathmandu Valley is intertwined with the culture of Indo-Aryans, and was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala. The Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture. By the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, under its Rana dynasty of premiers. The country was never colonised but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and British India. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951 but was twice suspended by Nepalese monarchs, in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War in the 1990s and early 2000s resulted in the establishment of a secular republic in 2008, ending the worlds last Hindu monarchy. The Constitution of Nepal, adopted in 2015, affirms the country as a federal parliamentary republic divided into seven provinces. In September 2025, protests against a social media ban and economic inequality caused riots, resulting in casualties and resignation of the prime minister. Nepals foreign policy focuses on neutrality, sovereignty, and multilateral cooperation. Nepal was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and friendship treaties were signed with India in 1950 and China in 1960. Nepal hosts the permanent secretariat of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), of which it is a founding member. Nepal is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the Bay of Bengal Initiative. Nepals foreign relations also emphasize development assistance, trade partnerships, and promoting peace and stability in South Asia. Before the unification of Nepal, the Kathmandu Valley was known as Nepal.[c] The precise origin of the term Nepāl is uncertain. Nepal appears in ancient Indian literary texts dated as far back as the fourth century AD.[18] An absolute chronology can not be established, as even the oldest texts may contain anonymous contributions dating as late as the early modern period. Academic attempts to provide a plausible theory are hindered by the lack of a complete picture of history and insufficient understanding of linguistics or relevant Indo-European and Tibeto-Burman languages.[19]
Hirohito Gotō. Hirohito Gotō (後藤 ひろひと, Gotō Hirohito; born February 23, 1969) is a Japanese director, playwright, and actor. Born in Yamagata prefecture, he graduated from Yamagata Prefectural Yamagata East High School and dropped out of Hindi studies from Osaka University of Foreign Studies. In 1987 he joined the theater group Yūkisha. By 1989 he served as the second head of the group and handled nearly all productions. After retiring from Yūkisha in 1996, he worked as a free playwright, and in 1998 created Piper with Kawashita Taiyō of former Gekidan Sotoba Komachi fame. In 2001 he began the Royal Theater. His plays have a reputation for having a unique view of the world as well as for stories of a massive scale. Primary works include Ningen Fūsha (人間風車), Moldman the Bellringer in Dublin (ダブリンの鐘つきカビ人間), and the Big / Bigger / Biggest Biz trilogy.  This article about a dramatist or playwright is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hirohito Furui. Hirohito Furui (古井 弘人, Furui Hirohito) is a Japanese musical arranger and keyboardist in distributors Being Inc., mainly in their label Giza Studio. In years 1999-2013 he was part of Japanese band Garnet Crow as arranger.[1][2][3] In March 2018, he launched his own band project Again, however in June 2019 changed into Alpha under independent label Freestyle.[4] ★ album ☆ single/coupling (along with Makoto Miyoshi)
Cartography of China.  Chinese cartography began in the 5th century BC during the Warring States period when cartographers started to make maps of the Earths surface. Its scope extended beyond Chinas borders with the expansion of the Chinese Empire under the Han dynasty. By the 11th century during the Song dynasty highly-accurate maps drawn on grids were produced. During the 15th century, the Ming dynasty admiral Zheng He went on a series of voyages to the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, and beyond and maps for areas outside of China were produced, although world maps covering territories known to the Chinese outside of China existed as early as the Tang dynasty. The study of geography in China begins in the Warring States period (5th century BC). It expands its scope beyond the Chinese homeland with the growth of the Chinese Empire under the Han dynasty and enters a golden age with the Han dynasty invention of the compass as one of the Four Great Inventions. The compass was then used from the 11th century during the Song dynasty, Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty in the study of geography. One of the most famous explorers in Chinese history was the 15th century admiral Zheng He, known for the Chinese exploration of the Pacific and his treasure voyages. There is an ancient Chinese legend called He Bo Xian Tu (河伯獻圖), which roughly means the River Deity presenting a map. During the mythical Xia dynasty, a river deity gave Yu the Great a stone with a flood map etched on its surface. Yu the Great used the map to help him in taming the flood that threatened to destroy rural agriculture. In general, the development of early Chinese cartography experienced three phrases: primitive map, classical map, and survey map. The primitive maps were simple maps, still steeped in myth and legend. It was not until the Han dynasty that classical maps began to emerge.
Geology. Geology is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical bodies, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time.[1] The name comes from Ancient Greek  γῆ (gê) earth and  λoγία (-logía) study of, discourse.[2][3] Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology. It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science. Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface and the processes that have shaped that structure. Geologists study the mineralogical composition of rocks in order to get insight into their history of formation. Geology determines the relative ages of rocks found at a given location; geochemistry (a branch of geology) determines their absolute ages.[4] By combining various petrological, crystallographic, and paleontological tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole. One aspect is to demonstrate the age of the Earth. Geology provides evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the Earths past climates. Geologists broadly study the properties and processes of Earth and other terrestrial planets. Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earths structure and evolution, including fieldwork, rock description, geophysical techniques, chemical analysis, physical experiments, and numerical modelling. In practical terms, geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, evaluating water resources, understanding natural hazards, remediating environmental problems, and providing insights into past climate change. Geology is a major academic discipline, and it is central to geological engineering and plays an important role in geotechnical engineering. The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials. Meteorites and other extraterrestrial natural materials are also studied by geological methods. Minerals are naturally occurring elements and compounds with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement.
History of geography.  The History of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. Geography derives from the Greek γεωγραφία – geographia,[1] literally Earth-writing, that is, description or writing about the Earth. The first person to use the word geography was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). However, there is evidence for recognizable practices of geography, such as cartography, prior to the use of the term. The known world of Ancient Egypt saw the Nile as the center, and the world as based upon the river.  Various oasis were known to the east and west, and were considered locations of various gods (e.g. Siwa, for Amon).  To the South lay the Kushitic region, known as far as the 4th cataract.  Punt was a region south along the shores of the Red Sea.  Various Asiatic peoples were known as Retenu, Kanaan, Que, Harranu, or Khatti (Hittites).  At various times especially in the Late Bronze Age Egyptians had diplomatic and trade relationships with Babylonia and Elam.  The Mediterranean was called the Great Green and was believed to be part of a world encircling ocean.  Europe was unknown although may have become part of the Egyptian world view in Phoenician times.  To the west of Asia lay the realms of Keftiu, possibly Crete, and Mycenae (thought to be part of a chain of islands, that joined Cyprus, Crete, Sicily and later perhaps Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics to Africa).[2] The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[3] The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[4] The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu[5] and several cities, in turn surrounded by a bitter river (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.[6] In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.[3]
Emperor Fushimi. Emperor Fushimi (伏見天皇, Fushimi-tennō; 10 May 1265 – 8 October 1317) was the 92nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  His reign spanned the years from 1287 through 1298.[1] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Hirohito-shinnō (熈仁親王).[2] Although the Roman-alphabet spelling of the name of this 13th-century emperor is the same as the personal name of the 20th century Emperor Shōwa, the kanji are different: He was the second son of Emperor Go-Fukakusa. They were from the Jimyōin-tō line. His name comes from the palace of the Jimyōin-tō.
Terrain (disambiguation). Terrain is the vertical and horizontal dimension of land surface. Terrain may also refer to:
Outline (list). An outline, also called a hierarchical outline, is a list arranged to show hierarchical relationships and is a type of tree structure. An outline is used[1] to present the main points (in sentences) or topics (terms) of a given subject.  Each item in an outline may be divided into additional sub-items. If an organizational level in an outline is to be sub-divided, it shall have at least two subcategories, although one subcategory is acceptable on the third and fourth levels,  as advised by major style manuals in current use.[2][3][4][5][6] An outline may be used as a drafting tool of a document, or as a summary of the content of a document or of the knowledge in an entire field. It is not to be confused with the general context of the term outline, which is a summary or overview of a subject presented verbally or written in prose[7] (for example, The Outline of History is not an outline of the type presented below). The outlines described in this article are lists, and come in several varieties. A sentence outline is a tool for composing a document, such as an essay, a paper, a book, or even an encyclopedia. It is a list used to organize the facts or points to be covered, and their order of presentation, by section. Topic outlines list the subtopics of a subject, arranged in levels, and while they can be used to plan a composition, they are most often used as a summary, such as in the form of a table of contents or the topic list in a college courses syllabus. Outlines are further differentiated by the index prefixing used, or lack thereof.  Many outlines include a numerical or alphanumerical prefix preceding each entry in the outline, to provide a specific path for each item, to aid in referring to and discussing the entries listed. An alphanumerical outline uses alternating letters and numbers to identify entries. A decimal outline uses only numbers as prefixes. An outline without prefixes is called a bare outline. Specialized applications of outlines also exist. A reverse outline is a list of sentences or topics that is created from an existing work, as a revision tool; it may show the gaps in the documents coverage so that they may be filled, and may help in rearranging sentences or topics to improve the structure and flow of the work. An integrated outline is a composition tool for writing scholastic works, in which the sources, and the writers notes from the sources, are integrated into the outline for ease of reference during the writing process. A software program designed for processing outlines is called an outliner.
National Geophysical Data Center. The United States National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) provided scientific stewardship, products and services for geophysical data describing the solid earth, marine, and solar-terrestrial environment, as well as earth observations from space. It was established in 1965 as part of the new Environmental Science Services Administration until that organization became the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 1970. In 2015, NGDC was merged with the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) and the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) into the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI).[1] Since 1972 the NGDC was located in Boulder, Colorado as a part of the US Department of Commerce (USDOC), National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS).[2] NGDCs data holdings contained more than 300 digital and analog databases, with over 37 terabytes of unique digital records plus paper, film, slides and microfilm in 2003.[3] As technology advanced, so did the search for more efficient ways of preserving these data. This data is now maintained by the NCEI. NGDC worked closely with contributors of scientific data to prepare documented, reliable data sets. They welcomed cooperative projects with other government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and universities, and encourage data exchange. NGDCs data users included:
Academic discipline. An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, language, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science.[citation needed] The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category.[citation needed] It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge.[citation needed] The different terms are used in different countries and fields. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists.[citation needed] While each academic discipline is a more or less focused practice, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity/interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and cross-disciplinarity integrate aspects from multiple disciplines, thereby addressing any problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized fields of study.[citation needed]  For example, professionals may encounter trouble communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in jargon, specified concepts, or methodology.[citation needed] Some researchers believe that academic disciplines may, in the future, be replaced by what is known as Mode 2[1] or post-academic science,[2] which involves the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through the collaboration of specialists from various academic disciplines.[citation needed] The University of Paris in 1231 consisted of four faculties: Theology, Medicine, Canon Law and Arts.[3] Educational institutions originally used the term discipline to catalog and archive the new and expanding body of information produced by the scholarly community. Disciplinary designations originated in German universities during the beginning of the nineteenth century.[citation needed]
Bathymetry. Bathymetry[1][2] is the study of underwater depth of ocean floors (seabed topography), river floors, or lake floors. In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography. The first recorded evidence of water depth measurements are from Ancient Egypt over 3000 years ago.[3] Bathymetry has various uses including the production of bathymetric charts to guide vessels and identify underwater hazards, the study of marine life near the floor of water bodies, coastline analysis and ocean dynamics, including predicting currents and tides.[4] Bathymetric charts (not to be confused with hydrographic charts), are typically produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigation, and usually show seafloor relief or terrain as contour lines (called depth contours or isobaths) and selected depths (soundings), and typically also provide surface navigational information.  Bathymetric maps (a more general term where navigational safety is not a concern) may also use a digital terrain model and artificial illumination techniques to illustrate the depths being portrayed. The global bathymetry is sometimes combined with topography data to yield a global relief model. Paleobathymetry is the study of past underwater depths. Synonyms include seafloor mapping, seabed mapping, seafloor imaging and seabed imaging. Bathymetric measurements are conducted with various methods, from depth sounding, sonar and lidar techniques, to buoys and satellite altimetry. Various methods have advantages and disadvantages and the specific method used depends upon the scale of the area under study, financial means, desired measurement accuracy, and additional variables. Despite modern computer-based research, the ocean seabed in many locations is less measured than the topography of Mars.[5] Seabed topography (ocean topography or marine topography) refers to the shape of the land (topography) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape ocean currents, and the way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver.[6] Marine topographies include coastal and oceanic landforms ranging from coastal estuaries and shorelines to continental shelves and coral reefs. Further out in the open ocean, they include underwater and deep sea features such as ocean rises and seamounts. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes,[7] oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains.
Terrane. In geology, a terrane (/təˈreɪn, ˈtɛreɪn/;[1][2] in full, a tectonostratigraphic terrane) is a crust fragment formed on a tectonic plate (or broken off from it) and accreted or sutured to crust lying on another plate. The crustal block or fragment preserves its distinctive geologic history, which is different from the surrounding areas—hence the term exotic terrane. The suture zone between a terrane and the crust it attaches to is usually identifiable as a fault. A sedimentary deposit that buries the contact of the terrane with adjacent rock is called an overlap formation. An igneous intrusion that has intruded and obscured the contact of a terrane with adjacent rock is called a stitching pluton. There is also an older usage of the term terrane, which described a series of related rock formations or an area with a preponderance of a particular rock or rock group. A tectonostratigraphic terrane did not necessarily originate as an independent microplate, since it may not contain the full thickness of the lithosphere. It is a piece of crust that has been transported laterally, usually as part of a larger plate, and is relatively buoyant due to thickness or low density. When the plate of which it was a part subducted under another plate, the terrane failed to subduct, detached from its transporting plate, and accreted onto the overriding plate. Therefore, the terrane transferred from one plate to the other. Typically, accreting terranes are portions of continental crust which have rifted off another continental mass and been transported surrounded by oceanic crust, or they are old island arcs formed at some distant subduction zones. A tectonostratigraphic terrane is a fault-bounded package of rocks of at least regional extent characterized by a geologic history that differs from that of neighboring terranes. The essential characteristic of these terranes is that the present spatial relations are incompatible with the inferred geologic histories. Where terranes that lie next to each other possess strata of the same age, they are considered separate terranes only if it can be demonstrated that the geologic evolutions are different and incompatible. There must be an absence of intermediate lithofacies that could link the strata. The concept of tectonostratigraphic terrane  developed from studies in the 1970s of the complicated Pacific Cordilleran orogenic margin of North America, a complex and diverse geological potpourri that was difficult to explain until the new science of plate tectonics illuminated the ability of crustal fragments to drift thousands of miles from their origin and attach themselves, crumpled, to an exotic shore. Such terranes were dubbed accreted terranes by geologists. Geologist J. N. Carney writes:
Natural science.  Natural science or empirical science is a branch of science concerned with the description, understanding, and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.[1] Mechanisms such as peer review and reproducibility of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology. Physical science is subdivided into physics, astronomy, Earth science, and chemistry. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches, also known as fields. As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements that can be explained as clear statements of the laws of nature.[2] Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy. Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton debated the benefits of a more mathematical as against a more experimental method in investigating nature. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.[3] Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.[4] Today, natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.[5] Philosophers of science have suggested several criteria, including Karl Poppers controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones.[6][7] Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and reproducibility of findings, are amongst the most respected criteria in todays global scientific community.[8][9]
Nereid (moon). Nereid, or Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune. It has the most eccentric orbit of all known moons in the Solar System.[4] It was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered, by Gerard Kuiper in 1949. Nereid was discovered on 1 May 1949 by Gerard P. Kuiper using photographic plates taken with the 82-inch telescope at the McDonald Observatory. He proposed the name in the report of his discovery. It is named after the Nereids, sea-nymphs of Greek mythology and attendants of the god Neptune.[1] It was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered, and the last before the arrival of Voyager 2 (not counting a single observation of an occultation by Larissa in 1981).[8] Nereid is third-largest of Neptunes satellites, and has a mean radius of about 180 kilometres (110 mi), similar to Saturns moon Mimas.[5] It is by far the largest normal irregular satellite known,[9] having about two-thirds the mass of all irregular moons combined.[10] (Triton is much larger, but is very unusual for an irregular satellite.) Nereid also accounts for about 98% of the mass of Neptunes entire irregular satellite system altogether (excluding Triton), which is similar to the situation of Phoebe at Saturn (the second-largest normal irregular moon in the Solar System).[10] The shape of Nereid is unknown.[11]  Since 1987 some photometric observations of Nereid have detected large (by ~1 magnitude) variations of its brightness, which can happen over years and months, but sometimes even over a few days. They persist even after a correction for distance and phase effects. On the other hand, not all astronomers who have observed Nereid have noticed such variations. This means that they may be quite chaotic. To date, there is no credible explanation of the variations, but if they exist, they are likely related to the rotation of Nereid. Nereids rotation could be either in the state of forced precession or even chaotic rotation (like Hyperion) due to its highly elliptical orbit. In 2016, extended observations with the Kepler space telescope showed only low-amplitude variations (0.033 magnitudes). Thermal modeling based on infrared observations from the Spitzer and Herschel space telescopes suggests that Nereid is only moderately elongated with a maximum aspect ratio of 1.3:1, which disfavors forced precession of the rotation.[5] The thermal model also indicates that the surface roughness of Nereid is very high, likely similar to the Saturnian moon Hyperion.[5]
Landscape (disambiguation). Landscape refers to the visible features of an area of land (usually rural), or a pictorial representation of an area of countryside. Landscape may also refer to:
Index of geography articles.  This page is a list of geography topics. Geography is the study of the world and of the distribution of life on the earth, including human life and the effects of human activity. Geography research addresses both the questions of where, as well as why, geographical phenomena occur. Geography is a diverse field that seeks to understand the world and all of its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they came to be, and how they have changed since then. 
Altimeter. An altimeter or an altitude meter is an instrument used to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level.[1] The measurement of altitude is called altimetry, which is related to the term bathymetry, the measurement of depth under water. In 1931, the US Army Air corps and General Electric together tested a sonic altimeter for aircraft, which was considered more reliable and accurate than one that relied on air pressure when heavy fog or rain was present. The new altimeter used a series of high-pitched sounds like those made by a bat to measure the distance from the aircraft to the surface, which on return to the aircraft was converted to feet shown on a gauge inside the aircraft cockpit.[2] A radar altimeter measures altitude more directly, using the time taken for a radio signal to reflect from the surface back to the aircraft. Alternatively, Frequency Modulated Continuous-wave radar can be used. The greater the frequency shift the further the distance travelled. This method can achieve much better accuracy than the pulsed radar for the same outlay and radar altimeters that use frequency modulation are industry standard. The radar altimeter is used to measure height above ground level during landing in commercial and military aircraft. Radar altimeters are also a component of terrain avoidance warning systems, warning the pilot if the aircraft is flying too low, or if there is rising terrain ahead. Radar altimeter technology is also used in terrain-following radar allowing combat aircraft to fly at very low height above the terrain. After extensive research and experimentation, it has been shown that phase radio-altimeters are most suitable for ground effect vehicles, as compared to laser, isotropic or ultrasonic altimeters.[3] Lidar technology is used to help navigate the helicopter Ingenuity on its record-setting flights over the terrain of Mars by means of a downward-facing Lidar altimeter.[4]
Islets of Ksamil. The Islets of Ksamil (Albanian: Ishujt e Ksamilit or Ishujt e Tetranisit), consist of four rocky islets located in the direct proximity to the Ionian Sea in Southern Albania. The village of Ksamil, after whom the islets are named, is located to the east of the islets. Furthermore, the islands are situated within the boundaries of the Butrint National Park.[2] The islets lie to the extreme south of the Albanian Riviera along the Ionian Sea. They are remote and can only be accessed by boat. The combined areas of the four islands is only 8.9 hectares (22.0 acres).[3] The two outer islands are connected by a narrow strip of sand. In terms of geology, the islands have been shaped into its current form over the Jurassic period, with its disjunction of the mainland due to the water activity.[1] The islets fall phytogeographically within the Illyrian deciduous forests terrestrial ecoregion of the Palearctic Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The vegetation of the islands includes many communities of a Mediterranean type, while the most important habitats include the Mediolitoral and Infralitoral zone.[1] The seagrasses along the coast are dominated by posidonia oceanica, halophila stipulacea and cymodocea nodosa.[1] Posidonia oceanica is mostly abundant in the shallow waters and can extend more down to more than 30 metres in the depth. The forested land area is mostly covered by species such as holly oak, common alder, elm, bay laurel and myrtle.[4] The marine waters are rich in cetacean diversities including such as short-beaked common dolphin and common bottlenose dolphin.[1]
Geophysical definition of planet. The International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) is the internationally recognized body charged with fostering agreement on nomenclature and classification across geoscientific disciplines. However, they have yet to create a formal definition of the term planet.[1] As a result, there are various geophysical definitions in use among professional geophysicists, planetary scientists, and other professionals in the geosciences. Many professionals opt to use one of several of these geophysical definitions instead of the definition voted on by the International Astronomical Union, the dominant organization for setting planetary nomenclature.[2] Some geoscientists adhere to the formal definition of a planet that was proposed by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in August 2006.[3] According to IAU definition of planet, a planet is an astronomical object orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, and has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.[4] Another widely accepted geophysical definition of a planet includes that which was put forth by planetary scientists Alan Stern and Harold Levison in 2002. The pair proposed the following rules to determine whether an object in space satisfies the definition for a planetary body.[5] A planetary body is defined as any body in space that satisfies the following testable upper and lower bound criteria on its mass: If isolated from external perturbations (e.g., dynamical and thermal), the body must: They explain their reasoning by noting that this definition delineates the evolutionary stages and primary features of planets more clearly. Specifically, they claim that the hallmark of planethood is, the collective behavior of the bodys mass to overpower mechanical strength and flow into an equilibrium ellipsoid whose shape is dominated by its own gravity and that the definition allows for an early period during which gravity may not yet have fully manifested itself to be the dominant force.
Lëkurësi Castle. Lëkurësi Castle (Albanian: Kalaja e Lëkurësit) is a ruined castle near Sarandë, southern Albania. The castle is on a strategic hill point overlooking the town of Sarandë, southeast of the town centre. From here one can control the whole town as well as the islands of Ksamil.[1] The Lëkurësi castle is located around 1 km southeast of Saranda. It is almost square in shape, and has two round towers at opposite corners, where its loopholes are also found. The best preserved parts of the castle are its southern and eastern sides. The castle offers control over Saranda, Butrint and the Straits of Corfu.[2] Lëkurësi Castle was built in 1537 by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. It was built in order to defend against the Venetians. It held a garrison of 220 soldiers as well. The region traditionally belonged to the southern part of the region of Himara. At the end of the 18th century, the castle was attacked by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and the surrounding habitation raided.[3][4][5] On the western slope of the hill there was a village named Lëkurës until the 19th century. It seems that it had a larger population than Saranda.[2] 39°51′57″N 20°01′32″E / 39.8659°N 20.02567°E / 39.8659; 20.02567
Prairie. Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Temperate grassland regions include the Pampas of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, and the steppe of Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan. Lands typically referred to as prairie (a French loan word) tend to be in North America. The term encompasses the lower and mid-latitude of the area referred to as the Interior Plains of Canada, the United States, and Mexico. It includes all of the Great Plains as well as the wetter, hillier land to the east. From west to east, generally the drier expanse of shortgrass prairie gives way to mixed grass prairie and ultimately the richer and wetter soils of the tallgrass prairie. In the U.S., the area is constituted by most or all of the states, from north to south, of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and sizable parts of the states of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas in the west, and to the east, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. The Palouse of Washington and the Central Valley of California are also prairies. The Canadian Prairies occupy vast areas of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Prairies may contain various lush flora and fauna, often contain rich soil maintained by biodiversity, with a temperate climate and a varied view.[1][2][3] According to Theodore Roosevelt: We have taken into our language the word prairie, because when our backwoodsmen first reached the land [in the Midwest] and saw the great natural meadows of long grass—sights unknown to the gloomy forests wherein they had always dwelt—they knew not what to call them, and borrowed the term already in use among the French inhabitants.[4] Prairie (pronounced [pʁɛʁi]) is the French word for meadow, formed ultimately from the Latin root word pratum (which has the same meaning).[5]
Branches of science.  The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups: Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.[2] Natural, social, and formal science make up the basic sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.[3] The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics.
Proteus (moon). Proteus (/ˈproʊtiəs/ PROH-tee-əs), also known as Neptune VIII, is the second-largest Neptunian moon, and Neptunes largest inner satellite. Discovered by Voyager 2 in 1989, it is named after Proteus, the shape-changing sea god of Greek mythology.[11] Proteus orbits Neptune in a nearly equatorial orbit at a distance of about 4.75 times the radius of Neptunes equator.[3] Despite being a predominantly icy body more than 400 km (250 mi) in diameter, Proteuss shape deviates significantly from an ellipsoid.[6] It is shaped more like an irregular polyhedron with several slightly concave facets and relief as high as 20 km (12 mi). Its surface is dark, neutral in color, and heavily cratered.[12] Proteuss largest crater is Pharos, which is more than 230 km (140 mi) in diameter. There are also a number of scarps, grooves, and valleys related to large craters. Proteus is probably not an original body that formed with Neptune. It could have accreted later from the debris formed when the largest Neptunian satellite, Triton, was captured.[13] Proteus was discovered from the images taken by the Voyager 2 space probe two months before its Neptune flyby in August 1989. Proteus was discovered 40 years after the discovery of Neptunes moon Nereid in 1949.[14] Upon discovery, Proteus received the temporary provisional designation S/1989 N 1.[15] Stephen P. Synnott and Bradford A. Smith announced its discovery on July 7, 1989, speaking only of 17 frames taken over 21 days, which gives a discovery date of sometime before June 16.[16]
Butrint National Park. Butrint National Park (Albanian: Parku Kombëtar i Butrintit) is a national park in Vlorë County, southern Albania. It is located 18 kilometres (11 mi) south of Sarandë. The park encompasses 9,424 hectares (94.24 km2) of hilly terrain with freshwater lakes, wetlands, salt marshes, open plains, reed beds and islands. The parks significance for conservation is reflected in the large number of species with over 1,200 different animals and plants. Its mandate includes the protection of the lake and lagoon of Butrint, the natural channel of Vivari, the islands of Ksamil and as well the archaeological site, that provides valuable remains of ancient civilisations. Butrint is strategically located in the eastern part of the Strait of Corfu in the extreme south of the country. It sprawls across a peninsula that is surrounded by Lake Butrint and Vivari Channel. The channel connects the lake to the Ionian Sea through a narrow sandy bar. Located in the direct proximity to the sea, the park experiences mild Mediterranean climate. This means that the winters are mild and the summers are hot and dry.[2] The archaeological heritage of Butrint is one of the most important archaeological sites in the country, containing different artefacts and structures, dating from the Iron Age up until the Middle Ages. Numerous monuments are still extant including the city walls, a late-antique baptistery, a great basilica, Roman theatre and two castles. The ancient city is situated within a natural woodland with a complex of ecosystems which depends on the nearby lake and channel. Nevertheless, it is this combination of cultural monuments and natural environment which makes Butrint such a unique place. The International Union for Conservation of Nature  (IUCN) has listed the park as Category II. In 1992, the archaeological site joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The lagoon has been further recognized as a wetland of international importance by designation under the Ramsar Convention.[3] Nevertheless, Lake Butrint is an Important Bird and Plant Area, because it abundant to significant bird and plant species of international importance.[4][5] The Butrint National Park was established with ordinance number 82 on 2 March 2000 in order to preserve the natural ecosystems and landscapes along with their plant and animal communities and habitats and the cultural heritage as well.[6] The parks territory was expanded several times until it reached its current area, recently in 2005.[7] It is managed by a directorate subordinated to the Ministry of Environment of Albania based in Sarandë. The park became an important centre of cultural management and a great example how to manage this heritage. With the support of Albanian institutions, Butrint Foundation, World Bank and UNESCO, the situation was improved to the point, that UNESCO removed the site from the World Heritage Sites in Danger list in 2005. The park was founded by the Ministry of Culture in partnership with UNESCO, ICCROM and ICOMOS. The underlying intention was to create a sustainable cultural heritage resource involving local communities and national institutions to serve as a model for other parks around the country.
Badlands National Park.  Badlands National Park (Lakota: Makȟóšiča[3]) is a national park of the United States in southwestern South Dakota. The park protects 242,756 acres (379.3 sq mi; 982.4 km2)[1] of sharply eroded buttes and pinnacles, along with the largest undisturbed mixed grass prairie in the United States. The National Park Service manages the park, with the South Unit being co-managed with the Oglala Lakota tribe.[4] Located within the White River drainage, the Badlands Wilderness protects 64,144 acres (100.2 sq mi; 259.6 km2) of the parks North Unit as a designated wilderness area,[5] and is one site where the black-footed ferret, one of the most endangered mammals in the world, was reintroduced to the wild.[6] The South Unit, or Stronghold District,[4] includes sites of 1890s Ghost Dances,[7] a former United States Air Force bomb and gunnery range,[8] and Red Shirt Table, the parks highest point at 3,340 feet (1,020 m).[9] Authorized as Badlands National Monument on March 4, 1929, it was not established until January 25, 1939. Badlands was redesignated a national park on November 10, 1978.[10] Under the Mission 66 plan, the Ben Reifel Visitor Center was constructed for the monument in 1957–58. The park also administers the nearby Minuteman Missile National Historic Site. The movies Dances with Wolves (1990) and Thunderheart (1992) were partially filmed in Badlands National Park.[11] This national park was originally a reservation of the Oglala Sioux Indians and spans the southern unit of the park. The area around Stronghold Table was originally Sioux territory, and is revered as a ceremonial sacred site rather than a place to live.
Dysnomia (moon).  Dysnomia, formal designation (136199) Eris I, is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris and is the second-largest known moon of a dwarf planet, after Pluto I Charon. It was discovered in September 2005 by Mike Brown and the Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGSAO) team at the W. M. Keck Observatory. It carried the provisional designation of S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1 until it was officially named Dysnomia (from the Ancient Greek word Δυσνομία meaning anarchy/lawlessness) in September 2006, after the daughter of the Greek goddess Eris.[6] With an estimated diameter of 615+60−50 km, Dysnomia spans 24% to 29% of Eriss diameter. It is significantly less massive than Eris, with a density consistent with it being mainly composed of ice.[3]: 8  In stark contrast to Eriss highly-reflective icy surface, Dysnomia has a very dark surface that reflects 5% of incoming visible light,[3] resembling typical trans-Neptunian objects around Dysnomias size.[7] These physical properties indicate Dysnomia likely formed from a large impact on Eris, in a similar manner to other binary dwarf planet systems like Pluto and Orcus, and the Earth–Moon system. In 2005, the adaptive optics team at the Keck telescopes in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest Kuiper belt objects (Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris), using the newly commissioned laser guide star adaptive optics system. Observations taken on 10 September 2005, revealed a moon in orbit around Eris, provisionally designated S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1. In keeping with the Xena nickname that was already in use for Eris, the moon was nicknamed Gabrielle by its discoverers, after Xenas sidekick.[8][9] Submillimeter-wavelength observations of the Eris–Dysnomia systems thermal emissions by the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in 2015 first showed that Dysnomia had a large diameter and a very low albedo, with the initial estimate being 700±115 km.[7] Further observations by ALMA in 2018 refined Dysnomias diameter to 615+60−50 km (24% to 29% of Eriss diameter) and an albedo of 0.05±0.01.[3] Of the known moons of dwarf planets, only Charon is larger, making Dysnomia the second-largest moon of a dwarf planet.[10] Dysnomias low albedo significantly contrasts with Eriss extremely high albedo of 0.96; its surface has been described to be darker than coal,[10] which is a typical characteristic seen in trans-Neptunian objects around Dysnomias size.[7]
Russia.  Russia,[b] or the Russian Federation,[c] is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, and extends across eleven time zones, sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[d] With over 140 million people, Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia, while Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre. Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus, arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Kievan Rus ultimately disintegrated; the Grand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russias monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the worlds first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, amidst the deaths of millions under Joseph Stalins rule, and later played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space. In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. Following the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, the Soviet system of government was abolished and a new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russias political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and become an authoritarian dictatorship. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory, including Crimea in 2014 and four other regions in 2022, during an ongoing invasion. Russia is generally considered a great power and is a regional power, possessing the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the third-highest military expenditure in the world. It has a high-income economy, which is the eleventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and fourth-largest by PPP, relying on its vast mineral and energy resources, which rank as the second-largest in the world for oil and natural gas production. However, Russia ranks very low in international measurements of democracy, human rights and freedom of the press, and also has high levels of perceived corruption. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, and WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as CIS, CSTO, and EAEU. Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Rainforest.  Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropical rainforests or temperate rainforests, but other types have been described. Estimates vary from 40% to 75% of all biotic species being indigenous to the rainforests.[1] There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the jewels of the Earth and the worlds largest pharmacy, because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there.[2] Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.[3] Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, high humidity, the presence of moisture-dependent vegetation, a moist layer of leaf litter, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. The largest areas of rainforest are tropical or temperate rainforests, but other vegetation associations including subtropical rainforest, littoral rainforest, cloud forest, vine thicket and even dry rainforest have been described.[4][5][6][7][8]
Historical geography. Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time.[1] In its modern form, it is a synthesizing discipline which shares both topical and methodological similarities with history, anthropology, ecology, geology, environmental studies, literary studies, and other fields.[2][3] Although the majority of work in historical geography is considered human geography, the field also encompasses studies of geographic change which are not primarily anthropogenic.[4] Historical geography is often a major component of school and university curricula in geography and social studies.[5] Current research in historical geography is being performed by scholars in more than forty countries.[6] This sub-branch of human geography is closely related to history, environmental history, and historical ecology.[7] Historical geography seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved by understanding their interaction with their local environment and surroundings.[8][9] More recent studies make use of non-traditional methods, such as botany and archeology.[10][4] In its early days, historical geography was difficult to define as a subject. A textbook  from the 1950s cites a previous definition as an unsound attempt by geographers to explain history.[11] Its author, J. B. Mitchell, came down firmly on the side of geography: the historical geographer is a geographer first last and all the time. By 1975 the first number of the Journal of Historical Geography [12] had widened the discipline to a broader audience: the writings of scholars of any disciplinary provenance who have something to say about matters of geographical interest relating to past time.[12]
South Dakota.  South Dakota (/dəˈkoʊtə/ ⓘ;[9] Siouan languages: Dakȟóta itókaga, pronounced [daˈkˣota iˈtokaga]) is a double landlocked state in the North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Dakota Sioux tribe, which comprises a large portion of the population—with nine reservations in the state—and has historically dominated the territory.[10] South Dakota is the 17th-largest by area, the fifth-least populous, and the fifth-least densely populated of the 50 United States. Pierre is the state capital, and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 213,900,[11] is South Dakotas most populous city.[12] The state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing it into two geographically and socially distinct halves known as East River and West River.[13] South Dakota is bordered by North Dakota to the north, Minnesota to the east, Iowa to the southeast, Nebraska to the south, Wyoming to the west, and Montana to the northwest. Humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a gold rush in the Black Hills and the construction of railroads from the east. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. As the southern part of the former Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889, simultaneously with North Dakota. They are the 39th and 40th states admitted to the union; President Benjamin Harrison shuffled the statehood papers before signing them so that no one could tell which became a state first.[14] Major events in the 20th century included the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, increased federal spending during the 1940s and 1950s for agriculture and defense, and an industrialization of agriculture that has reduced family farming. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of its population, and a variety of crops grow in the areas fertile soil. West of the Missouri River, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are in West River. The Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, is in the southwest part of the state, and contains Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination. South Dakota has a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation levels ranging from moderate in the east to semiarid in the west. The states ecology features species typical of a North American grassland biome. Several Democrats represented South Dakota for multiple terms in both chambers of Congress, but the state government is largely controlled by the Republican Party, whose nominees have won the state in each of the last 14 presidential elections. Historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence its culture.
Omotesandō.  Omotesandō (表参道) is a zelkova tree-lined avenue located in Shibuya and Minato, Tokyo, stretching from the Meiji Shrine entrance to Aoyama-dōri (Aoyama Street), where Omotesandō Station can be found. Omotesandō was originally created in the Taishō era (1912–1926) as the frontal (表, Omote) approach (参道, Sandō) to Meiji Shrine, which is dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Shōken.[1][2] Omotesandō is known as one of the foremost architectural showcase streets in the world, featuring a multitude of fashion flagship stores within a short distance of each other. These include the Louis Vuitton store (Jun Aoki, 2002), Tods (Toyo Ito, 2004), Dior (SANAA, 2004), Omotesandō Hills (Tadao Ando, 2005) and Gyre (MVRDV, 2007), amongst others. Omotesandō is the main vehicle and pedestrian thoroughfare for Harajuku and Aoyama. The area features many international brand boutiques, such as Louis Vuitton, Alexander McQueen and Gucci, as well as fast fashion retailers such as Gap, Evisu, H&M and Zara. In his book Luxury Brand Management, luxury brand manager Michel Chevalier cites Omotesandō as one of the best locations in Tokyo for a luxury goods store.[3] Omotesandō is also home to the Kiddyland toy store, Laforet, and the Oriental Bazaar.  Omotesandōs side streets, known as Ura-Harajuku, feature a range of smaller cafes, bars, restaurants, and boutique stores.
Central European Time. Central European Time (CET) is a standard time observed in Central as well as parts of Western and Southeast Europe, which is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The time offset from UTC can be written as UTC+01:00. It covers most of continental Europe and it has been adopted by several African countries where it is known under various other names. CET is also known as Middle European Time (MET, German: MEZ) and by colloquial names that reference major European cities such as Amsterdam Time, Berlin Time, Brussels Time, Budapest Time, Madrid Time, Paris Time, Stockholm Time, Rome Time, Prague time, Warsaw Time or Romance Standard Time (RST). The 15th meridian east is the central axis per UTC+01:00 in the world system of time zones. As of 2023, all member states of the European Union observe summer time (daylight saving time), from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October. States within the CET area switch to Central European Summer Time (CEST, UTC+02:00) for the summer.[1] The next change to CET is scheduled for midnight of 25 October 2025. In Africa, UTC+01:00 is called West Africa Time (WAT), where it is used by several countries, year round.[2] Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia also refer to it as Central European Time.[3]
Kita-Aoyama. Kita-Aoyama (北青山, Kitaaoyama) is a district of Minato, Tokyo, Japan. Minato City Board of Education operates public elementary and junior high schools. Kita-Aoyama 1-2-chōme and 3-chōme 1-4-ban are zoned to Aoyama Elementary School (青山小学校). 3-chōme 5-15-ban are zoned to Seinan Elementary School (青南小学校). All of Kita Aoyama is zoned to Aoyama Junior High School (青山中学校)[4]  This Tokyo location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world.  Medieval Islamic geography and cartography refer to the study of geography and cartography in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age (variously dated between the 8th century and 16th century). Muslim scholars made advances to the map-making traditions of earlier cultures,[1] explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the Old World (Afro-Eurasia).[1] Islamic geography had three major fields: exploration and navigation, physical geography, and cartography and mathematical geography.[1] Islamic geography reached its apex with Muhammad al-Idrisi in the 12th century. Islamic geography began in the 8th century, influenced by Hellenistic geography,[2] combined with what explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the Old World (Afro-Eurasia).[1] Muslim scholars engaged in extensive exploration and navigation during the 9th-12th centuries, including journeys across the Muslim world, in addition to regions such as China, Southeast Asia and Southern Africa.[1] Various Islamic scholars contributed to the development of geography and cartography, with the most notable including Al-Khwārizmī, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (founder of the Balkhi school), Al-Masudi, Abu Rayhan Biruni and Muhammad al-Idrisi. Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers to perform an arc measurement, determining the distance on Earth that corresponds to one degree of latitude along a meridian (al-Mamuns arc measurement). Thus his patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the Arabic mile (mīl in Arabic) in comparison to the stadion used in the Hellenistic world. These efforts also enabled Muslims to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Al-Mamun also commanded the production of a large map of the world, which has not survived,[3]: 61–63  though it is known that its map projection type was based on Marinus of Tyre rather than Ptolemy.[4]: 193 Islamic cartographers inherited Ptolemys Almagest and Geography in the 9th century. These works stimulated an interest in geography (particularly gazetteers) but were not slavishly followed.[5]  Instead, Arabian and Persian cartography followed Al-Khwārizmī in adopting a rectangular projection, shifting Ptolemys Prime Meridian several degrees eastward, and modifying many of Ptolemys geographical coordinates.
Planetary surface. A planetary surface is where the solid or liquid material of certain types of astronomical objects contacts the atmosphere or outer space. Planetary surfaces are found on solid objects of planetary mass, including terrestrial planets (including Earth), dwarf planets, natural satellites, planetesimals and many other small Solar System bodies (SSSBs).[1][2][3] The study of planetary surfaces is a field of planetary geology known as surface geology, but also a focus on a number of fields including planetary cartography, topography, geomorphology, atmospheric sciences, and astronomy. Land (or ground) is the term given to non-liquid planetary surfaces. The term landing is used to describe the collision of an object with a planetary surface and is usually at a velocity in which the object can remain intact and remain attached. In differentiated bodies, the surface is where the crust meets the planetary boundary layer. Anything below this is regarded as being sub-surface or sub-marine. Most bodies more massive than super-Earths, including stars and giant planets, as well as smaller gas dwarfs, transition contiguously between phases, including gas, liquid, and solid. As such, they are generally regarded as lacking surfaces. Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to humans as it is the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of Earth and the Moon. The vast distances and complexities of space  makes direct exploration of even near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via space probes. Indirect observations by flyby or orbit currently provide insufficient information to confirm the composition and properties of planetary surfaces. Much of what is known is from the use of techniques such as astronomical spectroscopy and sample return. Lander spacecraft have explored the surfaces of planets Mars and Venus. Mars is the only other planet to have had its surface explored by a mobile surface probe (rover). Titan is the only non-planetary object of planetary mass to have been explored by lander. Landers have explored several smaller bodies including 433 Eros (2001), 25143 Itokawa (2005), Tempel 1 (2005),  67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (2014), 162173 Ryugu (2018) and 101955 Bennu (2020). Surface samples have been collected from the Moon (returned 1969), 25143 Itokawa (returned 2010), 162173 Ryugu and 101955 Bennu. Planetary surfaces are found throughout the Solar System, from the inner terrestrial planets, to the asteroid belt, the natural satellites of the giant planets and beyond to the Trans-Neptunian objects.  Surface conditions, temperatures and terrain vary significantly due to a number of factors including Albedo often generated by the surfaces itself.  Measures of surface conditions include surface area, surface gravity, surface temperature and surface pressure. Surface stability may be affected by erosion through Aeolian processes, hydrology, subduction, volcanism, sediment or seismic activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.
Dryland (disambiguation). Drylands are ecoregions marked by aridity and low or unpredictable precipitation. Dry land is a figure of speech describing the parts of earth that are not ocean. Dryland, drylands, dry land, or dry lands may also refer to:
Land (disambiguation). Land is the solid surface of the Earth that is not covered by water. Land, lands, The Land, or the Lands may also refer to:
Ksamil. Ksamil (Albanian: Ksamili, Greek: Εξαμίλι) is a village and a former municipality in the riviera of Southern Albania, and part of Butrint National Park. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality of Sarandë.[2] The population as of the 2023 census is 2,731,[1] while according to the Civil Offices it was 9,137 in 2018.[3] The municipal unit consists of the villages Ksamil and Manastir. During the communist era, the coastal village of Ksamil was built[4] in 1966 and is located south of Sarandë off the road to Butrint. In 1992, the village of Ksamil was inhabited by a mixed population of Muslim Albanians (1,125), Greeks (520) and Orthodox Albanians (210).[4] According to official estimates (2014), the population of the commune of Ksamil numbered 9,215,[3] of whom 4,207 were Greeks, seven Aromanians, and the rest Albanians.[6] Ksamil is one of the most frequented coastal resorts by both domestic and foreign tourists. Ksamil Beach and Albanias Ionian Coast further north were included in the Guardians 20 of the best bargain beach holidays for 2013.[7] The main attractions are the nearby Ksamil Islands. The Caribbean white sand beaches in Ksamil gave the town great tourism boost. Albanians from Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking areas visited Ksamil in recent years, but more and more international tourists are visiting the beach. This leads, for example, to new hotel facilities, but also to more expensive prices. Other activities are the Blue Eye in Muzinë, the Butrint National Park, Saranda and as well some other minor beaches that lie north to Ksamil.
UTC+01:00. UTC+01:00 is an identifier for a time offset from UTC of +01:00. In ISO 8601, the associated time would be written as 2019-02-07T23:28:34+01:00. It indicates a point of time meaning Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus one hour. It is synonym with British Summer Time (BST). This time is used in: Principal cities: Berlin, Budapest, Frankfurt, Munich, Hamburg, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Dortmund, Essen, Bremen, Hanover, Mainz, Rome, Milan, Naples, Venice, Florence, Palermo, Turin, Genoa, Vatican City, San Marino, Paris, Marseille, Bordeaux, Nantes, Lyon, Lille, Montpellier, Toulouse, Strasbourg, Nice, Monaco, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Málaga, Bilbao, A Coruña, Granada, Andorra, Vienna, Salzburg, Innsbruck, Zürich, Geneva, Bern, Bellinzona, Lausanne, Lucerne, St. Gallen,  Brussels, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Luxembourg, Valletta, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Oslo, Warsaw, Prague, Zagreb, Tirana, Sarajevo, Pristina, Podgorica, Skopje, Belgrade, Bratislava, Ljubljana, Vaduz, Schaan, Serravalle, Dogana, Monte Carlo, Monaco-Ville, Monaco, Westside, St. Pauls Bay, Malmö. Principal cities: London, Birmingham, Manchester, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Bristol, Belfast, Glasgow, Cardiff, Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Tórshavn Principal cities: Lagos, Abuja, Kinshasa, Algiers, Tunis, Rabat, Casablanca, Tangier, Marrakesh, Yaoundé, Fez, Douala, Malabo, Bata, Libreville, Niamey, Tangier, NDjamena, Bangui, Porto-Novo, Cotonou, Luanda, Laayoune
Yoshihito (name). Yosihito (Nihon-shiki) Yoshihito  is a masculine Japanese given name. Yoshihito can be written using different combinations of kanji characters. Here are some examples: The name can also be written in hiragana よしひと or katakana ヨシヒト.
Akasaka Palace. Akasaka Palace (赤坂離宮, Akasaka Rikyū) is a state guest house (迎賓館, geihinkan) of the government of Japan. Other state guesthouses of the government include the Kyoto State Guest House. The palace was originally built as the Imperial Palace for the Crown Prince (東宮御所, Tōgū Gosho) in 1909. Today the palace is designated by the government of Japan as an official accommodation for visiting state dignitaries. Located in the Moto-Akasaka, Minato, Tokyo, the building took on its present function in 1974, having previously been an imperial detached palace. In 2009 the palace was designated as a National Treasure of Japan.[1] The buildings address is Tokyo, Minato-ku, Moto-Akasaka-chome No. 1. The building has 15,000 square metres (160,000 sq ft) of floor space, and together with a smaller structure in the Japanese style, occupies a 117,000-square-metre (1,260,000 sq ft) site. The main building is a Neo-Baroque style Western building,[2] resembling in particular the Hofburg Palace. It is one of largest buildings constructed during the Meiji period.[1]
Tōgū Palace. In Japan, the Tōgū Palace (東宮, Tōgū; lit. East Palace) traditionally does not refer to a single location, but to any residence of the imperial crown prince. As Prince Akishino, the current heir presumptive, is not a direct male descendant of the Emperor and not an imperial crown prince himself, there is currently no Tōgū Palace in Japan and there will not be one until there is another imperial crown prince. The palace where then-crown Prince Naruhito resided before his ascension to the Chrysantheum throne on 1 May 2019 was called Tōgū Palace,[1] but changed its name to Akasaka Palace (赤坂御所, Akasaka-gosho) when Naruhito became emperor. The Emperor used this palace as his primary residence until he moved to the Fukiage Palace of the Imperial Palace[2] in September 2021. Similarly, Akihito lived in this same palace when Hirohito died. Between his accession to the throne in 1989 and his moving to the Fukiage Palace in December 1993 the palace was also called Akasaka Palace. The Akasaka Palace is located in the Akasaka Estate in Moto-Akasaka and is not accessible to the public. The site of the palace used to house the Ōmiya Palace (大宮御所, Ōmiya-gosho), the residence of Empress Teimei, the consort of Emperor Taishō. After her death at the palace in 1951, the site was converted to the crown princes residence. A reinforced-concrete building, designed by Yoshirō Taniguchi was achieved in 1960. It saw the first wave of expansion works in 1978. A Japanese Garden was added in 1994 for the arrival of the crown princess Masako. Additional renewal works took place in 1997 (installation of an elevator for wheelchair users, barrier-free design, seismic reinforcement). Works for a kids area took place in 2001 as Masako was pregnant.
History of cartography.  Maps have been one of the most important human inventions, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way. When and how the earliest maps were made is unclear, but maps of local terrain are believed to have been independently invented by many cultures. The earliest putative maps include cave paintings and etchings on tusk and stone. Maps were produced extensively by ancient Babylon, Greece, Rome, China, and India. The earliest maps ignored the curvature of Earths surface, both because the shape of the Earth was unknown and because the curvature is not important across the small areas being mapped. However, since the age of Classical Greece, maps of large regions, and especially of the world, have used projection from a model globe to control how the inevitable distortion gets apportioned on the map. Modern methods of transportation, the use of surveillance aircraft, and more recently the availability of satellite imagery have made documentation of many areas possible that were previously inaccessible. Free online services such as Google Earth have made accurate maps of the world more accessible than ever before. The English term cartography is modern, borrowed from the French cartographie in the 1840s, itself based on Middle Latin carta map.
Aoyama Gakuin University. Aoyama Gakuin University (Japanese: 青山学院大学, Hepburn: Aoyama Gakuin Daigaku; AGU) is a private Christian university in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Originally established in 1874 by missionaries from the Methodist Episcopal Church, it was reconfigured in its current form in 1949 as tertiary component of the Aoyama Gakuin. The universitys undergraduate and graduate programs include courses on literature, law, economics, business, international politics, economics, communication, science, engineering and cultural studies. The university graduate programs include international management, law and professional accounting. Aoyama Gakuin University participates in Hakone Ekiden, an annual university relay race between Tokyo and Hakone in Japan. Recently they won the races in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2022, and 2024. The main campus, located in Omotesando in central Tokyo, is complemented by the Sagamihara Campus in Kanagawa Prefecture. The latter houses the College of Science and Sports. The university has graduated around 180,000 students and employs over 1,600 full and part-time faculty members. Aoyama Gakuin University is accredited by the British University Association and is a member of the British Association of Private College and Universities. The university maintains a number of active international exchange programs for students and faculty. Many of the students and faculty have attended universities and research institutes abroad, while the institution itself has attracted numerous outstanding scholars and students from around the world to its campuses.[according to whom?]
Hayama Imperial Villa. Hayama Imperial Villa (葉山御用邸, Hayama Goyōtei), located in the town of Hayama, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan is a residence owned by the Japanese Imperial Family, and used on infrequent intervals as an informal winter retreat.[1] The Imperial Family of Japan previously had residences in several locations within Kanagawa Prefecture: The Hayama Imperial Villa was acquired by the Imperial Household Agency in 1894. It is located on the east bank of Sagami Bay in central Miura Peninsula, just south of Kamakura. The villa was a favorite of Emperor Taishō and he often visited to convalesce from his illnesses and to escape from the stresses of his official duties in Tokyo. Emperor Taishō died at the Hayama Imperial Villa in December 1926. The villa was subsequently used by Emperor Shōwa, who also built a marine biology laboratory on its grounds. Research from the laboratory has resulted in a number of technical monographs. The Imperial Family traditionally uses the Hayama residence in February–March, the season when few tourists visit the area. The villa was burned down in 1971 in an act of arson and was rebuilt as a one-story building of western architectural design. A portion of the grounds was donated to the town of Hayama at that time, and is now the Hayama Shiosai Park, with a traditional Japanese garden and teahouse, and a small museum displaying part of Emperor Hirohito’s collection of marine specimens from Sagami Bay. 35°15′40.5″N 139°34′41.4″E / 35.261250°N 139.578167°E / 35.261250; 139.578167
Point Reyes National Seashore.  Point Reyes National Seashore is a 71,028-acre (287.44 km2) park preserve located on the Point Reyes Peninsula in Marin County, California. As a national seashore, it is maintained by the US National Park Service as an important nature preserve. No other park in the world hosts breeding hoofed megafauna (elk) and marine megafauna (elephant and other seals). Some existing agricultural uses are allowed to continue within the park. Clem Miller, a US Congressman from Marin County, wrote and introduced the bill for the establishment of Point Reyes National Seashore in 1962 to protect the peninsula from development which was proposed at the time for the slopes above Drakes Bay.[4] About half of the national seashore is protected as wilderness. The Native American Coast Miwok lived in the area for thousands of years, in villages of seventy five to several hundred people. The Coast Miwok developed an economy of hunting, gathering, and fishing, utilizing the seashore as a source of year-round food such as crab, clams, and oysters. Drip nets and woven surf nets were used for fishing, while bow and arrows were used for hunting deer, quail, and rabbits.[5] Francis Drake and his crew aboard the Golden Hind were likely the first Europeans to discover what is today Point Reyes National Park, when they likely camped in the area in 1579. Drake claimed the land for Elizabeth I before setting sail to complete his circumnavigation of the world. Spanish ships making the voyage between Manila and Acapulco likely passed by Point Reyes during the late 1500s, including the captain Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenho in 1595, whose ship was wrecked by a storm in Drakes Bay. On January 6, 1603, Captain Sebastián Vizcaíno sighted the headlands and named it Point of the Kings, or la Punta de los Reyes, in honor of Three Kings Day.[6] The Point Reyes peninsula is a well defined area, geologically separated from the rest of Marin County and almost all of the continental United States by a rift zone of the San Andreas Fault.[7] The northern half of the fault is sunk below sea level and forms Tomales Bay and the southern half lies along Olema Creek. The peninsula is part of the Salinian Block which rises as Inverness Ridge before dropping to the fault zone.[8] East of the fault is the Franciscan Complex which has a different soil and flora composition.
Takanawa (disambiguation). Takanawa (Japanese: 高縄 or 高輪) may refer to the following places:
Tissots indicatrix. In cartography, a Tissots indicatrix (Tissot indicatrix, Tissots ellipse, Tissot ellipse, ellipse of distortion) (plural: Tissots indicatrices) is a mathematical contrivance presented by French mathematician Nicolas Auguste Tissot in 1859 and 1871 to characterize local distortions due to map projection. It is the geometry that results from projecting a circle of infinitesimal radius from a curved geometric model, such as a globe, onto a map. Tissot proved that the resulting diagram is an ellipse whose axes indicate the two principal directions along which scale is maximal and minimal at that point on the map. A single indicatrix describes the distortion at a single point. Because distortion varies across a map, generally Tissots indicatrices are placed across a map to illustrate the spatial change in distortion. A common scheme places them at each intersection of displayed meridians and parallels. These schematics are important in the study of map projections, both to illustrate distortion and to provide the basis for the calculations that represent the magnitude of distortion precisely at each point. Because the infinitesimal circles represented by the ellipses on the map all have the same area on the underlying curved geometric model, the distortion imposed by the map projection is evident. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the Tissot indicatrix and the metric tensor of the map projection coordinate conversion.[1] Tissots theory was developed in the context of cartographic analysis. Generally the geometric model represents the Earth, and comes in the form of a sphere or ellipsoid. Tissots indicatrices illustrate linear, angular, and areal distortions of maps:
Polyhedral map projection. A polyhedral map projection is a map projection based on a spherical polyhedron. Typically, the polyhedron is overlaid on the globe, and each face of the polyhedron is transformed to a polygon or other shape in the plane. The best-known polyhedral map projection is Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion map. When the spherical polyhedron faces are transformed to the faces of an ordinary polyhedron instead of laid flat in a plane, the result is a polyhedral globe.[1] Often the polyhedron used is a Platonic solid or Archimedean solid. However, other polyhedra can be used: the AuthaGraph projection makes use of a polyhedron with 96 faces, and the myriahedral projection allows for an arbitrary large number of faces.[2] Although interruptions between faces are common, and more common with an increasing number of faces, some maps avoid them: the Lee conformal projection only has interruptions at its border, and the AuthaGraph projection scales its faces so that the map fills a rectangle without internal interruptions. Some projections can be tesselated to fill the plane, the Lee conformal projection among them. To a degree, the polyhedron and the projection used to transform each face of the polyhedron can be considered separately, and some projections can be applied to differently shaped faces. The gnomonic projection transforms the edges of spherical polyhedra to straight lines, preserving all polyhedra contained within a hemisphere, so it is a common choice. The Snyder equal-area projection can be applied to any polyhedron with regular faces.[3] The projection used in later versions of the Dymaxion map can be generalized to other equilateral triangular faces,[4] and even to certain quadrilaterals.[5] Polyhedral map projections are useful for creating discrete global grids, as with the quadrilateralized spherical cube and Icosahedral Snyder Equal Area (ISEA) grids.[6] The earliest known polyhedral projection is the octant projection developed by Leonardo da Vinci or his associate around 1514, which transforms the faces of an octahedron to Reuleaux triangles.[1]
Icosahedron.  In geometry, an icosahedron (/ˌaɪkɒsəˈhiːdrən, -kə-, -koʊ-/ or /aɪˌkɒsəˈhiːdrən/[1]) is a polyhedron with 20 faces. The name comes from Ancient Greek  εἴκοσι (eíkosi) twenty and  ἕδρα (hédra) seat. The plural can be either icosahedra (/-drə/) or icosahedrons. There are infinitely many non-similar shapes of icosahedra, some of them being more symmetrical than others. The best known is the (convex, non-stellated) regular icosahedron—one of the Platonic solids—whose faces are 20 equilateral triangles. There are two objects, one convex and one nonconvex, that can both be called regular icosahedra. Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. Both have icosahedral symmetry. The term regular icosahedron generally refers to the convex variety, while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron. While an icosagonal hosohedron could also be considered a regular icosahedron on the basis that it has twenty faces and is regular, it is often not counted due to being degenerate outside of spherical geometry.
Interruption (map projection). In map projections, an interruption is any place where the globe has been split. All map projections are interrupted at at least one point. Typical world maps are interrupted along an entire meridian. In that typical case, the interruption forms an east–west boundary, even though the globe has no boundaries.[1] Most map projections can be interrupted beyond what is required by the projection mathematics. The reason for doing so is to improve distortion within the map by sacrificing proximity—that is, by separating places on the globe that ought to be adjacent. Effectively, this means that the resulting map is actually an amalgam of several partial map projections of smaller regions. Because the regions are smaller, they cover less of the globe, are closer to flat, and therefore accrue less inevitable distortion. These extra interruptions do not create a new projection. Rather, the result is an arrangement of an existing projection. In casual parlance, interrupted projection usually means a projection that has been interrupted beyond mathematical necessity. In this casual sense, the usual east/west interruption of a pseudocylindric map is ignored as an interruption to focus on the elective interruptions. An archetypical example is the Goode homolosine projection. In 1916, John Paul Goode experimented by interrupting the Mollweide projection. Satisfied with the interruption scheme, he then devised a new projection as a composite of the Mollweide and the sinusoidal projection and applied the same interruption scheme to the new projection, which he dubbed homolosine.[2] Because pseudocylindric projections map parallels as straight lines, and meridians to have constant spacing, they are easy to interrupt.[1] This is normally done to optimize either for continental areas or for oceanic areas, as explored by Goode. Many interruption schemes that are much more elaborate have been developed. Since antiquity, for example, globe gores have been developed in order to paste map sections onto model globes. These are regular interruption either along the equator,[1] or in polar form as rosettes. The Cahill butterfly projection divides the world into octahedral sections.[3] More generally, any mapping onto polyhedral faces becomes an interrupted map when laid flat. Buckminster Fuller proposed his dymaxion map in 1943, using a modified icosahedral interruption scheme to divide the oceans up in a way that shows the continents in a nearly continuous mass as one island.[4] The most elaborate interruptions schemes include those of Athelstan Spilhaus along continental boundaries,[5] and JJ Wijks myriahedral projections.[6]
Vlorë. Vlorë (/ˈvlɔːrə/ VLOR-ə;[10][11] Albanian: [ˈvlɔɾə]; Albanian definite form: Vlora)[b] is the third most populous city of Albania and seat of Vlorë County and Vlorë Municipality. Located in southwestern Albania, Vlorë sprawls on the Bay of Vlorë and is surrounded by the foothills of the Ceraunian Mountains along the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. It experiences a Mediterranean climate, which is affected by the Ceraunian Mountains and the proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. The coastal area of Vlorë was one of the Illyrian sites that had experienced pre-urban activity beginning from the 11th–10th centuries BC. The area was colonized by Ancient Greeks. A large fortified port-town that was inhabited from the 6th century BC to the 2nd century AD is placed, now partially submerged, in Triport, northwest of present-day Vlorë. Substantial port activity in this site occurred from at least the archaic period to the medieval period. It has been suggested that a transfer of the ancient city from the site of Triport to the site of modern Vlorë occurred. The center of the modern city features archaeological remains dating from late antiquity. Aulon, from which the modern city took its name, appears in historical sources starting form the 2nd century AD. It was conquered at different periods throughout history by Romans, Byzantines, Normans, Venetians and Ottomans. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, the Albanians gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength for national consciousness, which conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. Vlorë played an instrumental role in Albanian Independence as an epicenter for the founders of modern Albania, who signed the Declaration of Independence on 28 November 1912 at the Assembly of Vlorë. Vlorë is one of the most significant cities of southern Albania and the region of Labëria which is traditionally noted for its culture, traditions and folklore. Vlorë is served by the Port of Vlorë, the SH 8 highway, and the A2 motorway, collectively representing part of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor and the Pan-European Corridor VIII. The city took its name from Ancient Greek: Αὐλών, romanized: Aulṓn, meaning channel, glen that resembles an aulos instrument. It is a typical toponym in the Greek world.[13] The name of the city was first recorded in the 2nd century AD, by two Ancient Greek authors, Lucian and Ptolemy, the latter calling it town and sea-port, which confirms that it was founded much earlier. However, Aulon has not been mentioned by earlier Ancient Greek and Roman authors, who on the other hand recorded the nearby town and seaport of Oricum. But in later sources Oricum is less encountered, while the toponym Aulon is more frequently mentioned.[14]
Net (polyhedron). In geometry, a net of a polyhedron is an arrangement of non-overlapping edge-joined polygons in the plane that can be folded (along edges) to become the faces of the polyhedron. Polyhedral nets are a useful aid to the study of polyhedra and solid geometry in general, as they allow for physical models of polyhedra to be constructed from material such as thin cardboard.[1] An early instance of polyhedral nets appears in the works of Albrecht Dürer, whose 1525 book A Course in the Art of Measurement with Compass and Ruler (Unterweysung der Messung mit dem Zyrkel und Rychtscheyd ) included nets for the Platonic solids and several of the Archimedean solids.[2][3] These constructions were first called nets in 1543 by Augustin Hirschvogel.[4] Many different nets can exist for a given polyhedron, depending on the choices of which edges are joined and which are separated. The edges that are cut from a convex polyhedron to form a net must form a spanning tree of the polyhedron, but cutting some spanning trees may cause the polyhedron to self-overlap when unfolded, rather than forming a net.[5] Conversely, a given net may fold into more than one different convex polyhedron, depending on the angles at which its edges are folded and the choice of which edges to glue together.[6] If a net is given together with a pattern for gluing its edges together, such that each vertex of the resulting shape has positive angular defect and such that the sum of these defects is exactly 4π, then there necessarily exists exactly one polyhedron that can be folded from it; this is Alexandrovs uniqueness theorem. However, the polyhedron formed in this way may have different faces than the ones specified as part of the net: some of the net polygons may have folds across them, and some of the edges between net polygons may remain unfolded. Additionally, the same net may have multiple valid gluing patterns, leading to different folded polyhedra.[7] In 1975, G. C. Shephard asked whether every convex polyhedron has at least one net, or simple edge-unfolding.[8] This question, which is also known as Dürers conjecture, or Dürers unfolding problem, remains unanswered.[9][10][11] There exist non-convex polyhedra that do not have nets, and it is possible to subdivide the faces of every convex polyhedron (for instance along a cut locus) so that the set of subdivided faces has a net.[5] In 2014 Mohammad Ghomi  showed that every convex polyhedron admits a net after an affine transformation.[12] Furthermore, in 2019 Barvinok and Ghomi showed that a generalization of Dürers conjecture fails for pseudo edges,[13] i.e., a network of geodesics which connect vertices of the polyhedron and form a graph with convex faces. A related open question asks whether every net of a convex polyhedron has a blooming, a continuous non-self-intersecting motion from its flat to its folded state that keeps each face flat throughout the motion.[14]
Musashi Imperial Graveyard. Musashi Imperial Graveyard (武蔵陵墓地, Musashi ryōbochi) is a mausoleum complex of the Japanese Emperors in Nagabusa-machi, Hachiōji, Tokyo, Japan. Located within a forest in the western suburbs of Tokyo and named for the ancient Musashi Province, the site contains the mausolea of Emperor Taishō and Emperor Shōwa, as well as those of their wives, Empress Teimei and Empress Kōjun.[1] Emperor Taishō was the first Emperor of Japan to be buried in Tokyo. He has been called the first Tokyo Emperor because he was the first to live his entire life in or near Tokyo. His father, Emperor Meiji, was born and reared in Kyoto; and although he later lived and died in Tokyo, his mausoleum is located on the outskirts of Kyoto, near the tombs of his Imperial forebears.[2] It is under the administration of the Archives and Mausolea Department. The imperial graveyard in Hachiōji is designed as a semi-natural planted space which mainly consists of woodland, rocks and trees. In addition to the stone-topped Imperial mausolea, it also contains smaller monuments and religious structures, like Torii. The approach to the Musashi Imperial Graveyard from the Kōshū Kaidō is lined with zelkova and the mausolea planted with cryptomeria.[1]
Daijō Tennō. Daijō Tennō or Dajō Tennō (太上天皇) is a title for an Emperor of Japan who abdicates the Chrysanthemum Throne in favour of a successor.[1] It is sometimes translated as Emperor Emeritus. As defined in the Taihō Code, although retired, a Daijō Tennō could still exert power. The first such example is the Empress Jitō in the 7th century. A retired emperor sometimes entered the Buddhist monastic community, becoming a cloistered emperor. During late Heian period, cloistered emperors wielded power in a system known as cloistered rule. A total of 64 Japanese emperors have abdicated. A list follows: After abdicating, Gemmei was known as Daijō-tennō; she was only the second woman after Empress Jitō to claim this title.  Gemmei lived in retirement until her death at the age of 61.[6] Emperor Go-Sanjō had wished for Shirakawas younger half-brother to succeed him to the throne.  In 1085, this half-brother died of an illness; and Shirakawas own son, Taruhito became Crown Prince. On the same day that Taruhito was proclaimed as his heir, Shirakawa abdicated; and Taruhito became Emperor Horikawa.  The now-retired Emperor Shirakawa was the first to attempt what became customary cloistered rule.  He exercised power, ruling indirectly from the Shirakawa-in (White River Mansion/Temple); nevertheless, nominal sesshō and kampaku offices continued to exist for a long time.
Age of Discovery.  The Age of Discovery (c. 1418 – c. 1620),[1] also known as the Age of Exploration, was part of the early modern period and overlapped with the Age of Sail. It was a period from approximately the 15th to the 17th century, during which seafarers from European countries explored, colonized, and conquered regions across the globe. The Age of Discovery was a transformative period when previously isolated parts of the world became connected to form the world-system, and laid the groundwork for globalization. The extensive overseas exploration, particularly the opening of maritime routes to the East Indies and European colonization of the Americas by the Spanish and Portuguese, later joined by the English, French and Dutch, spurred international global trade. The interconnected global economy of the 21st century has its origins in the expansion of trade networks during this era. The exploration created colonial empires and marked an increased adoption of colonialism as a government policy in several European states. As such, it is sometimes synonymous with the first wave of European colonization. This colonization reshaped power dynamics causing geopolitical shifts in Europe and creating new centers of power beyond Europe. Having set human history on the global common course, the legacy of the Age still shapes the world today. European oceanic exploration started with the maritime expeditions of Portugal to the Canary Islands in 1336,[2][3] and with the Portuguese discoveries of the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira and Azores, the coast of West Africa in 1434, and the establishment of the sea route to India in 1498 by Vasco da Gama, which initiated the Portuguese maritime and trade presence in Kerala and the Indian Ocean.[4][5] Spain sponsored and financed the transatlantic voyages of Christopher Columbus (1492–1504), which marked the beginning of colonization in the Americas, and the Magellan expedition (1519–1522), which opened a route from the Atlantic to the Pacific and, under Juan Sebastián Elcano, completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. These Spanish expeditions significantly impacted European perceptions of the world and eventually led to numerous naval expeditions across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and land expeditions in the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Australia that continued into the 19th century, followed by Polar exploration in the 20th century. European exploration initiated the Columbian exchange between the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and New World (Americas). This exchange involved the transfer of plants, animals, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture across the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The Age of Discovery and European exploration involved mapping the world, shaping a new worldview and facilitating contact with distant civilizations. The continents drawn by European mapmakers developed from abstract blobs into the outlines more recognizable to us.[6] Simultaneously, the spread of new diseases, especially affecting native Americans, led to rapid declines in some populations. The era saw widespread enslavement, exploitation and military conquest of indigenous peoples, concurrent with the growing economic influence and spread of Western culture, science and technology leading to a faster-than-exponential population growth world-wide.
Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu.  Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu (高松宮宣仁親王, Takamatsu-no-miya Nobuhito Shinnō; 3 January 1905 – 3 February 1987) was the third son of Emperor Taishō (Yoshihito) and Empress Teimei (Sadako) and a younger brother of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito). He became heir to the Takamatsu-no-miya (formerly Arisugawa-no-miya), one of the four shinnōke or branches of the imperial family entitled to inherit the Chrysanthemum Throne in default of a direct heir. From the mid-1920s until the end of World War II, Prince Takamatsu pursued a career in the Japanese Imperial Navy, eventually rising to the rank of captain. Following the war, the prince became patron or honorary president of various organizations in the fields of international cultural exchange, the arts, sports, and medicine. He is mainly remembered for his philanthropic activities as a member of the Imperial House of Japan. Nobuhito was born at the Aoyama Palace in Tokyo to then-Crown Prince Yoshihito and Crown Princess Sadako.[1][2] His childhood appellation was Teru-no-miya (Prince Teru). Like his elder brothers, Prince Hirohito and Prince Yasuhito, he attended the boys elementary and secondary departments of the Peers School (Gakushuin). When Prince Arisugawa Takehito (1862–1913), the tenth head of the collateral imperial house of Arisugawa-no-miya, died without a male heir, Emperor Taishō placed Prince Nobuhito in the house. The name of the house reverted to the original Takamatsu-no-miya.[2] The new Prince Takamatsu was a fourth cousin, four times removed of Prince Takehito.[citation needed] Prince Takamatsu attended the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy from 1922 to 1924.[1][2] He received a commission as an ensign on 1 December 1925 and took up duties aboard the battleship Fusō. He was promoted to sub-lieutenant the following year after completing the course of study at the Torpedo School. The prince studied at the Naval Aviation School at Kasumigaura in 1927 and the Naval Gunnery School at Yokosuka in 1930–1931. In 1930, he was promoted to lieutenant and attached to the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff in Tokyo. He became a squadron commander of cruiser Takao, two years later and subsequently was reassigned to the Fusō. Prince Takamatsu graduated from the Naval Staff College in 1936,[1][2] after having been promoted to lieutenant commander on 15 November 1935. He was promoted to the rank of commander on 15 November 1940 and finally to captain on 1 November 1942.[1] From 1936 to 1945, he held various staff positions in the Naval General Staff Office in Tokyo.[citation needed] On 4 February 1930, Prince Takamatsu married Kikuko Tokugawa (1911–2004), the second daughter of Yoshihisa Tokugawa.[1] The bride was a granddaughter of Yoshinobu Tokugawa, the last shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate,[2] and a granddaughter of the late Prince Takehito Arisugawa. Shortly after the wedding, Prince and Princess Takamatsu embarked upon a world tour to Europe and then across the United States so as to strengthen the goodwill and understanding between Japan and those nations.[2] Prince Iesato Tokugawa was the uncle of Prince and Princess Takamatsu. Prince Tokugawa allied with Prince and Princess Takamatsu on many international goodwill projects.[citation needed]
Regent. In a monarchy, a regent (from Latin  regens[1] ruling, governing)[2][3] is a person appointed to execute the office of the monarch temporarily. Regencies may arise for a number of reasons, including the monarch being a minor, ill, absent from the country, or otherwise unavailable. A regent may also be appointed in cases where the throne is vacant, or the identity of the legitimate monarch is disputed.[2][4] The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency. A regent or regency council may be formed as an ad hoc measure, or there may be a formal and regular appointment process. Regent in some countries has also been used as a formal title granted to a monarchs most trusted advisor or personal assistant. If the regent is holding the position due to their being in the line of succession, the compound term prince regent is often used; if the regent of a minor is their mother, and she is wife or widow of a king, she would be referred to as queen regent. If the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap. A regent may also be appointed to govern, sometimes for an extended period of time, when there is no established ruling house. This was the case in the Kingdom of Hungary in the aftermath of World War I, where the royal line was considered extinct. The reverse situation, where a regent is appointed because a newly formed state has not yet chosen a monarch, has occurred many times, notably in Finland in 1918 and Belgium in 1830. In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795), the royal office was elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. During this period, the Roman Catholic primate (the Archbishop of Gniezno) served as the regent, and was called interrex (Latin: ruler between kings as in Ancient Rome). In the small republic of San Marino, the two Captains Regent (Capitani Reggenti) are both elected for a six-month term as joint heads of state.
Afro-Eurasia. Afro-Eurasia (also Afroeurasia and Eurafrasia) is a landmass comprising the continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe.[1][2] The terms are compound words of the names of its constituent parts. Afro-Eurasia has also been called the Old World, in contrast to the New World referring to the Americas. Afro-Eurasia encompasses 85,135,000 km2 (32,871,000 sq mi), 57% of the worlds land area, and has a population of approximately 6.7 billion people, roughly 86% of the world population. Together with mainland Australia, they comprise the vast majority of the land in the worlds Eastern Hemisphere. The Afro-Eurasian mainland is the largest and most populous contiguous landmass on Earth. The following terms are used for similar concepts: Although Afro-Eurasia is typically considered to comprise two or three separate continents, it is not a proper supercontinent. Instead, it is the largest present part of the supercontinent cycle.[5] The oldest part of Afro-Eurasia is probably the Kaapvaal craton, which together with Madagascar and parts of the Indian subcontinent and western Australian continent formed part of the first supercontinent Vaalbara or Ur around 3 billion years ago. It has made up parts of every supercontinent since. At the breakup of Pangaea around 200 million years ago, the North American and Eurasian plates together formed Laurasia while the African plate remained in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate split off. Upon impact with the Eurasian plate, the Indian plate created southern Asia around 50 million years ago and began the formation of the Himalayas. Around the same time, the Indian plate also fused with the Australian plate.
Landmass (album).  Landmass (2008) is an album by the American ambient musician Steve Roach. The tracks on Landmass were recorded on May 20, 2007,[5] live on the Stars End radio program in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  Only a few hours after Steve Roach had given a concert at the Episcopal Church at Penn, his equipment was moved to the WXPN studio where, beginning a little after two in the morning, Roach performed and created each track.  The sounds, themes, and sonic sub-structures were prepared ahead of time, and the tracks were later edited for length prior to their release.[6] Landmass was chosen to be the 20th release on Steve Roachs Timeroom Editions label, which also celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2008.[4]
Shikken. The shikken (執権; Japanese pronunciation: [ɕi̥k.keɴ][1]) was a senior government post held by members of the Hōjō clan, officially a regent of the shogunate. From 1199 to 1333, during the Kamakura period, the shikken served as the head of the bakufu (shoguns government). This era was referred to as Regent Rule (執権政治, Shikken Seiji).[2] During roughly the first half of that period, the shikken was the de facto military dictator of Japan (excluding the independent Northern Fujiwara).[2] In 1256 the title of shikken was relegated to the second in command of the Tokusō (a separate rank also monopolized by the Hojō clan). By the Muromachi period (1333–1573) the position, though not abolished, had lost much of its power and was no longer considered as one of the top ranks. The position was abolished after the Muromachi period. The word shikken is the onyomi reading of the combination of the two kanji characters 執 and 権, meaning to hold (something in the hand, or a service or ceremony); to administer and power, authority respectively. Therefore, the word literally means to hold power/authority.[citation needed] Though officially a regent for the shōgun in the Kamakura shogunate in Japan, on paper a shikken derived power from the shōgun, in reality the shōgun had been reduced to a figurehead in a similar marginalizing manner to how the emperor and imperial court had been reduced to figureheads by the first shōgun Minamoto no Yoritomo.[2][3]  Both the posts of shikken and tokusō were monopolized by the Hōjō clan.[3] Hōjō Tokimasa, was the father-in-law of Yoritomo through his wife Hōjō Masako, and became the first shikken in 1203, after Yoritomos death. The shikken was the chief of the mandokoro at that time. Tokimasa became the de facto ruler of the shōgunate by monopolizing decisions for the young shōguns Yoriie and Sanetomo who were the sons of Yoritomo and Masako and thus Tokimasas maternal grandchildren, executing whoever got in his way, family or not.[citation needed] Tokimasas grandson Yoriie and great-grandson were murdered on Tokimasas orders, a year after he replaced the more independent Yoriie with his younger brother Sanetomo as shōgun.[2]
Empress Michiko.  The EmperorThe Empress The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress Emerita Empress Michiko (美智子; born Michiko Shōda [正田 美智子 Shōda Michiko], 20 October 1934) is a member of the Imperial House of Japan who has been the empress emerita of Japan since 1 May 2019. She was the empress of Japan as the wife of Akihito, the 125th emperor of Japan reigning from 7 January 1989 to 30 April 2019. Michiko married Crown Prince Akihito and became Crown Princess of Japan in 1959. She was the first commoner[1] to marry into the Japanese imperial family. She has three children with her husband: Naruhito, Fumihito, and Sayako. Her elder son, Naruhito, is the current emperor. As crown princess and later as empress consort, she has become the most visible and widely travelled imperial consort in Japanese history. Upon Akihitos abdication, Michiko received the new title of Jōkōgō (上皇后), or Empress Emerita.[2]
Kikuko, Princess Takamatsu. Kikuko, Princess Takamatsu (宣仁親王妃喜久子, Nobuhito Shinnōhi Kikuko), born Tokugawa Kikuko (徳川喜久子; 26 December 1911 – 18 December 2004), was a member of the Japanese imperial family. The Princess was married to Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu, the third son of Emperor Taishō and Empress Teimei. She was, therefore, a sister-in-law of Emperor Shōwa and an aunt by marriage of the following emperor, Akihito. She was mainly known for philanthropic activities, particularly her patronage of cancer research organizations. At the time of her death, Princess Takamatsu was the oldest member of the Imperial Family. Born in Tokyo on 26 December 1911, she was the second daughter of Yoshihisa Tokugawa (2 September 1884 – 22 January 1922), a peer, and his wife Princess Mieko of Arisugawa (14 February 1891 – 25 April 1933). Her paternal grandfather was Yoshinobu Tokugawa, Japans last shōgun.[1][2] Her maternal grandfather, Prince Takehito Arisugawa, was the seventh head of the Arisugawa-no-miya, one of the four shinnōke or collateral branches of the Imperial Family during the Edo period entitled to provide a successor to the throne in default of a direct heir. Lady Kikuko Tokugawa received her primary and secondary education at the then-girls department of the Gakushuin. At age eighteen, she became engaged to Prince Takamatsu, who was then third-in-line to the Chrysanthemum Throne. By virtue of her descent from the Arisugawa-no-miya, Lady Kikuko and Prince Takamatsu were related. Both were direct descendants of Emperor Reigen, making them sixth cousins twice removed. Prince Takamatsu was a seven-times great-grandchild of the Reigen Emperor, while Lady Kikuko was a five-times great-grandchild of Reigen. On 4 February 1930, she married Prince Takamatsu at the Tokyo Imperial Palace. The couple had no children. Shortly after the wedding, Prince and Princess Takamatsu embarked upon a world tour, partly to return the courtesies shown to them by King George V of the United Kingdom in sending a mission to Tokyo to present Emperor Shōwa with the Order of the Garter. During their journey, they travelled across the United States so as to strengthen the goodwill and understanding between their nations. The 1930 photo illustration comes from the illustrated biography on Prince Iesato Tokugawa titled The Art of Peace. The photo presents Princess and Prince Takamatsu during their reception by U.S. President Herbert Hoover.[3][4] The Prince and Princess returned to Japan in June 1931 and took up residence in Takanawa in Minato, Tokyo. Following her mothers death from bowel cancer in 1933, Princess Takamatsu became a champion of cancer research. Using money donated by the public, she established the Princess Takamatsu Cancer Research Fund in 1968, organizing symposia and awarding scientists for groundbreaking work.[1][2] She also served as president of an organization extending relief to leprosy patients.[1][2] The Princess also served as the honorary president of the Saiseikai Imperial Gift Foundation Inc., Tofu Kyokai Foundation, Shadan Houjin Tokyo Jikeikai, Nichifutsu Kyokai, and Nichifutsu Kaikan, and as an honorary vice-president of the Japanese Red Cross Society.
Coming of age. Coming of age is a young persons transition from being a child to being an adult. The specific age at which this transition takes place varies between societies, as does the nature of the change. It can be a simple legal convention or can be part of a ritual or spiritual event. In the past, and in some societies today, such a change is often associated with the age of sexual maturity (puberty), especially menarche and spermarche.[1] In others, it is associated with an age of religious responsibility. Particularly in Western societies, modern legal conventions stipulate points around the end of adolescence and the beginning of early adulthood (most commonly 16 and 18 though ranging from 14 to 21) when adolescents are generally no longer considered minors and are granted the full rights and responsibilities of an adult. Some cultures and countries have multiple coming of age ceremonies for multiple ages. Many cultures retain ceremonies to confirm the coming of age, and coming-of-age stories are a well-established sub-genre in literature, the film industry, and other forms of media. These ceremonies can represent acceptance into a larger culture, feelings of importance, legal rights and permissions, or entrance into the marriage landscape, depending on the culture.
First minister. A first minister is any of a variety of leaders of government cabinets. The term literally has the same meaning as prime minister but is typically chosen to distinguish the office-holder from a superior prime minister. Currently the title of first minister is used to refer to the political leader of a devolved national government, such as the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, or of a dependent territory. In Canada, a first minister is any of the Canadian first ministers of the Crown, otherwise known as heads of government, including the Prime Minister of Canada and the provincial and territorial premiers. The title is used in such formulae as first ministers meetings. In Newfoundland and Labrador, the Inuit self-governing region of Nunatsiavut provides for a first minister responsible to the Nunatsiavut Assembly. The head of government of Norway was called first minister (Norwegian: førstestatsråd) between 1814 and 1873, while it was in personal union with Sweden. In 1893, 12 years prior to the dissolution of the union, it was changed to prime minister (statsminister). In the United Kingdom, the term first minister was once used interchangeably with prime minister, such as when Winston Churchill stated: I did not become His Majestys First Minister so that I might oversee the liquidation of the British Empire!
List of countries and dependencies by area.   This is a list of the worlds countries and their dependencies, ranked by total area, including land and water. This list includes entries that are not limited to those in the ISO 3166-1 standard, which covers sovereign states and dependent territories. All 193 member states of the United Nations plus the two observer states are given a rank number. Largely unrecognised states not in ISO 3166-1 are included in the list in ranked order. The areas of such largely unrecognised states are in most cases also included in the areas of the more widely recognised states that claim the same territory; see the notes in the Notes column for each country for clarification. Not included in the list are individual country claims to parts of the continent of Antarctica or entities such as the European Union[a] that have some degree of sovereignty but do not consider themselves to be sovereign countries or dependent territories.
Edo language.  Edo (Ẹ̀dó; English: /ˈɛdoʊ/,[2] West African English: /ˈedo/[3]), also known as Bini, is the language spoken by the Edo people in Edo State, Nigeria. It was the primary language of the Benin Empire and its predecessor, Igodomigodo. It is the majority language spoken in Edo State, particularly in Benin City, and the surrounding local governments and senatorial districts in the Southern parts of the State. Most of the Edo language-speakers live in the Southern parts of Edo State, Nigeria. The current state: Edo State derives its name from the Edo speaking people of the state. A smaller number of Edo speakers are also found in Delta State and Ondo State and in other parts of Nigeria. Edo is an Edoid language. These languages are also spoken in Rivers State and Bayelsa State, Nigeria. There are seven vowels, /i e ɛ a ɔ o u/, all of which may be long or nasal.
Edo. Edo (Japanese: 江戸, lit. bay-entrance or estuary), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo.[2] Edo, formerly a jōkamachi (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the de facto capital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate. Edo grew to become one of the largest cities in the world under the Tokugawa. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government renamed Edo to Tokyo (東京, Eastern Capital) and relocated the Emperor from the historic capital of Kyoto to the city. The era of Tokugawa rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868 is known as the Edo period. Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area. That name for the area first appears in the Azuma Kagami chronicles, which have probably been used since the second half of the Heian period. Edos development started in the late 11th century with a branch of the Kanmu-Taira clan (桓武平氏) called the Chichibu clan (秩父氏) coming from the banks of the then-Iruma River, present-day upstream of the Arakawa river. A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name Edo Shigetsugu (江戸重継), likely based on the name used for the place, and founded the Edo clan. Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the edge of the Musashino Terrace, that would become Edo castle. Shigetsugus son, Edo Shigenaga (江戸重長), took the Tairas side against Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became a gokenin for the Kamakura shogunate. At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of the Southern Court, and its influence declined during the Muromachi period. In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of the Uesugi clan started to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the name Ōta Dōkan. Dōkan lived in the castle until his assassination in 1486. Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, Odawara and other parts of Kanto and the country, Edo expanded as a jōkamachi, with the castle bordering a cove (now Hibiya Park) opening into Edo Bay, and the town developing along the Hirakawa River running into the cove, and on Edomaeto (江戸前島), the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (now roughly where Tokyo Station is). Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after the Ōnin War came to Edo during that period.
Edo people.  The Edo people, also referred to as the Benin people,[3] are an Edoid-speaking ethnic group.[4] They are prominently native to seven southern local government areas of Edo State, Nigeria. They are speakers of the Edo language and are the descendants of the founders of the Benin Kingdom, Ogiso Igodo.[5] They are closely related to other Edoid ethnic groups, such as the Esan, the Etsakọ, the Isoko and Urhobo as well as other southern ethnic groups. The names Benin and Bini are Portuguese corruptions, ultimately from the word Ubini, which came into use during the reign of Oba (ruler) Ewuare, c. 1440. Ubini is an Edo word meaning livable, used by Pa Idu, the progenitor of the Edo state people, to describe the area found as a livable locale during their sojourn from lower Egypt. Ubini was later corrupted to Bini by the mixed ethnicities living together at the centre; and further corrupted to Benin around 1485, when the Portuguese began trade relations with Oba Ewuare giving them coral beads,[6] which the Edo people call Ivie.[7] in Nigeria (green) Edo people can be found in Nigerias Edo State, which got its name from the primary inhabitants of the regions most notable historical conglomeration, Benin City, which is also the central capital homeland of the Edo people. Edo people also have many related groups in their immediate surroundings also encompassed by the political and administrative borders of Edo state.[8] Most of these groups have traced their history back to the historical city center of the Benin people, Benin City. Examples of such adjacent groups include various Afemai sub-groups, the Esan people of Edo state and the Akoko Edo people situated on the states northern borders.[9]
Danish overseas colonies. Danish overseas colonies  and Dano-Norwegian colonies (Danish: De danske kolonier) were the colonies that Denmark–Norway (Denmark after 1814) possessed from 1537 until 1953. At its apex, the colonies spanned four continents: Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America.[1] The period of colonial expansion marked a rise in the status and power of Danes and Norwegians in the Kalmar Union. Danes and Norwegians during this time increasingly saw themselves as citizens of the same State Fatherland (Statsfædrelandet), the realm of the Oldenburg monarchs. In the 17th century, following territorial losses on the Scandinavian Peninsula, Denmark–Norway began to develop forts with trading posts in West Africa, and colonies in the Caribbean, and the Indian subcontinent. Christian IV first initiated the policy of expanding Denmark–Norways overseas trade, as part of the mercantilist wave that was sweeping Europe. Denmark–Norways first colony was established at Tranquebar (Trankebar) on Indias southern coast in 1620. Admiral Ove Gjedde led the expedition that established the colony. After 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark retained what remained of Norways great medieval colonial holdings. Today, the only remaining vestiges are two originally Norwegian dependencies that are currently within the Danish Realm, the Faroe Islands and Greenland; the Faroes were a Danish county until 1948, while Greenlands colonial status ceased in 1953. They are now autonomous territories[2] within the Kingdom of Denmark with home rule, in a relationship referred to as the Unity of the Realm.
Edo State.  Edo is a state in southern Nigeria. Located in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria, the state was ranked as the 20th most populous state (5,250,000) in Nigeria, in 2024. The estimated state population is around 4,777,000 in 2021.[4] Edo State is the 21st largest state by landmass in Nigeria.[5] The states capital and largest city, Benin City, is the fourth largest city in Nigeria and the centre of the countrys rubber industry.[6][7] Created in 1991 from the former Bendel State, it is also known as the heartbeat of the nation.[8] Edo State borders Kogi State to the north for 133 km and across the Niger River for 81 km to the northeast, Anambra State to the east for about four km across the Niger River, Delta State to the southeast and south for 350 km (218 miles), and Ondo State to the west.[9] The modern borders of Edo State[10] encompass regions that were formerly the site of various empires and kingdoms of the second dynasty formed in the 11th century AD, the Benin Empire.[11] The ancient city of Edo, the site of modern-day Benin City,[10] was home to some of the largest earthworks in the world.[12] In 1897, the British Empire conducted a punitive expedition of the region, destroying most of the ancient city of Edo and incorporating the territory into what would become the Southern Nigeria Protectorate.[13][14] Edo State is a diverse state that is predominantly inhabited by the Edoid people, including the Edo (or Bini),[15] Esan, Ora, Akoko-Edo, Ijaw Owan and Afemai people and Igala people among others.[16] The most common Edoid language spoken is the Edo language, which is commonly spoken in Benin City.[17] Christianity is the dominant religion in Edo State.[10] It was first introduced to the region by Portuguese missionaries during the 15th century. Islam and traditional religions are also practised.[18] The Mid-Western Region was a division of Nigeria that came into being in 1963. It was formed in June 1963 from Benin and Delta provinces of the Western Region, and its capital was Benin City.[19] In 1967 when a new 12-state structure was introduced, the region transmuted into Midwest State, remaining territorially intact. This nomenclature lasted until the territory was renamed Bendel state in 1976.[20][21]
Yedda Romualdez. Yedda Marie Mendoza Kittilsvedt-Romualdez (Tagalog pronunciation: [ɾoˈmwɐldɛs], born October 22, 1973) is a Filipina politician,  beauty queen, and nurse. She is currently serving as the representative of Tingog Party List from 2019 to 2025, and since 2025. She had previously represented Leytes 1st district from 2016 to 2019. Her four consecutive terms in Congress have been criticized as a potential violation of the Constitution.[2][3][4] She is the wife of Martin Romualdez, the Speaker of the House. She represented the Philippines at the Miss International 1996 pageant where she placed in the Top 15. Romualdez first competed in the Supermodel of the World-Philippines pageant in 1991 where she was first runner-up to Lorena Pangan.[5] She competed in the Binibining Pilipinas pageant in 1996 but lost to Aileen Damiles. Instead, she became the countrys representative in that years Miss International competition in Japan, where she placed in the Top 15.[6] Romualdez was the representative of the first district of Leyte in the House of Representatives of the Philippines from 2016 to 2019.[7][8] She is also the first nominee of Tingog Sinirangan (now Tingog) partylist and has served as its representative in Congress beginning in 2019.[9] She was re-elected in 2022 but opted to become the sixth nominee in 2025 with her son Andrew Julian Romualdez as the first nominee.[1] The partylist gained only three seats, effectively ending her term in 2025.[10] However, following the resignation of Tingogs third to fifth nominees (Marie Josephine Diana Calatrava, Alexis Yu, and Paul Richard Muncada), Romualdez was elevated to third nominee and reassumed her seat on July 18, 2025, eighteen days after the end of her previous term.[11] Romualdez father is from Norway and her mother is from Cebu. She is a niece of actress Pilar Pilapil who was crowned as Binibining Pilipinas-Universe in 1967.[12] She graduated in nursing from the Cebu Doctors College in Cebu City[5] and is a registered nurse.[6]
Yahoo Answers.  Yahoo! Answers was a community-driven question-and-answer (Q&A) website or knowledge market owned by Yahoo! where users would ask questions and answer those submitted by others, and upvote them to increase their visibility. Questions were organised into categories with multiple sub-categories under each to cover every topic users may ask questions on, such as beauty, business, finance, cars, electronics, entertainment, games, gardening, science, news, politics, parenting, pregnancy, and travel. The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers made the site a target of ridicule.[2][3] On April 5, 2021, Yahoo! announced that Yahoo! Answers would be shutting down.[4][5][6] On April 20, 2021, the website switched to read-only and users were no longer able to ask or answer questions.[4][5][6] The site ceased operations on May 4, 2021. The URL now redirects to the Yahoo! homepage. An unaffiliated Japanese version remains online.[4][5][6][1] The website Yahoo! was officially incorporated on March 2, 1995, and was created by Jerry Yang and David Filo. The website began as a search directory for various websites, and soon grew into an established Internet resource that featured the Yahoo! Answers platform.[7] Yahoo! Answers was launched in mid-2005 for internal alpha testing by Director of Engineering Ofer Shaked.[8][9][10] The beta version Yahoo! Answers was launched to the general public on December 8, 2005[11][12] and was available until May 14, 2006. Yahoo! Answers was finally made available for general availability on May 15, 2006.[13] Yahoo! Answers was created to replace Ask Yahoo!, Yahoo!s former Q&A platform which was discontinued in March 2006.[14] The site gave members the chance to earn points as a way to encourage participation and was based on Navers Knowledge iN. Yahoo! Answers was available in 12 languages, with several Asian language versions operating a different platform which allows for non-Latin characters. An Arabic language Q&A platform called Seen Jeem was available through the Yahoo! subsidiary Maktoob until 2010, and the Chinese language version Yahoo! Knowledge was available until 2021.[15] The platform is known as Yahoo! Chiebukuro (Yahoo!知恵袋) in Japan.[16]
Unincorporated area.  An unincorporated area is a parcel of land that is not governed by a local general-purpose municipal corporation.[1]  They may be governed or serviced by an encompassing unit (such as a county) or another branch of the state (such as the military). There are many unincorporated communities and areas in the United States and Canada, but many countries do not use the concept of an unincorporated area. In Argentina, the provinces of Chubut, Córdoba, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, San Luis, Santa Cruz, Santiago del Estero, Tierra del Fuego, and Tucumán have areas that are outside any municipality or commune. Unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. A local government area (LGA) often contains several towns and even entire metropolitan areas. Thus, aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other unique cases, almost all of Australia is part of an LGA. Unincorporated areas are often in remote locations, cover vast areas, or have very small populations. Postal addresses in unincorporated areas, as in other parts of Australia, normally use the suburb or locality names gazetted by the relevant state or territorial government. Thus, any ambiguity regarding addresses rarely exists in unincorporated areas.
Denmark (disambiguation). Denmark is a constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark, located in Northern Europe. Denmark may also refer to:
List of cities in Benin. The following is a list of cities in Benin according to the 2013 census:[1] Media related to Cities in Benin at Wikimedia Commons
AOL.  AOL (formerly a company known as AOL Inc. and originally known as America Online)[1] is an American web portal and online service provider based in New York City, and a brand marketed by Yahoo! Inc. The service traces its history to an online service known as PlayNET. PlayNET licensed its software to Quantum Link (Q-Link), which went online in November 1985. A new IBM PC client was launched in 1988, and eventually renamed as America Online in 1989. AOL grew to become the largest online service, displacing established players like CompuServe and The Source. By 1995, AOL had about three million active users.[2] AOL was at one point the most recognized brand on the Web in the United States. AOL once provided a dial-up Internet service to millions of Americans and pioneered instant messaging and chat rooms with AOL Instant Messenger (AIM). In 1998, AOL purchased Netscape for US$4.2 billion. By 2000, AOL was providing internet service to over 20 million consumers, dominating the market of Internet service providers (ISPs).[3] In 2001, at the height of its popularity, it purchased the media conglomerate Time Warner in the largest merger in US history. AOL shrank rapidly thereafter, partly due to the decline of dial-up and rise of broadband.[4] AOL was spun off from Time Warner in 2009, with Tim Armstrong appointed the new CEO. Under his leadership, the company invested in media brands and advertising technologies. In 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications for $4.4 billion,[5][6] and was merged with Yahoo! the following year after the latter was also acquired by Verizon.  In 2021, Verizon announced it would sell Yahoo and thus AOL to private equity firm Apollo Global Management for $5 billion.[7]
List of counties in Indiana.  There are 92 counties in the U.S. state of Indiana. Each county serves as the local level of government within its borders. Although Indiana was organized into the United States since the Northwest Ordinance in 1787, its land was not always available for settlement. The Vincennes Tract, Clarks Grant and an area known as The Gore in southeastern Indiana (resulting from the Treaty of Greenville 1795) existed during the Northwest Territory. The remainder of Indiana land was acquired by Indian Removal Act and purchases by treaty between 1804 and 1840. The largest purchase (called Delaware New Purchase or just New Purchase) resulted from the Treaty of St. Marys (1818) which acquired about 1/3 of the state in the central portion. All or most of 35 counties were eventually carved from the area. The oldest counties are generally in the south near the Ohio River, whereas newer ones were in the north in territory acquired later. Many of the final counties were formed subsequent to the acquisition and break up of the Big Miami Reserve (encompassing present day Howard County and parts of surrounding counties) between 1834 and 1840. The oldest and newest counties in Indiana are Knox County, created in 1790, and Newton County, created in 1859.[1] As of the 2024 Census estimates, the population of Indiana was 6,924,275, the average population of Indianas 92 counties is 75,264, with Marion County as the most populous (981,628), and Ohio County (5,996) the least. 54 counties have 30,000 or more people; 17 counties have populations exceeding 100,000, five of which exceed 250,000; and only six counties have fewer than 10,000 people. The average land area is 396 square miles (1,030 km2).[2] The largest county is Allen (657 sq. mi., 1,702 km2) and the smallest is Ohio (86 sq. mi., 223 km2).[3] According to the Constitution of Indiana, no county may be created of less than 400 square miles (1,000 km2), nor may any county smaller than this be further reduced in size, which precludes any new counties.[4] County government in Indiana consists of two bodies, the county council and the commissioners. Many Indiana counties are named for United States Founding Fathers and personalities of the American Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 and Battle of Tippecanoe; early leaders of Indiana Territory and Indiana, as well as surrounding states like Michigan and Kentucky; plus Native American tribes and geographical features.
Danish language.  Nordic Council Danish (endonym: dansk pronounced [ˈtænˀsk] ⓘ, dansk sprog [ˈtænˀsk ˈspʁɔwˀ])[1] is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family spoken by about six million people, principally in and around Denmark. Communities of Danish speakers are also found in Greenland,[5] the Faroe Islands, and the northern German region of Southern Schleswig, where it has minority language status.[6][7] Minor Danish-speaking communities are also found in Norway, Sweden, the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina.[8] Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples who lived in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. Danish, together with Swedish, derives from the East Norse dialect group, while the Middle Norwegian language (before the influence of Danish) and Norwegian Nynorsk are classified as West Norse along with Faroese and Icelandic (Norwegian Bokmål may be thought of as mixed Danish-Norwegian, therefore mixed East-West Norse). A more recent classification[which?] based on mutual intelligibility separates modern spoken Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish as mainland (or continental) Scandinavian, while Icelandic and Faroese are classified as insular Scandinavian. Although the written languages are compatible, spoken Danish is distinctly different from Norwegian and Swedish and thus the degree of mutual intelligibility with either is variable between regions and speakers. Until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Southern Jutland and Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of the printing press, a standard language was developed which was based on the educated dialect of Copenhagen and Malmö.[9] It spread through use in the education system and administration, though German and Latin continued to be the most important written languages well into the 17th century. Following the loss of territory to Germany and Sweden, a nationalist movement adopted the language as a token of Danish identity, and the language experienced a strong surge in use and popularity, with major works of literature produced in the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though regional variants of the standard language exist. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative.
States of Nigeria.  Nigeria is a federation of 36 states, each of which is a semi-autonomous political unit that shares power with the federal government as enumerated under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. In addition to the states, there is the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), in which the capital city of Abuja is located.[1] The FCT is not a state, but a territory of the federal government, governed by an administration headed by a minister. Each state is subdivided into local government areas (LGAs). There are 774 local governments in Nigeria.[2] Under the Nigerian Constitution, the 36 states enjoy substantial autonomy but are not sovereign entities, as ultimate authority lies with the federal government. Amendments to the constitution can be proposed by the National Assembly, but for an amendment to be valid, it must be approved by a two-third majority of the 36 state legislatures, as required under Section 9 of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria.[3] States of Nigeria have the right to organize and structure their individual governments in any way within the parameters set by the Constitution of Nigeria. At the state level, the legislature is unicameral, with the number of its members equal to three times the number of legislators it has in the Federal House of Representatives. It has the power to legislate on matters on the concurrent list. At the state level, the head of the executive is the governor, who has the power to appoint people to the state executive council, subject to the advice and consent of the state house of assembly (legislature). The head of a ministry at the state level is the commissioner, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, who is also a senior civil servant of the state.
History of Denmark.  The history of Denmark as a unified kingdom began in the 8th century, but historic documents describe the geographic area and the people living there—the Danes—as early as 500 AD. These early documents include the writings of Jordanes and Procopius. With the Christianization of the Danes c. 960 AD, it is clear that there existed a kingship. King Frederik X can trace his lineage back to the Viking kings Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth from this time, thus making the Monarchy of Denmark the oldest in Europe.[1] The area now known as Denmark has a rich prehistory, having been populated by several prehistoric cultures and people for about 12,000 years, since the end of the last ice age. Denmarks history has particularly been influenced by its geographical location between the North and Baltic seas, a strategically and economically important placement between Sweden and Germany, at the center of mutual struggles for control of the Baltic Sea (dominium maris baltici). Denmark was long in disputes with Sweden over control of Skånelandene and with Germany over control of Schleswig (a Danish fief) and Holstein (a German fief). Eventually, Denmark lost these conflicts and ended up ceding first Skåneland to Sweden and later Schleswig-Holstein to the German Empire. After the eventual cession of Norway in 1814, Denmark retained control of the old Norwegian colonies of the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Iceland. During the 20th century, Iceland gained independence, Greenland and the Faroes became integral parts of the Kingdom of Denmark and North Schleswig reunited with Denmark in 1920 after a referendum. During World War II, Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany, but was eventually liberated by British forces of the Allies in 1945,[2] after which it joined the United Nations. In the aftermath of World War II, and with the emergence of the subsequent Cold War, Denmark was quick to join the military alliance of NATO as a founding member in 1949. The Scandinavian region has a rich prehistory, having been populated by several prehistoric cultures and people for about 12,000 years, since the end of the last ice age. During the ice age, all of Scandinavia was covered by glaciers most of the time, except for the southwestern parts of what we now know as Denmark. When the ice began retreating, the barren tundras were soon inhabited by reindeer and elk, and Ahrenburg and Swiderian hunters from the south followed them here to hunt occasionally. The geography then was very different from what we know today. Sea levels were much lower; the island of Great Britain was connected by a land bridge to mainland Europe and the large area between Great Britain and the Jutlandic peninsula – now beneath the North Sea and known as Doggerland – was inhabited by tribes of hunter-gatherers. As the climate warmed up, forceful rivers of meltwater started to flow and shape the virgin lands, and more stable flora and fauna gradually began emerging in Scandinavia, and Denmark in particular. The first human settlers to inhabit Denmark and Scandinavia permanently were the Maglemosian people, residing in seasonal camps and exploiting the land, sea, rivers and lakes. It was not until around 6,000 BC that the approximate geography of Denmark as we know it today had been shaped.
List of Nigerian cities by population.  The following are lists of the most populous fully defined incorporated settlements in Nigeria by population. This page consists of three different tables, with different kinds of settlements; a list for defined cities, listing the population, strictly within the defined city limits, a list for urban area population, and another list for the population within metropolitan areas. Nigerian cities are categorized into three types; there is the Metropolis, which is characterized by having more than one Local Government Areas (LGAs). These types of cities are usually formed when large municipalities are split into smaller LGAs, to aid efficient administration and management, when small towns grow and merge into existing large cities, or both; some are also formed when urban areas of multiple LGAs merge as a result of growth and are now fully defined as a single settlement,  Another type of settlement is the Municipality, which is basically an LGA that is fully defined as its own city or town. These types of cities are usually mid-sized, although some large cities also exist as a single LGA. The third type of settlement is the village, which is basically grouped together with several other villages into one sizeable LGA. The following table lists fully defined incorporated cities in Nigeria, with a population of at least 100,000, as declared by the Nigerian National Population Commission after the 2006 National census.[1] This list refers only to the population of individual cities within their defined limits, which does not include other distinct communities or extended suburban areas within urban agglomerations. A city is displayed in bold if it is a state or federal capital, and in italics if it is the most populous city in the state. An urban area is a continuously built-up land mass of urban development that is within a labor market, without regard for administrative or city boundaries. An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of a built environment.
Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry. The Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry (経済産業大臣, Keizai-Sangyou Daijin) is a member of the Cabinet of Japan and is the leader and chief executive of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. The minister is also a statutory member of the National Security Council, and is nominated by the Prime Minister of Japan and is appointed by the Emperor of Japan. The current minister is Yoji Muto, who took office on 1 October 2024. Liberal Democratic   Democratic  
Motoo Hayashi. Motoo Hayashi (林 幹雄, Hayashi Motoo; born January 3, 1947) is a former Japanese politician of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). He served as a member of the House of Representatives in the national Diet from 1993 until 2024, representing the Chiba 10th district; he has previously represented the Southern Kanto proportional representation block and the pre-1996 Chiba 2nd district. A native of Katori District, Chiba, Hayashi graduated the Nihon Universitys College of Arts in 1970. Hayashi began his political career as a secretary to his late father, Taikan Hayashi, who served as chief of the former Environment Agency in the early 1990s. Motoo Hayashi was elected to the assembly of Chiba Prefecture for the first time in 1983 and served for three times. He was elected to the House of Representatives for the first time in 1993. An expert on issues related to Narita International Airport, he was appointed Senior Vice-Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Koizumi Cabinet) in 2003. He has pledged to improve Japans transport network.[1] On August 1, 2008 Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda appointed him to the cabinet position of National Public Chairman, State Minister in Charge of Okinawa and Affairs Related to the Northern Territories.[1] Hayashi is currently serving in the Lower House representing Chibas Tenth District and is a member of Shinzo Abes cabinet with many responsibilities: Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry, Minister in charge of Industrial Competitiveness, Minister in charge of the Response to the Economic Impact caused by the Nuclear Accident, Minister of State for the Nuclear Damage Compensation and Decommissioning Facilitation Corporation.
Isshu Sugawara. Isshu Sugawara (菅原 一秀, Sugawara Isshū; born 7 January 1962) is a former Japanese politician of the Liberal Democratic Party, a former member of the House of Representatives in the Diet (national legislature). Sugawara is a native of Nerima, Tokyo, and a graduate of Waseda University. After an unsuccessful contest in 1990, he was elected to the assembly of Nerima, Tokyo, for the first time in 1991 serving for two terms. Having served in the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly since 1997, he ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives in 2000. He ran again three years later and was elected for the first time in Tokyo 9th district. In Sugawara’s time as Minister of Economy, Trade, and Industry, he vowed to decommission the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant as part of his goal to end all nuclear power plants in Japan by 2030. Sugawara was only Minister of Economy, Trade, and Industry for a month and a half as he resigned from his position. Sugawara became involved in a gift scandal. Sugawara made illegal donations of 802,200 yen to 33 groups and 26 individuals in Tokyo District 9 from 2018-2019. Sugawara’s aide used a portion of the money to buy melons, oranges, roe, royal jelly, flowers, and signed cards as condolence money for families in his district dealing with a death. According to the prosecutors, the rest of the money was used for celebrations. Japan’s Public Offices Election Laws prohibit politicians from giving gifts or money to constitutions. Sugawara’s gift scandal first came to light when the weekly magazine Shukan Bunshun reported that Sugawara’s secretary gave 20,000 yen as condolences to the family of a deceased constituent. After the scandal leaked, Sugawara left the Liberal Democratic Party on June 2. This put the Liberal Democratic Party in a tricky situation, as they were already involved in similar scandals with former ministers. The day after Sugawara removed himself from the Liberal Democratic Party, he was pushed to resign from Minister of Economy Trade and Industry to allow Parliament discussions to continue. At first, the prosecutors at the Tokyo Summary Court did not indict Sugawara because he stepped down as Minister of Economy, Trade, and Industry and apologized. But this was changed as a civil inquest believed Sugawara’s actions warranted indictment. The Tokyo Summary Court made an indictment against him. Sugawara was fined 400,000 yen and was given a civil rights suspension. Under the suspension, Sugawara was not allowed to vote or run for office for three years. His profile on the LPD website:[1] Affiliated to the openly revisionist and monarchist lobby Nippon Kaigi,[2] Sugawara supports the amendment of the Constitution of Japan, and a revision of the Constitution to allow the right of collective self-defense. He is opposed to the project that would allow women in the Imperial family to retain their Imperial status even after marriage, and to the plan to end all nuclear power plants by the end of the 2030s.[3]
List of sovereign states.   The following is a list providing an overview of sovereign states around the world with information on their status and recognition of their sovereignty. The 205 listed states can be divided into three categories based on membership within the United Nations System: 193 UN member states,[1] two UN General Assembly non-member observer states, and ten other states. The sovereignty dispute column indicates states having undisputed sovereignty (189 states, of which there are 188 UN member states and one UN General Assembly non-member observer state), states having disputed sovereignty (14 states, of which there are five UN member states, one UN General Assembly non-member observer state, and eight de facto states), and states having a special political status (two states, both in free association with New Zealand). Compiling a list such as this can be complicated and controversial, as there is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations concerning the criteria for statehood. For more information on the criteria used to determine the contents of this list, please see the criteria for inclusion section below. The list is intended to include entities that have been recognised as having de facto status as sovereign states, and inclusion should not be seen as an endorsement of any specific claim to statehood in legal terms.
Foldable smartphone. A foldable smartphone (also called a foldable phone or simply foldable) is a smartphone with a folding form factor. While folding designs have been used previously in clamshell or flip phone models, the term foldable now generally refers to a newer style featuring flexible displays. Some variants of the concept instead use multiple touchscreen panels connected by a hinge.[1][2] Concepts for such devices date back as early as Nokias Morph concept in 2008 and a concept presented by Samsung Electronics in 2013, which was part of a broader set of ideas using flexible OLED displays. The first commercially available folding smartphones with OLED displays began to appear in 2018. Some devices fold on a vertical axis into a wider, tablet-like form while remaining usable in a smaller, folded state. The display may either wrap around to the back of the device when folded, as seen with the Royole FlexPai and Huawei Mate X, or use a booklet-style design, where the larger, folded screen is located inside and a smaller screen on the cover allows interaction without opening the device, as with the Samsung Galaxy Fold series. Horizontally folding smartphones have also been produced, typically using a clamshell form factor. The first generation of commercially released foldable smartphones faced concerns over durability and their high prices, and they are largely regarded as a gimmick.[3][4][5][6] In 2023, only around 1% of worldwide smartphone ownership were foldable smartphones.[7] In 2006, Polymer Vision showed a roll-able concept and a foldable smartphone, the Readius (zh), at the Mobile World Congress (MWC) which also serves as a reader.[8][9][10] In 2008, Nokia presented animated concepts of a flexible device it dubbed Morph, which had a tri-fold design that could be bended into various forms, such as a large unfolded device, a feature phone-sized unit, and a smart wristband. In a 2019 retrospective on the concept, CNET noted that Morph could be considered a forerunner to the first wave of commercially produced folding phones, as well as a showcase of future possibilities.[11]
Albania (disambiguation). Albania is a country on the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe. Albania may also refer to:
Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary. The Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary (内閣官房副長官, Naikaku-kanbō-fuku-chōkan) is an official in the Japanese government who assists the Chief Cabinet Secretary. Since July 1998 there have always been three Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretaries at any given time. The Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretaries are customarily divided into two types: those responsible for political affairs (政務担当) and those responsible for administrative affairs (事務担当). Since the Obuchi Cabinet, there have been two Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretaries for political affairs and one for administrative affairs. Prior to that, there were one for each.[1] The Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretaries for political affairs are members of the National Diet, one from the House of Representatives and one from the House of Councillors. The position is often given to a protégé or close aide to the Prime Minister. It is considered a gateway to success for mid-career Diet members, as those who serve in it have often been given important cabinet positions afterwards. There are five instances of former Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretaries becoming Prime Minister: Noboru Takeshita, Toshiki Kaifu, Yoshirō Mori, Shinzo Abe and Yukio Hatoyama.[1][2][3] The Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary for administrative affairs is the senior bureaucrat in the government. The position is typically filled by someone who has previously served as administrative vice-minister or in a equivalent role. The main function of this position is to coordinate the bureaucracy. They preside over the administrative vice-ministers liaison conference, a sub-cabinet meeting of the senior bureaucrats of each ministry.[1][2][3] 
Imperial Furniture Collection. The Imperial Furniture Collection (German: Hofmobiliendepot) in Vienna is a furniture museum that houses one of the most important collections of furniture in the world.[1] Today, the museum mainly contains furniture of the Habsburg monarchs. In addition the museum offers an overview of the history of Viennese cabinet making and interior decoration, from purveyors to the Imperial Household to well-known artists of the early 20th century, Adolf Loos, Josef Hoffmann and Otto Wagner, who characterized the domestic architecture of Vienna. The main building is located in Andreasgasse 7 in the 7th Vienna district of Neubau. In 1747, the first Court Furniture Inspector (Hofmobilieninspektor) was entrusted with the inventory control, care and transportation of the furniture belonging to the imperial court of Empress  Maria Theresa. In 1809 this court service was designated as the Court Furniture Directorate (Hofmobiliendirektion) and was responsible for the purchase of new furniture for the imperial household. In 1901 the present building of the Imperial-Royal Court Furniture Depository (k. k. Hofmobiliendepot) on Mariahilfer Straße 88, together with attached workshops and coach houses, was built as a central storage facility for furniture not actually being used. Because the Habsburgs furnished their residences and palaces in accordance with the style of the period and their own aesthetic taste, 160,000 items ended up in the exhibition. Anything that was no longer used, just made its way to the depot. After the end of  the Danube monarchy in 1919 the entire imperial furniture collection was transferred to the Republic of Austria. Part of it was, and is, used for representative purposes, for example for the official residences of the federal presidents.
Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar. Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar (You Albania, you give me honour, you give me the name Albanian) is the national motto of Albania. The phrase was used in the poem O malet e Shqipërisë (O mountains of Albania), written by Naim Frashëri, proclaimed national poet.[1][2]  This Albania-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Indiana.  Indiana (/ˌɪndiˈænə/ ⓘ IN-dee-AN-ə)[15] is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Michigan to the northwest, Michigan to the north and northeast, Ohio to the east, the Ohio River and Kentucky to the south and southeast, and the Wabash River and Illinois to the west. Nicknamed the Hoosier State,[16] Indiana is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the Union as the 19th state on December 11, 1816. Indigenous resistance to American settlement was broken with defeat of the Tecumsehs confederacy in 1813. The new settlers were primarily Americans of British ancestry from the eastern seaboard and the Upland South, and Germans. After the Civil War, in which the state fought for the Union, natural gas attracted heavy industry and new European immigrants to its northern counties. In the first half of the 20th century, northern and central sections experienced a boom in goods manufacture and automobile production. Southern Indiana remained largely rural. After the rise and fall of the Klan in the 1920s, the state swung politically from the Republican to Democratic Party in the New Deal 1930s. Today, with a decades-long record of returning Republican majorities, Indiana is counted a Red state. Indiana has a diverse economy with a gross state product in 2023 of 404.3 billion.[17] Indianapolis is at the center of the states largest metropolitan area, with a population of over two million.[18] The Fort Wayne metro area follows with a population of 645,000.[19] Indiana is home to professional sports teams, including the NFLs Indianapolis Colts, the NBAs Indiana Pacers, and the WNBAs Indiana Fever. The state also hosts several notable competitive events, such as the Indianapolis 500, held at Indianapolis Motor Speedway.
Coat of arms of Albania.  The coat of arms of Albania (Albanian: Stema e Republikës së Shqipërisë) is an adaptation of the flag of Albania and is based on the symbols of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. It features the black double-headed eagle, documented in official use since 1458, as evidenced from a sealed document uncovered in the Vatican Secret Archive (fund: Miscellanea, vol. XXXIX, doc. 2398), addressed to Pope Pius II and co-sealed by notary Johannes Borcius de Grillis.[1]  The stylized gold helmet is partially based on the model of crown-like rank that once belonged to Skanderbeg, currently on display at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, first mentioned in 1593 in the Ambras armory inventory and depicted in 1601/03 in the Armamentarium Heroicum of Jakob Schrenck von Notzing. The ruler of Austria, Ferdinand II, acquired the helmet from the Duke of Urbino, so mentioned in a letter sent to him from the duke, dated 15 October 1578.[2] The helmet as an integral component in the coat of arms was instituted for the first time by the president of the republic Ahmet Zogu on 12 July 1926.[citation needed] The coat of arms of the Republic is described in Article 14 of the Constitution of Albania: The coat of arms of the Republic of Albania represents a shield with a red field and a black two-headed eagle at the center. On top of the shield, in golden color, is placed the helmet of Skanderbeg.[3]
Flag of Albania.   The flag of Albania (Albanian: Flamuri i Shqipërisë) depicts a silhouetted black double-headed eagle in the center of a red background. The red stands for bravery, strength, valour and bloodshed, while the Eagle – traditionally the symbol of Albanians[4] – represents the sovereign state of Albania. The flag was established as the national flag of Albania when the country gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. During John Hunyadis campaign in Niš in 1443, Skanderbeg and a few hundred Albanians defected from the Turkish ranks; for twenty-five years he scored remarkable victories against the Ottomans. He adopted the similar Eastern Roman imperial flag, with the double-headed eagle and the red background, and his victories brought him the papal title Athleta Christi.[6] The eagle was used for heraldic purposes in the Middle Ages by a number of noble families in Albania and became the symbol of the Albanians.[4] The Kastriotis coat of arms, depicting a black double-headed eagle on a red field, became famous when he led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire resulting in the independence of Albania from 1443 to 1479. This was the flag of the League of Lezhë, which was the first unified Albanian state in the Middle Ages and the oldest representative political body in the country with extant records.[7][8][9][10] The symbol of the double-headed black eagle on a red background was re-used by Albanian nationalists during the 19th and early 20th centuries as a symbol of their campaign for their countrys independence from the Ottoman Empire.[11][4][12] In Ottoman territory, the first time it was raised in possibly over 400 years is the Battle of Deçiq (6 April) in the Albanian revolt of 1911. It was raised by the rebellion leader Ded Gjo Luli on the peak of Bratila (present-day Tuzi Municipality) after victory was secured. The phrase Tash o vllazën do t’ju takojë të shihni atë që për 450 vjet se ka pa kush (Now brothers you have earned the right to see that which has been unseen for 450 years) has been attributed to Ded Gjo Luli by later memoirs of those who were present when he raised the flag.[13] It was one of three banners brought to Malësia by Palokë Traboini, student in Austria. The other two banners were used by Ujka of Gruda and Prelë Luca of Triepshi.[14]
Denmark.  – in Europe (light green & dark grey)– in the European Union (light green) Denmark[b] is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,[N 5] also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the autonomous territories of the Faroe Islands and Greenland in the north Atlantic Ocean.[11] Metropolitan Denmark,[N 6] also called continental Denmark or Denmark proper,[12] consists of the northern Jutland peninsula and an archipelago of 406 islands.[13] It is the southernmost of the Scandinavian countries, lying southwest of Sweden, south of Norway, and north of Germany, with which it shares a short border. Denmark proper is situated between the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the east.[N 7] The Kingdom of Denmark, including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, has roughly 1,400 islands greater than 100 square metres (1,100 sq ft) in area; 443 have been named and 78 are inhabited.[14] Denmarks population is over 6 million (1 May 2025),[7] of which roughly 40% live in Zealand, (Sjælland) the largest and most populated island in Denmark proper; Copenhagen, (København) the capital and largest city of the Danish Realm, is situated on Zealand and Amager and Slotsholmen.[15] Composed mostly of flat, arable land, Denmark is characterised by sandy coasts, low elevation, and a temperate climate. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to the other constituent entities to handle their internal affairs. Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948; Greenland achieved home rule in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009.[16] The unified Kingdom of Denmark emerged in the eighth century AD as a maritime power amid the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea.[2] In 1397, it formed the Kalmar Union with Norway and Sweden. This union persisted until Swedens secession in 1523. The remaining Kingdom of Denmark–Norway endured a series of wars in the 17th century that resulted in further territorial cessions. A surge of nationalist movements in the 19th century were defeated in the First Schleswig War of 1848. The adoption of the Constitution of Denmark on 5 June 1849 ended the absolute monarchy. In the Second Schleswig War Denmark lost Schleswig-Holstein, which led to changes in Danish politics henceforth emphasising social cohesion in the diminished realm, as well as the clearing of the vast moors of Jutland for agriculture, new Christian movements split between Indre Mission and  Grundtvig, but generally a stronger self-perception among the people of belonging to a unified country and state. In 1920 North Schleswig became Danish.
Arbërisht (disambiguation). Arbërisht (definite form Arbërishtja) in Tosk Albanian and its unrhotacized variant Arbënisht (definite form Arbënishtja) in Gheg Albanian is the Old Albanian endonym used by the Albanians for their language. It has been gradually replaced by the Albanian endonym shqip since the late medieval times, but still retained by some Albanian varieties to refer to their own speech, in particular by:
Languages of Greece.  The      official language of Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population. In addition, a number of non-official, minority languages and some Greek dialects are spoken as well. The most common foreign languages learned by Greeks are English, German, French and Italian. Modern Greek language (Νεοελληνική γλώσσα) is the only official language of the Hellenic Republic, and is spoken by some 99.5% of the population — about 11,100,000 people[3] (though not necessarily as a first language). Standard Modern Greek is the officially used standard, but there are several non-official dialects and distinct Hellenic languages spoken as well. Regional spoken dialects exist side by side with learned, archaic written forms. All surviving forms of modern Greek, except the Tsakonian language, are descendants of the common supra-regional (koiné) as it was spoken in late antiquity. As such, they can ultimately be classified as descendants of Attic Greek, the dialect spoken in and around Athens in the classical era. Tsakonian, an isolated dialect spoken today by a dwindling community in the Peloponnese, is a descendant of the ancient Doric dialect. Some other dialects have preserved elements of various ancient non-Attic dialects, but Attic Koine is nevertheless regarded by most scholars as the principal source of all of them. Cappadocian Greek (Καππαδοκικά) is a Hellenic language originally spoken in Cappadocia and since the 1920s spoken in Greece. It has very few speakers and was previously thought to be extinct. The Cappadocians rapidly shifted to Standard Modern Greek and their language was thought to be extinct since the 1960s. Cretan Greek is spoken by more than 500,000 people on the island of Crete, as well as in the Greek Diaspora. It is rarely used in written language, and differs much less from Standard Greek than other varieties. The Cretan dialect is spoken by the majority of the Cretan Greeks on the island of Crete, as well as by several thousand Cretans who have settled in major Greek cities, notably in Athens, and in areas settled by Ottoman-era Cretan Greek Muslims (the so-called  Cretan Turks), such as the town of Al-Hamidiyah in Syria.
Himni i Flamurit. Himni i Flamurit (Hymn to the Flag) is the national anthem of Albania, adopted in 1912. Its music is derived from the Romanian patriotic song Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire, composed by Ciprian Porumbescu.[1] The lyrics were written by Albanian poet Asdreni. The anthem was originally titled Betimi mbi Flamur (The Pledge on the Flag).[2] On 21 April 1912, Betimi mbi Flamur was first published as a poem in Liri e Shqipërisë (Freedom of Albania), an Albanian newspaper in Sofia, Bulgaria. It was later printed in a volume of poems by Drenova titled Ëndra e lotë (Dreams and Tears) which was published in Bucharest. According to Lasgush Poradecis memoirs, the anthem, created by the adaptation of the text to the music, was not originally intended to be a national anthem, but it was so well liked by the people that it was proclaimed as the national anthem in 1912, and it was with its music that the Albanian flag was raised during the Albanian Proclamation of Independence in Vlore.[2] A Hungarian composer, György Ligeti, opined that the music composed by Porumbescu is rooted in Germanic and Austrian musical traditions, though this is not a definitive groundbreaking explanation of its influence and later creation. It is a view based on Porumbescus musical education, since he had studied at the University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna. The view has been shared by Albanian musicologist, Ramadan Sokoli.[2] The second half of each verse is considered refrain and is repeated. Usually only the first stanza of the anthem is performed, such as during sporting events. Rreth flamurit të përbashkuar Me një dëshir e një qëllim, Të gjith atij duke u betuar[a] Të lidhim besën për shpëtim. 𝄆 Prej lufte veç ai largohet Që është lindur tradhëtor, Kush është burrë nuk frikohet, Po vdes, po vdes si një dëshmor! 𝄇[b]  Në dorë armët do ti mbajmë, Të mbrojmë atdheun në çdo kënd, Të drejtat tona ne si ndajmë; Këtu armiqtë skanë vend![c] 𝄆 Se Zoti vetë e tha me gojë Që kombe shuhen përmbi dhe, Po Shqipëria do të rrojë;[b] Për të, për të luftojmë ne! 𝄇  O Flamur, flamur, shenj e shenjtë Tek ti betohemi këtu Për Shqipërin atdheun e shtrenjtë,[d] Për nder edhe lavdimn e tu. 𝄆 Trim burrë quhet dhe nderohet Atdheut kush iu bë therror. Përjetë ai do të kujtohet Mbi dhe, nën dhe si një shenjtor! 𝄇[e]
Languages of Italy.   The languages of Italy include Italian, which serves as the countrys national language, in its standard and regional forms, as well as numerous local and regional languages, most of which, like Italian, belong to the broader Romance group. The majority of languages often labeled as regional are distributed in a continuum across the regions administrative boundaries, with speakers from one locale within a single region being typically aware of the features distinguishing their own variety from others spoken nearby.[6] The official and most widely spoken language across the country is Italian, which started off based on the medieval Tuscan of Florence. In parallel, many Italians also communicate in one of the local languages, most of which, like Tuscan, are indigenous evolutions of Vulgar Latin. Some local languages do not stem from Latin, however, but belong to other Indo-European branches, such as Cimbrian (Germanic), Arbëresh (Albanian), Slavomolisano (Slavic) and Griko (Greek). Other non-indigenous languages are spoken by a substantial percentage of the population due to immigration. Of the indigenous languages, twelve are officially recognized as spoken by linguistic minorities:[7] Albanian,[8][9] Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan and Sardinian;[7] at the present moment, Sardinian is regarded as the largest of such groups, with approximately one million speakers, even though the Sardophone community is overall declining.[10][11][12][13][14][15] However, full bilingualism (bilinguismo perfetto) is legally granted only to the three national minorities whose mother tongue is German, Slovene or French, and enacted in the regions of Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and the Aosta Valley, respectively.
Evolutionary biology.  Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes such as natural selection, common descent, and speciation that produced the diversity of life on Earth. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics, and paleontology. The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. The newer field of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) investigates how embryogenesis is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis. Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of biological organization, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by perceived taxonomic group, with fields such as zoology, botany, and microbiology, reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution, and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with evolutionary biology to create subfields like evolutionary ecology and evolutionary developmental biology. More recently, the merge between biological science and applied sciences gave birth to new fields that are extensions of evolutionary biology, including evolutionary robotics, engineering,[1] algorithms,[2] economics,[3] and architecture.[4] The basic mechanisms of evolution are applied directly or indirectly to come up with novel designs or solve problems that are difficult to solve otherwise. The research generated in these applied fields, contribute towards progress, especially from work on evolution in computer science and engineering fields such as mechanical engineering.[5]
Utagawa school. The Utagawa school (歌川派) was one of the main schools of ukiyo-e, founded by Utagawa Toyoharu. It was the largest ukiyo-e school of its period. The main styles were bijin-ga (beautiful women) and uki-e (perspective picture). His pupil, Toyokuni I, took over after Toyoharus death and led the group to become the most famous and powerful woodblock print school for the remainder of the 19th century. Hiroshige,[1] Kunisada, Kuniyoshi and Yoshitoshi were Utagawa students. The school became so successful and well known that today more than half of all surviving ukiyo-e prints are from it. Founder Toyoharu adopted Western-style deep perspective, an innovation in Japanese art. His immediate followers, Utagawa Toyohiro and Toyokuni adopted bolder, more sensuous styles than Toyoharu and specialized in different genres — Toyohiro in landscapes and Toyokuni in kabuki actor prints. Later artists in the school specialized in other genres, such as warrior prints and mythic parodies.[2] It was a Japanese custom for successful apprentices to take the names of their masters.[2] In the main Utagawa school, there was a hierarchy of gō (art-names), from the most senior to junior. As each senior person died, the others would move up a step. The head of the school generally used the gō (and signed his prints) as Toyokuni. When Kunisada I proclaimed himself head of the school (c. 1842), he started signing as Toyokuni, and the next most senior member, Kochoro (a name also previously used by Kunisada I, but not as his chief gō), started signing as Kunisada (Kunisada II, in this case).
Darwins finches.  Darwins finches (also known as the Galápagos finches) are a group of about 18 species of passerine birds.[1][2][3][4] They are well known for being a classic example of adaptive radiation and for their remarkable diversity in beak form and function.[5]  They are often classified as the subfamily Geospizinae or tribe Geospizini. They belong to the tanager family and are not closely related to the true finches. The closest known relative of the Galápagos finches is the South American dull-coloured grassquit (Asemospiza obscura).[6] They were first collected when the second voyage of the Beagle visited the  Galápagos Islands, with Charles Darwin on board as a gentleman naturalist. Apart from the Cocos finch, which is from Cocos Island, the others are found only on the Galápagos Islands. The term Darwins finches was first applied by Percy Lowe in 1936, and popularised in 1947 by David Lack in his book Darwins Finches.[7][8] Lack based his analysis on the large collection of museum specimens collected by the 1905–06 Galápagos expedition of the California Academy of Sciences, to whom Lack dedicated his 1947 book. The birds vary in size from 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in) and weigh between 8 and 38 grams (0.3 and 1.3 oz). The smallest are the warbler-finches and the largest is the vegetarian finch. The most important differences between species are in the size and shape of their beaks, which are highly adapted to different food sources. Food availability was different among the islands of the Galapagos and could also change dramatically due to natural events such as droughts. The birds are all dull-coloured. They are thought to have evolved from a single finch species that came to the islands more than a million years ago.[9] During the survey voyage of HMS Beagle, Darwin was unaware of the significance of the birds of the Galápagos. He had learned how to preserve bird specimens from John Edmonstone while at the University of Edinburgh and had been keen on shooting, but he had no expertise in ornithology and by this stage of the voyage concentrated mainly on geology.[10] In Galápagos he mostly left bird shooting to his servant Syms Covington.[11] Nonetheless, these birds were to play an important part in the inception of Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. On the Galápagos Islands and afterward, Darwin thought in terms of centres of creation and rejected ideas concerning the transmutation of species.[12] From Henslows teaching, he was interested in the geographical distribution of species, particularly links between species on oceanic islands and on nearby continents. On Chatham Island, he recorded that a mockingbird was similar to those he had seen in Chile, and after finding a different one on Charles Island he carefully noted where mockingbirds had been caught.[10] In contrast, he paid little attention to the finches. When examining his specimens on the way to Tahiti, Darwin noted that all of the mockingbirds on Charles Island were of one species, those from Albemarle of another, and those from James and Chatham Islands of a third. As they sailed home about nine months later, this, together with other facts, including what he had heard about Galápagos tortoises, made him wonder about the stability of species.[13][14]
Index of evolutionary biology articles.  This is a list of topics in evolutionary biology. abiogenesis – adaptation – adaptive mutation – adaptive radiation – allele – allele frequency – allochronic speciation – allopatric speciation – altruism –  anagenesis – anti-predator adaptation – applications of evolution – apomorphy – aposematism – Archaeopteryx – aquatic adaptation – artificial selection – atavism Henry Walter Bates – biological organisation – Black Queen hypothesis – Brassica oleracea – breed Cambrian explosion – camouflage – Sean B. Carroll – catagenesis – gene-centered view of evolution – cephalization – Sergei Chetverikov – chronobiology – chronospecies – clade – cladistics – climatic adaptation – coalescent theory – co-evolution – co-operation – coefficient of relationship – common descent – convergent evolution – creation–evolution controversy – cultivar – conspecific song preference
Languages of Albania.  Albania is an ethnically homogeneous country, where the overwhelming majority of the population speaks Albanian, which is also the official language. It has two distinct dialects: Tosk, spoken in the south, and Gheg, spoken in the north. However, many Albanians can also speak foreign languages as Italian, Greek, French, German, and English, amongst others, due to the high numbers of Albanian diaspora and Albanian communities throughout the Balkans. Although many ethnic Albanians (from within Albania and the wider Balkans and diaspora) around the world speak more than two languages and have been recognised as polyglots, Albania is the fourth highest nation in Europe in terms of the percentage of monolingual inhabitants, with 59.9% speaking only one language.[1] Italian is widely spoken throughout Albania. Greek, the language of the Greek national minority, is focused in southern Albania; however, many Albanian nationals speak the Greek language due to immigration. Nowadays, knowledge of English is growing very rapidly, especially among the youth. Various languages are spoken by ethnic minorities: Greek, Bulgarian, Aromanian, Macedonian, etc. The Article 14 of the Albanian Constitution states that The official language in the Republic of Albania is Albanian.[2]  In the 2023 population census, 91.07% reported Albanian as the language spoken at home. 1.54% declared to speak at home another language, 0.57% multiple languages, 1.21% gave no answer and 5.59% were unavailable.[3] Standard Albanian is based in the Tosk dialect, spoken in the south. Gheg is spoken in the north and also by Kosovo Albanians and in Croatia Arbanasi, Upper Reka dialect, Istrian. The traditional border between the two dialects is the Shkumbin River. Although they are somewhat different, they are mutually intelligible.[4][5] Other notable varieties, all of which are sub-dialects of Tosk, include Lab, Cham, Arbëresh spoken in Italy and Arvanitika, Arvanitic in Southern Greece.
Ipomoea nil.  Ipomoea nil is a species of Ipomoea morning glory known by several common names, including picotee morning glory, ivy morning glory, ivy-leaf morning glory, and Japanese morning glory (although it is not native to Japan).[1] It is native to the tropical Americas, and has been introduced widely across the world.[1] Native to Central America and Mexico, the plant is a climber with twining stems up to 5 m long and is dense to scattered with long hairy trichomes. The finely hairy, emerald green leaves are ovate to almost circular, 5 to 14 cm long. The base is heart-shaped, the edge is entire or lobed three to five times, the leaf lobes are pointed or tapering. The species, especially its wild form, is extremely similar to Ipomoea hederacea. The funnel-shaped, colorful flowers (blue to reddish-purple, with whitish tube) are quite showy and are individually up to five in often dense cymose groups, in which fully developed flowers and developing buds stand together. The wild forms are smaller than cultivated forms, and are almost always blue; the cultivated forms come in a wide variety of colors.[1] They open in the morning and close by the afternoon. The long, thorny hairy sepals have a length of 15 to 25 mm, they are long, lanceolate, and have a linear-lanceolate tip. The crown is blue, purple, or almost scarlet red. The throat is often colored white. The crown tube has a length of 3 to 5 cm, the crown hem has a width of 4 to 5 cm. The fruits are almost spherical to spherical capsule fruits with a diameter of 8 to 12 mm. The seeds are pear-shaped and densely covered with short trichomes.
Glossary of ukiyo-e. This is a list of terms frequently encountered in the description of ukiyo-e (浮世絵)-style Japanese woodblock prints and paintings. For a list of print sizes, see below. The Japanese terms for vertical (portrait) and horizontal (landscape) formats for images are tate-e (縦絵) and yoko-e (横絵), respectively. Below is a table of common Tokugawa-period print sizes. Sizes varied depending on the period, and those given are approximate they are based on the pre-printing paper sizes, and paper was often trimmed after printing. Citations Sources
Schools of ukiyo-e artists. Ukiyo-e artists may be organized into schools, which consist of a founding artist and those artists who were taught by or strongly influenced by him.  Artists of the Osaka school are united both stylistically and geographically.[1]  Not all of these artists designed woodblock prints, and some ukiyo-e artists had more than one teacher, and others are not known to be associated with any particular school.
John Gould.  John Gould FRS (/ɡuːld/; 14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881[1]) was an English ornithologist who published monographs on birds, illustrated by plates produced by his wife, Elizabeth Gould, and several other artists, including Edward Lear, Henry Constantine Richter, Joseph Wolf and William Matthew Hart. Because of his 1840s seven-volume series The Birds of Australia and its updates he has been considered the father of bird study in Australia, and the Gould League in Australia is named after him. His identification of the birds now nicknamed Darwins finches played a role in the inception of Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. Goulds work is referenced in Charles Darwins book, On the Origin of Species. John Gould was born in Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, the first son of a gardener.[2] Both father and son probably had little education.[2] After working on Dowager Lady Pouletts glass house,  his father obtained a position on an estate near Guildford, Surrey. In 1818, Gould Snr became foreman in the Royal Gardens of Windsor. Gould became an apprentice for 6 years under the care of J. T. Aiton, of the Royal Gardens of Windsor from the age of 14  to 20 years old.[3] The young Gould started training as a gardener. Employed under his father at Windsor from 1818 to 1824, he was then a gardener at Ripley Castle in Yorkshire. He became an expert in the art of taxidermy. In 1824 he set himself up in business in London as a taxidermist. His skill helped him to become the first curator and preserver at the museum of the Zoological Society of London in 1827.[4][5] Goulds position brought him into contact with the countrys leading naturalists. This meant that he was often the first to see new collections of birds given to the Zoological Society of London. In 1830 a collection of birds arrived from the Himalayas, many not previously described. Gould published these birds in A Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains (1830–1832). The text was by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and the illustrations were drawn and lithographed by Goulds wife Elizabeth Coxen Gould. Most of Goulds work were rough sketches on paper from which other artists created the lithographic plates.[6][7] This work was followed by four more in the next seven years, including Birds of Europe in five volumes.[8] It was completed in 1837; Gould wrote the text, and his clerk, Edwin Prince, did the editing. The plates were drawn and lithographed by Elizabeth Coxen Gould. A few of the illustrations were made by Edward Lear as part of his Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae in 1832. Lear, however, was in financial difficulty, and he sold the entire set of lithographs to Gould. The books were published in a very large size, imperial folio, with magnificent coloured plates. Eventually 41 of these volumes were published, with about 3000 plates. They appeared in parts at £3 3s. a number, subscribed for in advance, and in spite of the heavy expense of preparing the plates, Gould succeeded in making his ventures pay, realising a fortune.[4][9] This was a busy period for Gould who also published Icones Avium in two parts containing 18 leaves of bird studies on 54 cm plates as a supplement to his previous works.[10] No further monographs were published as in 1838 he and his wife moved to Australia to work on the Birds of Australia. Shortly after their return to England, his wife died in 1841. Elizabeth Gould completed 84 plates for Birds of Australia before her death.[11]
Nigeria.  Nigeria,[b] officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.[10] It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi). With a population of more than 230 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the worlds sixth-most populous country. Nigeria borders Niger in the north, Chad in the northeast, Cameroon in the east, and Benin in the west. Nigeria is a federal republic comprising 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where its capital, Abuja, is located. The largest city in Nigeria by population is Lagos, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world and the largest in Africa. Nigeria has been home to several indigenous material cultures, pre-colonial states and kingdoms since the second millennium BC. The Nok culture, c. 1500 BC, marks one of the earliest known civilizations in the region.[11] The Hausa Kingdoms inhabited the north, with the Edo Kingdom of Benin in the south and Igbo Kingdom of Nri in the southeast. In the southwest, the Yoruba Ife Empire was succeeded by the Oyo Empire. The present day territory of Nigeria was home to a vast array of city-states.[12]: 136  In the early 19th century the Fula jihads culminated in the Sokoto Caliphate. The modern state originated with British colonialization in the 19th century, taking its present territorial shape with the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914. The British set up administrative and legal structures and incorporated traditional monarchs as a form of indirect rule.[13] Nigeria became a formally independent federation on 1 October 1960. It experienced a civil war from 1967 to 1970, followed by a succession of military dictatorships and democratically elected civilian governments until achieving a stable government in the 1999 Nigerian presidential election. Nigeria is a multinational state inhabited by more than 250 ethnic groups speaking 500 distinct languages, all identifying with a wide variety of cultures.[14][15][16] The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausa in the north, Yoruba in the west, and Igbo in the east, together constituting over 60% of the total population.[17] The official language is English, chosen to facilitate linguistic unity at the national level.[18] Nigerias constitution ensures de jure freedom of religion,[19] and it is home to some of the worlds largest Muslim and Christian populations.[20] Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Muslims, who live mostly in the north part of the country, and Christians, who live mostly in the south; indigenous religions, such as those native to the Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities, are in the minority.[21] Nigeria is a regional power in Africa and a middle power in international affairs. Nigerias economy is the fourth-largest in Africa, the 53rd-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and 27th-largest by PPP. Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa by its citizens due to its large population and economy,[22] and is considered to be an emerging market by the World Bank. Nigeria is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, NAM,[23] the Economic Community of West African States, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. It is also a member of the informal MINT group of countries and is one of the Next Eleven economies.
List of Utagawa school members. This article contains a list of the members of the Utagawa school of Japanese artists, whose members designed paintings and woodblock prints in the ukiyo-e style from the late Edo period to the end of the Meiji period. The art-names of the artists were not produced through a consistent scheme. The artists of the second generation generally formed their art-names by taking the first kanji of their teachers name, and adding a different second kanji (e.g. Toyoharu, whose student was Toyohiro). Beginning with the third generation, the names were mainly created by starting with the second kanji of the teachers name, and adding another one to it (e.g. Toyokuni and his student Kunisada). However, in some cases during this stage the first kanji of the teachers name was still used for the creation of name (e.g. Toyokuni and Toyoshige). Another, rare, variant was the use of the second kanji of the teachers name as the second kanji of the pupils name (e.g. Toyohiro and Naohiro). Occasionally the same art-name would be re-used by different, un-related artists at different times (e.g. Kunichika or Kunihisa). Equally possible was the use of homonymic names – ones which sound the same, but are written with different kanji (e.g. Hiromasa (広昌) and Hiromasa (広政)). After an event which left a teachers name unused, such as their death, retreat from artistic life, or a change in the art-name they used, the former name was often given to a preferred student. Therefore, some names continued to be used, with numbering to distinguish the various holders (e.g. Kuniteru I, II and III). Sometimes these numbers were used by the artists themselves, and sometimes they have been added much later, by people studying the field.
Introduction to evolution.  In biology, evolution is the process of change in all forms of life over generations, and evolutionary biology is the study of how evolution occurs. Biological populations evolve through genetic changes that correspond to changes in the organisms observable traits. Genetic changes include mutations, which are caused by damage or replication errors in organisms DNA. As the genetic variation of a population drifts randomly over generations, natural selection gradually leads traits to become more or less common based on the relative reproductive success of organisms with those traits. The age of the Earth is about 4.5 billion years.[1][2][3] The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago.[4][5][6] Evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life (covered instead by abiogenesis), but it does explain how early lifeforms evolved into the complex ecosystem that we see today.[7] Based on the similarities between all present-day organisms, all life on Earth is assumed to have originated through common descent from a last universal ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution.[8] All individuals have hereditary material in the form of genes received from their parents, which they pass on to any offspring. Among offspring there are variations of genes due to the introduction of new genes via random changes called mutations or via reshuffling of existing genes during sexual reproduction.[9][10] The offspring differs from the parent in minor random ways. If those differences are helpful, the offspring is more likely to survive and reproduce. This means that more offspring in the next generation will have that helpful difference and individuals will not have equal chances of reproductive success. In this way, traits that result in organisms being better adapted to their living conditions become more common in descendant populations.[9][10] These differences accumulate resulting in changes within the population. This process is responsible for the many diverse life forms in the world. The modern understanding of evolution began with the 1859 publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species. In addition, Gregor Mendels work with plants, between 1856 and 1863, helped to explain the hereditary patterns of genetics.[11] Fossil discoveries in palaeontology, advances in population genetics and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Scientists now have a good understanding of the origin of new species (speciation) and have observed the speciation process in the laboratory and in the wild. Evolution is the principal scientific theory that biologists use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including medicine, psychology, conservation biology, anthropology, forensics, agriculture and other social-cultural applications.
Parasenecio.  Parasenecio is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Senecioneae within the family Asteraceae.[3][4][5][6][7] Most of the species are Asian, but one (P. auriculatus) occurs in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska.[8]  This Senecioneae-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Woodblock printing in Japan. Woodblock printing in Japan (木版画, mokuhanga) is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e[1] artistic genre of single sheets, but it was also used for printing books in the same period. Invented in China during the Tang dynasty, woodblock printing was widely adopted in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1868). It is similar to woodcut in Western printmaking in some regards, but was widely used for text as well as images.  The Japanese mokuhanga technique differs in that it uses water-based inks—as opposed to Western woodcut, which typically uses oil-based inks. The Japanese water-based inks provide a wide range of vivid colors, glazes, and transparency. Woodblock printing was invented in China under the Tang dynasty, and eventually migrated to Japan in the late 700s, where it was first used to reproduce foreign literature.[2] In 764 the Empress Kōken commissioned one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a small woodblock scroll printed with a Buddhist text (Hyakumantō Darani).  These were distributed to temples around the country as thanks for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764. These are the earliest examples of woodblock printing known, or documented, from Japan.[3] By the eleventh century, Buddhist temples in Japan produced printed books of sutras, mandalas, and other Buddhist texts and images. For centuries, printing was mainly restricted to the Buddhist sphere, as it was too expensive for mass production, and did not have a receptive, literate public as a market.  However, an important set of fans of the late Heian period (12th century), containing painted images and Buddhist sutras, reveal from loss of paint that the underdrawing for the paintings was printed from blocks.[4] In the Kamakura period from the 12th century to the 13th century, many books were printed and published by woodblock printing at Buddhist temples in Kyoto and Kamakura.[3] A Western-style movable type printing-press was brought to Japan by the Tenshō embassy in 1590, and was first used for printing in Kazusa, Nagasaki in 1591. However, the use of the western printing press was discontinued after the ban on Christianity in 1614.[3][5] The printing press seized from Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshis forces in 1593 was also in use at the same time as the printing press from Europe. An edition of the Confucian Analects was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press, at the order of Emperor Go-Yōzei.[3][6] Tokugawa Ieyasu established a printing school at Enko-ji in Kyoto and started publishing books using a domestic wooden movable type printing press instead of metal from 1599. Ieyasu supervised the production of 100,000 types, which were used to print many political and historical books. In 1605, books using a domestic copper movable type printing press began to be published, but copper type did not become mainstream after Ieyasu died in 1616.[3]
Shinzo Abe.  Shinzo Abe[a] (21 September 1954 – 8 July 2022) was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan and President of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) from 2006 to 2007 and again from 2012 to 2020. He was the longest-serving prime minister in Japanese history, serving for nearly nine years in total. Born in Tokyo, Abe was a member of the Satō–Kishi–Abe family as the son of LDP politician Shintaro Abe and grandson of prime minister Nobusuke Kishi. He graduated from Seikei University and briefly attended the University of Southern California before working in industry and party posts, and was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1993. Abe was LDP secretary-general from 2003 to 2004 and Chief Cabinet Secretary under Junichiro Koizumi from 2005 to 2006, when he replaced Koizumi as prime minister. Abe became Japans youngest post-war premier, and the first born after World War II. A staunch conservative and member of the Nippon Kaigi organization, which holds negationist views on Japanese history, Abe took strong right-wing stances including downplaying atrocities in textbooks, denying government coercion in the recruitment of comfort women during the war, and seeking revision of Article 9 of the Constitution. In 2007, he initiated the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the US, Australia, and India, aimed at resisting Chinas rise as a superpower. He resigned as premier that year due to his governments unpopularity and illness. After recovering from the illness, Abe staged an unexpected political comeback in 2012, when he was again elected LDP president and led it to a landslide victory in that years election. He became the first former prime minister to return to office since Shigeru Yoshida in 1948. Abe attempted to counter Japans economic stagnation with Abenomics, with mixed results. He was also credited with reinstating the Trans-Pacific Partnership with a new agreement in 2018. In 2015, he passed military reforms which allowed deployment of the Japan Self-Defense Forces overseas, which was highly controversial and met with protests. Abe led the LDP to further victories in the 2014 and 2017 elections, becoming Japans longest-serving prime minister. In 2020, he again resigned as prime minister, citing a relapse of his illness, and was succeeded by Yoshihide Suga. In 2022, Abe was assassinated in Nara while delivering a campaign speech for the upper house elections. The suspect, Tetsuya Yamagami, confessed that the assassination was motivated by Abes ties with the Unification Church. This was the first assassination of a former Japanese prime minister since 1936. A polarizing figure in Japanese politics, Abe was praised by his supporters for strengthening Japans security and international stature, while opponents criticized him for his nationalistic policies and historical revisionism, which they view as threatening Japanese pacifism and damaging relations with China and South Korea.
Genus. Genus (/ˈdʒiːnəs/; pl.: genera /ˈdʒɛnərə/) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family as used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.[1] In binomial nomenclature, the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists. The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however,[2][3] including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera.[4] The term genus comes from Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere (to bear; to give birth to). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera.[5] The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalized. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms, where it is combined with the scientific name of a species: see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology).[6][7]
Asteraceae.  Asteraceae (/ˌæstəˈreɪsi.iː, -ˌaɪ/ ⓘ) is a large family of flowering plants that consists of over 32,000 known species in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchidaceae, and which is the larger family is unclear as the quantity of extant species in each family is unknown. The Asteraceae were first described in the year 1740 and given the original name Compositae.[6] The family is commonly known as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family. Most species of Asteraceae are herbaceous plants, and may be annual, biennial, or perennial, but there are also shrubs, vines, and trees. The family has a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions, in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. Their common primary  characteristic is compound flower heads, technically known as capitula, consisting of sometimes hundreds of tiny individual florets enclosed by a whorl of protective involucral bracts. The oldest known fossils are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian to Maastrichtian) of Antarctica, dated to c. 76–66 million years ago (mya). It is estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian). Asteraceae is an economically important family, providing food staples, garden plants, and herbal medicines. Species outside of their native ranges can become weedy or invasive.
Demographics of Kosovo.  The Kosovo Agency of Statistics monitors various demographic features of the population of Kosovo, such as population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Censuses, normally conducted at ten-year intervals, record the demographic characteristics of the population. According to the last census of the April 2024 by the Kosovo Agency of Statistics, there were 1,588,566 inhabitants, of which 795,552 are men (50.08%) and 790,014 are women (49.92%).[8] The same year, US CIA World Factbook estimate put the countrys population at 1,977,093.[2] According to the first census conducted after the 2008 declaration of independence in 2011, the permanent population of Kosovo was 1,739,825.[9][3]: 12 Kosovo is a fairly ethnically and linguistically homogeneous country. The 2024 census shows that ethnic Albanians make the overwhelming majority of Kosovo, with 91.8% of the population, while minorities include Serbs (2.3%)[a], Bosniaks (1.7%), Turks (1.2%), Ashkali (1%) and other ethnicities all less than 1%.[10] The official languages of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian. Albanian is the native language for 93.67% of the population, while minority languages are also officially recognized in certain municipalities, depending on their ethnic makeup. The main religions of Kosovo are Islam (93.49%), Eastern Orthodoxy (2.31%) and Roman Catholic (1.75%). The average urbanization of Kosovo is at 50.18% with a growing trend.[10]
Higashiōsaka. Higashiōsaka (東大阪市, Higashiōsaka-shi; literally East Osaka City) is a city located in Osaka Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 July 2023[update], the city had an estimated population of 486,464 in 233,124 households and a population density of 7,874 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 61.78 square kilometres (23.85 sq mi). The city is known as one of the industrial cities of Japan and the rugby football town. Higashiōsaka is located in the eastern part of the Osaka Plain, bordered by the Osaka metropolis to the west. Most of the city area is flat lowlands laced with rivers and has been subject to periodic flooding. The main rivers include the Nagase River, Onji River, Tamagushi River, and Daini Neya River. The eastern part of the city rises to the Ikoma Mountains, forming the border with Nara Prefecture. The city measures approximately 11.2 kilometers from east-to-west by 7.9 kilometers from north-to-south.[1] Higashiōsaka has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Higashiōsaka is 15.6 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1475 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.7 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.2 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Higashiōsaka increased rapidly from the 1950s through 1970s, and has leveled off since. The location of Higashiōsaka corresponds to the central part of Kawachi Province. In ancient times, this area was an extension of Osaka Bay called Kawachi Bay, which gradually became separated from the sea and became a lake. The lake gradually became land due to the accumulation of sediment by the Yamato River. During the Kofun and Asuka periods, this was the homeland of the Mononobe clan, and was on the main road between the Yamato Basin and the port at Naniwa, with sea connections to the Asian continent. During the Heian period, the area was largely controlled by Hiraoka Shrine. From the Muromachi period, it was the base of the Hatakeyama clan to control Kawachi Province, but due to internal conflicts it can under the control of the Miyoshi clan. Later it was the site of battles during the 1615 Siege of Osaka. In the Edo Period, flood control projects on the Yamato River created a large amount of reclaimed land, which was developed by wealthy Osaka merchants for rice and cotton production.
Defender (association football).  In the sport of association football, a defender is an outfield player whose primary role is to stop attacks during the game and prevent the opposition from scoring. Defenders fall into four main categories: centre-backs, full-backs, sweepers, and wing-backs. The centre-back and full-back positions are most common in modern formations. The sweeper and wing-back roles are more specialised, often limited to certain formations dependent on the managers style of play and tactics. The centre-back (also known as a central defender or centre-half, as the modern role of the centre-back arose from the centre-half position) defends in the area directly in front of the goal and tries to prevent opposing players, particularly centre-forwards, from scoring. Centre-backs accomplish this by blocking shots, tackling, intercepting passes, contesting headers and marking forwards to discourage the opposing team from passing to them. Centre-backs are often tall and positioned for their ability to win duels in the air. In the modern game, most teams employ two or three centre-backs in front of the goalkeeper. The 4–2–3–1, 4–3–3, and 4–4–2 formations all use two centre-backs. In possession of the ball, centre-backs are generally expected to make long and pinpoint passes to their teammates, or to kick unaimed long balls down the field. For example, a clearance is a long unaimed kick intended to move the ball as far as possible from the defenders goal. Due to the many skills centre-backs are required to possess in the modern game, many successful contemporary central-defensive partnerships have involved pairing a more physical defender with a defender who is quicker, more comfortable in possession and capable of playing the ball out from the back; examples of such pairings have included Carles Puyol and Gerard Pique for Barcelona and Spain,  David Luiz, Gary Cahill, John Terry and Ricardo Carvalho with Chelsea, Sergio Ramos, Raphaël Varane or Pepe with Real Madrid, Diego Godín and José María Giménez with Atlético Madrid and Uruguay, Virgil van Dijk with Liverpool, Nemanja Vidić and Rio Ferdinand with Manchester United, or Giorgio Chiellini, Leonardo Bonucci, and Andrea Barzagli with Juventus.[1][2]
Comune.  A comune (pronounced [koˈmuːne]; pl.: comuni, pronounced [koˈmuːni]) is an administrative division of Italy, roughly equivalent to a township or municipality.[1] It is the third-level administrative division of Italy, after regions (regioni) and provinces (province). The comune can also have the title of città (lit. city).[2] Formed praeter legem according to the principles consolidated in medieval municipalities,[3] the comune is provided for by article 114 of the Constitution of Italy.[4] It can be divided into frazioni, which in turn may have limited power due to special elective assemblies.[5] In the autonomous region of the Aosta Valley, a comune is officially called a commune in French. The comune provides essential public services: registry of births and deaths, registry of deeds, and maintenance of local roads and public works.[6][7][8] Many comuni have a Polizia Comunale (lit. Communal Police), which is responsible for public order duties.[9] The comune also deal with the definition and compliance with the piano regolatore generale (lit. general regulator plan), a document that regulates the building activity within the communal area.[10]
Animal (disambiguation). An animal is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Animal, Animals, or The Animal may also refer to:
Cerezo Osaka. Cerezo Osaka (セレッソ大阪, Seresso Ōsaka) is a Japanese professional football club based in Osaka. The club currently plays in the J1 League, which is the top tier of football in the country. The clubs name (Spanish: Cerezo, lit. cherry blossom) also represents the flower of the city of Osaka.[2] The official hometowns of the club are Osaka and Sakai. There exists a local rivalry with Suita-based Gamba Osaka. The club, originally called Yanmar Diesel, started in 1957 as the company team of Yanmar and was an original founder (Original Eight[a]) of the now-disbanded Japan Soccer League (JSL) in 1965. With four Japanese league titles to its credit, it was a mainstay of the JSL Division 1 until 1990 when it was first relegated, and joined the former Japan Football League (JFL) in 1992. In 1993, the club incorporated as Osaka Football Club Co., Ltd. and adopted the name Cerezo Osaka after a public contest.[3] In 1994, they won the Japan Football League championship and was promoted to the J1 League in 1995. This also coincided with a run to the finals of the Emperors Cup, which they lost to Bellmare Hiratsuka.
Animalia (disambiguation). Animalia is the taxonomic kingdom comprising all animals. Animalia may also refer to:
Provinces of Italy.  The provinces (Italian: province [proˈvintʃe]; sing. provincia [proˈvintʃa] ⓘ) are the second-level administrative divisions of the Italian Republic, on an intermediate level between a municipality (comune) and a region (regione). Since 2015, provinces have been classified as institutional bodies of second level.[1] There are currently 110 institutional bodies of second level in Italy, including 82 ordinary provinces, 2 autonomous provinces, 4 regional decentralization entities, 6 free municipal consortia, and 15 metropolitan cities, as well as the Aosta Valley region (which also exercises the powers of a province). Italian provinces (with the exception of the current Sardinian provinces) correspond to the NUTS 3 regions.[2] A province of the Italian Republic is composed of many municipalities (comune). Usually several provinces together form a region; the region of Aosta Valley is the sole exception—it is not subdivided into provinces, and provincial functions are exercised by the region.
Hidden sector. In particle physics, the hidden sector, also known as the dark sector, is a hypothetical collection of yet to be observed quantum fields and their corresponding hypothetical particles. The interactions between the hidden sector particles and the Standard Model particles are weak, indirect, and typically mediated through gravity or other new particles. Examples of new hypothetical mediating particles in this class of theories include the dark photon, sterile neutrino, and axion. In many cases, hidden sectors include a new gauge group that is independent from the Standard Model gauge group. The hidden sectors are commonly predicted by the models from string theory. They may be relevant as a source of dark matter[1] and supersymmetry breaking, solving the Muon g-2 anomaly and beryllium-8 decay anomaly.[2]  This particle physics–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Minamiakita District, Akita. Minamiakita District (南秋田郡, Minamiakita-gun) is a rural district located in Akita Prefecture, Japan. As of April 2022, the district has an estimated population of 21,449 and an area of 449.94 km2.[1] All of the cities of Oga and Katagami and part of the city of Akita were formerly part of Minamiakita District. The area of Minamiakita District was formerly part of Akita District [ja], Dewa Province, and came under the new province of Ugo Province on January 19, 1869 following the Meiji restoration. At the time, the area consisted of 2 towns and 166 villages formerly under the control of Kubota Domain, based at Akita. The area became part of Akita Prefecture in 1871, and was organized as Minamiakita District in 1878. With the establishment of the municipality system on April 1, 1889, one town (Tsuchizaki Minato) and 35 villages were established. Funakawa Minato was raised to town status on October 24, 1894, followed by Gojōme on January 19, 1896 and Kitaura on June 4, 1902. Funakoshi became a town on December 20, 1904, followed by Okubo on April 1, 1924 and Hitoichi on December 1, 1925 and Terauchi on August 1, 1933, Iitagawa on November 30, 1935. Tsuchizaki Minato and Terauchi were annexed by Akita City on April 1, 1941 and the towns of Iitagawa and Okubo joined to form the town of Showa on March 24, 1942. However, on September 28, 1950 a portion of the town of Showa split away to re-create the town of Iitagawa. The town of Funakawa merged with four neighboring villages to create the city of Oga on March 31, 1954, which subsequently annexed the towns of Funakoshi and Kitaura on March 1, 1955. On September 30, 1956, Hitoichi was renamed Hachirōgata. Tenno was raised to town status on November 3, 1961, followed by Wakami on November 1, 1970 and Iikawa on August 1, 1974.
Botany.  Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially their anatomy, taxonomy, and ecology.[1] A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field. Plant and botany may be defined more narrowly to include only land plants and their study, which is also known as phytology. Phytologists or botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants, including some 391,000 species of vascular plants (of which approximately 369,000 are flowering plants)[2] and approximately 20,000 bryophytes.[3] Botany originated as prehistoric herbalism to identify and later cultivate plants that were edible, poisonous, and medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation.[citation needed] Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species. In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st-century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity.
Cryogenian.  The Cryogenian (from Ancient Greek: κρύος, romanized: krýos, meaning cold and γένεσις, romanized: génesis, meaning birth) is a geologic period that lasted from 720 to 635 million years ago.[6] It is the second of the three periods of the Neoproterozoic era, preceded by the Tonian and followed by the Ediacaran. The Cryogenian was a time of drastic climate changes. After the long environmental stability/stagnation during the Boring Billion, the Sturtian glaciation began at the beginning of Cryogenian, freezing the entire planet in a state of severe icehouse climate known as a snowball Earth. After 70 million years it ended, but was quickly followed by another global ice age, the Marinoan glaciation. There is controversy over whether these glaciations indeed covered the entire planet, or whether a band of open sea survived near the equator (i.e. slushball Earth), but the extreme climates with massive expanse of ice sheets blocking off sunlight would nevertheless have significantly hindered primary production in the shallow seas and caused major mass extinctions and biosphere turnovers.[citation needed] The Cryogenian Period was ratified in 1990 by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.[7] In contrast to most other time periods, the beginning of the Cryogenian is not linked to a globally observable and documented event. Instead, the base of the period is defined by a fixed rock age, that was originally set at 850 million years,[8] but changed in 2015 to 720 million years.[6] This could cause ambiguity because estimates of rock age are subject to variable interpretation and laboratory error. For instance, the time scale of the Cambrian Period is not reckoned by rock younger than a given age (538.8 million years), but by the appearance of the worldwide Treptichnus pedum diagnostic trace fossil assemblages, which can be recognized in the field without extensive lab testing.[9]
Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol.  Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol[6] (Italian: Trentino-Alto Adige [trenˈtiːno ˈalto ˈaːdidʒe]; Austrian German: Trentino-Südtirol;[7] Ladin: Trentin-Südtirol[8]), often known in English as Trentino-South Tyrol[9] or by its shorter Italian name Trentino-Alto Adige,[10][a] is an autonomous region of Italy, located in the northern part of the country. The region has a population of nearly 1.1 million, of whom 62% speak Italian as their mother tongue (in areas where the local languages are transition dialects between Eastern Lombard and Venetian), 30% speak German (around 93% of whom are fluent in the local South Tyrolean dialect of Bavarian), and the remaining are minority speakers of Ladin, Mòcheno or Cimbrian and immigrant communities speaking several foreign languages.[14][15] Since the 1970s, most legislative and administrative powers have been transferred to the two self-governing provinces that make up the region: the province of Trento, commonly known as Trentino, and the province of Bolzano, commonly known as South Tyrol (Italian: Alto Adige; German: Südtirol). In South Tyrol, German remains the sizeable majority language. From the 9th century until 1801, the region was part of the Holy Roman Empire. After being part of the short-lived Napoleonic Republic of Italy and Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, the region was part of the Austrian Empire and its successor Austria-Hungary from 1815 until its 1919 transfer to Italy in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye at the end of World War I. Together with the Austrian state of Tyrol, it is part of the Euroregion of Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino. The Romans conquered the region in 15 BC. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, it was divided between the invading Germanic tribes in the Lombard Duchy of Tridentum (todays Trentino), the Alamannic Vinschgau, and the Bavarians (who took the remaining part). After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy under Charlemagne, the Marquisate of Verona included the areas south of Bolzano, while the Duchy of Bavaria received the remaining part.[16] From the 11th century onwards, part of the region was governed by the prince-bishops of Trent and Brixen, to whom the Holy Roman Emperors had given extensive temporal powers over their bishoprics. Soon, they were overruled by the Counts of Tyrol and Counts of Görz, who also controlled the Puster Valley: in 1363 its last titular, Margarete, Countess of Tyrol ceded the region to the House of Habsburg. The regions north of Salorno were largely Germanized in the early Middle Ages, and important German poets like Arbeo of Freising and Oswald von Wolkenstein were born and lived in the southern part of Tyrol.[17]
Aspyr.  Aspyr Media, Inc. (pronounced aspire) is an American video game developer and publisher founded by Michael Rogers and Ted Staloch in Austin, Texas. Originally founded to port gaming titles to macOS,[1] the company, since 2005, has become a publisher and developer of entertainment for multiple gaming platforms.[2] Aspyr was acquired by Embracer Group in February 2021. Initially placed within Embracers Saber Interactive division, Aspyr later became a direct subsidiary of Embracer after Saber was divested in March 2024.[3][4] In 1996, Aspyr Media, Inc., was established by Michael Rogers and Ted Staloch[5] in Austin, Texas. Staloch, who had a background in sales and marketing and Rogers, who worked with TechWorks, noticed that there was a lack of gaming titles available to Mac owners and set out to change it.[1]  According to Rogers, when naming the company, they “wanted something meaning ‘to aspire and be great’” and also “memorable and unique.” Aspyr made its name specializing in porting video games from Microsoft Windows to macOS.[6] By 2003, they owned 60 percent of the Mac entertainment market.[7] In 2005, Aspyr partnered with Alex Seropian of Wideload Games and released their first originally-published AAA game, Stubbs The Zombie, to Mac OS, Windows and Xbox.[8] In 2014 they started porting titles to Linux,[9][10] releasing titles such as Civilization V and Civilization VI as well as Borderlands: The Pre-Sequel and Borderlands 2. They dropped support for the Linux version of Borderlands 2 in September 2020 and have not released subsequent Linux ports. They also published Layers of Fear, Observer and InnerSpace for that platform by other developers.
Sanfrecce Hiroshima.  Sanfrecce Hiroshima (Japanese: サンフレッチェ広島, romanized: Sanfuretche Hiroshima) is a Japanese professional football club based in Hiroshima. The club competes in the J1 League, top flight of the Japanese football league system. Sanfrecce is one of the most successful clubs in Japan. The club is the joint fourth in most J1 League titles with three, the joint first in most top-flight titles (which includes the defunct Japan Soccer League), with eight, and the club with the most participations in Emperors Cup finals, with 15. Sanfrecce have won three J1 League, three Emperors Cup, one J.League Cup and four Japanese Super Cup titles. Internationally, the club has made two appearances in the FIFA Club World Cup, with their most recent appearance being in the 2015 edition. The club was a former company team of Toyo Kogyo Soccer Club (東洋工業サッカー部) in 1938 and played in the semi-professional Japan Soccer League. The club was an original founder (Original Eight[a]) of the now-disbanded Japan Soccer League (JSL) in 1965. They dominated the JSLs early years, winning the title 4 times in a row – a feat that was later equaled by Yomiuri SC/Verdy Kawasaki. The name change was made at Mazda SC (マツダSC) in 1981.
Digital Extremes. Digital Extremes Ltd. is a Canadian video game developer founded in 1993 by James Schmalz. They are best known for creating Warframe, a free-to-play cooperative online action game, and co-creating Epic Games Unreal series of games. Digital Extremes is headquartered in London, Ontario. In 2014, 61% of the company was sold to Chinese holding company Multi Dynamic, now Leyou, for $73 million.[3] In May 2016 Leyou exercised a call option and increased their stake to 97% of Digital Extremes for a total consideration of $138.2 million US.[4] In December 2020, Tencent bought Leyou for 1.3 billion dollars, which included the majority stake in Digital Extremes that Leyou held. Founder James Schmalz created Epic Pinball, published by then shareware publisher Epic MegaGames. Bolstered from the success of Epic Pinball[5] and the rising technology movement in the mid-90s toward realistic 3D graphics, Schmalz founded Digital Extremes in 1993 and the company began co-development with Epic on what would become Epics Unreal franchise.[6] Unreal is a first-person shooter, released in 1998, and was followed up with Unreal Tournament in 1999, which received numerous industry awards.[7] Subsequent sequels in the Unreal franchise include Unreal Championship, Unreal Tournament 2003, and Unreal Tournament 2004. The Unreal series has sold more than 15 million units worldwide across Windows, Mac, PlayStation 2, Dreamcast, Xbox, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and other platforms. According to Scott Miller, the co-founder of the video game company 3D Realms, Digital Extremes was willing to take over development of their much-delayed game Duke Nukem Forever in 2004, but the proposal was rejected by others at 3D Realms, which Miller described as a fatal suicide shot for the project.[8] Digital Extremes released the original third-person shooter, Dark Sector, in 2008 for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Windows. It uses the proprietary Evolution Engine.
Regions of Italy.  The regions (Italian: regioni; sing. regione) are the first-level administrative divisions of the Italian Republic, constituting its second NUTS administrative level.[1] There are twenty regions, five of which are autonomous regions with special status. Under the Constitution of Italy, each region is an autonomous entity with defined powers. With the exception of the Aosta Valley (since 1945), each region is divided into a number of provinces. During the Kingdom of Italy, regions were mere statistical districts of the central state. Under the Republic, they were granted a measure of political autonomy by the 1948 Italian Constitution. The original draft list comprised the Salento region (which was eventually included in Apulia); Friuli and Venezia Giulia were separate regions, and Basilicata was named Lucania. Abruzzo and Molise were identified as separate regions in the first draft, but were later merged into Abruzzi e Molise in the final constitution of 1948, before being separated in 1963. Implementation of regional autonomy was postponed until the first Regional elections of 1970. The ruling Christian Democracy party did not want the opposition Italian Communist Party to gain power in the regions where it was historically rooted (the red belt of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria and the Marches). Regions acquired a significant level of autonomy following a constitutional reform in 2001 (brought about by a centre-left government and confirmed by popular referendum), which granted them residual policy competence. A further federalist reform was proposed by the regionalist party Lega Nord and in 2005, the centre-right government led by Silvio Berlusconi proposed a new reform that would have greatly increased the power of regions.[2]
Early Jurassic. The Early Jurassic Epoch (in chronostratigraphy corresponding to the Lower Jurassic Series) is the earliest of three epochs of the Jurassic Period. The Early Jurassic starts immediately after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, 201.3 Ma (million years ago), and ends at the start of the Middle Jurassic 174.7 ±0.8 Ma. Certain rocks of marine origin of this age in Europe are called Lias and that name was used for the period, as well, in 19th-century geology.[4] In southern Germany rocks of this age are called Black Jurassic. There are two possible origins for the name Lias: the first reason is it was taken by a geologist from an English quarrymans dialect pronunciation of the word layers;[5] secondly, sloops from north Cornish ports such as Bude would sail across the Bristol Channel to the Vale of Glamorgan to load up with rock from coastal limestone quarries (lias and Carboniferous limestone from South Wales was used throughout North Devon/North Cornwall as it contains calcium carbonate to sweeten (i.e.neutralise) the acidic Devonian and Carboniferous soils of the West Country); the Cornish would pronounce the layers of limestone as laiyers or lias; leac  is Gaelic for flat stone.[5] There has been some debate[6] over the actual base of the Hettangian Stage, and so of the Jurassic System itself. Biostratigraphically, the first appearance of psiloceratid ammonites has been used; but this depends on relatively complete ammonite faunas being present, a problem that makes correlation between sections in different parts of the world difficult. If this biostratigraphical indicator is used, then technically the Lias Group—a lithostratigraphical division—spans the Jurassic / Triassic boundary. There are extensive Liassic outcrops around the coast of the United Kingdom, in particular in Glamorgan, North Yorkshire and Dorset. The Jurassic Coast of Dorset is often associated with the pioneering work of Mary Anning of Lyme Regis. The facies of the Lower Jurassic in this area are predominantly of clays, thin limestones and siltstones, deposited under fully marine conditions.
D3 Publisher. D3 Publisher Inc.[a] is a Japanese video game developer and publisher founded on February 5, 1992.[1] The company is known for the Simple series of budget-priced video games. Their games have been released for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, Nintendo 3DS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, GameCube, Wii, Xbox, Xbox 360, Wii U, Android, and iOS. In September 2002, D3 Published formed a new joint-venture development/publishing subsidiary with Sega called 3D Ages with D3 Publisher holding a 49% stake in the new joint-venture unit.[2] Between 2007 and 2014, D3 Publisher owned a North Carolina–based game development studio Vicious Cycle Software.[3][4] In 2009, Bandai Namco Holdings gained a controlling share of D3 and currently owns 95% of its stock.[5][6] After the bankruptcy of Midway Games, the company became the publisher of Cartoon Network games from 2009 until 2014, when American publisher Little Orbit took control. Both D3Publisher and Cartoon Network worked on games based on licenses such as Ben 10 and Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi before that.[7] In 2015, D3 Publisher announced that D3 Publisher of America Inc. would rebrand as D3 Go! and that it would no longer publish video games but focus on publishing mobile games, but D3 Publisher Inc. in Japan would remain the same.[8] D3 Go! is also expected to release some games from D3 Publisher Inc.[9] On June 27, 2022, 505 Games announced that they have acquired the assets of D3 Go![10]
Proterozoic.  The Proterozoic (IPA: /ˌproʊtərəˈzoʊɪk, ˌprɒt-, -əroʊ-, -trə-, -troʊ-/ PROH-tər-ə-ZOH-ik, PROT-, -⁠ər-oh-, -⁠trə-, -⁠troh-)[3][4][5] is the third of the four geologic eons of Earths history, spanning the time interval from 2500 to 538.8 Ma,[6] and is the longest eon of Earths geologic time scale. It is preceded by the Archean and followed by the Phanerozoic, and is the most recent part of the Precambrian supereon. The Proterozoic is subdivided into three geologic eras (from oldest to youngest): the Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic.[7] It covers the time from the appearance of free oxygen in Earths atmosphere to just before the proliferation of complex life on the Earth during the Cambrian Explosion. The name Proterozoic combines two words of Greek origin: protero- meaning former, earlier, and -zoic, meaning of life.[8] Well-identified events of this eon were the transition to an oxygenated atmosphere during the Paleoproterozoic; the evolution of eukaryotes via symbiogenesis; several global glaciations, which produced the 300 million years-long Huronian glaciation (during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic) and the hypothesized Snowball Earth (during the Cryogenian period in the late Neoproterozoic); and the Ediacaran period (635–538.8 Ma), which was characterized by the evolution of abundant soft-bodied multicellular organisms such as sponges, algae, cnidarians, bilaterians and the sessile Ediacaran biota (some of which had evolved sexual reproduction) and provides the first obvious fossil evidence of life on Earth. The geologic record of the Proterozoic Eon is more complete than that for the preceding Archean Eon. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of those rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean rocks, and many are unaltered.[9]: 315  Studies of these rocks have shown that the eon continued the massive continental accretion that had begun late in the Archean Eon. The Proterozoic Eon also featured the first definitive supercontinent cycles and wholly modern[clarify] mountain building activity (orogeny).[9]: 315–318, 329–332
Phanerozoic.  The Phanerozoic[5] is the current and the latest of the four geologic eons in the Earths geologic time scale, covering the time period from 538.8 million years ago to the present.[1] It is the eon during which abundant animal and plant life has proliferated, diversified and colonized various niches on the Earths surface, beginning with the Cambrian period when animals first developed hard shells that can be clearly preserved in the fossil record. The time before the Phanerozoic, collectively called the Precambrian, is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons. The time span of the Phanerozoic starts with the sudden appearance of fossilised evidence of a number of animal phyla; the evolution of those phyla into diverse forms; the evolution of plants; the evolution of fish, arthropods and molluscs; the terrestrial colonization and evolution of insects, chelicerates, myriapods and tetrapods; and the development of modern flora dominated by vascular plants. During this time span, tectonic forces which move the continents had collected them into a single landmass known as Pangaea (the most recent supercontinent), which then separated into the current continental landmasses. The term Phanerozoic was coined in 1930 by the American geologist George Halcott Chadwick (1876–1953),[6][7] deriving from the Ancient Greek words φανερός (phanerós), meaning visible; and ζωή (zōḗ), meaning life. This is because it was once believed that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon, due to the lack of Precambrian fossil record back then.  However, trace fossils of booming complex life from the Ediacaran period (Avalon explosion) of the preceding Proterozoic eon have since been discovered, and the modern scientific consensus now agrees that complex life (in the form of placozoans and primitive sponges such as Otavia) has existed at least since the Tonian period and the earliest known life forms (in the form of simple prokaryotic microbial mats) started in the ocean floor during the earlier Archean eon. The Proterozoic–Phanerozoic boundary is at 538.8 million years ago.[1] In the 19th century, the boundary was set at time of appearance of the first abundant animal (metazoan) fossils, but trace fossils of several hundred groups (taxa) of complex soft-bodied metazoa from the preceding Ediacaran period of the Proterozoic eon, known as the Avalon Explosion, have been identified since the systematic study of those forms started in the 1950s.[8][9] The transition from the largely sessile Precambrian biota to the active mobile Cambrian biota occurred early in the Phanerozoic.
Gamba Osaka.  Gamba Osaka (ガンバ大阪, Ganba Ōsaka) is a Japanese professional football club based in Suita, Osaka Prefecture. The club plays in the J1 League, which is the top tier of football in the country. The clubs home stadium is Panasonic Stadium Suita. They form a local rivalry with Osaka city-based Cerezo Osaka. Gamba is among the most accomplished Japanese clubs, having won 2 J1 League titles, 1 J2 League title, 2 J.League Cup and 2 Japanese Super Cup titles. Continentally, they have won the 2008 AFC Champions League. Internationally, the club has made a single appearance in the FIFA Club World Cup with their most recent appearance being in the 2008 edition finishing in third place. The clubs name Gamba comes from the Japanese ganbaru (頑張る), meaning to do your best or to stand firm. It was founded in 1980 as Matsushita Electric SC by the mononymous company, which is now known as Panasonic, in Nara Prefecture and became a member of the Japan Soccer League.[1] It was mostly made of remaining players and staff of the defunct Yanmar Club, the former B-team of Yanmar Diesel SC, later to be known as Cerezo Osaka. Gamba Osaka was an original member (Original Ten[a]) of the first J.League season.[1] Due to participation in the J League, the club name was changed to Panasonic Gamba Osaka in 1992.
Agricultural hydrology.  Agricultural hydrology is the study of water balance components intervening in agricultural water management, especially in irrigation and drainage.[1] The water balance components can be grouped into components corresponding to zones in a vertical cross-section in the soil forming reservoirs with inflow, outflow and storage of water:[2] The general water balance reads: and it is applicable to each of the reservoirs or a combination thereof.
Recoil (band).  Recoil is a musical project created by English musician and former Depeche Mode member Alan Wilder. Essentially a solo venture, Recoil began whilst Wilder was still in Depeche Mode as an outlet for his experimental, less pop-oriented compositions. Once he announced his departure from the group in 1995, Recoil became Wilders primary musical enterprise. Recoil began in 1986, when Daniel Miller (record producer and founder of Mute Records) heard some of Alan Wilders demo recordings, which he had made on a 4-track cassette Portastudio. These recordings were substantially different from anything Depeche Mode had released—whilst they were still created using synthesizers and sampling, they featured little of Depeche Modes catchy pop songwriting, instead opting for an experimental, John Cage-esque style. Due to the primitive and decidedly uncommercial nature of these pieces, Wilder and the record label decided to release the album inconspicuously, naming it 1 + 2. It eventually came out in mid-1986, not long after the release of Depeche Modes well-received Black Celebration. In January 1988, during the middle of Depeche Modes hugely successful Music for the Masses tour, Mute released the second Recoil album, Hydrology. This followed in a similar vein to the previous Recoil record, consisting of entirely instrumental, synthesized landscapes. Unfortunately, due to Wilders busy touring schedule, he was unable to effectively promote the record. Recoils first single was from its third album Bloodline, a cover of the Sensational Alex Harvey Bands Faith Healer, with Douglas McCarthy from Nitzer Ebb on vocals. McCarthy would later reappear for two songs on the next album, Unsound Methods, including the single Stalker. 1997s Unsound Methods was the first release after Wilders decision to leave Depeche Mode. The fifth album, Liquid, was released in 2000.
Holocene. The Holocene (/ˈhɒl.əsiːn, -oʊ-, ˈhoʊ.lə-, -loʊ-/)[2][3] is the current geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago.[4] It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat.[4] The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene[5] together form the Quaternary period. The Holocene is an interglacial period within the ongoing glacial cycles of the Quaternary, and is equivalent to Marine Isotope Stage 1. The Holocene correlates with the last maximum axial tilt towards the Sun of the Earths obliquity. The Holocene corresponds with the rapid proliferation, growth, and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all of its written history, technological revolutions, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition towards urban living in the present. The human impact on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for the future evolution of living species, including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence, or more recently hydrospheric and atmospheric evidence of the human impact. Following the extinction of most large terrestrial mammals outside of Africa during the preceding Late Pleistocene, the ecosystems of the Holocene continued to be impacted by extinctions (the ongoing Holocene extinction), largely of human causation. In July 2018, the International Union of Geological Sciences split the Holocene Epoch into three distinct ages based on the climate, Greenlandian (11,700 years ago to 8,200 years ago), Northgrippian (8,200 years ago to 4,200 years ago) and Meghalayan (4,200 years ago to the present), as proposed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.[6] The oldest age, the Greenlandian, was characterized by a warming following the preceding ice age. The Northgrippian Age is known for vast cooling due to a disruption in ocean circulations that was caused by the melting of glaciers. The most recent age of the Holocene is the present Meghalayan, which began with extreme drought that lasted around 200 years.[6] The word Holocene was formed from two Ancient Greek words. Hólos (ὅλος) is the Greek word for whole. Cene comes from the Greek word kainós (καινός), meaning new. The concept is that this epoch is entirely new.[7][8][9] The suffix -cene is used for all the seven epochs of the Cenozoic Era.
Anthropod. Anthropod may refer to:
Insect (disambiguation). Insects are six-legged arthropods of the class Insecta. Insect or Insects may also refer to:
Suffix. In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns and adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry grammatical information (inflectional endings) or lexical information (derivational/lexical suffixes).[1] Inflection changes the grammatical properties of a word within its syntactic category. Derivational suffixes fall into two categories: class-changing derivation and class-maintaining derivation. Particularly in the study of Semitic languages, suffixes are called affirmatives, as they can alter the form of the words. In Indo-European studies, a distinction is made between suffixes and endings (see Proto-Indo-European root). A word-final segment that is somewhere between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is known as a suffixoid[2] or a semi-suffix[3] (e.g., English -like or German -freundlich friendly). Inflection changes the grammatical properties of a word within its syntactic category. In several languages, this is realized by an inflectional suffix, also known as desinence. In the example:
Ology. An ology or -logy is a scientific discipline. Ology or Ologies may also refer to:
Science Publishing Group. Science Publishing Group (SPG), also known as SciencePG, is a predatory publisher of open-access academic journals and books established in 2012.[1] It has an address in New York City[2] and many of its journals are named American Journal of..., but the company is actually based in Pakistan.[3] The company has been criticized for predatory publishing practices.[4][5][6] As of 2019,[update] it publishes 430 journals in various fields.[7] SPG uses a gold open-access model of publishing which charges the authors. The company claims that articles are peer reviewed by scientific experts before publication.[8] In October 2022,  most to all of its journals did not have a scientific editor-in-chief. The company has been criticized for predatory open-access publishing.[4][5][6] In an experiment, university business professor Fiona McQuarrie submitted an article to International Journal of  Astrophysics and Space Science from Science Publishing Group, using pseudonyms Maggie Simpson and Edna Krabappel (characters from the cartoon series The Simpsons). Although the article had been generated by the SCIgen computer program and was nonsense, it was accepted for publication.[9] Librarian Jeffrey Beall, creator of a list of predatory open-access publishers, cites a nonsensical article in American Journal of Applied Mathematics, containing an alleged proof of Buddhist karma.[1] Science Publishing Group has also been cited more directly as a predatory journal and a scam, using more than 200 pseudo-publications like American Journal of Applied Mathematics or International Journal of Transportation Engineering and Technology.[1][10] The publisher uses techniques related to scams like aggressive emailing (spamming campaigns) with replaced characters (α for a, for example) or invitations to publish in exchange for a payment in order to fool unsuspecting scholars.[4][11]
Logy (disambiguation). -logy is an English suffix derived from the Greek word logía. Logy may also refer to:
List of MDPI academic journals.  This is a list of academic journals published by MDPI. As of September 2022, MDPI publishes 399 peer-reviewed academic journals and nine conference journals.[1]  (formerly Pneumonologia i Alergologia Polska)
Hydrology (album).  Hydrology is the second album by Recoil, released January 25, 1988. It was Alan Wilders second Recoil release. The CD and cassette version included the first release, 1 + 2. Wilder was unable to promote his new album because of the onset of Depeche Modes Music for the Masses tour. Wilder described the project at this stage as an antidote to Depeche Mode in some ways; a way to alleviate the frustrations of always working within a pop format.[2] The CD of Hydrology Plus 1 + 2 was re-released in 2007, again on Mute Records. The track listing and artwork remain the same. All music written by Alan Wilder
Video game programmer. A game programmer is a software engineer, programmer, or computer scientist who primarily develops codebases for video games or related software, such as game development tools. Game programming has many specialized disciplines, all of which fall under the umbrella term of game programmer.[1][2] A game programmer should not be confused with a game designer, who works on game design.[3] In the early days of video games (from the early 1970s to mid-1980s), a game programmer also took on the job of a designer and artist. This was generally because the abilities of early computers were so limited that having specialized personnel for each function was unnecessary. Game concepts were generally light and games were only meant to be played for a few minutes at a time, but more importantly, art content and variations in gameplay were constrained by computers limited power. Later, as specialized arcade hardware and home systems became more powerful, game developers could develop deeper storylines and could include such features as high-resolution and full color graphics, physics, advanced artificial intelligence and digital sound. Technology has advanced to such a great degree that contemporary games usually boast 3D graphics and full motion video using assets developed by professional graphic artists.  Nowadays, the derogatory term programmer art has come to imply the kind of bright colors and blocky design that were typical of early video games. The desire for adding more depth and assets to games necessitated a division of labor. Initially, art production was relegated to full-time artists.  Next game programming became a separate discipline from game design. Now, only some games, such as the puzzle game Bejeweled, are simple enough to require just one full-time programmer.  Despite this division, however, most game developers (artists, programmers and even producers) have some say in the final design of contemporary games. A contemporary video game may include advanced physics, artificial intelligence, 3D graphics, digitised sound, an original musical score, complex strategy and may use several input devices (such as mice, keyboards, gamepads and joysticks) and may be playable against other people via the Internet or over a LAN. Each aspect of the game can consume all of one programmers time and, in many cases, several programmers. Some programmers may specialize in one area of game programming, but many are familiar with several aspects. The number of programmers needed for each feature depends somewhat on programmers skills, but mostly are dictated by the type of game being developed.
Anthropoid. Anthropoid means ape/human feature and may refer to:
Game art design. Game art design is a subset of game development involving the process of creating the artistic aspects of video games. Video game art design begins in the pre-production phase of creating a video game. Video game artists are visual artists involved from the conception of the game who make rough sketches of the characters, setting, objects, etc.[1][2][3][4] These starting concept designs can also be created by the game designers before the game is moved into actualization. Sometimes, these concept designs are called programmer art.[5] After the rough sketches are completed and the game is ready to be moved forward, those artists or more artists are brought in to develop graphic designs based on the sketches. The art design of a game can involve anywhere from two people and up. Small gaming companies tend to not have as many artists on the team, meaning that their artist must be skilled in several types of art development, whereas the larger the company, although an artist can be skilled in several types of development, the roles each artist plays becomes more specialized.[6] A games artwork included in media, such as demos and screenshots, has a significant impact on customers, because artwork can be judged from previews, while gameplay cannot.[1][7] Artists work closely with designers on what is needed for the game.[8] Tools used for art design and production are known as art tools. These can range from pen and paper to full software packages for both 2D and 3D digital art.[9] A developer may employ a tools team responsible for art production applications. This includes using existing software packages and creating custom exporters and plug-ins for them.[10]
Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura. Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (義経千本桜; Japanese pronunciation: [jo.ɕi̥.tsɯꜜ.ne | sem.bon.dzaꜜ.kɯ.ɾa][1]), or Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees, is a Japanese play, one of the three most popular and famous in the kabuki repertoire.[a] Originally written in 1747 for the jōruri puppet theater by Takeda Izumo II, Miyoshi Shōraku and Namiki Senryū I, it was adapted to kabuki the following year. Adapted to kabuki, the play was premièred in that mode in January 1748, in the city of Ise, in Mie Prefecture. Kataoka Nizaemon IV and Yamamoto Koheiji were two of the actors in this performance, playing Ginpei and Tadanobu/Genkurō respectively. The premiere in Edo was held at the Nakamura-za in May the same year, and in Osaka at the Naka no Shibai just a few months later in August. The play is derived from the world of the Heike Monogatari, a classical epic which details the rise and fall of the Taira clan of samurai. The latter portions describe the eventual defeat of the Taira in the Genpei War (1180–85), at the hands of the Minamoto clan, led by Minamoto no Yoshitsune, the title character of this play. Yoshitsune takes place a few years after the end of the Genpei War. Minamoto no Yoshitsune, the famous general, is being pursued by agents of his brother, Minamoto no Yoritomo, who has recently established himself as shōgun. Yoshitsune travels with his mistress Shizuka and loyal retainer Benkei in search of three Taira generals who escaped justice at the end of the war, and who he believes may pose a threat to the shogunate. This aspect of the plot is the primary departure from both history and from the epic. In reality, the three generals Taira no Koremori, Taira no Tomomori, and Taira no Noritsune, along with the young Emperor Antoku and his nursemaid who feature in the play, all perished in the war, most of them sacrificing themselves in the Battle of Dan-no-ura. The fullest version of Yoshitsune consists of fifteen scenes in five acts. Though this was originally intended to be performed across the better part of a day, modes of performance have changed, and the full version would today take twice that long, due to the style and speed of current forms of acting.
Photographic mosaic. A photographic mosaic or photomosaic is a picture (usually a photograph) that has been divided into tiled sections, usually equal sized, each of which is replaced with another photograph that matches the target photo.[1] When viewed at low magnifications, the individual pixels appear as the primary image, while close examination reveals that the image is in fact made up of many hundreds or thousands of smaller images.[1] Most of the time they are a computer-created type of montage. There are two kinds of mosaic, depending on how the matching is done. In the simpler kind, each part of the target image is averaged down to a single color.  Each of the library images is also reduced to a single color. Each part of the target image is then replaced with one from the library where these colors are as similar as possible. In effect, the target image is reduced in resolution (by downsampling), and then each of the resulting pixels is replaced with an image whose average color matches that pixel. In the more advanced kind of photographic mosaic, the target image is not downsampled, and the matching is done by comparing each pixel in the rectangle to the corresponding pixel from each library image. The rectangle in the target is then replaced with the library image that minimizes the total difference. This requires much more computation than the simple kind, but the results can be much better since the pixel-by-pixel matching can preserve the resolution of the target image. There is debate over whether Photomosaics are an art or mere technique.[4] The making of a photomosaic is sometimes parallelled and compared to forms of artistic appropriation, like literary assemblage.[5] Artists such as David Hockney, Christopher Kates and Pep Ventosa have pioneered their own photographic mosaic techniques where multiple photographs are taken of a scene and then pieced together again to create a cohesive image.
Minamoto no Yoshitsune. Minamoto no Yoshitsune (源 義経; Japanese pronunciation: [mʲi.na.mo.to no (|) jo.ɕi̥.tsɯꜜ.ne],[1][2] c. 1159 – June 15, 1189) was a commander of the Minamoto clan of Japan in the late Heian and early Kamakura periods. During the Genpei War, he led a series of battles that toppled the Ise-Heishi branch of the Taira clan, helping his half-brother Yoritomo consolidate power. He is considered one of the greatest and the most popular warriors of his era, and one of the most famous samurai in the history of Japan.[3] Yoshitsune perished after being betrayed by the son of a trusted ally and was labelled as a tragic hero. Yoshitsune was the ninth son of Minamoto no Yoshitomo, and the third and final son and child that Yoshitomo would father with Tokiwa Gozen.[4] Yoshitsunes older half-brother Minamoto no Yoritomo (the third son of Yoshitomo) would go on to establish the Kamakura shogunate. Yoshitsunes name in childhood was Ushiwakamaru (牛若丸; Japanese pronunciation: [ɯ.ɕi.wa.kaꜜ.ma.ɾɯ][5]) or young bull (牛若丸). He was born just before the Heiji Rebellion in 1160 in which his father  and two oldest brothers were killed.[6] He survived this incident by fleeing the capital with his mother, while his half-brother Yoritomo was banished to Izu Province. When he was 10, Yoshitsune was placed in the care of the monks of Kurama temple (鞍馬寺),[7]: 61  nestled in the Hiei Mountains near the capital of Kyoto. There he was taught swordsmanship and strategy, according to some legends by Sōjōbō, to others by Kiichi Hōgen (whose book, Six Secret Teachings, Ushiwakamaru stole). Not wanting to become a monk, Yoshitsune eventually left and followed a gold merchant who knew his father well, and in 1174 relocated to Hiraizumi, Mutsu Province, where he was put under the protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira, head of the powerful regional Northern Fujiwara clan.[6]: 325 A skillful swordsman, Yoshitsune defeated the legendary warrior monk Benkei in a duel. From then on, Benkei became Yoshitsunes retainer, eventually dying with him at the Siege of Koromogawa.[7] In 1180, Yoshitsune heard that Yoritomo, now head of the Minamoto clan, had raised an army at the request of Prince Mochihito to fight against the Taira clan (also known as the Heike) which had usurped the power of the emperor. In the ensuing war between the rival Minamoto and Taira samurai clans, known as the Genpei War, Yoshitsune joined Yoritomo, along with Minamoto no Noriyori, all brothers who had not previously met. Yoshitsune, together with his brother Noriyori, defeated the Taira in several key battles. He also attacked and killed his cousin Minamoto no Yoshinaka, a rival for control of the Minamoto clan, at the Battle of Awazu[8] in Ōmi Province in early 1184 on the orders of Yoritomo.
Utagawa Toyokuni. Utagawa Toyokuni[a] (歌川 豊国; 1769 – 24 February 1825), also often referred to as Toyokuni I, to distinguish him from the members of his school who took over his gō (art-name) after he died, was a great master of ukiyo-e, known in particular for his kabuki actor prints. He was the second head of the renowned Utagawa school of Japanese woodblock artists, and was the artist who elevated it to the position of great fame and power it occupied for the rest of the nineteenth century. Toyokuni was born in 1769, the son of Kurahashi Gorobei, a carver of dolls and puppets, including replicas of kabuki actors.[2] At around 14, Toyokuni was apprenticed to the first head of the Utagawa house, Utagawa Toyoharu, whom his father knew well and who lived nearby.[3] One of his fellow pupils under Toyoharu was Toyohiro, whose pupil was the great landscape artist Hiroshige. In recognition of his artistic ability, Toyokuni later took the name Utagawa Toyokuni, following the common practice of using one syllable of his masters name.[4] Toyokuni seems not to have been an intuitive genius[5] determined to forge a new path; rather, he seems to have studied intently those who came before him, particularly Utamaro, Chōbunsai Eishi and Eishōsai Chōki.[6] and through a great deal of hard work produced first a mastery, and then a synthesis of their styles, to create a style of his own.[7] He was known mostly for his prints related to the kabuki theatre, in particular his yakusha-e actor portraits, a field which he took to new heights. He also, however, produced other genres such as musha-e warrior prints, shunga erotica, and most notably bijin-ga.[8] In his actor prints, like Sharaku, one sees the real subject; but his prints merely portrayed what he saw, unlike Sharaku who exaggerated those aspects he saw as the most key. It is said of Toyokunis prints that they recreate exactly what one would see on stage; they show actors acting, not merely just pictures of actors.[9] Together, these characteristics made Toyokunis prints far more popular among theatre-goers than Sharakus,[10] although history has come to judge Sharaku the keener observer and greater artist.[11]
Benkei. Saitō Musashibō Benkei (西塔 武蔵坊 弁慶; Japanese pronunciation: [mɯ.sa.ɕiꜜ.boː | beꜜŋ.kei, -keː][1] 1155–1189), popularly known by the mononym Benkei ([beꜜŋ.kei, -keː][1][2]), was a Japanese warrior monk (sōhei) who lived in the latter years of the Heian Period (794–1185). Benkei led a varied life, first becoming a monk, then a mountain ascetic, and then a rogue warrior. He later came to respect and serve the famous warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune, also known as Ushiwakamaru. He is commonly depicted as a man of great strength and loyalty, and a popular subject of Japanese folklore showcased in many ancient and modern literature and productions. The earliest records of Benkei are in the Azuma Kagami, The Tale of the Heike, and the Genpei Jōsuiki—all sources from around a century or more after Benkeis life.  These sources generally only indicate Benkei was one of Yoshitsunes retainers and was a thin monk, although they do indicate Yoshitsune was aided and protected by a band of rogueish sōhei (warrior-monks) near Mount Hiei after he fled the capital—perhaps the historical core of the Benkei legend.  Many of the detailed anecdotes and stories of Benkei are from the Gikeiki, an even later 14th-century work.  As no contemporary records of Benkei are extant, it is difficult to know which elements of the stories are historical and which are embellished. Stories about Benkeis birth vary considerably. Most stories describe that he was the son of a priest, and some describe that he was the son of a god. Many give him the attributes of a demon, a monster child with wild hair and long teeth. In his youth, Benkei was purportedly nicknamed Oniwakamaru (鬼若丸)—demon/ogre child. Benkei chose to join the monastic establishment at an early age and traveled widely among the Buddhist monasteries of Japan. During this period, monasteries were not only important centers of administration and culture, but also military powers in their own right.[3] Like many other monks, Benkei was likely[citation needed] trained in the use of the naginata, the half-moon spear. At the age of seventeen, Benkei was said to have been 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall. At this point, he left the monasteries, and became a yamabushi, a member of a sect of mountain ascetics. Benkei was commonly depicted wearing a black cap that was a signature theme of such mountain ascetics.[4]
Video game design. Video game design is the process of designing the rules and content of video games in the pre-production stage[1] and designing the gameplay, environment, storyline and characters in the production stage. Some common video game design subdisciplines are world design, level design, system design, content design, and user interface design. Within the video game industry, video game design is usually just referred to as game design, which is a more general term elsewhere. The video game designer is like the director of a film; the designer is the visionary of the game and controls the artistic and technical elements of the game in fulfillment of their vision.[2] However, with complex games, such as MMORPGs or a big budget action or sports title, designers may number in the dozens. In these cases, there are generally one or two principal designers and multiple junior designers who specify subsets or subsystems of the game. As the industry has aged and embraced alternative production methodologies such as agile, the role of a principal game designer has begun to separate - some studios emphasizing the auteur model while others emphasizing a more team oriented model. In larger companies like Electronic Arts, each aspect of the game (control, level design) may have a separate producer, lead designer and several general designers. Video game design requires artistic and technical competence as well as sometimes including writing skills.[3] Historically, video game programmers have sometimes comprised the entire design team. This is the case of such noted designers as Sid Meier, John Romero, Chris Sawyer and Will Wright. A notable exception to this policy was Coleco, which from its very start separated the function of design and programming. As video games became more complex, computers and consoles became more powerful, the job of the game designer became separate from the lead programmer. Soon, game complexity demanded team members focused on game design. A number of early veterans chose the game design path eschewing programming and delegating those tasks to others. Video game design starts with an idea,[4][5][6][7] often a variation or modification on an existing concept.[4][8] The game idea will fall within one or several genres and designers will often experiment with mixing genres.[9][10] The game designer usually produces an initial game proposal document containing the concept, gameplay, feature list, setting and story, target audience, requirements and schedule, staff and budget estimates.[11] Multiple design decisions are made during the course of a games development; it is the responsibility of the designer to decide which elements should be implemented. For example, consistency with the games vision, budget or hardware limitations.[12] Design changes will have a significant impact on required resources.[13]
Woodblock printing.  Woodblock printing or block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. Each page or image is created by carving a wooden block to leave only some areas and lines at the original level; it is these that are inked and show in the print, in a relief printing process.  Carving the blocks is skilled and laborious work, but a large number of impressions can then be printed. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 AD. Woodblock printing existed in Tang China by the 7th century AD and remained the most common East Asian method of printing books and other texts, as well as images, until the 19th century. Ukiyo-e is the best-known type of Japanese woodblock art print. Most European uses of the technique for printing images on paper are covered by the art term woodcut, except for the block books produced mainly in the 15th century. According to the Book of Southern Qi, in the 480s, a man named Gong Xuanyi (龔玄宜) styled himself Gong the Sage and said that a supernatural being had given him a jade seal jade block writing, which did not require a brush: one blew on the paper and characters formed.[1] He then used his powers to mystify a local governor. Eventually he was dealt with by the governors successor, who presumably executed Gong.[2] Timothy Hugh Barrett postulates that Gongs magical jade block was actually a printing device, and Gong was one of the first, if not the first printer. The semi-mythical record of him therefore describes his usage of the printing process to deliberately bewilder onlookers and create an image of mysticism around himself.[3] However, woodblock print flower patterns applied to silk in three colours have been found dated from the Han dynasty (before AD 220).[4] Inscribed seals made of metal or stone, especially jade, and inscribed stone tablets probably provided inspiration for the invention of printing. Copies of classical texts on tablets were erected in a public place in Luoyang during the Han dynasty for scholars and students to copy. The Suishu jingjizhi, the bibliography of the official history of the Sui dynasty, includes several ink-squeeze rubbings, believed to have led to the early duplication of texts that inspired printing. A stone inscription cut in reverse dating from the first half of the 6th century implies that it may have been a large printing block.[5]
Theology.  Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity and the history behind religion. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries.[1] It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also deals with religious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God, gods, or deities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and to reveal themselves to humankind. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument (experiential, philosophical, ethnographic, historical, and others) to help understand, explain, test, critique, defend or promote any myriad of religious topics. As in philosophy of ethics and case law, arguments often assume the existence of previously resolved questions, and develop by making analogies from them to draw new inferences in new situations. The study of theology may help a theologian more deeply understand their own religious tradition,[2] another religious tradition,[3] or it may enable them to explore the nature of divinity without reference to any specific tradition. Theology may be used to propagate,[4] reform,[5] or justify a religious tradition; or it may be used to compare,[6] challenge (e.g. biblical criticism), or oppose (e.g. irreligion) a religious tradition or worldview. Theology might also help a theologian address some present situation or need through a religious tradition,[7] or to explore possible ways of interpreting the world.[8] Theology is often considered one of the oldest academic disciplines, rooted in early human attempts to understand the divine, moral order, and existence. In the Western tradition, theology held a central place in medieval intellectual life.[citation needed] Many of the first European universities, such as the University of Paris (established c. 1150), the University of Oxford (c. 1096), and the University of Bologna (1088), were founded primarily to educate clergy and focused initially on theological studies, with faculties in philosophy, law, and medicine developing later.[9][10] Theology was traditionally regarded as the queen of the sciences, with philosophy often described as its handmaiden, due to its guiding role in the search for ultimate truth.[11]
Shunga.  Shunga (春画) is a type of Japanese erotic art typically executed as a kind of ukiyo-e, often in woodblock print format.  While rare, there are also extant erotic painted handscrolls which predate ukiyo-e.[1] Translated literally, the Japanese word shunga means picture of spring; spring is a common euphemism for sex.[1] Shunga, as a subset of ukiyo-e, was enjoyed by all social groups in the Edo period, despite being out of favor with the shogunate. The ukiyo-e movement sought to idealize contemporary urban living and appeal to the new chōnin class. Shunga followed the aesthetics of everyday life and widely varied in its depictions of sexuality. Most ukiyo-e artists made shunga at some point in their careers. Shunga was heavily influenced by illustrations in Chinese medicine manuals beginning in the Muromachi era (1336 to 1573). Zhou Fang, a notable Tang-dynasty Chinese painter, is also thought to have been influential. He, like many artists of his time, tended to draw genital organs in an oversized manner, similar to a common shunga topos.  Besides shunga literally meaning a picture of spring (sex), the word is also a contraction of shunkyū-higi-ga (春宮秘戯画), the Japanese pronunciation for a Chinese set of twelve scrolls depicting the twelve sexual acts that the crown prince would perform as an expression of yin yang.[1] The Japanese influences of shunga date back to the Heian period (794 to 1185).[2]  At this point, it was found among the courtier class. Through the medium of narrative handscrolls, sexual scandals from the imperial court or the monasteries were depicted, and the characters tended to be limited to courtiers and monks.[1]
Dominici (crater). Dominici is a crater on Mercury.  It was named by the IAU in 2010.[1] Dominicis bright rays indicate that it is relatively young, and the young rays appear light blue in enhanced-color images. Dominici also has bright material on its floor and is surrounded by crater ejecta and material that appears orange in enhanced color. These color differences, as in nearby Titian crater, suggest that the impact crater excavated material from beneath Mercurys surface that differs in composition from the surrounding surface. Dominici lies within a much larger impact structure, the Homer basin.[2] Bright areas in and around Dominici are hollows.  This article about geology, geography or other features of the planet Mercury is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Renoir (crater). Renoir is a crater on the planet Mercury.  Its name, after the French painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919), was adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1976.[1] Renoir is a peak ring basin, one of 110 on Mercury,[2] including Raditladi and Rachmaninoff. Though these basins are relatively young geologic features, Renoir is one of the oldest of its type. Because of its greater age, Renoir displays more of the effects of tectonics and later impact events than the other peak ring impact basins.[3] It is thought to have formed at the end of the period with the highest meteor impact rates in Mercurys history. It is located in the Kuiper quadrangle.[4] Renoir also has an area of high reflectance, classified as a plain, resulting from previous volcanic activity on the planet.[5][6] Like Rachmaninoff, it is a basin with a high-reflectance plain located entirely within the central peak ring.[7] Renoir has a concentric ring structure, meaning that it is also called a concentric ring basin.[8] Its interior rim is distinct, however, similar basins usually have a more distinct outer rim than inner rim. Basins like Renoir are known for having deep valleys in and around them. Mercurys lower radius and mass compared to other bodies like Mars mean that its basins - including Renoir and Rodin - have a greater diameter; consequently, the multi-ring basins on bodies like the Moon, including basins like Hertzsprung and Mare Orientale, are even larger than those on Mercury.[8]
Sihtu Planitia. Sihtu Planitia is a large plain on Mercury, approximately 565 km across. It was named in 2017 by the IAU.[1]  The crater Calvino lies at the center of the Planitia, and Rūdaki is on the east side.  This article about geology, geography or other features of the planet Mercury is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Takizawa Bakin. Takizawa Bakin (滝沢 馬琴; Japanese pronunciation: [ta.kʲi.(d)za.wa (|) ba.kʲiɴ][1]), born Takizawa Okikuni (滝沢 興邦; 4 July 1767 – 1 December 1848), was a Japanese novelist of the Edo period, who wrote under the pen name Kyokutei Bakin (曲亭 馬琴). Later in life he took the pen name Toku (解). Modern scholarship generally refers to him as Kyokutei Bakin, or just as Bakin. He is regarded as one of, if not the, leading author of early 19th century Japanese literature.[2] He was the third surviving son of a samurai family of low rank. After numerous deaths in his family, he relinquished his samurai status, married a merchants widow, and became an Edo townsperson. He was able to support his family with his prolific writing of gesaku,[3] primarily didactic historical romances, though he always wanted to restore his family to the samurai social class.[4] Some of his best known works are Nansō satomi hakkenden (The Chronicles of the Eight Dog Heroes of the Satomi Clan of Nansō) consisting of 106 books[5] and Chinsetsu yumiharizuki [ja] (Strange Tales of the Crescent Moon). Bakin published more than 200 works in his life, including literary critiques, diaries, and historical novels. Born in Edo (present-day Tokyo) on 4 July 1767, Bakin was the fifth son of Bunkurō Omon and Takizawa Okiyoshi. Two of his elder brothers died in infancy. Bakins father, Okiyoshi, was a samurai in the service of one of the Shōguns retainers, Matsudaira Nobutsuna until 1751 when he left his lord and gained service with Matsuzawa Bunkurō. While serving under Bunkurō, Okiyoshi was adopted into the family and wed Bunkurōs adopted daughter, Omon. Okiyoshi returned to serve the Matsudaira family in 1760 after Okiyoshis successor was dismissed for embezzlement. Though a heavy drinker, he was devoted to scholarship of classical Chinese works, especially those focused on military matters. He was a diligent samurai, but contracted gout in 1773 and died in 1775. His death forced the Matsudaira clan to reduce the Takizawa stipend by half, starting the steady decline of Bakins family. Omon, Bakins mother, is characterized as being a good mother and loyal wife and the family had the privilege of living in the Matsudaira mansion until their piecemeal departure from Matsudaira Nobunaris service that reached its completion in 1780. Her eldest son, Rabun (1759-1798) was the only child not born on the Matsudaira estate and served the family until becoming a rōnin in 1776. His departure led to Omon and her remaining children including Bakin and his two younger sisters, Ohisa (1771-?) and Okiku (1774-?), being forced into a much smaller dwelling. Bakins older brother, Keichū (1765–1786), was adopted out to lessen the financial burden and Bakin was declared the head of the family at age nine.[4] When Rabun found service with a new family in 1778, Omon pretended to be ill to move in with him. While living there, Omon grew ill due to malnutrition and died 1 August 1785.[4] Bakin served the Matsudaira lords grandson until 1780 when he declared himself rōnin at age 14 leaving the following haiku:
Homer (crater). Homer is a crater on Mercury.  It is one of 110 peak ring basins on Mercury.[1]  It is Tolstojan in age.[2] Deposits of material in and around this crater suggest the possibility of explosive volcanic eruptions at some point in the planets history.[3]  An unnamed crater in northwestern Homer (about 18 km diameter) contains hollows and has dark ejecta. The crater name was approved by the IAU in 1976.[4] The naming of Stark Y crater on the Moon, located northwest of Stark, as Homer, was not approved by the IAU.[5] The small but fresh crater Dominici lies along the northern margin of Homer.  The crater Handel is to the northeast, and Titian is to the southwest. 
Hydrocycle. A hydrocycle is a bicycle-like watercraft. The concept was known in the 1870s as a water velocipede[1] and the name was in use by the late 1890s.[2] Power is collected from the rider via a crank with pedals, as on a bicycle, and delivered to the water or the air via a propeller.[3] Seating may be upright or recumbent, and multiple riders may be accommodated in tandem or side-by-side.[4] Buoyancy is provided by two or more pontoons or a single surfboard,[citation needed] and some have hydrofoils that can lift the flotation devices out of the water.[5][6][7] Brands include Seacycle, Hydrobike, Water Bike, Seahorse (Cross Trek)[8]  and itBike. Kits exist to temporarily convert an existing bicycle into a hydrocycle.[9]
Legendary creature.  A legendary creature is a type of extraordinary or supernatural being that is described in folklore (including myths and legends), and may be featured in historical accounts before modernity, but has not been scientifically shown to exist yet. In the classical era, monstrous creatures such as the Cyclops and the Minotaur appear in heroic tales for the protagonist to destroy. Other creatures, such as the unicorn, were claimed in accounts of natural history by various scholars of antiquity.[1][2][3] Some legendary creatures are hybrid beasts or Chimeras. Some legendary creatures originated in traditional mythology and were believed to be real creatures—for example, dragons, griffins and unicorns. Others are based on real encounters or garbled accounts of travellers tales, such as the Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, a sheeplike animal which supposedly grew tethered to the earth.[4] A variety of mythical animals appear in the art and stories of the classical era. For example, in the Odyssey, monstrous creatures include the Cyclops, Scylla and Charybdis for the hero Odysseus to confront. Other tales include Medusa to be defeated by Perseus, the (human/bull) Minotaur to be destroyed by Theseus, and the Hydra to be killed by Heracles, while Aeneas battles with the harpies. These monsters thus have the basic function of emphasizing the greatness of the heroes involved.[5][6][7]
Parthenon.  The Parthenon (/ˈpɑːrθəˌnɒn, -nən/; Ancient Greek: Παρθενών, romanized: Parthenōn [par.tʰe.nɔ̌ːn]; Greek: Παρθενώνας, romanized: Parthenónas [parθeˈnonas]) is a former temple[6][7] on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of classical Greek art, and the Parthenon is considered an enduring symbol of ancient Greece, democracy, and Western civilization.[8][9] The Parthenon was built in the 5th century BC in thanksgiving for the Greek victory over the Persian invaders during the Greco-Persian Wars.[10] Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon also served as the city treasury.[11][12] Construction started in 447 BC when the Delian League was at the peak of its power. It was completed in 438 BC; work on the artwork and decorations continued until 432 BC. For a time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the final decade of the 6th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Ottoman conquest in the mid-15th century, it became a mosque. In the Morean War, a Venetian bomb landed on the Parthenon, which the Ottomans had used as a munitions dump, during the 1687 siege of the Acropolis. The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon. From 1800 to 1803,[13] the 7th Earl of Elgin controversially removed many of the surviving sculptures and subsequently shipped them to England where they are now known as the Elgin Marbles or Parthenon marbles.[14] Since 1975, numerous large-scale restoration projects have been undertaken to preserve remaining artefacts and ensure its structural integrity.[15][16] The origin of the word Parthenon comes from the Greek word parthénos (παρθένος), meaning maiden, girl as well as virgin, unmarried woman. The Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek–English Lexicon states that it may have referred to the unmarried womens apartments in a house, but that in the Parthenon it seems to have been used for a particular room of the temple.[17] There is some debate as to which room that was. The lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon. This has also been suggested by J.B. Bury.[10] One theory is that the Parthenon was the room where the arrephoroi, a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year, wove a peplos that was presented to Athena during Panathenaic Festivals.[18] Christopher Pelling asserts that the name Parthenon means the temple of the virgin goddess, referring to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.[19] It has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens (parthénoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.[20] In that case, the room originally known as the Parthenon could have been a part of the temple known today as the Erechtheion.[21]
Evapotranspiration.  Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earths surface (open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation) into the atmosphere.[2] It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpiration (evaporation that occurs through the stomata, or openings, in plant leaves). Evapotranspiration is an important part of the local water cycle and climate, and measurement of it plays a key role in water resource management and agricultural irrigation.[3] Evapotranspiration is defined as: The combined processes through which water is transferred to the atmosphere from open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation that make up the Earths surface.[2] Evapotranspiration is a combination of evaporation and transpiration, measured in order to better understand crop water requirements, irrigation scheduling,[4] and watershed management.[5] The two key components of evapotranspiration are: Evapotranspiration is typically measured in millimeters of water (i.e. volume of water moved per unit area of the Earths surface) in a set unit of time.[8] Globally, it is estimated that on average between three-fifths and three-quarters of land precipitation is returned to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration.[9][10][11]
Athena Parthenos.  The statue of Athena Parthenos[N 1] (Ancient Greek: Παρθένος Ἀθηνᾶ, lit. Athena the Virgin) was a monumental chryselephantine sculpture of the goddess Athena. Attributed to Phidias and dated to the mid-fifth century BCE, it was an offering from the city of Athens to Athena, its tutelary deity. The naos of the Parthenon on the acropolis of Athens was designed exclusively to accommodate it. Many artists and craftsmen worked on the realization of the sculpture, which was probably built around a core of cypress wood, and then paneled with gold and ivory plates. At about 13 meters high, the statue reflected the established aesthetic canon of the severe style (clothing) while adopting the innovations of the high classical (leg position). She was helmeted and held a large round shield and spear, placed on the ground to her left, next to her sacred snake. Clothes, jewellery, accessories, and even the statue base were decorated, mainly with the snake and gorgon motif. The statue was lost at an unknown date sometime in the first millennium. Several replicas and works were inspired by the original. In 480 BCE, the Persians ransacked the Acropolis of Athens, including the pre-Parthenon, which was under construction at the time.[1] After their victories in Salamis and Plataea, the Athenians had sworn not to complete the destroyed temples but to leave them as they were, in memory of the Persian barbarism.[2] In the succeeding years, however, Athens grew to control much of the region through its domination of the Delian League, a confederation of Greek states originally designed to protect themselves against the Persians. Within 30 years, the league had evolved into an Athenian powerhouse. By 454 BCE, the Delian treasury had been relocated to Athens, where the money was funnelled into an ambitious plan to rebuild the city and its destroyed temples, including the Parthenon.[3][4]
Utagawa Kunisada III. Utagawa Kunisada III (歌川国貞) (1848–1920) was an ukiyo-e printmaker of the Utagawa school, specializing in yakusha-e (pictures of kabuki actors). He began studying under Utagawa Kunisada I at the age of 10, and continued under Kunisada II after their masters death. He originally signed his prints Kunimasa or Baidō Kunimasa.  About 1889, he began signing his prints Kunisada, Baidō Kunisada or Kōchōrō Kunisada.  By 1892, he was using Hōsai, Kōchōrō Hōsai, Baidō Hōsai, and Utagawa Hōsai.[1] This Japanese artist–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article about an etcher or maker of prints in other media (excluding engravers) is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Nansō Satomi Hakkenden.  Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (shinjitai: 南総里見八犬伝; kyūjitai: 南總里見八犬傳), commonly known as Satomi Hakkenden (Japanese: 里見八犬伝) or simply Hakkenden (Japanese: 八犬伝), is a Japanese epic novel (yomihon) by Kyokutei Bakin, originally published over the course of twenty-eight years (1814–42). Set in the Muromachi period, the story follows the adventures and mishaps of eight fictional warriors born across the Kantō region, who gradually discover their shared origin as spirit-children of a Satomi princess and unite in Nansō as loyal defenders of her clan. The novel, consisting of 98 chapters printed in a total of 106 booklets, is considered the largest novel in the history of Japanese Literature.[1] Bakin, in his 70s by the time the work was completed, had gone blind before finishing the tale, and dictated the final parts to his daughter-in-law Michi Tokimura. Along with Ueda Akinaris Ugetsu Monogatari, it is considered a masterpiece of gesaku literature, and one of the classics of Japanese historical fiction.[1] The title Hakkenden has been translated as The Eight Dog Chronicles,[2] Tale of Eight Dogs,[3] or Biographies of Eight Dogs.[4] Hakkenden is a long, dense work told from multiple perspectives - described by translator Glynne Walley as huge and unwieldy, almost comically so.[5] However, it can be divided into three main arcs - a prologue leading up to the Dog Warriors birth, the stories of the individual Dogs as they encounter one another, and a final war between the Satomi and their assembled foes. The latter segment is often excluded from modern abridged editions of the novel.[1][5]
Classical Greece.  Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years (the 5th and 4th centuries BC) in Ancient Greece,[1] marked by much of the eastern Aegean and northern regions of Greek culture (such as Ionia and Macedonia) gaining increased autonomy from the Persian Empire; the peak flourishing of democratic Athens; the First and Second Peloponnesian Wars; the Spartan and then Theban hegemonies; and the expansion of Macedonia under Philip II. Much of the early defining mathematics, science, artistic thought (architecture, sculpture), theatre, literature, philosophy, and politics of Western civilization derives from this period of Greek history, which had a powerful influence on the later Roman Empire. Part of the broader era of classical antiquity, the classical Greek era ended after Philip IIs unification of most of the Greek world against the common enemy of the Persian Empire, which was conquered within 13 years during the wars of Alexander the Great, Philips son. In the context of the art, architecture, and culture of ancient Greece, the Classical period corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC (the most common dates being the fall of the last Athenian tyrant in 510 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC). The Classical period in this sense follows the Greek Dark Ages and Archaic period and is in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period. This century is essentially studied from the Athenian outlook because Athens has left us more narratives, plays, and other written works than any of the other ancient Greek states. From the perspective of Athenian culture in classical Greece, the period generally referred to as the 5th century BC extends slightly into the 6th century BC. In this context, one might consider that the first significant event of this century occurs in 508 BC, with the fall of the last Athenian tyrant and Cleisthenes reforms. However, a broader view of the whole Greek world might place its beginning at the Ionian Revolt of 500 BC, the event that provoked the Persian invasion of 492 BC. The Persians were defeated in 490 BC. A second Persian attempt, in 481–479 BC, failed as well, despite having overrun much of modern-day Greece (north of the Isthmus of Corinth) at a crucial point during the war following the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Artemisium.[2][3] The Delian League then formed, under Athenian hegemony and as Athens instrument. Athens successes caused several revolts among the allied cities, all of which were put down by force, but Athenian dynamism finally awoke Sparta and brought about the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC. After both sides were exhausted, a brief peace followed; then the war resumed in Spartas favor. Athens was decisively defeated in 404 BC, and internal unrest marked the end of the 5th century BC in Greece. Since its beginning, Sparta had been ruled by a diarchy. This meant that Sparta had two kings ruling concurrently throughout its entire history. The two kingships were both hereditary, vested in the Agiad dynasty and the Eurypontid dynasty. According to legend, the respective hereditary lines of these two dynasties sprang from Eurysthenes and Procles, twin descendants of Hercules. They were said to have conquered Sparta two generations after the Trojan War.
Gravity.  In physics, gravity (from Latin  gravitas weight[1]), also known as gravitation or a gravitational interaction,[2] is a fundamental interaction, which may be described as the effect of a field that is generated by a gravitational source such as mass. The gravitational attraction between clouds of primordial hydrogen and clumps of dark matter in the early universe caused the hydrogen gas to coalesce, eventually condensing and fusing to form stars. At larger scales this resulted in galaxies and clusters, so gravity is a primary driver for the large-scale structures in the universe. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become weaker as objects get farther away. Gravity is described by the general theory of relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915, which describes gravity in terms of the curvature of spacetime, caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black hole, from which nothing—not even light—can escape once past the black holes event horizon.[3] However, for most applications, gravity is sufficiently well approximated by Newtons law of universal gravitation, which describes gravity as an attractive force between any two bodies that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Scientists are looking for a theory that describes gravity in the framework of quantum mechanics (quantum gravity),[4] which would unify gravity and the other known fundamental interactions of physics in a single mathematical framework (a theory of everything).[5]
Woodblock printing.  Woodblock printing or block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. Each page or image is created by carving a wooden block to leave only some areas and lines at the original level; it is these that are inked and show in the print, in a relief printing process.  Carving the blocks is skilled and laborious work, but a large number of impressions can then be printed. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 AD. Woodblock printing existed in Tang China by the 7th century AD and remained the most common East Asian method of printing books and other texts, as well as images, until the 19th century. Ukiyo-e is the best-known type of Japanese woodblock art print. Most European uses of the technique for printing images on paper are covered by the art term woodcut, except for the block books produced mainly in the 15th century. According to the Book of Southern Qi, in the 480s, a man named Gong Xuanyi (龔玄宜) styled himself Gong the Sage and said that a supernatural being had given him a jade seal jade block writing, which did not require a brush: one blew on the paper and characters formed.[1] He then used his powers to mystify a local governor. Eventually he was dealt with by the governors successor, who presumably executed Gong.[2] Timothy Hugh Barrett postulates that Gongs magical jade block was actually a printing device, and Gong was one of the first, if not the first printer. The semi-mythical record of him therefore describes his usage of the printing process to deliberately bewilder onlookers and create an image of mysticism around himself.[3] However, woodblock print flower patterns applied to silk in three colours have been found dated from the Han dynasty (before AD 220).[4] Inscribed seals made of metal or stone, especially jade, and inscribed stone tablets probably provided inspiration for the invention of printing. Copies of classical texts on tablets were erected in a public place in Luoyang during the Han dynasty for scholars and students to copy. The Suishu jingjizhi, the bibliography of the official history of the Sui dynasty, includes several ink-squeeze rubbings, believed to have led to the early duplication of texts that inspired printing. A stone inscription cut in reverse dating from the first half of the 6th century implies that it may have been a large printing block.[5]
Geography of Greenland.   Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland. The territory comprises the island of Greenland—the largest island in the world—and more than a hundred other smaller islands (see alphabetic list). Greenland has a 1.2-kilometre-long (0.75 mi) border with Canada on Hans Island.[1] A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast. Greenland possesses the worlds second-largest ice sheet. Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate, a subplate of the North American Plate.[2][3] The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth. The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains some of the oldest dated rocks on Earth, dated at 3.7–3.8 billion years old.[4] The vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell.
Meiji era.  The Meiji era (明治時代, Meiji jidai[a]) was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912.[2] The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization by Western powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized nation state and emergent great power, influenced by Western scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As a result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas, the changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of Emperor Meiji. It was preceded by the Keiō era and was succeeded by the Taishō era, upon the accession of Emperor Taishō. The rapid modernization during the Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from the former samurai class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously Saigō Takamori, who led the Satsuma Rebellion. However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as Itō Hirobumi and Itagaki Taisuke. On February 3, 1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei, to the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 122nd emperor. This coincided with pressure on the ruling shogunate to modernize Japan, combining modern advances with traditional values. Mutsuhito was sympathetic to these ideas, leading to a call for the restoration of the governing power to the emperor. On November 9, 1867, then-shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to the Emperor, and put his prerogatives at the Emperor’s disposal, formally stepping down ten days later.[3] Imperial restoration occurred the next year on January 3, 1868, with the formation of the new government. The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, and a new era, Meiji, was proclaimed.
Greenland (disambiguation). Greenland is the worlds largest island and an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark. Greenland or Greenlands may also refer to:
Flag of Greenland.  The flag of Greenland (Greenlandic: Erfalasorput[2] or Kalaallit erfalasuat, Danish: Grønlands flag) was designed by Greenland native Thue Christiansen.[3] It features two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red (bottom) with a counter-changed red-and-white disk slightly to the hoist side of centre. The entire flag measures 18 by 12 parts; each stripe measures 6 parts; the disk is 8 parts in diameter, horizontally offset by 7 parts from the hoist to the centre of the circle, and vertically centered. Its local name in the Greenlandic language is Erfalasorput, which means our flag. The term Aappalaartoq (meaning the red) is also used for both the Greenlandic flag and the flag of Denmark (Dannebrog). Today, Greenlanders display both the Erfalasorput and the Dannebrog[4]—often side by side. The flag of Greenland is the only national flag of a Nordic country or territory without a Nordic cross, but is similar to the cultural Sámi flag, which also features a circular design and counterchanging of field and charge. Greenland first entertained the idea of a flag of its own in 1973 when five Greenlanders proposed a green, white and blue flag. The following year, a newspaper solicited eleven design proposals (all but one of which was a  Nordic cross) and polled the people to determine the most popular.[5] The deciding committee came to no consensus, so more proposals were solicited. Finally, the present red-and-white design by Thue Christiansen narrowly won over a green-and-white Nordic cross by a vote of fourteen to eleven.[6] Christiansens red-and-white flag was officially adopted on 21 June 1985.[3]
Biogeochemical cycle. A biogeochemical cycle, or more generally a cycle of matter,[1] is the movement and transformation of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earths crust. Major biogeochemical cycles include the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. In each cycle, the chemical element or molecule is transformed and cycled by living organisms and through various geological forms and reservoirs, including the atmosphere, the soil and the oceans. It can be thought of as the pathway by which a chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic compartment and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. For example, in the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants through photosynthesis, which converts it into organic compounds that are used by organisms for energy and growth. Carbon is then released back into the atmosphere through respiration and decomposition. Additionally, carbon is stored in fossil fuels and is released into the atmosphere through human activities such as burning fossil fuels. In the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen gas is converted by plants into usable forms such as ammonia and nitrates through the process of nitrogen fixation. These compounds can be used by other organisms, and nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere through denitrification and other processes. In the water cycle, the universal solvent water evaporates from land and oceans to form clouds in the atmosphere, and then precipitates back to different parts of the planet. Precipitation can seep into the ground and become part of groundwater systems used by plants and other organisms, or can runoff the surface to form lakes and rivers. Subterranean water can then seep into the ocean along with river discharges, rich with dissolved and particulate organic matter and other nutrients. There are biogeochemical cycles for many other elements, such as for oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, sulfur, mercury and selenium. There are also cycles for molecules, such as water and silica. In addition there are macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle, and human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In some cycles there are geological reservoirs where substances can remain or be sequestered for long periods of time. Biogeochemical cycles involve the interaction of biological, geological, and chemical processes. Biological processes include the influence of microorganisms, which are critical drivers of biogeochemical cycling. Microorganisms have the ability to carry out wide ranges of metabolic processes essential for the cycling of nutrients (macronutrients and micronutrients) and chemicals throughout global ecosystems. Without microorganisms many of these processes would not occur, with significant impact on the functioning of land and ocean ecosystems and the planets biogeochemical cycles as a whole. Changes to cycles can impact human health. The cycles are interconnected and play important roles regulating climate, supporting the growth of plants, phytoplankton and other organisms, and maintaining the health of ecosystems generally. Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and using large amounts of fertilizer can disrupt cycles, contributing to climate change, pollution, and other environmental problems. Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the many transfers between trophic levels. However, the matter that makes up living organisms is conserved and recycled. The six most common elements associated with organic molecules — carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur — take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath the Earths surface. Geologic processes, such as weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in this recycling of materials. Because geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their environment is called a biogeochemical cycle.[3]
Samurai.   Samurai (侍) were members of the warrior class who served as retainers to lords in Japan prior to the Meiji era. Samurai existed from the late 12th century until their abolition in the late 1870s during the Meiji era.[1] They were originally provincial warriors who served the Kuge and imperial court in the late 12th century.[2][3] In 1853, the United States forced Japan to open its borders to foreign trade under the threat of military action. Fearing an eventual invasion, the Japanese abandoned feudalism for capitalism so that they could industrialize and build a modern army. The adoption of modern firearms rendered the traditional weapons of the samurai obsolete, and as firearms are easy enough for peasant conscripts to learn, Japan had no more need for a specialized warrior caste. By 1876 the special rights and privileges of the samurai had all been abolished. The proper Japanese term for a warrior is bushi (武士)[4] and the word buke (武家) meant warrior family.[5] Bushi was not applied to just any kind of fighter. For those who called themselves bushi, war was their way of life and often a family tradition, as opposed to conscripts or militia. It was also a term for elite warriors, particularly those who fought on horseback as cavalry was the backbone of Japanese armies. During the early Edo period, a warrior was only considered a member of the bushi class if he was a public servant, which among other things entitled him to a stipend.[6]
Fumihito, Crown Prince of Japan.  The EmperorThe Empress The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress Emerita Fumihito, Crown Prince Akishino[1] (秋篠宮皇嗣文仁親王, Akishino-no-miya Kōshi Fumihito Shinnō; born 30 November 1965, Japanese: [ɸɯmiꜜçi̥to]) is the heir presumptive to the Japanese throne. He is the younger brother of Emperor Naruhito, and the younger son of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko. Since his marriage in June 1990, he has had the title Prince Akishino (秋篠宮, Akishino-no-miya) and has headed the Akishino branch of the Imperial House.[2] Fumihito has a bachelors degree in political science from Gakushuin University and a PhD in ornithology from the Graduate University for Advanced Studies. In 1990, he married Kiko Kawashima, with whom he has three children: Mako, Kako, and Hisahito. In November 2020, Fumihito was officially declared the heir presumptive to the throne, during the Ceremony for Proclamation of Crown Prince (Rikkōshi-Senmei-no-gi) in Tokyo.[3] Preceding his investiture as Crown Prince, the ongoing Japanese imperial succession debate had resulted in some politicians holding a favorable view on rescinding agnatic primogeniture, which was implemented in 1889 and reinforced on the constitution of Japan by the Allies after World War II. However, once Fumihito and Kiko had their son Hisahito in September 2006, he became next in the line of succession following his father. Fumihitos niece and Emperor Naruhitos only child, Princess Aiko, remains at present legally ineligible to inherit the throne, while debate about the possibility of having future empresses regnant continues.
Mediterranean Sea.  For other countries, click here. The Mediterranean Sea (/ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən/ MED-ih-tə-RAY-nee-ən) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the west almost by the Morocco–Spain border. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi),[2] representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar—the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa—is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over the sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast.
Mercury Messenger (concept car). The Mercury Messenger is a concept car manufactured by Mercury in collaboration with coachbuilder Stola. It was revealed at the 2003 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan. The vehicle was named after Mercury, the Roman messenger god from whom Mercury gets its name. Designed by Gerry McGovern, the Messenger was meant to signal the new design DNA of future Mercury models. Journalists pointed out similarities to past Ford and Mercury models, such as the Ford Cougar II concept and the Mercury Cougar.[1] The Messenger was intended to be powered by a 4.6 liter Modular DOHC V8 mated to a 6-speed automatic sequential transmission. It features independent rear suspension and 4-piston Brembo brake discs with anti-lock braking. The wheels feature a turbine design and measure 20 inches (510 mm) in diameter and 305 millimetres (12.0 in) wide in the rear, and 19 inches (480 mm) in diameter and 275 millimetres (10.8 in) wide in the front.[2] In 2010, the Messenger was sold at an RM Sothebys auction, with a final price of $52,250.[3] At the time of its sale, it had no engine or transmission, as they had reportedly never been installed by Mercury.[4] As of 2023, it was owned by the Bortz Auto Collection and has been displayed at the Petersen Automotive Museum.[5]
Greenlandic language. Greenlandic,[b] also known by its endonym Kalaallisut (kalaallisut, [kalaːɬːisʉt]), is an Inuit language belonging to the Eskimoan branch of the Eskaleut language family. It is primarily spoken by the Greenlandic people native to Greenland; and has about 57,000 native speakers as of 2025.[1] Written in the Latin script, it is the sole official language of Greenland; and a recognized minority language in Denmark. It is closely related to the Inuit languages in Canada such as Inuktitut. It is the most widely spoken Eskaleut language. In June 2009, the government of Greenland, the Naalakkersuisut, made Greenlandic the sole official language of the autonomous territory, to strengthen it in the face of competition from the colonial language, Danish. The main variety is Kalaallisut, or West Greenlandic. The second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat, or East Greenlandic. The language of the Inughuit (Thule Inuit) of Greenland, Inuktun or Polar Inuit, is a recent arrival and a dialect of Inuktitut. Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language that allows the creation of long words by stringing together roots and suffixes. The languages morphosyntactic alignment is ergative, treating both the argument (subject) of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb in one way, but the subject of a transitive verb in another. For example, he plays the guitar would be in the ergative case as a transitive agent, whereas I bought a guitar and as the guitar plays (the latter being the intransitive sense of the same verb to play) would both be in the absolutive case. Nouns are inflected by one of eight cases and for possession. Verbs are inflected for one of eight moods and for the number and person of its subject and object. Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology. The basic word order in transitive clauses is subject–object–verb. The subordination of clauses uses special subordinate moods. A so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects. Greenlandic is notable for its lack of grammatical tense; temporal relations are expressed normally by context but also by the use of temporal particles such as yesterday or now or sometimes by the use of derivational suffixes or the combination of affixes with aspectual meanings with the semantic lexical aspect of different verbs. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic always marks future tense. Another question is whether the language has noun incorporation or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature. When adopting new concepts or technologies, Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots, but modern Greenlandic has also taken many loans from Danish and English. The language has been written in Latin script since Danish colonization began in the 1700s. Greenlandics first orthography was developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851, but within 100 years, it already differed substantially from the spoken language because of a number of sound changes. An extensive orthographic reform was undertaken in 1973 and made the script much easier to learn. This resulted in a boost in Greenlandic literacy, which is now among the highest in the world.[note 1][5]
Japanese mythology. Japanese mythology is a collection of traditional stories, folktales, and beliefs that emerged in the islands of the Japanese archipelago. Shinto traditions are the cornerstones of Japanese mythology.[1] The history of thousands of years of contact with Chinese and various Indian myths (such as Buddhist and Hindu mythology) are also key influences in Japanese religious belief.[1][2][3] Japanese myths are tied to the topography of the archipelago as well as agriculturally-based folk religion, and the Shinto pantheon holds uncountable kami (god(s) or spirits).[1] Two important sources for Japanese myths, as they are recognized today, are the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki.[4][5] The Kojiki, or Record of Ancient Matters, is the oldest surviving account of Japans myths, legends, and history.[6] Additionally, the Shintōshū describes the origins of Japanese deities from a Buddhist perspective.[7] One notable feature of Japanese mythology is its explanation of the origin of the Imperial Family, which has been used historically to deify to the imperial line.[4] Japanese is not transliterated consistently across all sources (see spelling of proper nouns).
Emperor Tenmu.  Emperor Tenmu (also romanized Temmu, c. 630 – 686) was 40th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. He was born Prince Ōama around 630, the son of Emperor Jomei and his consort Princess Takara. Ruling from 673 to 686, during the Asuka period, his life is mainly documented by the chronicles Nihon Shoki and Kojiki, as well as the poetry collection Manyōshū. Little is known of Ōamas early life. During the rule of his elder brother Tenji, Ōama was ambiguously favored as his successor, but was gradually bypassed in favor of Tenjis son Prince Ōtomo. Tenji allegedly offered Ōama the throne during an illness in 671, but fearing a conspiracy against him, Ōama declined and left to serve as a monk at Yoshino Palace. Tenji died soon after. The following year, Ōama received word that Ōtomo, now ruler, was planning to kill him. He fled Yoshino with a group of followers, beginning the Jinshin War. Along with a group of retainers and the governor of Ise Province, Ōama was able to block off the mountain passes to the northern and eastern provinces, where he raised an army against his nephew. Ōtomo was defeated and forced to commit suicide. Ōama took the throne under the name Tenmu. Tenmu made a number of political reforms, modeling his government after the centralized state of Tang China. He was likely the first Japanese ruler to use the title of tennō (emperor) and the first to be described as a divine being (kami) in his lifetime. He redistributed political titles among his family and political supporters and created four new ranks at the top of the kabane noble title system. He selected a site for a new capital around 683, on which (after his death) was likely built Fujiwara-kyō. He was an enthusiastic supporter of both Buddhism and the goddess Amaterasu, making various reforms to Buddhist clerical governance and elevating Amaterasus Ise Shrine to preeminence in Japan. Tenmus health began to decline in 685. In attempt to gain divine favor, the imperial court sponsored large-scale Buddhist rituals, but he died in 686. This began a mourning period and interregnum almost twice the length as usual, during which both of his crown princes died: Prince Ōtsu was executed later the same year, likely on the orders of Tenmus consort Uno-no-sarara, while Prince Kusakabe died of ill health in 689. Uno-no-sarara ascended to the throne in 689 as Empress Jitō.
Messenger. Messenger, Messengers, The Messenger or The Messengers may refer to:
Prussian blue. Sodium ferrocyanide Prussian blue (also known as Berlin blue, Brandenburg blue, Parisian and Paris blue) is a dark blue pigment produced by oxidation of ferrous ferrocyanide salts.  It has the chemical formula Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3. It consists of Fe3+ cations, where iron is in the oxidation state of +3, and [Fe(CN)6]4− anions, where iron is in the oxidation state of +2, so, the other name of this salt is iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II). Turnbulls blue is essentially identical chemically, excepting that it has different impurities and particle sizes—because it is made from different reagents—and thus it has a slightly different color. Prussian blue was created in the early 18th century and is the first modern synthetic pigment. It is prepared as a very fine colloidal dispersion, because the compound is not soluble in water. It  contains variable amounts[2] of other ions and its appearance depends sensitively on the size of the colloidal particles. The pigment is used in paints, it became prominent in 19th-century aizuri-e (藍摺り絵) Japanese woodblock prints, and it is the traditional blue in technical blueprints. In medicine, orally administered Prussian blue is used as an antidote for certain kinds of heavy metal poisoning, e.g., by thallium(I) and radioactive isotopes of caesium. The therapy exploits Prussian blues ion-exchange properties and high affinity for certain soft metal cations. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[3] Prussian blue lent its name to prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) derived from it. In German, hydrogen cyanide is called Blausäure (blue acid).
Emperor Bidatsu.  Emperor Bidatsu (敏達天皇, Bidatsu-tennō; 538 – 14 September 585) was the 30th emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] The years of reign of Bidatsu start in 572 and end in 585; however, there are no certain dates for this emperors life or reign.[3] The names and sequence of the early emperors were not confirmed as traditional until the reign of Emperor Kanmu, who was the 50th monarch of the imperial dynasty.[4] Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Bidatsu to be possibly legendary, but probable.[5] The name Bidatsu-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations. In the Nihon Shoki, he is called Nunakura no Futotamashiki (渟中倉太珠敷).
The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō. The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kisokaidō (木曾街道六十九次, Kisokaidō Rokujūkyū-tsugi) or Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Road, is a series of ukiyo-e works created by Utagawa Hiroshige and Keisai Eisen. There are 71 total prints in the series (one for each of the 69 post stations and Nihonbashi; Nakatsugawa-juku has two prints). The common name for the Kisokaidō is Nakasendō so the series is sometimes referred to as the Sixty-nine Stations of the Nakasendō. It is a follow-up to Hiroshiges The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō and he produced 47 of the prints, with Eisen being responsible for the rest.[1] The series was published by Iseya Rihei (Kinjudō) from c. 1834-1842.[2] The Nakasendō was one of the Five Routes constructed under Tokugawa Ieyasu, a series of roads linking the historical capital of Edo with the rest of Japan. The Nakasendō connected Edo with the then-capital of Kyoto. It was an alternate route to the Tōkaidō and travelled through the central part of Honshū, thus giving rise to its name, which means Central Mountain Road. Along this road, there were sixty-nine different post stations, which provided stables, food, and lodging for travelers. Eisen produced the first 11 prints of the series, from Nihonbashi to Honjō-shuku, stretching from Tokyo to Saitama Prefecture. His prints from Gunma Prefecture include Kuragano-shuku, Itahana-shuku and Sakamoto-shuku. Representing Nagano Prefecture, he made prints of Kutsukake-shuku, Oiwake-shuku, Iwamurada-shuku, Shiojiri-shuku, Narai-juku, Yabuhara-juku, Nojiri-juku and Magome-juku. His last two prints, Unuma-juku and Gōdo-juku represent Gifu Prefecture. After that, Hiroshige took over production of the series.
Corcyra (mythology). In Greek mythology and religion, Corcyra (/kɔːrˈsaɪərə/) or Korkyra (/kɔːrˈkaɪərə/; Ancient Greek: Κόρκυρα, romanized: Kórkura) is the naiad daughter of the river-god Asopos[1] and the nymph Metope, herself the daughter of the river-god Ladon.[2] She is the personification and tutelary goddess of the ancient Greek city and island of Korkyra, now better known as Corfu. Korykra was the sister of Pelasgus (Pelagon[3]), Ismenus, Chalcis, Cleone, Salamis, Sinope, Aegina, Peirene, Thebe, Tanagra, Thespia, Asopis, Ornea,[4] Harpina,[5] Antiope,[6] Nemea[7] and Plataea[8] (Oeroe[9]). According to myth, Poseidon fell in love with the beautiful nymph Korkyra, kidnapped her and brought her to a hitherto unnamed island (Scheria[10]) and offered her name to the place: Korkyra or the now-modern Kerkyra (known in English as Corfu, a name that is unrelated by origin). Next after them they came to Corcyra, where Poseidon settled the daughter of Asopus, fair-haired Corcyra, far from the land of Phlious, whence he had carried her off through love; and sailors beholding it from the sea, all black with its sombre woods, call it Corcyra the Black.[11] Together they had a child Phaeax after whom the inhabitants of the island, Phaiakes, were named; their name was later transliterated in Latinate orthography to Phaeacians.[12]
Post-Impressionism. Post-Impressionism (also spelled Postimpressionism) was a predominantly French art movement which developed roughly between 1886 and 1905, from the last Impressionist exhibition to the birth of Fauvism. Post-Impressionism emerged as a reaction against Impressionists concern for the naturalistic depiction of light and colour. Its broad emphasis on abstract qualities or symbolic content means Post-Impressionism encompasses Les Nabis, Neo-Impressionism, Symbolism, Cloisonnism, the Pont-Aven School, and Synthetism, along with some later Impressionists work. The movements principal artists were Paul Cézanne (known as the father of Post-Impressionism), Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Georges Seurat.[1] The term Post-Impressionism was first used by art critic Roger Fry in 1906.[2][3] Critic Frank Rutter in a review of the Salon dAutomne published in Art News, 15 October 1910, described Othon Friesz as a post-impressionist leader; there was also an advert for the show The Post-Impressionists of France.[4] Three weeks later, Roger Fry used the term again when he organised the 1910 exhibition Manet and the Post-Impressionists, defining it as the development of French art since Édouard Manet. Post-Impressionists extended Impressionism while rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colours, sometimes using impasto (thick application of paint) and painting from life, but were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, distort form for expressive effect, and use unnatural or modified colour. The Post-Impressionists were dissatisfied with what they felt was the triviality of subject matter and the loss of structure in Impressionist paintings, though they did not agree on the way forward. Georges Seurat and his followers concerned themselves with pointillism, the systematic use of tiny dots of colour. Paul Cézanne set out to restore a sense of order and structure to painting, to make of Impressionism something solid and durable, like the art of the museums.[5] He achieved this by reducing objects to their basic shapes while retaining the saturated colours of Impressionism. The Impressionist Camille Pissarro experimented with Neo-Impressionist ideas between the mid-1880s and the early 1890s. Discontented with what he referred to as romantic Impressionism, he investigated pointillism, which he called scientific Impressionism, before returning to a purer Impressionism in the last decade of his life.[6] Vincent van Gogh often used vibrant colour and conspicuous brushstrokes to convey his feelings and his state of mind. Although they often exhibited together, Post-Impressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement. Yet, the abstract concerns of harmony and structural arrangement, in the work of all these artists, took precedence over naturalism. Artists such as Seurat adopted a meticulously scientific approach to colour and composition.[7]
Toyohiro. Utagawa Toyohiro (歌川豊広, 歌川豐廣), birth name Okajima Tōjiro (1773–1828), was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist and painter. He was a member of the Utagawa school and studied under Utagawa Toyoharu, the schools founder. His works include a number of ukiyo-e landscape series, as well as many depictions of the daily activities in the Yoshiwara entertainment quarter; many of his stylistic features paved the way for Hokusai and Hiroshige (the latter a prodigy who studied under Toyohiro, becoming one of the very finest of all landscape artists), as well as producing an important series of ukiyo-e triptychs in collaboration with Toyokuni, and numerous book and e-hon illustrations, which occupied him in his later years. The ukiyo-e series he produced include the following:  This Japanese artist–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This article about an etcher or maker of prints in other media (excluding engravers) is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Emperor Senka. Emperor Senka (宣化天皇, Senka-tennō) (466 — 15 March 539) was the 28th legendary emperor of Japan,[1] according to the traditional order of succession.[2] No firm dates can be assigned to this emperors life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 25 January 536 to 15 March 539,[3] the end of the Kofun period, which was followed by the Asuka period. Senka is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. When Emperor Ankan died, he had no offspring; and succession passed to his youngest brother Prince Hinokuma no Takata (檜隈高田皇子), who will come to be known as Emperor Senka. Emperor Senka was elderly at the time of his enthronement; and his reign is said to have endured for only three years. Senkas contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning the great king who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Senka might have been referred to as ヤマト大王/大君 or the Great King of Yamato.
Corcyre. Corcyre (French: [kɔʁ.kiʁ]; archaic French for Corfu; Greek: Κέρκυρα, romanized: Kerkyra) was one of three short-lived French departments of Greece. It came into existence after Napoleons conquest in 1797 of the Republic of Venice, when Venetian Greek possessions such as the Ionian islands fell to the French Directory. It consisted of the islands of Kerkyra (Corfu) and Paxoi, as well as the cities of Butrint and Parga on the adjacent mainland. Its prefecture was in the City of Corfu. The island was lost to Russia after the Siege of Corfu (1798–1799) and the department was officially disbanded in 1802. Also, Butrint was captured in 1798 by Ali Pasha, ruler of the Pashalik of Yanina. During the renewed French control in 1807–1814, the department was not re-established, the constitutional form of the former Septinsular Republic being kept. The Commissioner of the Directory was the highest state representative in the department.
Princess Ishi-hime. Princess Ishi-hime (? – after 572) was Empress of Japan as the consort of Emperor Kinmei.[1] Ishi-hime was Emperor Senkas daughter. Unless otherwise noted (as BC), years are in CE / AD  1  individuals that were given the title of empress posthumously 2  individuals elevated to the rank of empress due to their position as honorary mother of the emperor 3  Shōshi served briefly as honorary empress for her younger brother Emperor Go-Daigo Unless otherwise noted (as BC), years are in CE / AD  1  individuals that were given the title of empress dowager posthumously 2  title removed in 896 due to a suspected affair with head priest of the Toko-ji Temple; title posthumously restored in 943 3  was made High Empress or de jure empress dowager during her husbands reign 
List of cities in ancient Acarnania. Acarnania is a region of western Greece. Below is a list of the cities that existed in Acarnania in ancient times.[1]
Shoku Nihongi. The Shoku Nihongi (続日本紀) is an imperially-commissioned Japanese history text. Completed in 797, it is the second of the Six National Histories, coming directly after the Nihon Shoki and followed by Nihon Kōki. Fujiwara no Tsugutada and Sugano no Mamichi served as the primary editors. It is one of the most important primary historical sources for information about Japans Nara period. The work covers the 95-year period from the beginning of Emperor Monmus reign in 697 until the 10th year of Emperor Kanmus reign in 791, spanning nine imperial reigns. It was completed in 797 AD.[1] The text is forty volumes in length. It is primarily written in kanbun, a Japanese form of Classical Chinese, as was normal for formal Japanese texts at the time.[2] However, a number of senmyō (宣命) or imperial edicts contained within the text are written in a script known as senmyō-gaki, which preserves particles and verb endings phonographically.[3]  This article about a non-fiction book on Japanese history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Corcyra (polis). Corcyra (also Korkyra /kɔːrˈsaɪ.rə/;[1] Ancient Greek: Κόρκυρα) was an ancient Greek city on the island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea adjacent to Epirus.[2] It was a colony of Corinth founded in the Archaic period. Corcyra was acting as a port of call on the sailing routes, especially to reach the Italian coast or to venture farther north. According to Thucydides, the earliest recorded naval battle took place between Corcyra and Corinth in the mid-7th century BC, roughly 260 years before he was writing.[3] He also writes that Corcyra was one of the three great naval powers in 5th-century BC Greece, along with Athens and Corinth.[4] The antagonism between Corcyra and its mother city, Corinth, appears to have been an old one. Quite apart from the naval battle that Thucydides mentions, Herodotus records a myth involving the tyrant of Corinth, Periander. Periander was estranged from his younger son, Lycophron, who believed that his father had killed his mother, Milissa. After failing to reconcile with Lycophron, he sent him to Corcyra, which was within Corinths governance. In his old age, Periander sent for his son to come and rule over Corinth and suggested that they would trade places and he would rule Corcyra while his son came to rule Corinth. To prevent that, the Corcyraeans killed Lycophron. In punishment, Periander captured 300 young men of Corcyra with the intention of castrating them.[5] That is more likely to be a myth explaining the animosity between Corinth and Corcyra and justifying the use of the word tyrant for Perianders rule than an actual historical event.[6] During the Persian War of 480 BC, Greek envoys were sent to Corcyra requesting aid. Corcyra enthusiastically promised ships and fitted out 60 of them, but they failed to arrive in time for the Battle of Salamis. Herodotus ascribes the delay as a strategic choice for the Corcyraeans to remain neutral. The excuse given for failing to join the battle was unfavourable winds, but Herodotus says that had the Persians been victorious, the Corcyraeans would have claimed to have deliberately avoided the battle to gain favour from the invading Persians.[7] Writing between 431 and 395 BC, Thucydides credited Corcyras conflict with Corinth over their joint city Epidamnus as a significant cause of the Peloponnesian War. Corcyra, otherwise neutral as far as the two major powers (the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League) were concerned, appealed to Athens, the head of the Delian League, for assistance against Corinth, which belonged to the Peloponnesian League.[8] In 427 BC, during the Peloponnesian War, there was a revolution and civil war in Corcyra between the democrats, who wished to remain in an alliance with Athens, and the aristocrats, who claimed that they were being enslaved to Athens and wished to form an alliance with Corinth and Lacedaemon. After a period of violent skirmishes, the democrats won with assistance from the Athenian navy and subsequently slaughtered those they suspected of being an enemy, while the rest of their foes fled to the Greek mainland.[9]
Akira Kurosawa.  Akira Kurosawa[note 1] (黒澤 明 or 黒沢 明, Kurosawa Akira; March 23, 1910 – September 6, 1998) was a Japanese filmmaker who directed 30 feature films in a career spanning six decades. With a bold and dynamic style strongly influenced by Western cinema yet distinct from it, he is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in the history of cinema. Known as a hands-on filmmaker, he was heavily involved with all aspects of production as a director, writer, producer, and editor. Following a brief stint as a painter, Kurosawa entered the Japanese film industry in 1936. After years of working on numerous films as an assistant director and screenwriter, he made his directorial debut during World War II with the popular action film Sanshiro Sugata (1943), released when he was 33 years old. Following the war, he cemented his reputation as one of the most important young filmmakers in Japan with the critically acclaimed Drunken Angel (1948), in which he cast the then-unknown actor Toshiro Mifune in a starring role; the two men would then collaborate on 15 more films. Rashomon (1950) premiered in Tokyo and became the surprise winner of the Golden Lion at the 1951 Venice Film Festival. The commercial and critical success of the film opened up Western film markets to Japanese films for the first time, which in turn led to international recognition for other Japanese filmmakers. Kurosawa directed approximately one film per year throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, including a number of highly regarded and often adapted films, including Ikiru (1952), Seven Samurai (1954), Throne of Blood (1957), The Hidden Fortress (1958), Yojimbo (1961), High and Low (1963), and Red Beard (1965). He became much less prolific after the 1960s, though his later work—including two of his final films, Kagemusha (1980) and Ran (1985)—continued to receive critical acclaim. In 1990, Kurosawa accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. He was posthumously named Asian of the Century in the Arts, Literature, and Culture category by AsianWeek magazine and CNN, who cited him as one of the five people who most prominently contributed to the improvement of Asia in the 20th century. His career has been honored by many releases in many consumer media in addition to retrospectives, critical studies, and biographies in both print and video.
Nihon-shiki.  Nihon-shiki (Japanese: 日本式ローマ字, romanized: Nihon-shiki rōmaji, lit. Japan-style Roman letters) is a romanization system for transliterating the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Among the major romanization systems for Japanese, it is the most regular one and has an almost one-to-one relation to the kana writing system. It was invented by physicist Aikitsu Tanakadate (田中館 愛橘) in 1885,[1] with the intention to replace the Hepburn system of romanization.[2] Tanakadates intention was to replace the traditional kanji and kana system of writing Japanese completely by a romanized system, which he felt would make it easier for Japan to compete with Western countries. Since the system was intended for Japanese people to use to write their own language, it is much more regular than Hepburn romanization, and unlike Hepburns system, it makes no effort to make itself easier to pronounce for English-speakers.[citation needed] Nihon-shiki was followed by Kunrei-shiki, which was adopted in 1937, after a political debate over whether Nihon-shiki or Hepburn-shiki should be used by the Japanese government.[1] Kunrei-shiki is nearly identical to Nihon-shiki, but it merges syllable pairs di/zi ぢ/じ, du/zu づ/ず, dya/zya ぢゃ/じゃ, dyu/zyu ぢゅ/じゅ, dyo/zyo ぢょ/じょ, wi/i ゐ/い, we/e ゑ/え, kwa/ka くゎ/か, and gwa/ga ぐゎ/が, whose pronunciations in Modern Standard Japanese are now identical. For example, the word かなづかい, rendered kanadukai in Nihon-shiki, is pronounced as kanazukai  in modern Japanese, and is romanized as such in Kunrei. The International Organization for Standardization has standardized Kunrei-shiki, under ISO 3602. The JSL system, which is intended for use instructing foreign students of Japanese, is also based on Nihon-shiki. However, some Japanese-speakers still distinguish di from zi and du from zu and so Nihon-shiki spelling is not entirely obsolete. Nihon-shiki is considered the most regular of the romanization systems for the Japanese language because it maintains a strict one kana, two letters form. Because it has unique forms corresponding to each of the respective pairs of kana homophones listed above, it is the only formal system of romanization that can allow (almost) lossless (round trip) mapping, but the standard does not mandate the precise spellings needed to distinguish ô 王/おう, ou 追う/おう and oo 大/おお.
Korčula.  Korčula (Croatian: [kɔ̂ːrtʃula] ⓘ) is a Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea. It has an area of 279 km2 (108 sq mi), is 46.8 km (29.1 mi) long and on average 7.8 km (4.8 mi) wide,[2] and lies just off the Dalmatian coast. Its 15,522 inhabitants (2011) make it the second most populous Adriatic island after Krk.[3] The population are almost entirely ethnic Croats (95.74%).[4] The island is twinned with Rothesay in Scotland. It is known for Grk, a white wine that is only produced on the island and not exported due to limited production.[5] The island of Korčula belongs to the central Dalmatian archipelago, separated from the Pelješac peninsula by a narrow Strait of Pelješac, between 900 and 3,000 metres (3,000 and 9,800 feet) wide. It stretches in the east–west direction, in length of 47 kilometres (29 miles); on average, it is 8 km (5.0 miles) wide. With an area of 279 square kilometres (108 sq mi), it is the sixth largest Adriatic island. The highest peaks are Klupca, 568 metres (1,864 ft) and Kom, 510 metres (1,670 ft) high. Main settlements on the island are towns of Korčula, Blato and Vela Luka. Villages along the coast are Brna, Račišće, Lumbarda and Prižba; Žrnovo, Pupnat, Smokvica and Čara are located inland. The island is divided into municipalities of Korčula, Smokvica, Blato and Lumbarda. The climate is Mediterranean; an average air temperature in January is 9.8 °C (49.6 °F) and in July 26.9 °C (80.4 °F); the average annual rainfall is 1,100 mm (43.3 in). The island is largely covered with Mediterranean flora including extensive pine forests. The main road runs along the spine of the island connecting all settlements from Lumbarda on the eastern to Vela Luka on the western end, with the exception of Račišće, which is served by a separate road running along the northern coast.[citation needed] Ferries connect the town of Korčula with Orebić on the Pelješac peninsula. Another line connects Vela Luka with Split and the island of Lastovo. Fast passenger catamarans connect those two ports with Split, Dubrovnik and the islands of Hvar, Lastovo and Mljet.
AD (disambiguation). AD (Anno Domini) is a designation used to label years following 1 BC in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Ad (advertisement) is a form of marketing communication. AD, A.D. or Ad may also refer to:
Heian period. The Heian period (平安時代, Heian jidai) is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185.[1] It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). Heian (平安) means peace in Japanese. It is a period in Japanese history when the Chinese influences were in decline and the national culture matured. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court, noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Two syllabaries unique to Japan, katakana and hiragana, emerged during this time. This gave rise to Japans famous vernacular literature, with many of its texts written by court ladies who were not as educated in Chinese as their male counterparts. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family; most Emperors of the Heian era had mothers from the Fujiwara family.[2] The economy mostly existed through barter and trade due to the lack of a national currency, while the shōen system encouraged the growth of aristocratic estates that began gradually asserting their independence from Imperial control. Despite a lack of serious warfare or domestic strife during the Heian era, crime and banditry were widespread as the Emperors failed to police the country effectively. The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 AD after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu.[3] Kammu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to Heian. A rebellion occurred in China toward the end of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China were suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, a fact which facilitated the independent growth of Japanese culture called kokufu bunka [ja]. Therefore, the Heian period is considered a high point in Japanese culture, one that later generations both admired and sought to emulate. The period is also noted for the emergence of the samurai class, the result of feudal lords training their own warriors to police and enforce order as they gained land and resources through Imperial benefices. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact, power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. To protect their interests in the provinces, nobles financed the training and arming of soldiers who in turn swore them allegiance rather than the Imperial court. These soldiers, the first samurai, later gained land and wealth of their own as an incentive to remain loyal.[2] As early as 939, the warlord Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west; samurai played a crucial role in suppressing both disturbances on behalf of the Emperor. In the rebellious north, the latter half of the 11th century saw the Former Nine Years War and the Latter Three Years War between the central government and the Abe and Kiyohara clan respectively. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate. By the 12th century, court authority weakened as the decentralized land allocation system managed by aristocratic vassals, preferring life at court over regional administration, made the system increasingly ineffective.[4] The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the 1156 Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan, the Taira, would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the Kamakura shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when the family of Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors and established the shogunate in their ancestral home, Kamakura.
One Hundred Famous Views of Edo. One Hundred Famous Views of Edo (in Japanese: 名所江戸百景, romanized: Meisho Edo Hyakkei) is a series of 119 ukiyo-e prints begun and largely completed by the Japanese artist Hiroshige (1797–1858). The prints were first published in serialized form in 1856–59, with Hiroshige II completing the series after Hiroshiges death. It was tremendously popular and much reprinted. Hiroshige produced designs in the style of the Utagawa school, a 19th-century popular style in woodblock prints, much favoured during his lifetime. Increasingly large series of prints were produced. This trend can be seen in Hiroshige’s work, such as The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō and The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kisokaidō. Many publishing houses arose and grew, publishing both books and individual prints. A publishers ownership of the physical woodblocks used to print a given text or image constituted the closest equivalent to a concept of copyright that existed at this time. Woodblock prints such as these were produced in large numbers in 18th- and 19th-century Japan, created by artists, block cutters and printers working independently to the instructions of specialist publishers. Prints such as these were called ukiyo-e, which means pictures of the floating world. This world was one of transient delights and changing fashions centred on the licensed pleasure districts and popular theatres found in the major cities of Japan. In the years 1829–36, a seven volume illustrated guidebook Pictures of famous places of  Edo (江戸名所図会, Edo meishō zue) was published. It was begun by Saitō Yukio (1737–1799) in 1790 and illustrated very accurately by Hasegawa Settan (1778–1848). The pictures and text describe the important temples and shrines, but also the famous stores, restaurants, tea-houses etc. of Edo as well as the Sumida river and its channels and surrounding landscape.
Impressionism.  Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, unusual visual angles, and inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience. Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the conventional art community in France. The name of the style derives from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satirical 1874 review of the First Impressionist Exhibition published in the Parisian newspaper Le Charivari.[1] The development of Impressionism in the visual arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as Impressionist music and Impressionist literature. Radicals in their time, the early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting. They constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted realistic scenes of everyday life in natural settings, often outdoors, attempting to capture a moment as experienced. Previously, paintings were accomplished in studio, whether landscape art, still life or portrait, with an emphasis on verisimilitude.[a] The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting outdoors or en plein air. They portrayed overall visual effects instead of details, and used short broken brush strokes of mixed and pure unmixed colour—not blended smoothly or shaded, as was customary—to achieve an effect of intense colour vibration.[2]
NASA.  The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the United Statess civil space program, aeronautics research and space research. Established in 1958, it succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to give the American space development effort a distinct civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. It has since led most of Americas space exploration programs, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo program missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA supports the International Space Station (ISS) along with the Commercial Crew Program and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the lunar Artemis program. NASAs science division is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System; advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorates Heliophysics Research Program; exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft such as New Horizons and planetary rovers such as Perseverance; and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the James Webb Space Telescope, the four Great Observatories, and associated programs. The Launch Services Program oversees launch operations for its uncrewed launches. NASA traces its roots to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Despite Dayton, Ohio being the birth place of aviation, by 1914 the United States recognized that it was far behind Europe in aviation capability. Determined to regain American leadership in aviation, the United States Congress created the Aviation Section of the US Army Signal Corps in 1914 and established NACA in 1915 to foster aeronautical research and development. Over the next forty years, NACA would conduct aeronautical research in support of the US Air Force, US Army, US Navy, and the civil aviation sector. After the end of World War II, NACA became interested in the possibilities of guided missiles and supersonic aircraft, developing and testing the Bell X-1 in a joint program with the US Air Force. NACAs interest in space grew out of its rocketry program at the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division.[5] The Soviet Unions launch of Sputnik 1 ushered in the Space Age and kicked off the Space Race. Despite NACAs early rocketry program, the responsibility for launching the first American satellite fell to the Naval Research Laboratorys Project Vanguard, whose operational issues ensured the Army Ballistic Missile Agency would launch Explorer 1, Americas first satellite, on February 1, 1958.
Christian era (disambiguation). Christian era may refer to
Klagenfurt Cathedral. Klagenfurt Cathedral (German: Klagenfurter Dom; Dom- und Stadtpfarrkirche Hll. Petrus und Paulus) is the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gurk-Klagenfurt and also the main parish church of Klagenfurt. It was built by Protestants and dedicated to the Holy Trinity in 1581, and was the largest Protestant church in Austria at that time. Klagenfurt Cathedral was commissioned by Christoph Windisch, Klagenfurts first mayor.[1]  In 1600, during the Counter-Reformation, it was given to the Jesuits and rededicated to Saints Peter and Paul. The church was razed to the ground by a fire and had to be rebuilt in 1724. Bishop Franz Xaver von Salm-Reifferscheid made it the cathedral of the Diocese of Gurk in 1787.
Decentralized Administration of Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian. The Decentralized Administration of Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian (Greek: Αποκεντρωμένη Διοίκηση Πελοποννήσου, Δυτικής Ελλάδας και Ιονίου, romanized: Apokentroméni Dioíkisi Peloponnísou, Dytikís Elládas kai Ioníou) is one of the seven decentralized administrations of Greece, consisting of the regions of Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian Islands. Its seat is in Patras, Western Greece, and it is currently headed by Acting Secretary-General Dionysios Panagiotopoulos. Decentralized Administrations were created in January 2011 as part of a far-reaching reform of the countrys administrative structure, the Kallikratis reform (Law 3852/2010).[3] They enjoy both administrative and financial autonomy[1] and exercise devolved state powers in urban planning, environmental and energy policy, forestry, migration and citizenship.[4] Beyond that, they are tasked with supervising the first and second-level self-governing bodies: the municipalities and regions, in this case the 52 municipalities of Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian Islands, and the three regions themselves. Covering an area of 28,847 km2 (11,138 sq mi)[1] with an overall population of 1,465,554[2] Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian is the third largest of the seven decentralized administrations both in area and population, and it is the only one that covers three Regions. In the revised European NUTS nomenclature, the regions of Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian together with the two regions of the Decentralized Administration of Thessaly and Central Greece form the first level NUTS region EL6 (Kentriki Ellada).
Animism. Animism (from Latin: anima meaning breath, spirit, life)[1][2] is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence.[3][4][5][6] Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and in some cases words—as being animated, having agency and free will.[7] Animism is used in anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system of many indigenous peoples[8] in contrast to the relatively more recent development of organized religions.[9] Animism is a metaphysical belief which focuses on the supernatural universe: specifically, on the concept of the immaterial soul.[10] Although each culture has its own mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples spiritual or supernatural perspectives. The animistic perspective is so widely held and inherent to most indigenous peoples that they often do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to animism (or even religion).[11] The term animism is an anthropological construct. Largely due to such ethnolinguistic and cultural discrepancies, opinions differ on whether animism refers to an ancestral mode of experience common to indigenous peoples around the world or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was developed only in the late 19th century (1871) by Edward Tylor. It is one of anthropologys earliest concepts, if not the first.[12] Animism encompasses beliefs that all material phenomena have agency, that there exists no categorical distinction between the spiritual and physical world, and that soul, spirit, or sentience exists not only in humans but also in other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features (such as mountains and rivers), and other entities of the natural environment. Examples include water sprites, vegetation deities, and tree spirits, among others. Animism may further attribute a life force to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the non-tribal world also consider themselves animists, such as author Daniel Quinn, sculptor Lawson Oyekan, and many contemporary Pagans.[13] English anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor initially wanted to describe the phenomenon as spiritualism, but he realized that it would cause confusion with the modern religion of spiritualism, which was then prevalent across Western nations.[14] He adopted the term animism from the writings of German scientist Georg Ernst Stahl,[15] who had developed the term animismus in 1708 as a biological theory that souls formed the vital principle, and that the normal phenomena of life and the abnormal phenomena of disease could be traced to spiritual causes.[16]
Hokusai quadrangle. The Hokusai quadrangle (H-5) is one of fifteen quadrangles on the planet Mercury. It runs from 360 to 270° longitude and 20 to 70° latitude. Named after the Hokusai crater, it was mapped in detail for the first time after MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that was not illuminated when Mariner 10 made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Apollonia quadrangle.[1][2] Prominent features within Hokusai quadrangle, other than Hokusai itself, include the large peak ring crater Rachmaninoff and the somewhat smaller crater Rustaveli.  Two faculae, or bright areas, are north of Rachmaninoff.  One is the prominent Nathair Facula and the other is the subdued Neidr Facula.  These are thought to be volcanic vents.[3]  A similar (unnamed) feature without bright coloration is northeast of the crater Hodgkins, informally named the butterfly vent.[4]  Much of the quadrangle is covered by the smooth plains of the Borealis Planitia. The Borealis quadrangle is north of Hokusai quadrangle.  To the west is Victoria quadrangle, and to the east is Raditladi quadrangle.  To the south is Derain quadrangle, and to the southeast is Eminescu quadrangle.
Shield volcano. A shield volcano is a type of volcano named for its low profile, resembling a shield lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid (low viscosity) lava, which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more viscous lava erupted from a stratovolcano. Repeated eruptions result in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcanos distinctive form. Shield volcanoes are found wherever fluid, low-silica lava reaches the surface of a rocky planet. However, they are most characteristic of ocean island volcanism associated with hot spots or with continental rift volcanism.[1] They include the largest active volcanoes on Earth, such as Mauna Loa. Giant shield volcanoes are found on other planets of the Solar System, including Olympus Mons on Mars[2] and Sapas Mons on Venus.[3] The term shield volcano is taken from the German term Schildvulkan, coined by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess in 1888 and which had been calqued into English by 1910.[4][5] Shield volcanoes are distinguished from the three other major volcanic types—stratovolcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones—by their structural form, a consequence of their particular magmatic composition. Of these four forms, shield volcanoes erupt the least viscous lavas. Whereas stratovolcanoes and lava domes are the product of highly viscous flows, and cinder cones are constructed of explosively eruptive tephra, shield volcanoes are the product of gentle effusive eruptions of highly fluid lavas that produce, over time, a broad, gently sloped eponymous shield.[6][7] Although the term is generally applied to basaltic shields, it has also at times been applied to rarer scutiform volcanoes of differing magmatic composition—principally pyroclastic shields, formed by the accumulation of fragmentary material from particularly powerful explosive eruptions, and rarer felsic lava shields formed by unusually fluid felsic magmas. Examples of pyroclastic shields include Billy Mitchell volcano in Papua New Guinea and the Purico complex in Chile;[8][9] an example of a felsic shield is the Ilgachuz Range in British Columbia, Canada.[10] Shield volcanoes are similar in origin to vast lava plateaus and flood basalts present in various parts of the world. These are eruptive features which occur along linear fissure vents and are distinguished from shield volcanoes by the lack of an identifiable primary eruptive center.[6] Active shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions.[7] With the exclusion of flood basalts, mature shields are the largest volcanic features on Earth.[11] The summit of the largest subaerial volcano in the world, Mauna Loa, lies 4,169 m (13,678 ft) above sea level, and the volcano, over 60 mi (100 km) wide at its base, is estimated to contain about 80,000 km3 (19,000 cu mi) of basalt.[12][7] The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the crust beneath it a further 8 km (5 mi).[13] Accounting for this subsidence and for the height of the volcano above the sea floor, the true height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m (56,000 ft).[14] Mount Everest, by comparison, is 8,848 m (29,029 ft) in height.[15] In 2013, a team led by the University of Houstons William Sager announced the discovery of Tamu Massif, an enormous extinct submarine volcano, approximately 450 by 650 km (280 by 400 mi) in area, which dwarfs all previously known volcanoes on Earth. However, the extents of the volcano have not been confirmed.[16] Although Tamu Massif was initially believed to be a shield volcano, Sanger and his colleagues acknowledged in 2019 that Tamu Massif is not a shield volcano.[17]
Radar.  Radar is a system that uses radio waves to determine the distance (ranging), direction (azimuth and elevation angles), and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It is a radiodetermination method[1] used to detect and track aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations and terrain. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for radio detection and ranging.[2][3][4][5][6] The term radar has since entered English and other languages as an anacronym, a common noun, losing all capitalization. A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwave domain, a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the objects. Radio waves (pulsed or continuous) from the transmitter reflect off the objects and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects locations and speeds. This device was developed secretly for military use by several countries in the period before and during World War II. A key development was the cavity magnetron in the United Kingdom, which allowed the creation of relatively small systems with sub-meter resolution. The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air and terrestrial traffic control, radar astronomy, air-defense systems, anti-missile systems, marine radars to locate landmarks and other ships, aircraft anti-collision systems, ocean surveillance systems, outer space surveillance and rendezvous systems, meteorological precipitation monitoring, radar remote sensing, altimetry and flight control systems, guided missile target locating systems, self-driving cars, and ground-penetrating radar for geological observations. Modern high tech radar systems use digital signal processing and machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems which are similar to radar make use of other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses predominantly infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves. With the emergence of driverless vehicles, radar is expected to assist the automated platform to monitor its environment, thus preventing unwanted incidents.[7]
Provinces of Japan. Provinces of Japan (令制国, Ryōseikoku) were first-level administrative divisions of Japan from the 600s to 1868. Provinces were established in Japan in the late 7th century under the Ritsuryō law system that formed the first central government. Each province was divided into districts (郡, gun) and grouped into one of the geographic regions or circuits known as the Gokishichidō (Five Home Provinces and Seven Circuits). Provincial borders often changed until the end of the Nara period (710 to 794), but remained unchanged from the Heian period (794 to 1185) until the Edo period (1603 to 1868). The provinces coexisted with the han (domain) system, the personal estates of feudal lords and warriors, and became secondary to the domains in the late Muromachi period (1336 to 1573). The Provinces of Japan were replaced with the current prefecture system in the Fuhanken sanchisei during the Meiji Restoration from 1868 to 1871, except for Hokkaido, which was divided into provinces from 1869 to 1882. No order has ever been issued explicitly abolishing the provinces, but they are considered obsolete as administrative units. The provinces are still used in general conversation, especially in navigation and transportation, and referenced in products and geographical features of the prefectures covering their former territories. The provinces were originally established by the Ritsuryō reforms as both administrative units and geographic regions. From the late Muromachi period,  however, they were gradually supplanted by the domains of the sengoku daimyō. Under the rule of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Azuchi–Momoyama period, the provinces were supplemented as primary local administrative units. The local daimyōs fiefs were developed.[clarification needed][1] In the Edo period, the fiefs became known as han. Imperial provinces and shogunal domains made up complementary systems.  For example, when the shōgun ordered a daimyō to make a census or to make maps, the work was organized in terms of the boundaries of the provincial kuni.[2]
Corfu (regional unit). Corfu (Greek: Περιφερειακή ενότητα Κερκύρας) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of the Ionian Islands. The capital of the regional unit is the town of Corfu. The regional unit consists of the islands of Corfu, Paxoi, Othonoi, Ereikoussa, Mathraki and several smaller islands, all in the Ionian Sea. Since 2019, the regional unit Corfu is subdivided into 4 municipalities:[2][3] As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Corfu was created out of the former prefecture Corfu (Greek: Νομός Κερκύρας).[4] The prefecture, created in 1864, had the same territory as the present regional unit. The provinces were:
Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex.  The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (GDSCC), commonly called the Goldstone Observatory, is a satellite ground station located in Fort Irwin[1] in the U.S. state of California. Operated by NASAs  Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), its main purpose is to track and communicate with interplanetary space missions.  It is named after Goldstone, California, a nearby gold-mining ghost town.[4] The station is one of three[5] satellite communication stations in the NASA Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) program’s Deep Space Network (DSN), whose mission is to provide the vital two-way communications link that tracks and controls interplanetary spacecraft and receives the images and scientific information they collect.  The others are the Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex in Spain and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex in Australia.  These three stations are located at separations of approximately 120° longitude so that as the Earth rotates a spacecraft will always be in sight of at least one station.[6] The complex includes the Pioneer Deep Space Station (aka DSS 11), which is a U.S. National Historic Landmark. Five large parabolic (dish) antennas are located at the Goldstone site to handle the workload, since at any given time the DSN is responsible for maintaining communication with up to 30 spacecraft.  The antennas function similarly to a home satellite dish.  However, since the spacecraft they communicate with are much farther away than the communication satellites which home satellite dishes use, the signals received are much weaker, requiring a larger aperture antenna to gather enough radio energy to make them intelligible.  The largest, a 70-meter (230 ft) Cassegrain antenna, is used for communication with space missions to the outer planets, such as the Voyager spacecraft, which, at 21.5 billion kilometers, is the most distant manmade object from Earth.  The radio frequencies used for spacecraft communication are in the microwave part of the radio spectrum; S band (2.29–2.30 GHz), X band (8.40–8.50 GHz) and Ka band (31.8–32.3 GHz).  In addition to receiving radio signals from the spacecraft (downlink signals), the antennas also transmit commands to the spacecraft (uplink signals) with high power radio transmitters (80 kW)[7] powered by klystron tubes.
Musashi Province. Musashi Province (武蔵国, Musashi no Kuni; Japanese pronunciation: [mɯꜜ.sa.ɕi (no kɯ.ɲi)][1]) was a province of Japan, which today comprises Tokyo Metropolis, most of Saitama Prefecture and part of Kanagawa Prefecture.[2] It was sometimes called Bushū (武州). The province encompassed Kawasaki and Yokohama. Musashi bordered on Kai, Kōzuke, Sagami, Shimōsa, and Shimotsuke Provinces. Musashi was the largest province in the Kantō region. Musashi had its ancient capital in modern Fuchū, Tokyo, and its provincial temple in what is now Kokubunji, Tokyo. By the Sengoku period, the main city was Edo, which became the dominant city of eastern Japan. Edo Castle was the headquarters of Tokugawa Ieyasu[3] before the Battle of Sekigahara and became the dominant city of Japan during the Edo period, being renamed Tokyo during the Meiji Restoration. Hikawa-jinja was designated as the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of the province;   [4] and there are many branch shrines.[5] The former province gave its name to the battleship Musashi of the Second World War.
Hokusai.  Katsushika Hokusai[a] (葛飾 北斎; c. 31 October 1760 – 10 May 1849), known mononymously as Hokusai, was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist of the Edo period, active as a painter and printmaker.[2] His woodblock print series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji includes the iconic print The Great Wave off Kanagawa. Hokusai was instrumental in developing ukiyo-e from a style of portraiture largely focused on courtesans and actors into a much broader style of art that focused on landscapes, plants, and animals. His works had a significant influence on Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet during the wave of Japonisme that spread across Europe in the late 19th century. Hokusai created the monumental Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji as a response to a domestic travel boom in Japan and as part of a personal interest in Mount Fuji.[3] It was this series, specifically, The Great Wave off Kanagawa and Fine Wind, Clear Morning, that secured his fame both in Japan and overseas.[4] Hokusai was best known for his woodblock ukiyo-e prints, but he worked in a variety of mediums including painting and book illustration. Starting as a young child, he continued working and improving his style until his death, aged 88. In a long and successful career, Hokusai produced over 30,000 paintings, sketches, woodblock prints, and images for picture books. Innovative in his compositions and exceptional in his drawing technique, Hokusai is considered one of the greatest masters in the history of art. Hokusais date of birth is unclear, but is often stated as the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th year of the Hōreki era (in the old calendar, or 31 October 1760) to an artisan family, in the Katsushika[ja] district of Edo, the capital of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate (currently Katsushika-ku, Tokyo).[5] His childhood name was Tokitarō.[6] It is believed his father was Nakajima Ise, a mirror-maker for the shōgun.[6] His father never made Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a concubine.[5] Hokusai began painting around the age of six, perhaps learning from his father, whose work included the painting of designs around mirrors.[5]
Shinto.  Shinto (神道, Shintō; Japanese pronunciation: [ɕiꜜn.toː][2]), also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japans indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners Shintoists, although adherents rarely use that term themselves. With no central authority in control of Shinto, there is much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners. A polytheistic and animistic religion, Shinto revolves around supernatural entities called the kami (神). The kami are believed to inhabit all things, including forces of nature and prominent landscape locations. The kami are worshipped at kamidana household shrines, family shrines, and jinja public shrines. The latter are staffed by priests, known as kannushi, who oversee offerings of food and drink to the specific kami enshrined at that location. This is done to cultivate harmony between humans and kami and to solicit the latters blessing. Other common rituals include the kagura dances, rites of passage, and kami festivals. Public shrines facilitate forms of divination and supply religious objects, such as amulets, to the religions adherents. Shinto places a major conceptual focus on ensuring purity, largely by cleaning practices such as ritual washing and bathing, especially before worship. Little emphasis is placed on specific moral codes or particular afterlife beliefs, although the dead are deemed capable of becoming kami. The religion has no single creator or specific doctrine, and instead exists in a diverse range of local and regional forms. Although historians debate at what point it is suitable to refer to Shinto as a distinct religion, kami veneration has been traced back to Japans Yayoi period (300 BC to 300 AD). Buddhism entered Japan at the end of the Kofun period (300 to 538 AD) and spread rapidly. Religious syncretization made kami worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process called shinbutsu-shūgō. The kami came to be viewed as part of Buddhist cosmology and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically. The earliest written tradition regarding kami worship was recorded in the 8th-century Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. In ensuing centuries, shinbutsu-shūgō was adopted by Japans Imperial household. During the Meiji era (1868 to 1912), Japans nationalist leadership expelled Buddhist influence from kami worship and formed State Shinto, which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence, and citizens were encouraged to worship the emperor as a kami. With the formation of the Empire of Japan in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japans defeat in World War II, Shinto was formally separated from the state. Shinto is primarily found in Japan, where there are around 100,000 public shrines, although practitioners are also found abroad. Numerically, it is Japans largest religion, the second being Buddhism. Most of the countrys population takes part in both Shinto and Buddhist activities, especially festivals, reflecting a common view in Japanese culture that the beliefs and practices of different religions need not be exclusive. Aspects of Shinto have been incorporated into various Japanese new religious movements.
Corfu (city). Corfu (/kɔːrˈf(j)uː/, also US: /ˈkɔːrf(j)uː/) or Kerkyra (Greek: Κέρκυρα, romanized: Kérkyra, pronounced [ˈcercira] ⓘ; Ancient Greek: Κόρκυρα, romanized: Kórkyra, pronounced [kórkyra]; Medieval Greek: Κορυφώ, romanized: Koryfó; Italian: Corfù; Latin: Corcyra) is a city and a former municipality on the island of Corfu, Ionian Islands, Greece. Since the 2019 local government reform, it is part of the municipality Central Corfu and Diapontian Islands.[2] It is the capital of the municipality and of the Corfu regional unit. The city also serves as a capital for the region of the Ionian Islands. The city (population in 2021: 40,047 residents and the whole island about 100,000) is a major tourist attraction and Greek regional centre and has played an important role in Greek history since antiquity. The ancient city of Corfu, known as Korkyra, took part in the Battle of Sybota which was a catalyst for the Peloponnesian War, and, according to Thucydides, the largest naval battle between Greek city states until that time. Thucydides  also reports that Korkyra was one of the three great naval powers of fifth-century-BC Greece, along with Athens and Corinth.[3] Medieval castles punctuating strategic locations across the city are a legacy of struggles in the Middle Ages against invasions by pirates and the Ottomans. The city has become known since the Middle Ages as Kastropolis (Castle City) because of its two castles.[4] From 1386 to 1797, Corfu was ruled by Venetian nobility; much of the city reflects this era when the island belonged to the Republic of Venice, with multi-storied buildings on narrow lanes. The Old Town of Corfu has clear Venetian influence.[5] The city was subjected to four notable sieges in 1537, 1571, 1573 and 1716, in which the strength of the city defenses asserted itself time after time, mainly because of the effectiveness of the powerful Venetian fortifications. Writer Will Durant claimed that Corfu owed to the Republic of Venice the fact that it was the only part of Greece never conquered by the Ottomans.[6] In 2007, the old town of the city was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.[7][8][9] The municipal unit of Corfu city has a land area of 41.905 km2 (16.180 sq mi)[10] and a total population of 40,047 inhabitants. Besides the city of Corfu/Kérkyra, its largest other towns are Kanáli (population 4,786), Potamós (3,840), Kontókali (1,660), Alepoú (3,149), and Gouviá (838). In the city of Corfu, the ruins of the ancient city of Korkyra, also known as Palaiopolis, include ancient temples which were excavated at the location of the palace of Mon Repos, which was built on the ruins of the Palaiopolis. The temples are: Kardaki Temple, Temple of Artemis, and the Temple of Hera. Heras temple is situated at the western limits of Mon Repos, close to Kardaki Temple and to the northwest.[11] It is approximately 700 m. to the southeast of the Temple of Artemis in Corfu.[11] Heras Temple was built at the top of Analipsis Hill, and, because of its prominent location, it was highly visible to ships passing close to the waterfront of ancient Korkyra.[11]
De facto.  De facto (/deɪ ˈfæktoʊ, di -, də -/, day FAK-toh, dee -⁠, də -⁠;[1] Latin: [deː ˈfaktoː] ⓘ; lit. from fact) describes practices that exist in reality, regardless of whether they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms.[2][3] It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with de jure (from law). This distinction is highly significant in fields like law and governance. The term de facto is used to describe concepts that have, or could have, both a declared official form as well as an unofficial functioning form. For example, a de facto government holds power without legal recognition, while a de jure government may have formal legal authority but lack any real power. In jurisprudence, a de facto law (also known as a de facto regulation) is a law or regulation that is followed but is not specifically enumerated by a law.[4] By definition, de facto contrasts de jure which means as defined by law or as a matter of law.[5][6] For example, if a particular law exists in one jurisdiction, but is followed in another where it has no legal effect (such as in another country), then the law could be considered a de facto regulation (a de facto regulation is not an officially prescribed legal classification for a type of law in a particular jurisdiction, rather, it is a concept about law(s).[7][8][5] A de facto regulation may be followed by an organization as a result of the market size of the jurisdiction imposing the regulation as a proportion of the overall market; wherein the market share is so large that it results in the organization choosing to comply by implementing one standard of business with respect to the given de facto law instead of altering standards between different jurisdictions and markets (e.g. data protection, manufacturing, etc.).[9][10][11][12] The decision to voluntarily comply may be the result of: a desire to simplify manufacturing processes & cost-effectiveness (such as adopting a one size fits all approach), consumer demand & expectation, or other factors known only to the complier.[example needed]
Austria.  Austria,[e] formally the Republic of Austria,[f] is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps.[15] It is a federation of nine states, of which the capital Vienna is the most populous city and state. Austria is bordered by Germany to the northwest, the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia to the northeast, Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The country occupies an area of 83,879 km2 (32,386 sq mi) and has a population of around 9 million.[10] The area of todays Austria has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic period. Around 400 BC, it was inhabited by the Celts and then annexed by the Romans in the late 1st century BC. Christianization in the region began in the 4th and 5th centuries, during the late Roman period, followed by the arrival of numerous Germanic tribes during the Migration Period.[16] Austria, as a unified state, emerged from the remnants of the Eastern and Hungarian March at the end of the first millennium, first as a frontier march of the Holy Roman Empire, it then developed into a Duchy in 1156, and was made an Archduchy in 1453. Being the heartland of the Habsburg monarchy since the late 13th century, Austria was a major imperial power in Central Europe for centuries and from the 16th century, Vienna also served as the Holy Roman Empires administrative capital.[17] Before the dissolution of the empire two years later, in 1804, Austria established its own empire, which became a great power and one of the largest states in Europe. The empires defeat in wars and the loss of territories in the 1860s paved the way for the establishment of Austria-Hungary in 1867.[18] After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph declared war on Serbia, which rapidly escalated into World War I. The empires defeat and subsequent collapse led to the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria in 1918 and the First Austrian Republic in 1919. During the interwar period, anti-parliamentarian sentiments culminated in the formation of an Austrofascist dictatorship under Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934. A year before the outbreak of World War II, Austria was annexed into Nazi Germany by Adolf Hitler, and it became a sub-national division. After its liberation in 1945 and a decade of Allied occupation, the country regained its sovereignty and declared its perpetual neutrality in 1955.
Geographical renaming. Geographical renaming is the changing of the name of a geographical feature or area, which ranges from the change of a street name to a change to the name of a country. Places are also sometimes assigned dual names for various reasons. A change might see a completely different name being adopted or may only be a slight change in spelling. Some names are changed locally but the new names are not recognised by other countries, especially when there is a difference in language.  Other names may not be officially recognised but remain in common use. Many places have different names in different languages, and a change of language in official or general use has often resulted in what is arguably a change of name. There are many reasons to undertake renaming, with political motivation being the primary cause; for example many places in the former Soviet Union and its satellites were renamed to honour Stalin. Sometimes a place reverts to its former name (see, for example, de-Stalinization).[citation needed] One of the most common reasons for a country changing its name is newly acquired national independence.  When borders are changed, sometimes due to a country splitting or two countries joining, the names of the relevant areas can change.  This, however, is more the creation of a different entity than an act of geographical renaming.[citation needed] Place names may revert to an earlier name; for instance in Australia, pre-colonial names established thousands of years ago by Aboriginal peoples have been reclaimed as official names. Examples include Kgari (formerly Fraser Island and various other names since settlement), and Uluru / Ayers Rock, where a dual naming strategy was adopted but it is now commonly known as Uluru.[1] Other more unusual reasons for renaming have included getting rid of an inappropriate or embarrassing name, or as part of a sponsorship deal or publicity stunt.[2]
Feudalism.  Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. The classic definition, by François Louis Ganshof (1944),[1] describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility and revolved around the key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs.[1] A broader definition, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry, all of whom were bound by a system of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a feudal society. Although it is derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief),[2] which was used during the medieval period, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people who lived during the Middle Ages.[3] Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Browns The Tyranny of a Construct (1974) and Susan Reynoldss Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society.[10] The adjective feudal was in use by at least 1405, and the noun feudalism was in use by the end of the 18th century,[4] paralleling the French féodalité.
Calque. In linguistics, a calque (/kælk/) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, to calque means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components, so as to create a new word or phrase (lexeme) in the target language. For instance, the English word skyscraper has been calqued in dozens of other languages,[1] combining words for sky and scrape in each language, as for example skyskrapa in Swedish, Wolkenkratzer in German, arranha-céu in Portuguese, wolkenkrabber in Dutch, rascacielos in Spanish, grattacielo in Italian, gökdelen in Turkish, небоскреб in Russian, and matenrō (摩天楼) in Japanese. Calques, like direct borrowings, often function as linguistic gap-fillers, emerging when a language lacks existing vocabulary to express new ideas, technologies, or objects. This phenomenon is widespread and is often attributed to the shared conceptual frameworks across human languages. Speakers of different languages tend to perceive the world through common categories such as time, space, and quantity, making the translation of concepts across languages both possible and natural.[2] Calquing is distinct from phono-semantic matching: while calquing includes semantic translation, it does not consist of phonetic matching—i.e., of retaining the approximate sound of the borrowed word by matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing word or morpheme in the target language.[3] Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases, a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language, or when the calque contains less obvious imagery. One system classifies calques into five groups. This terminology is not universal:[4]
Regional units of Greece. The 74 regional units of Greece (Greek: περιφερειακές ενότητες, sing. περιφερειακή ενότητα, romanized: perifereiakés enótites, sing. perifereiakí enótita) are the countrys third-level administrative units (counting decentralized administrations as first-level). They are subdivisions of the countrys 13 regions, and are further divided into municipalities. They were introduced as part of the Kallikratis administrative reform on 1 January 2011 and are comparable in area and, on the mainland, coterminous with the pre-Kallikratis prefectures of Greece.[1]
Ionia.  Ionia (/aɪˈoʊniə/ eye-OH-nee-ə)[1] was an ancient region encompassing the central part of the western coast of Anatolia. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements.[citation needed] Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionians who had settled in the region before the archaic period.[citation needed] Ionia proper comprised a narrow coastal strip from Phocaea in the north near the mouth of the river Hermus (now the Gediz), to Miletus in the south near the mouth of the river Maeander, and included the islands of Chios and Samos. It was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south. The cities within the region figured significantly in the strife between the Persian Empire and the Greeks. Ionian cities were identified by mythic traditions of kinship and by their use of the Ionic dialect, but there was a core group of twelve Ionian cities that formed the Ionian League and had a shared sanctuary and festival at Panionion. These twelve cities were (from south to north): Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with the islands of Samos and Chios.[2] Smyrna, originally an Aeolic colony, was afterwards occupied by Ionians from Colophon, and became an Ionian city.[3][4] The Ionian school of philosophy, centered on 6th century BC Miletus, was characterized by a focus on non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena and a search for rational explanations of the universe, thereby laying the foundation for scientific inquiry and rational thought in Western philosophy.
Legal translation. Legal translation is the translation of language used in legal settings and for legal purposes. Legal translation may also imply that it is a specific type of translation only used in law, which is not always the case. As law is a culture-dependent subject field, legal translation is not necessarily linguistically transparent. Intransparency in translation can be avoided somewhat by use of Latin legal terminology, where possible, but in non-western languages debates are centered on the origins and precedents of specific terms, such as in the use of particular Chinese characters in Japanese legal discussions.[1] Intransparency can lead to expensive misunderstandings in terms of a contract, for example, resulting in avoidable lawsuits. Legal translation is thus usually done by specialized law translators. Conflicts over the legal impact of a translation can be avoided by indicating that the text is authentic i.e. legally operative on its own terms or instead is merely a convenience translation, which itself is not legally operative. Courts only apply authentic texts and do not rely on convenience translations in adjudicating rights and duties of litigants. Most legal writing is exact and technical, seeking to precisely define legally binding rights and duties. Thus, precise correspondence of these rights and duties in the source text and in the translation is essential. As well as understanding and precisely translating the legal rights and duties established in the translated text, legal translators must also bear in mind the legal system of the source text (ST) and the legal system of the target text (TT) which may differ greatly from each other.[2] This is a challenge because it requires that the translator have substantial legal knowledge as well as the multiple legal systems that can exist in one language.[2] Examples of different legal systems include Anglo-American common law, Islamic law, or customary tribal law for examples. Apart from terminological lacunae (lexical gaps), textual conventions in the source language are often culture-dependent and may not correspond to conventions in the target culture (see e.g. Nielsen 2010). Linguistic structures that are often found in the source language may have no direct equivalent structures in the target language. The translator therefore has to be guided by certain standards of linguistic, social and cultural equivalence between the language used in the source text (ST) to produce a text (TT) in the target language. Those standards correspond to a variety of different principles defined as different approaches to translation in translation theory. Each of the standards sets a certain priority among the elements of ST to be preserved in TT.  For example, following the functional approach, translators try to find target language structures with the same functions as those in the source language thus value the functionality of a text fragment in ST more than, say, the meanings of specific words in ST and the order in which they appear there. 
Mare Orientale. Mare Orientale /ɔːriɛnˈteɪliː/ (Latin orientāle, the eastern sea) is a lunar mare. It is located on the western border of the near side and far side of the Moon,[2] and is difficult to see from an Earthbound perspective. Images from spacecraft have revealed it to be one of the most striking large scale lunar features, resembling a target ring bullseye. During the 1960s, rectified images of Mare Orientale by Gerard Kuiper at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory gave rise to the notion of it being an impact crater.[3][4] The structure, with the flat plain of the mare in the center, is about 900 kilometres (560 mi) across and was formed by the impact of an asteroid-sized object,[5][6] possibly 64 km (40 mi) in diameter and travelling at 15 km/s (9.3 mi/s).[7][8] Compared with most other lunar basins, Mare Orientale is less flooded by mare basalts, so that much of the basin structure is visible. The basalt in the central portion of the Orientale basin is probably less than 1 km (0.62 mi) in thickness which is much less than mare basins on the Earth-facing side of the Moon.[5] The collision caused ripples in the lunar crust, resulting in the three concentric circular features. The innermost rings of this vast, multi-ringed crater are the inner and outer Montes Rook, and the outermost ring are the Montes Cordillera, 930 km (580 mi) in diameter. Outward from here, ejecta extend some 500 km (310 mi) from the foot of the mountains and form a rough surface with hummocks and with features radially aligned towards the center.[5] The Apollo program did not sample rocks from Mare Orientale so its precise age is not known. However, it is the Moons most recent impact basin, probably younger than the Imbrium Basin, which is about 3.85 billion years old,[5] with an estimated age of around 3.7-3.8 billion years.[9] The surrounding basin material is of the Lower Imbrian epoch with the mare material being of the Upper Imbrian epoch.[10][11] Global seismic shaking following the impact that created the basin has been credited with the levelling of almost all slopes steeper than 35° in layers of Imbrian age and older on the Moon.[12] Located at the antipode of Mare Orientale is Mare Marginis.
Translation. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such spill-overs have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.[2] Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.[3] More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localisation.[4] The word for the concept of translation, in English and some other European languages, stems from the Latin noun translatio,[6] formed from the adverb trans, across, and -latio, derived from latus, the past participle of the verb ferre, to carry or bring. Thus, the Latin noun translatio and its cognate modern derivatives mean the bringing across (i.e., the transferring) of a text from one language to another.[7] In some other European languages, the word for the concept of translation stems from another Latin noun, trāductiō, derived from the verb trādūcō, bring across, formed from the adverb trans, across, and dūcō, to lead or bring.[7]
Engelier. Engelier is a 310-mile (500-kilometers) large crater on Saturns moon Iapetus in Saragossa Terra.[4][5] It partially obscures the slightly smaller crater Gerin.  This article about an impact crater on a moon of Saturn is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Meteor Crater.  Meteor Crater, or Barringer Crater, is an impact crater about 37 mi (60 km)  east of Flagstaff and 18 mi (29 km) west of Winslow in the desert of northern Arizona,  United States. The site had several earlier names, and fragments of the meteorite are officially called the Canyon Diablo Meteorite, after the adjacent Canyon Diablo.[2] Meteor Crater lies at an elevation of 5,640 ft (1,719 m) above sea level.[3] It is about 3,900 ft (1,200 m) in diameter, some 560 ft (170 m) deep, and is surrounded by a rim that rises 148 ft (45 m) above the surrounding plains. The center of the crater is filled with 690–790 ft (210–240 m) of rubble lying above crater bedrock.[1] One of the features of the crater is its squared-off outline, believed to be caused by existing regional jointing (cracks) in the strata at the impact site.[4] Despite an attempt to make the crater a public landmark,[5] the crater remains privately owned by the Barringer family to the present day through their Barringer Crater Company. The Lunar and Planetary Institute, the American Museum of Natural History, and other science institutes proclaim it to be the best-preserved meteorite crater on Earth.[6][7][8] It was designated a National Natural Landmark in November 1967.[9] The crater was created about 50,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch, when the local climate on the Colorado Plateau was much cooler and damper.[10][11] The area was an open grassland dotted with woodlands inhabited by mammoths and giant ground sloths.[12][13]
Iapetus (moon). Iapetus (/aɪˈæpətəs/) is the outermost of Saturns large moons. With an estimated diameter of 1,469 km (913 mi), it is the third-largest moon of Saturn and the eleventh-largest in the Solar System.[b] Named after the Titan Iapetus, the moon was discovered in 1671 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini. A relatively low-density body made up mostly of ice, Iapetus is home to several distinctive and unusual features, such as a striking difference in coloration between its leading hemisphere, which is dark, and its trailing hemisphere, which is bright, as well as a massive equatorial ridge running three-quarters of the way around the moon. Iapetus was discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, an Italian-born French astronomer, in October 1671. This is the first moon that Cassini discovered; the second moon of Saturn to be discovered after Christiaan Huygens spotted Titan 16 years prior in 1655; and the sixth extraterrestrial moon to be discovered in human history. Cassini discovered Iapetus when the moon was on the western side of Saturn, but when he tried viewing it on the eastern side some months later, he was unsuccessful. This was also the case the following year, when he was again able to observe it on the western side, but not the eastern side. Cassini finally observed Iapetus on the eastern side in 1705 with the help of an improved telescope, finding it two magnitudes dimmer on that side.[10][11] Cassini correctly surmised that Iapetus has a bright hemisphere and a dark hemisphere, and that it is tidally locked, always keeping the same face towards Saturn. This means that the bright hemisphere is visible from Earth when Iapetus is on the western side of Saturn, and that the dark hemisphere is visible when Iapetus is on the eastern side.[12]
Corfu (constituency). The Corfu electoral constituency (Greek: Εκλογική περιφέρεια Κέρκυρας) is a parliamentary constituency of Greece.[1] It elects three MPs to the Hellenic Parliament.[2] This article about politics in Greece is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This Greece-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Regions of Greece (disambiguation). Regions of Greece are the 13 current administrative regions of Greece. Regions of Greece may also refer to:
List of adjectivals and demonyms of astronomical bodies.  The adjectival forms of the names of astronomical bodies are not always easily predictable. Attested adjectival forms of the larger bodies are listed below, along with the two small Martian moons; in some cases they are accompanied by their demonymic equivalents, which denote hypothetical inhabitants of these bodies. For Classical (Greco-Roman) names, the adjectival and demonym forms normally derive from the oblique stem, which may differ from the nominative form used in English for the noun form. For instance, for a large portion of names ending in -s, the oblique stem and therefore the English adjective changes the -s to a -d, -t, or -r, as in Mars–Martian, Pallas–Palladian and Ceres–Cererian;[note 1] occasionally an -n has been lost historically from the nominative form, and reappears in the oblique and therefore in the English adjective, as in Pluto–Plutonian and Atlas–Atlantean. Many of the more recent or more obscure names are only attested in mythological or literary contexts, rather than in specifically astronomical contexts. Forms ending in -ish or -ine, such as Puckish, are not included below if a derivation in -an is also attested. Rare forms, or forms only attested with spellings not in keeping with the IAU-approved spelling (such as c for k), are shown in italics. The suffix -ian is always unstressed: that is, /iən/. The related ending -ean, from an e in the root plus a suffix -an, has traditionally been stressed (that is, /ˈiːən/) if the e is long ē in Latin (or is from ⟨η⟩ ē in Greek); but if the e is short in Latin, the suffix is pronounced the same as -ian. In practice forms ending in -ean may be pronounced as if they were spelled -ian even if the e is long in Latin. This dichotomy should be familiar from the dual pronunciations of Caribbean as /ˌkærɪˈbiːən/ KARR-ə-BEE-ən and /kəˈrɪbiən/ kə-RIB-i-ən.
Epoch (astronomy).  In astronomy, an epoch or reference epoch is a moment in time used as a reference point for some time-varying astronomical quantity. It is useful for the celestial coordinates or orbital elements of a celestial body, as they are subject to perturbations and vary with time.[1] These time-varying astronomical quantities might include, for example, the mean longitude or mean anomaly of a body, the node of its orbit relative to a reference plane, the direction of the apogee or aphelion of its orbit, or the size of the major axis of its orbit. The main use of astronomical quantities specified in this way is to calculate other relevant parameters of motion, in order to predict future positions and velocities. The applied tools of the disciplines of celestial mechanics or its subfield orbital mechanics (for predicting orbital paths and positions for bodies in motion under the gravitational effects of other bodies) can be used to generate an ephemeris, a table of values giving the positions and velocities of astronomical objects in the sky at a given time or times. Astronomical quantities can be specified in any of several ways, for example, as a polynomial function of the time interval, with an epoch as a temporal point of origin (this is a common current way of using an epoch). Alternatively, the time-varying astronomical quantity can be expressed as a constant, equal to the measure that it had at the epoch, leaving its variation over time to be specified in some other way—for example, by a table, as was common during the 17th and 18th centuries. The word epoch was often used in a different way in older astronomical literature, e.g. during the 18th century, in connection with astronomical tables.  At that time, it was customary to denote as epochs, not the standard date and time of origin for time-varying astronomical quantities, but rather the values at that date and time of those time-varying quantities themselves.[2] In accordance with that alternative historical usage, an expression such as correcting the epochs would refer to the adjustment, usually by a small amount, of the values of the tabulated astronomical quantities applicable to a fixed standard date and time of reference (and not, as might be expected from current usage, to a change from one date and time of reference to a different date and time).
Osculating orbit. In astronomy, and in particular in astrodynamics, the osculating orbit of an object in space at a given moment in time is the gravitational Kepler orbit (i.e. an elliptic or other conic one) that it would have around its central body if perturbations were absent.[1] That is, it is the orbit that coincides with the current orbital state vectors (position and velocity). The word osculate is Latin for kiss. In mathematics, two curves osculate when they just touch, without (necessarily) crossing, at a point, where both have the same position and slope, i.e. the two curves kiss. An osculating orbit and the objects position upon it can be fully described by the six standard Kepler orbital elements (osculating elements), which are easy to calculate as long as one knows the objects position and velocity relative to the central body. The osculating elements would remain constant in the absence of perturbations. Real astronomical orbits experience perturbations that cause the osculating elements to evolve, sometimes very quickly. In cases where general celestial mechanical analyses of the motion have been carried out (as they have been for the major planets, the Moon, and other planetary satellites), the orbit can be described by a set of mean elements with secular and periodic terms. In the case of minor planets, a system of proper orbital elements has been devised to enable representation of the most important aspects of their orbits. Perturbations that cause an objects osculating orbit to change can arise from: An objects orbital parameters will be different if they are expressed with respect to a non-inertial reference frame (for example, a frame co-precessing with the primarys equator), than if it is expressed with respect to a (non-rotating) inertial reference frame.
Corfu (regional unit). Corfu (Greek: Περιφερειακή ενότητα Κερκύρας) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of the Ionian Islands. The capital of the regional unit is the town of Corfu. The regional unit consists of the islands of Corfu, Paxoi, Othonoi, Ereikoussa, Mathraki and several smaller islands, all in the Ionian Sea. Since 2019, the regional unit Corfu is subdivided into 4 municipalities:[2][3] As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Corfu was created out of the former prefecture Corfu (Greek: Νομός Κερκύρας).[4] The prefecture, created in 1864, had the same territory as the present regional unit. The provinces were:
False color.  False colors and pseudo colors respectively refers to a group of color rendering methods used to display images in colors which were recorded in the visible or non-visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. A false-color image is an image that depicts an object in colors that differ from those a photograph (a true-color image) would show. In this image, colors have been assigned to three different wavelengths that human eyes cannot normally see. In addition, variants of false colors such as pseudocolors, density slicing, and choropleths are used for information visualization of either data gathered by a single grayscale channel or data not depicting parts of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g. elevation in relief maps or tissue types in magnetic resonance imaging). The concept behind true color can help in understanding false color. An image is called a true-color image when it offers a natural color rendition, or when it comes close to it. This means that the colors of an object in an image appear to a human observer the same way as if this same observer were to directly view the object: A green tree appears green in the image, a red apple red, a blue sky blue, and so on.[1] Absolute true-color rendering is impossible.[3] There are three major sources of color error (metameric failure):
Attica (region). Attica (/ˈætɪkə/ AT-ih-kə; Greek: Περιφέρεια Αττικής, romanized: Periféria Attikís, [periˈferi.a atiˈcis]) is an administrative region of Greece that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, the core city of which is the countrys capital and largest city, Athens. The region is coextensive with the former Attica Prefecture of Central Greece and covers a greater area than the historical region of Attica. Located on the eastern edge of Central Greece, Attica covers about 3,808 square kilometres. In addition to Athens, it contains within its area the cities of Elefsina, Megara, Laurium, and Marathon, as well as a small part of the Peloponnese peninsula and the islands of Salamis, Aegina, Angistri, Poros, Hydra, Spetses, Kythira, and Antikythera. About 3,790,000 people live in the region, of whom more than 95% are inhabitants of the Athens metropolitan area. In 2019, Attica had the HDI of 0.912, the highest in Greece.[citation needed] The region was established in the 1987 administrative reform, and until 2010 it comprised the 4 prefectures of Athens, East Attica, Piraeus and West Attica. With the 2010 Kallikratis plan, the regions powers and authority were completely redefined and extended. Since 1 January 2011, the region represents the second-level local administration. While being supervised by the Decentralized Administration of Attica, it is now an independent self-governing body with powers and a budget comparable to the former prefectures. The region is subdivided into eight subordinate regional units:[4]
Translation. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such spill-overs have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.[2] Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.[3] More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localisation.[4] The word for the concept of translation, in English and some other European languages, stems from the Latin noun translatio,[6] formed from the adverb trans, across, and -latio, derived from latus, the past participle of the verb ferre, to carry or bring. Thus, the Latin noun translatio and its cognate modern derivatives mean the bringing across (i.e., the transferring) of a text from one language to another.[7] In some other European languages, the word for the concept of translation stems from another Latin noun, trāductiō, derived from the verb trādūcō, bring across, formed from the adverb trans, across, and dūcō, to lead or bring.[7]
Central Macedonia. Central Macedonia (/ˌmæsəˈdoʊniə/ MASS-ə-DOH-nee-ə; Greek: Κεντρική Μακεδονία, romanized: Kentrikí Makedonía, IPA: [ce(n)driˈci maceðoˈni.a]) is one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece, consisting the central part of the geographical and historical region of Macedonia. With a population of almost 1.8 million, it is the second most populous region in Greece after Attica. The region of Central Macedonia is situated in Northern Greece, bordering the regions of Western Macedonia (west), Thessaly (south), Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (east), and bounded to the north at the international borders of Greece by the Republic of North Macedonia and Bulgaria. The southern part is coastal and is bathed by the Thermaic, Toroneos, Singitic and Strymonic gulfs. The largest city and capital of the region is Thessaloniki. Serres is the second most populous city, followed by Katerini, Veria and Giannitsa. Central Macedonia is basically lowland and, with many rivers, is highly developed, both in the primary and the secondary sectors. The largest plain in Greece is situated in Central Macedonia. Thessaloniki, the metropolis of Macedonia, is Greeces second largest city. The highest mountains of the region of Central Macedonia are Mount Olympus (2,918 m.), Voras Mountains (2,524 m.), Pierian Mountains (2,193 m.), Vermio Mountains (2,065 m.) and Mount Athos (2,033 m.). The largest rivers are the Haliacmon, the Axios, the Loudias and the Gallikos (Echedoros), which all flow into the Thermaic Gulf, creating the Axios-Loudias-Aliakmonas National Park.[4] Koroneia, Volvi, Doiran and Kerkini lakes are situated in Central Macedonia. The coasts are continuous, smooth, sandy and suitable for swimming  (except the estuaries and the shores of the urban complex of Thessaloniki). The region was established in the 1987 administrative reform as the Central Macedonia Region (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κεντρικής Μακεδονίας, romanized: Periféria Kentrikís Makedonías). With the 2010 Kallikratis plan, its powers and authority were redefined and extended. Along with Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, it is supervised by the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace, based in Thessaloniki. The region is based at its capital city of Thessaloniki and is divided into seven regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures), Chalkidiki, Imathia, Kilkis, Pella, Pieria, Serres and Thessaloniki. These are further subdivided into 38 municipalities. Although geographically part of Central Macedonia, Mount Athos is not administratively part of the region, but an autonomous self-governing state under the sovereignty of Greece. The region has shrunk by 90,039 people between 2011 and 2021, experiencing a population loss of 4.8%.[1][5]
The Great Wave (book).  Business cycles -- History. The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History is a scholarly work by historian David Hackett Fischer, published in 1996 by Oxford University Press. Hackett Fischer identified three complete monetary waves in European history, each consisting of a price revolution, featuring high inflation, followed by a war crisis, followed by a new equilibrium.[1]p4 A fourth wave began, says Fischer, with the persistent monetary inflation of the 20th century.p182 Fischer says this began with the medieval price revolution, 1180-1350. There followed crisis in the 14th and 15th centuries, featuring the Black Death and Hundred Years War. Then equilibrium during the early Renaissance, 1400-1470.p36-60
Planetary symbols. Planetary symbols are used in astrology and traditionally in astronomy to represent a classical planet (which includes the Sun and the Moon) or one of the modern planets. The classical symbols were also used in alchemy for the seven metals known to the ancients, which were associated with the planets, and in calendars for the seven days of the week associated with the seven planets. The original symbols date to Greco-Roman astronomy; their modern forms developed in the 16th century, and additional symbols would be created later for newly discovered planets. The seven classical planets, their symbols, days and most commonly associated planetary metals are: The International Astronomical Union (IAU) discourages the use of these symbols in modern journal articles, and their style manual proposes one- and two-letter abbreviations for the names of the planets for cases where planetary symbols might be used, such as in the headings of tables.[1] The modern planets with their traditional symbols and IAU abbreviations are: The symbols of Venus and Mars are also used to represent female and male in biology following a convention introduced by Carl Linnaeus in the 1750s. The origins of the planetary symbols can be found in the attributes given to classical deities. The Roman planisphere of Bianchini (2nd century, currently in the Louvre, inv. Ma 540)[2] shows the seven planets represented by portraits of the seven corresponding gods, each a bust with a halo and an iconic object or dress, as follows: Mercury has a caduceus and a winged cap; Venus has a necklace and a shining mirror; Mars has a war-helmet and a spear; Jupiter has a laurel crown and a staff; Saturn has a conical headdress and a scythe; the Sun has rays emanating from his head; and the Moon has a crescent atop her head.
Politics of Greece.   Greece is a parliamentary representative democratic republic, where the President of Greece is the head of state and the Prime Minister of Greece is the head of government within a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Hellenic Parliament. Between the restoration of democracy in 1974 and the Greek government-debt crisis, the party system was dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy and the social-democratic PASOK. Since 2012, the anti-austerity, democratic socialist party Syriza has taken the place of PASOK as the largest left wing party, with their first election victory in January 2015. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Constitution of Greece, which describes Greece as a presidential parliamentary republic, includes extensive specific guarantees of civil liberties and vests the powers of the head of state in a president elected by parliament. The Greek governmental structure is similar to that found in many other Western democracies, and has been described as a compromise between the French and German models. The prime minister and cabinet play the central role in the political process, while the president performs some executive and legislative functions in addition to ceremonial duties. Voting in Greece is officially compulsory, but this is not enforced.[1]
Nishimura Yohachi. Nishimuraya Yohachi (dates unknown)[1] was one of the leading publishers of woodblock prints in late 18th-century Japan.[2] He founded the Nishimuraya Yohachi publishing house, also known as Nishiyo (西与),[3] which operated in Nihonbashis Bakurochō Nichōme under the shop name Eijudō. The firms exact dates are unclear, but many art historians date its activity to between c. 1751 and 1860.[4][5] According to Andreas Marks, Nishimuraya is one of the most important publishers in the history of prints and may be the publisher with the biggest output over time, attributing his success to engaging the best artists and providing a broad range of prints to satisfy the publics interest.[6] One of the press most significant products was Hokusais famous Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, which appeared between c. 1830 and 1833[7] and the first two volumes of his exquisite 100 Views of Mount Fuji ehon in 1834 and 1835.[8] Nishimuraya Yohachi also published prints by Eishi, Kuniyasu, Toyokuni I and Kunisada.[9] Nishimuraya is immortalized in the 1787 print Eijudō Hibino at Seventy-one by Utagawa Toyokuni I.[10] He is known to have been a member of the Fuji-kō, an Edo period cult centred around Mount Fuji.[11] Founded by an ascetic named Hasegawa Kakugyō (1541–1646),[12] the cult venerated the mountain as a female deity, and encouraged its members to climb it.[13] In doing so they would be reborn, purified and... able to find happiness.[14] The cult waned in the Meiji period and although it persists to this day it has been subsumed into Shintō sects.[15] The publishers association with the Fuji-kō gives clues not only to imagery in his portrait by Utagawa, but also to his eagerness to participate in the production of Hokusais various works celebrating Mount Fuji. 
Skipping Girl Vinegar.  Skipping Girl Vinegar are a Melbourne-based indie rock band, named after the Audrey the Skipping Girl Vinegar sign, located in Abbotsford, Victoria. Forming in 2004 the quartet wrote and rehearsed solidly before debuting live in 2006.[1] Once playing they soon secured support slots opening for larger acts such as Bob Evans, Shout Out Louds, The Lemonheads and Something For Kate before releasing the single One Chance and its filmclip later in the year.[2] The single received high rotation on Triple J radio,[3] and drew the attention of several major record labels which the band negotiated with before choosing to take their own business Secret Fox to the smaller, independent label Popboomerang with distribution through MGM Records.[4] Skipping Girl Vinegar recorded their debut album Sift the Noise over a 14-month period in living rooms, bedrooms, kitchens and studios across Melbourne, as well as a beach shack in Aireys Inlet.[2] Sift the Noise was produced and recorded by Greg Arnold, Brisbane-based producer Caleb James and Mark Lang. The album is notable for its intricate library-book-style packaging. Upon release the album garnered positive reviews.[5][6] Rip It Up magazine in Adelaide and Rave Magazine in Brisbane both made the Sift The Noise single their respective Single of the Week.[7]
Monastic community of Mount Athos. The monastic community of Mount Athos  is an Eastern Orthodox community of monks living on the Mount Athos peninsula in Northern Greece. The monastic community enjoys autonomous self-government within the borders of the Athos peninsula. The Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs manages relations between Athos and the Government of Greece. The community includes 20 monasteries and dependent settlements. The monasteries house around 2,000 Eastern Orthodox monks from Greece and many other countries, including Eastern Orthodox countries such as Serbia, Romania, Moldova, Georgia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Ukraine and Russia, who claim to live an ascetic life at Athos, isolated from the rest of the world. The Athonite monasteries feature a rich collection of well-preserved artifacts, rare books, ancient documents, and artworks of immense historical value, and Mount Athos has been listed as a World Heritage Site since 1988.[4] Women are banned from Mount Athos by religious tradition.[5] According to the constitution of Greece, the territory of the monastic community which is [t]he Athos peninsula extending beyond Megali Vigla and constituting  the region of Aghion Oros is, following ancient privilege, a self-governed part of the Greek State, whose sovereignty thereon shall remain intact. The constitution also states that [a]ll persons  leading a monastic life thereon acquire Greek citizenship without further formalities, upon admission as novices or monks. The constitution states [h]eterodox  or schismatic persons are forbidden to stay on the territory. The community consists of 20 main monasteries which constitute the Holy Community.[6] Karyes is home to a civil administrator as the representative of the Greek state. The governor is an executive appointee. Although Mount Athos is legally part of the European Union like the rest of Greece, the monastic community institutions have a special jurisdiction, which was reaffirmed during the admission of Greece to the European Community (precursor to the European Union).[7] This empowers the monastic communitys authorities to restrict the free movement of people and goods in its territory; in particular, only men are allowed to enter.[8]
Great Wave Software. Great Wave Software was an educational computer software company founded in 1984 by Dr. Chad Mitchell and Stacy Mitchell and was located in Scotts Valley, California. It was a division of Instructional Fair Group, which was based in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and was a Tribune Education company. Products produced by Great Wave included: McGraw-Hill Childrens Publishing (now part of School Specialty Publishing) bought Great Wave Software, and the company no longer exists.[5] All of Great Wave Softwares products are out of print.[6] School Specialty Publishing was later bought by Carson Dellosa publishing, and does not sell any apps for download. There have been no plans to reissue Great Wave Softwares products as apps or to release any educational apps for download.[7]  This article about an IT-related or software-related company or corporation is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Canglang Pavilion. The Canglang Pavilion (traditional Chinese: 滄浪亭; simplified Chinese: 沧浪亭; pinyin: Cāng Làng Tíng; Suzhou Wu: Tshaon laon din, Wu Chinese pronunciation: [tsʰɑ̃ lɑ̃ din]), variously translated as the Great Wave Pavilion, Surging Wave Pavilion, or Blue Wave Pavilion, is one of the Classical Gardens of Suzhou that are jointly recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is located at 3 Canglangting Street in Suzhou, Jiangsu China. The Canglang Pavilion was built in 1044 CE by the Song dynasty poet Su Shunqin (1008–1048), on the site of a pre-existing imperial flower garden c 960 CE. It is the oldest of the UNESCO gardens in Suzhou, keeping its original Song dynasty layout.[1] The name is derived from a verse in the poem Fishermen by Qu Yuan (ca. 340 BCE-278 BCE), a poet from the southern state of Chu during the Warring States period, in his book Songs of the South, If the Canglang River is dirty I wash my muddy feet; If the Canglang River is clean I wash my ribbon.[2] This verse alludes to an honest official who removes himself from politics rather than act in a corrupt manner. Su Shunqing choose this to express his feelings after his removal from office. After his death the garden passed through many owners and fell into disuse until 1696 CE when it was restored by Song Luo, the governor of Jiangsu Province. In 1827 ownership was transferred to governor Tao Zhu and again in 1873 ownership was transferred to governor Zhang Shusheng.[2]  In 1955 the garden was opened to the public and in 2000 it was added to the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Monuments. The 1.6 ha garden is divided into two main sections.[1] The garden is sited on a branch of the Fengxi Stream which forms a lotus pond. The garden has 108 windows each one with a unique design.[2] Named after a line by Su Shunqing, Autumn darkens the reddish woods, the sunlight goes through he bamboo elegantly.[2] This irregular building was used as a painting studio.
Scotland (disambiguation). Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom that forms the northern third of the island of Great Britain in North-West Europe. Scotland may also refer to:
Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (disambiguation). Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji is a series of woodblock prints by Hokusai. Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji may also refer to:
The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.  The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter (Japanese: 竹取物語, Hepburn: Taketori Monogatari) is a monogatari (fictional prose narrative) containing elements of Japanese folklore. Written by an unknown author in the late 9th or early 10th century during the Heian period, it is considered the oldest surviving work in the monogatari form. The story details the life of Kaguya-hime, a princess from the Moon who is discovered as a baby inside the stalk of a glowing bamboo plant. After she grows, her beauty attracts five suitors seeking her hand in marriage, whom she turns away by challenging them each with an impossible task; she later attracts the affection of the Emperor of Japan. At the tales end, Kaguya-hime reveals her celestial origins and returns to the Moon. The story is also known as The Tale of Princess Kaguya (かぐや姫の物語, Kaguya-hime no Monogatari), after its protagonist.[1] The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest surviving monogatari, though its exact date of composition is unknown.[2]  The oldest surviving manuscript is dated to 1592.[2] A poem in the Yamato Monogatari, a 10th-century work that describes life in the imperial court, invokes the tale in slight reference to a Moon-viewing party held at the palace in 909. A mention of smoke rising from Mount Fuji in The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter suggests that the volcano was still active at the time of its composition; the Kokin Wakashū indicates that the mountain had stopped emitting smoke by 905. Other sources suggest the tale was written between 871 and 881.[3] The author of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is also unknown, and scholars have variously attributed the work to Minamoto no Shitagō (911–983), to the Abbot Henjō, to a member of the Inbe clan, to a member of a political faction opposed to Emperor Tenmu, and to the kanshi poet Ki no Haseo (842–912). It is also debated whether the tale was written by one person or a group of people, and whether it was written in kanbun, Japanese kana, or even Chinese.[3]
History of the Jews in New York (state).  As of 2020, the Jewish population in New York State was 1,598,000, accounting for 21% of all Jews in the United States.[3] In New York City alone, there are approximately 960,000 Jews, establishing it as the largest Jewish community in the world, surpassing the combined totals of Tel Aviv and Jerusalem.[4] Nearly half of the citys Jews live in Brooklyn.[2][1] The first recorded Jewish settler was Jacob Barsimson, who arrived in August 1654 on a passport from the Dutch West India Company.[5] In 2012, the largest Jewish denominations were Orthodox (both Haredi and Modern Orthodox) and Conservative Judaism.[6] Reform Jewish communities are prevalent through the area. Congregation Emanu-El of New York in Manhattan is the largest Reform synagogue in the world. Jews have settled in New York State since the 17th century. In August 1654, the first known Jewish settler, Jacob Barsimson, came to New Amsterdam. The Dutch colonial port city was the seat of the government for the New Netherland territory and became New York City in 1664. The first significant group of Jewish settlers came in September 1654 as refugees from Recife, Brazil to New Amsterdam. Portugal had just conquered Brazil from the Dutch Republic, and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews there promptly fled to New Amsterdam, the precursor to present-day New York City. A group of 23 Jewish immigrants in New Amsterdam was greeted by director general Peter Stuyvesant who was at first unwilling to accept them. The Jewish population in New York City grew from about 80,000 in 1880 to 1.6 million in 1920. By 1910, it became the worlds largest Jewish city, as more than 1 million Jews accounted for 25 percent of the citys population.[7] As of 2023, about 960,000 residents of New York City, or about 10% of its residents, were Jewish.[8] As of 2011, New York state had about 1.75 million Jews, constituting approximately 11 percent of the states total population.[9] Due in large part to the rise in the Hasidic Jewish population, New York Citys Jewish population is once again increasing rapidly. Long Island and the Hudson Valley represent the two largest suburban concentrations of Jews in New York.
Thunderstorm Beneath the Summit. Thunderstorm Beneath the Summit (Japanese: 山下白雨, Hepburn: Sanka hakuu), also known as Rainstorm Beneath the Summit, or sometimes Black Fuji (黒富士 Kurofuji) is a woodcut print by the Japanese ukiyo-e master Hokusai (1760–1849). It is one of the most famous prints from his celebrated Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji series, published c. 1830–1832.[1][2] The composition is very similar to that of Fine Wind, Clear Morning (or Red Fuji) from the same series, but the atmosphere is markedly different. Here, instead of a hazy and serene view, Mount Fuji is rendered ominously in strong heavy tones. The contours of the mountainside are more textured and defined. The snowy cap rises sharply over a darkly menacing base which has been split by a bolt of lightning rendered with powerful, almost abstract, zigzag lines. As with Fine Wind, Clear Morning, a thin line of Prussian blue is used in the upper portion of the sky, but here the clouds have a smoke-like quality and appear to cling to the mountain.[3] The three peaks at the summit suggest that this view is of the back of Fuji (i.e. seen from the West), another contrast with the Red Fuji print.[4] Soon after publication the blocks were slightly damaged with the loss of one of the brown dots below the summit and the end of the hitsu (brush of) character from Hokusais signature. Impressions made before this have continuous blue down the sky, wiped lighter across the middle, so making clear the entire shapes of the cumulonimbus clouds - rather than leaving a wide band of un-inked sky across the centre and thereby losing their tops.[4] In a later impression the publisher introduced some significant changes.  The sky is now rendered in purplish greyish with a band of yellow at the top. The flash of the lightning bolt vividly silhouettes a group of pine trees at the foot of the mountain, cut from a new block, making them appear close to the viewer.[3][4]
Kajikazawa in Kai Province. Kajikazawa in Kai Province (Japanese: 甲州石班澤, Hepburn: Kōshū Kajikazawa) is a woodblock print by the Japanese ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. It was produced as one of the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji series which was published from c. 1830 to 1832 in the late Edo period. The image is considered one of the masterpieces of the series, particularly in its early blue impression (aizuri-e).[1] Standing precariously upon a rocky outcrop, a man casts his fishing lines tied to cormorants into the violent Fuji River at Kajikazawa.[2] Man and nature appear fused into one: The picture is full of movement, his tensed body mimics the motion of the waves below, and this curved shape is reflected in the rock on which he stands. The triangular shape made by the fishing lines also echoes that of Mount Fuji which is seen rising above.[1] The first impression employs the aizuri technique while later versions add different colours. The fisherman and son gain a red jacket, while the rocks are coloured with a gradated (bokashi) green-to-yellow wash. Some impressions add a streak of pink to the sky.[1] This article related to art or architecture in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Circle symbol. Circle symbol may refer to: Unicode provides various circle symbols:
Jinshin War. The Jinshin War (壬申の乱, jinshin no ran) was a war of succession that took place in the Yamato state near the end of Asuka period. It broke out in 672 following the death of Emperor Tenji. The name refers to the jinshin (Ch. renshen 壬申) or ninth year of the sexagenary cycle, corresponding to the Gregorian year 672.[1] It was one of the largest conflicts in classical Japanese history. Tenji had originally designated his brother, Prince Ōama, as his successor, but later changed his mind in favor of his son, Prince Ōtomo. In the course of the violence that erupted as a result of factional rivalries, Ōtomo, having taken the throne as emperor, killed himself after reigning for less than a year. His uncle Ōama then succeeded to the throne as Emperor Tenmu. Tenmu was the first monarch of Japan contemporaneously documented as using the title Tennō (emperor). After the defeat of Baekje and their Yamato allies by Silla and Tang China in the Battle of Baekgang, Emperor Tenji, in defiance of opposition from his retainers, moved his capital to Ōmi-Ōtsu (present day Ōtsu, Shiga Prefecture), and prepared to respond to the growing threat from East Asia.[2] He attempted to build a stronger centralized state, mimicking the Tang Dynastys bureaucracy, importing the Tangs political systems and legal codes, consequently affecting Japanese culture as a whole. Emperor Tenji is credited with compiling the Ōmi Code, the first collection of Ritsuryō laws, considered as the first legal codes in classical Japan. Japan was under a process of political unification by the Yamato clan, seeking to dissolve the powerful hegemony of local prestigious clans in the Uji clan system.[3][4] The next task Tenji needed to address was that of securing his successor. His empress consort was Yamato-hime, but there were no children from this union. He had to find the right man from the sons of non-imperial wives. Prince Takeru was the first son, but he was born mute, and had died when he was seven years old. Prince Ōtomo was the next prince; he was a hard worker, and was very clever and intellectual. He had enough ability to be the next emperor. Although Ōtomo was almost perfect he was not born from the Imperial Household. His mother was of low birth from a rural landlords family. This was a great disadvantage in considering Ōtomo to ascend to the throne.
Asuka period. The Asuka period (飛鳥時代, Asuka jidai; Japanese pronunciation: [a.sɯ̥.ka ((d)ʑiꜜ.dai)][1]) was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Yamato polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the Asuka region, about 25 km (16 mi) south of the modern city of Nara. The Asuka period is characterized by its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, having their origins in the late Kofun period. The introduction of Buddhism marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is also distinguished by the change in the name of the country from Wa (倭) to Nippon (日本). The term Asuka period was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and architecture. It was proposed by fine-arts scholars Sekino Tadasu (関野貞) and Okakura Kakuzō around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the Taika Reform of 646. Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakuras dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekinos dating and use the term Hakuhō period (白鳳時代) to refer to the successive period. From the Asuka period in the 6th century, as a sub-division of the Yamato period (大和時代, Yamato-jidai), is the first time in Japanese history when the Emperor of Japan ruled relatively uncontested from modern-day Nara Prefecture, then known as Yamato Province. The second half of the Kofun period, exercised power over clans in Kyūshū and Honshū, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed other clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit of the Gokishichidō (五畿七道; five cities, seven roads) system was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; others were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.[2]
Flag of Scotland.   The flag of Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: bratach na h-Alba;[2] Scots: Banner o Scotland, also known as St Andrews Cross or the Saltire)[3] is the national flag of Scotland, which consists of a white saltire over a blue field. The Saltire, rather than the Royal Standard of Scotland, is the correct flag for all private individuals and corporate bodies to fly.[4] It is also, where possible, flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8:00 am until sunset, with certain exceptions.[5] Use of the flag is first recorded with the illustration of a heraldic flag in Sir David Lyndsay of the Mounts Register of Scottish Arms, c. 1542.[6] It is possible that this is based on a precedent of the late 15th century, the use of a white saltire in the canton of a blue flag reputedly made by Queen Margaret, wife of James III (1451–1488).[7] It is considered to be the oldest flag in Europe.[8] The heraldic term for an X-shaped cross is a saltire, from the old French word saultoir or salteur (itself derived from the Latin saltatorium), a word for both a type of stile constructed from two cross pieces and a type of cross-shaped stirrup-cord.[9] In heraldic language, the Scottish flag may be blazoned azure, a saltire argent. The tincture of the Saltire can appear as either silver (argent) or white. However, the term azure does not refer to a particular shade of blue.[10]
Moon.   The Moon is Earths only natural satellite. It orbits around Earth at an average distance of 384,399 kilometres (238,854 mi),[f] about 30 times Earths diameter, and completes an orbit (lunar month)  every 29.5 days. This is the same length it takes the Moon to complete a rotation (lunar day). The rotation period is synchronized with the orbital period by Earths gravity forcing the Moon to face Earth always with the same side, making it tidally locked. The Moons gravity causes tidal forces on Earth, which are the main driver of Earths tides. In geophysical terms, the Moon is a planetary-mass object or satellite planet. Its mass is 1.2% that of the Earth, and its diameter is 3,474 km (2,159 mi), roughly one-quarter of Earths (about as wide as the contiguous United States). Within the Solar System, it is larger and more massive than any known dwarf planet, and the fifth-largest and fifth-most massive moon, as well as the largest and most massive in relation to its parent planet.[18] Its surface gravity is about one-sixth of Earths, about half that of Mars, and the second-highest among all moons in the Solar System after Jupiters moon Io. The body of the Moon is differentiated and terrestrial, with only a minuscule hydrosphere, atmosphere, and magnetic field. The lunar surface is covered in regolith dust, which mainly consists of the fine material ejected from the lunar crust by impact events. The lunar crust is marked by impact craters, with some younger ones featuring bright ray-like streaks. The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, surfacing lava mostly on the thinner near side of the Moon, filling ancient craters, which through cooling formed the today prominently visible dark plains of basalt called maria (seas). The Moon formed  out of material from Earth, ejected by a giant impact into Earth of a hypothesized Mars-sized body named Theia 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earths formation. From a distance, the day and night phases of the lunar day are visible as the lunar phases, and when the Moon passes through Earths shadow a lunar eclipse is observable. The Moons apparent size in Earths sky is about the same as that of the Sun, which causes it to cover the Sun completely during a total solar eclipse. The Moon is the brightest celestial object in Earths night sky because of its large apparent size, while the reflectance (albedo) of its surface is comparable to that of asphalt. About 59% of the surface of the Moon is visible from Earth owing to the different angles at which the Moon can appear in Earths sky (libration), making parts of the far side of the Moon visible.
Taika Reform. The Taika Reforms (大化の改新, Taika no Kaishin; Reformation of Taika) were a set of doctrines established by Emperor Kōtoku (孝徳天皇 Kōtoku tennō) in the year 645. They were written shortly after the death of Prince Shōtoku and the defeat of the Soga clan (蘇我氏 Soga no uji), uniting Japan. The reforms also artistically marked the end of the Asuka period and the beginning of the Hakuhō period.[1][2] Crown Prince Naka no Ōe (the future Emperor Tenji), Nakatomi no Kamatari, and Emperor Kōtoku jointly embarked on the details of the Reforms. Emperor Kōtoku then announced the era of Taika (大化), or Great Reform. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas and philosophies from Tang China, but the true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn seemingly everything from the Chinese writing system, literature, religion, and architecture, to even dietary habits at this time. Even today, the impact of the reforms can still be seen in contemporary Japanese cultural life. After the regency of Shōtoku Taishi ended, the Soga clan, from which Shōtokus ancestry was derived, took hegemony of the Yamato court. The clan was opposed to Shōtokus son Yamashiro Ōe and killed him in 643. Under the reign of Empress Kōgyoku the Soga clan head, Soga no Iruka, was virtually an almighty leader of the court. Those who were against Sogas dictatorship included the emperors brother Karu, the emperors son, Prince Naka no Ōe, along with his friend Nakatomi no Kamatari, and his son-in-law Soga no Ishikawamaro (Irukas cousin). They ended Irukas regime by a coup détat in 645 (Isshi Incident). As Kōgyoku renounced her throne, Karu ascended to be Emperor Kōtoku. The new emperor, together with the Imperial Prince Naka no Ōe, issued a series of reform measures that culminated in the Taika Reform Edicts in 646. At this time, two scholars, Takamuko no Kuromaro and priest Min (who had both accompanied Ono no Imoko in travels to Sui China, where they stayed for more than a decade), were assigned to the position of Kuni no Hakase (国博士; National doctorate). They were likely to take a major part in compiling these edicts which in essence founded the Japanese imperial system and government.
Battle of Baekgang.  Intermission, 648–658 Second campaign, 658–662 Baekje Campaign & Japanese intervention Third campaign, 666–668
Coat of arms of the United Kingdom.   The coat of arms of the United Kingdom, also referred to as the royal arms, are the arms of dominion of the British monarch, currently Charles III.[1] They are used by the Government of the United Kingdom and by other Crown institutions,[2] including courts in the United Kingdom and in some parts of the Commonwealth. Differenced versions of the arms are used by members of the British royal family. The monarchs official flag, the royal standard, is the coat of arms in flag form. There are two versions of the coat of arms. One is used in Scotland, and includes elements derived from the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Scotland, and the other is used elsewhere and includes elements derived from the coat of arms of the Kingdom of England. The shields of both versions of the arms quarter the arms of the kingdoms of England and Scotland, which united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, and the Kingdom of Ireland, which united with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom in 1801. The Irish quarter was unaltered following the division of Ireland into Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State in 1922. The present arms do not include a representation of the United Kingdoms fourth constituent country, Wales.[3] It is instead represented heraldically by two royal badges, which use the Welsh dragon and the coat of arms of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth respectively.
Flag.  A flag is a piece of fabric (most often rectangular) with distinctive colours and design. The term flag is also used to refer to the graphic design employed on such pieces of fabric. The study of flags is known as vexillology from the Latin vexillum, meaning flag or banner. Flags enjoy a variety of purposes, being used as symbols, signalling devices, or for decoration. The national flag is a common patriotic symbol of a country, and many national or other flags may be assigned to flag families based off similarities in their structure that demonstrate a shared history, culture, or influence.[1] In environments where communication is challenging, flags are used as a general tool for rudimentary signalling and identification. The origin of the flag is unknown[2] and it remains unclear when the first flag was raised.[3] Ships with vexilloids were represented on predynastic Egyptian pottery c. 3500 BC.[3] In antiquity, field signs that can be categorised as vexilloid or flag-like were used in warfare, originating in ancient Egypt or Assyria.[4] Examples include the Sassanid battle standard Derafsh Kaviani, and the standards of the Roman legions such as the eagle of Augustus Caesars Xth legion and the dragon standard of the Sarmatians; the latter was allowed to fly freely in the wind, carried by a horseman, but depictions suggest that it bore more similarity to an elongated dragon kite than to a simple flag. While the origin of the flag remains a mystery, the oldest flag discovered is made of bronze: a Derafsh or flag-like Shahdad, which was found in Shahdad, Iran, and dates back to c. 2400 BC. It features a seated man and a kneeling woman facing each other, with a star in between. This iconography was found in other Iranian Bronze Age pieces of art.[5][6][7][8]
Scots language.  Scots[note 1] is a West Germanic language variety descended from Early Middle English. As a result, Modern Scots is a sister language of Modern English.[4][5][6] Scots is classified as an official language of Scotland,[2] a regional or minority language of Europe,[7][8] and a vulnerable language by UNESCO.[9][10] In a Scottish census from 2022, over 1.5 million people in Scotland (of its total population of 5.4 million people) reported being able to speak Scots.[1] Most commonly spoken in the Scottish Lowlands, the Northern Isles of Scotland, and northern Ulster in Ireland (where the local dialect is known as Ulster Scots), it is sometimes called Lowland Scots, to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language that was historically restricted to most of the Scottish Highlands, the Hebrides, and Galloway after the sixteenth century;[11] or Broad Scots, to distinguish it from Scottish Standard English. Many Scottish peoples speech exists on a dialect continuum ranging between Broad Scots and Standard English.[12] Given that there are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing a language from a dialect, scholars and other interested parties often disagree about whether Scots is a dialect of English or a separate language.[13] Native speakers sometimes refer to their vernacular as braid Scots (or broad Scots in English)[14] or use a dialect name such as the Doric[15] or the Buchan Claik.[16] The old-fashioned Scotch, an English loan,[17] occurs occasionally, especially in Ulster.[18][19] The term Lallans, a variant of the Modern Scots word lawlands [ˈlo̜ːlən(d)z, ˈlɑːlənz],[20] is also used, though this is more often taken to mean the Lallans literary form.[21] Scots in Ireland is known in official circles as Ulster-Scots (Ulstèr-Scotch in revivalist Ulster-Scots) or Ullans, a recent neologism merging Ulster and Lallans.[22]
Vexillology.  Vexillology (/ˌvɛksɪˈlɒlədʒi/ VEK-sih-LOL-ə-jee) is the study of the history, symbolism and usage of flags or, by extension, any interest in flags in general.[1] A person who studies flags is a vexillologist, one who designs flags is a vexillographer, and the art of designing flags is called vexillography. A hobbyist or general admirer of flags is a vexillophile. The word vexillology is a synthesis of the Latin word vexillum (a kind of square flag which was carried by Roman cavalry)[2] and the Greek suffix -logia (study).[3] American scholar Whitney Smith is acknowledged for conceiving vexillology in 1957. He wrote, While the use of flags goes back to the earliest days of human civilization, the study of that usage in a serious fashion is so recent that the term for it did not appear in print until 1959.[4][5] Before this time, the study of flags was generally considered a part of heraldry, the study of armorial bearings.[6]
DualShock.  The DualShock (originally Dual Shock, trademarked as DUALSHOCK or DUAL SHOCK, with the PlayStation 5 version as DualSense) is a line of gamepads developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment for the PlayStation family of video game consoles. It is named for vibration-feedback and analog controls.[1] Introduced in November 1997, it was initially marketed as a secondary peripheral for the first PlayStation console. The consoles bundle was updated to include DualShock, and phase out the original PlayStation controller and the Dual Analog Controller. The DualShock is the best-selling gamepad of all time by units sold, excluding bundled controllers.[2] Introduced in late 1997, the DualShock Analog Controller (SCPH-1200) can provide vibration feedback based on game activity, as well as input through two analog sticks. Its name derives from its dual vibration motors. These motors are housed within the handles, with the left one being larger and more powerful than the one on the right, so to allow for varying levels of vibration. In comparison, the Nintendo 64s Rumble Pak has only one motor and is powered by a battery, while the DualShock has two motors and all corded varieties of the DualShock are powered directly by the PlayStation. The rumble feature of the DualShock is similar to that of the Japanese version of the Dual Analog Controller released a few months earlier, which was removed shortly after that controller was released in its home market. The Dual Analog, DualShock and all of its subsequent controllers have a standard set of controls that were first introduced in the original PlayStation controller in addition to the two analog sticks: a directional pad, Start and Select buttons, four face buttons, and four shoulder buttons. The face buttons in particular use simple geometric shapes instead of letters or numbers, which includes a green triangle, a red circle, a blue cross, and a pink square (, , , ). These shapes established a trademark that was heavily incorporated into the PlayStation brand. The designer of the original PlayStation controller, Teiyu Goto, explained the meaning behind the symbols: the circle and cross were made to represent yes and no respectively (as common in Japanese culture, and thus were typically used for confirm and cancel in most PlayStation games in Japan respectively, placed in the same way as the A and B buttons on the Super NES controller with similar functions), while the triangle symbolizes a point of view and the square is equated to a sheet of paper there to be used to access menus. In Western releases, the circle and cross functions are often switched (circle to cancel, cross to confirm) or reassigned to a different button (cross to confirm, triangle to cancel).[6] The DualShock, like its predecessor the Dual Analog controller, has two analog sticks with 8-bit precision.[citation needed] To compensate for control issues with certain games while the controller is in analog mode, a dedicated button known as the Analog button is included which allows the controller to function either in analog or digital mode, the latter of which turns off the analog sticks and allows the controller to act as an original PlayStation controller using only the digital buttons. Analog functionality is denoted by a red indicator light, which is turned off if the controller is in digital mode. Unlike the Dual Analog controller, the DualShocks analog sticks feature textured rubber grips with convex domed caps rather than the smooth plastic tips with recessed (concave) grooves found on the Dual Analog controller. Other visible differences between the Dual Analog and the DualShock include the longer grips and handles of the former and slightly larger L2/R2 buttons on the latter. The Dual Analog controller also has an additional mode accessible by pressing the Analog button a third time that provides compatibility with the PlayStation Analog Joystick, indicated by a green light on the analog indicator light rather than red; this feature was not carried over to the DualShock. The Analog button is also slightly recessed on the DualShock to prevent accidental switching between analog and digital modes in certain games.
De jure.   In law and government, de jure (/deɪ ˈdʒʊəri, di -, - ˈjʊər-/; Latin: [deː ˈjuːre]; lit. from law) describes practices that are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. The phrase is often used in contrast with de facto (from fact), which describes situations that exist in reality, even if not formally recognized.[1] De jure is a Latin expression composed of the words de (from, of) and jure (law, adjectival form of jus). Thus, it is descriptive of a structural argument or position derived from law.[2][3] In U.S. law, particularly after Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the difference between de facto segregation (that existed because of voluntary associations and neighborhoods) and de jure segregation (that existed because of local laws) became important distinctions for court-mandated remedial purposes.[4][clarification needed]
Whitney Smith. Whitney Smith Jr. (February 26, 1940 – November 17, 2016) was an American vexillologist. He coined the term vexillology, which refers to the scholarly analysis of all aspects of flags.[2] He was a founder of several vexillology organizations. Smith was a Laureate and a Fellow of the International Federation of Vexillological Associations. Whitney Smith Jr. was born on February 26, 1940, to Mildred and Whitney Smith.[1] As a youth, he lived in Lexington[3] and Winchester, Massachusetts.[1] Smith credited his interest in flags to his memories of Massachusetts Patriots Day celebrations and a gift of The Golden Encyclopedia when he was about 6 years old.[3] At Harvard, he studied political science and received a bachelors degree in the field in 1961. During his time at Harvard, Smith designed the flag of Guyana after corresponding with Guyanese premier Cheddi Jagan via mail.[4] He received his doctorate in political science at Boston University in 1968;[1] political symbolism was the subject of his dissertation.[1] Smith had his first article published at age 18. By 1960, he was consulting with the Encyclopædia Britannica.[3] In 1961, Smith and colleague Gerhard Grahl co-founded The Flag Bulletin[5] (ISSN 0015-3370), the worlds first journal about flags. The following year, Smith established The Flag Research Center at his home and was its director.[3]
International Federation of Vexillological Associations. International Federation of Vexillological Associations; IFoVA (French: Fédération internationale des associations vexillologiques; FIAV) is an international federation[4] of 53 regional, national, and multinational associations and institutions across the globe that study vexillology, which FIAV defines in its constitution as the creation and development of a body of knowledge about flags of all types, their forms and functions, and of scientific theories and principles based on that knowledge.[5] The study of flags, or vexillology, was formalised by Whitney Smith in 1957.[6] He then moved to organize various flag organisations and meetings including the first International Congress of Vexillology[6] in 1965[7] and International Federation of Vexillological Associations.[6] The FIAV was provisionally organized on 3 September 1967, at the Second International Congress of Vexillology held in Rüschlikon, Switzerland, and officially created on 7 September 1969, at the Third International Congress of Vexillology held in Boston, Massachusetts, US. The vexillological symbols were created by vexillologist Whitney Smith and then adopted by the FIAV in the early 1970s.[8] FIAV has a three-person Board consisting of a President, Secretary-General, and Secretary-General for Congresses.[1]  The Board manages the current affairs of FIAV and convenes the biennial sessions of the General Assembly,[1] which are held during each International Congress of Vexillology.[9] The FIAV General Assembly is composed of a delegate from each of FIAVs members.  The General Assembly elects the Board and is responsible for setting policy.[1] The current members of the FIAV Board are:
Physiology.  Physiology (/ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek  φύσις (phúsis) nature, origin and  -λογία (-logía) study of)[1] is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system.[2][3] As a subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out chemical and physical functions in a living system.[4] According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology.[4] Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells.[5] Physiological state is the condition of normal function. In contrast, pathological state refers to abnormal conditions, including human diseases. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of medicine. Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines:
Compartment (pharmacokinetics). In pharmacokinetics, a compartment is a defined volume of body fluids, typically of the human body, but also those of other animals with multiple organ systems. The meaning in this area of study is different from the concept of anatomic compartments, which are bounded by fasciae, the sheath of fibrous tissue that enclose mammalian organs. Instead, the concept focuses on broad types of fluidic systems. This analysis is used in attempts to mathematically describe distribution of small molecules throughout organisms with multiple compartments. Various multi-compartment models can be used in the areas of pharmacokinetics and pharmacology, in the support of  efforts in drug discovery, and in environmental science. In humans and related organisms, there are five major body compartments: the blood plasma, interstitial fluids, fat tissues, intracellular fluids, and transcellular fluids, the latter of which includes fluids in the pleural (peritoneal) cavity.[1][verification needed] The relative percents of body mass of these are included in the pie chart above.
PlayStation 5.  The PlayStation 5 (PS5) is a home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment. It was announced as the successor to the PlayStation 4 in April 2019, was launched on November 12, 2020, in Australia, Japan, New Zealand, North America, and South Korea, and was released worldwide a week later. The PS5 is part of the ninth generation of video game consoles, along with Microsofts Xbox Series X/S consoles, which were released in the same month. The base model includes an optical disc drive compatible with Ultra HD Blu-ray discs. The Digital Edition lacks this drive, as a lower-cost model for buying games only through download. The two variants were launched simultaneously. Slimmer hardware revisions of both models replaced the original models on sale in November 2023. A PlayStation 5 Pro model was released on November 7, 2024, featuring a faster GPU, improved ray tracing, and introducing an AI-driven upscaling technology. The PlayStation 5s main hardware features include a solid-state drive customized for high-speed data streaming to enable significant improvements in storage performance, an AMD GPU capable of 4K resolution display at up to 120 frames per second, hardware-accelerated ray tracing for realistic lighting and reflections, and the Tempest Engine for hardware-accelerated 3D audio effects. Other features include the DualSense controller with haptic feedback, backward compatibility with the majority of PlayStation 4 and PlayStation VR games, and the PlayStation VR2 headset. The lead architect of the PlayStation console line, Mark Cerny, implemented a two-year feedback cycle after the launch of the PlayStation 4. This entailed regularly visiting Sonys first-party developers at two-year intervals to find out what concerns they had about Sonys hardware and how it could be improved in console refreshes or for the next generation. This feedback directly influenced the priorities of the development team. During the development of the PlayStation 5, a central challenge revolved around addressing the length of loading times for games.[10] Cerny said several developers, including Epic Games Tim Sweeney, told him that standard I/O speed of a hard disk drive was now a limiting factor in pushing game development.[11] Slow data rates placed limits on the size of data being loaded into the game, the physical location of data on the storage medium, and the duplication of data across the medium in order to reduce load times. An important goal was to find ways to reduce loading time, particularly in games that stream or dynamically load new game areas as the player moves through the game world.[10]
Body of water. A body of water or waterbody[1] is any significant accumulation of water on the surface of Earth or another planet. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water.[2] Most are naturally occurring and massive geographical features, but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs. Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways. Some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans. Bodies of water are affected by gravity, which is what creates the tidal effects.[3] The impact of climate change on water is likely to intensify as observed through the rising sea levels, water acidification and flooding. This means that climate change has pressure on water bodies.[4] Climate change significantly affects bodies of water through rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and sea-level rise. Warmer temperatures lead to the melting of glaciers and polar ice, contributing to rising sea levels and affecting coastal ecosystems. Freshwater bodies, such as rivers and lakes, are experiencing more frequent droughts, affecting water availability for communities and biodiversity. Moreover, ocean acidification, caused by increased carbon dioxide absorption, threatens marine ecosystems like coral reefs.[5] Collaborative global efforts are needed to mitigate these impacts through sustainable water management practices.[6]
PlayStation 2.  The PlayStation 2 (PS2) is a home video game console developed and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. It was first released in Japan on 4 March 2000, in North America on October 26, in Europe on November 24, in Australia on November 30, and other regions thereafter. It is the successor to the original PlayStation, as well as the second installment in the PlayStation brand of consoles. As a sixth-generation console, it competed with Nintendos GameCube, Segas Dreamcast, and Microsofts Xbox. Announced in 1999, Sony began developing the console after the immense success of its predecessor. In addition to serving as a game console, it features a built-in DVD drive and was priced lower than standalone DVD players of the time, enhancing its value. Full backward compatibility with original PlayStation games and accessories gave it access to a vast launch library, far surpassing those of its competitors. The consoles hardware was also notable for its custom-built Emotion Engine processor, co-developed with Toshiba, which was promoted as being more powerful than most personal computers of the era. The PlayStation 2 remains the best-selling video game console of all time, having sold 160.63 million units worldwide, nearly triple the combined sales of competing sixth-generation consoles. It received widespread critical acclaim and amassed a global library of 10,987 game titles, with 1.54 billion copies sold. In 2004, Sony revised the console with a smaller, lighter body officially known as the Slimline. Even after the release of its successor, the PlayStation 3, in 2006, it remained in production and continued to receive new game releases for several years with the last game for the system Pro Evolution Soccer 2014 being released in Europe in November 2013. Manufacturing officially ended in early 2013, giving the console one of the longest lifespans in video game history. Released in 1994, the original PlayStation proved to be a phenomenal worldwide success and signalled Sonys rise to power in the video game industry.[20][21] Its launch elicited critical acclaim and strong sales; it eventually became the first computer entertainment platform to ship over 100 million units.[22] The PlayStation enjoyed particular success outside Japan in part due to Sonys refined development kits, large-scale advertising campaigns, and strong third-party developer support.[23] By the late 1990s Sony had dethroned established rivals Sega and Nintendo in the global video game market.[24][25] Sega, spurred on by their declining market share and significant financial losses,[26] launched the Dreamcast in 1998 as a last-ditch attempt to stay in the industry.[27] Fuelled by a large marketing campaign, it sold over 500,000 units within two weeks.[28][29]
User interface.  In the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, a user interface (UI) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine from the human end, while the machine simultaneously feeds back information that aids the operators decision-making process. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to, or involve such disciplines as, ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface that makes it easy, efficient, and enjoyable (user-friendly) to operate a machine in the way which produces the desired result (i.e. maximum usability). This generally means that the operator needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes undesired outputs to the user. User interfaces are composed of one or more layers, including a human–machine interface (HMI) that typically interfaces machines with physical input hardware (such as keyboards, mice, or game pads) and output hardware (such as computer monitors, speakers, and printers). A device that implements an HMI is called a human interface device (HID). User interfaces that dispense with the physical movement of body parts as an intermediary step between the brain and the machine use no input or output devices except electrodes alone; they are called brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) or brain–machine interfaces (BMIs). Other terms for human–machine interfaces are man–machine interface (MMI) and, when the machine in question is a computer, human–computer interface. Additional UI layers may interact with one or more human senses, including: tactile UI (touch), visual UI (sight), auditory UI (sound), olfactory UI (smell), equilibria UI (balance), and gustatory UI (taste).
Body of Water (2011 film). Body of Water (Finnish: Syvälle salattu, lit. Deep encrypted) is a 2011 Finnish drama film directed by Joona Tena.[1] This article related to Finnish film is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Body of Water (2020 film). Body of Water is a 2020 British drama film directed and written by Lucy Brydon. The film follows a woman with an eating disorder who tries to balance her relationship with her mother and her teenage daughter. The film premiered at the Glasgow Film Festival on 27 February 2020, and was released in the United Kingdom on 16 October 2020. A woman with an eating disorder tries to balance her relationship with her mother and her teenage daughter. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 93% of 14 critics reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6.9/10.[2] The film premiered at the Glasgow Film Festival on 27 February 2020.[3] The film was released in cinemas and on digital platforms on 16 October 2020.[4]
Human body.  The human body is the entire structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organs and then organ systems. The external human body consists of a head, hair, neck, torso (which includes the thorax and abdomen), genitals, arms, hands, legs, and feet. The internal human body includes organs, teeth, bones, muscle, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels and blood, lymphatic vessels and lymph. The study of the human body includes anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar, iron, and oxygen in the blood. The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and artists to assist them in their work.
Bodies of Water.  Bodies of Water is a band from the Highland Park neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, signed to independent record label Secretly Canadian. The core group consists of married couple David and Meredith Metcalf.  However, the band often plays LA shows with five or more additional musicians, such as horn players, an additional drummer, and strings.  All members of the band sing, including players added for local shows. Bodies of Waters first EP and album were reviewed favorably by music critics such as Pitchfork Media[1] and Rolling Stone magazines New Music blog.[2]  Critics often compare their music to that of Ennio Morricone, Arcade Fire, The Mamas & the Papas, and label-mate Danielson.  In interviews, the band lists gospel groups and Tropicalia musicians among its influences.[3] Bodies of Waters first full-length album Ears Will Pop & Eyes Will Blink was originally released on Bodies of Waters own Thousand Tongues label, and was only available in a few stores, at live shows, or directly from the band via their website.  After Secretly Canadian signed Bodies of Water, the label re-released the album nationally on January 22, 2008. The bands second album, titled A Certain Feeling, was released July 22, 2008 to generally favorable reviews.
Animal.  Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms comprising the biological kingdom Animalia (/ˌænɪˈmeɪliə/[4]). With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Animals form a clade, meaning that they arose from a single common ancestor. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described, of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology, and the study of animal behaviour is known as ethology. The animal kingdom is divided into five major clades, namely Porifera, Ctenophora, Placozoa, Cnidaria and Bilateria. Most living animal species belong to the clade Bilateria, a highly proliferative clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric and significantly cephalised body plan, and the vast majority of bilaterians belong to two large clades: the protostomes, which includes organisms such as arthropods, molluscs, flatworms, annelids and nematodes; and the deuterostomes, which include echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates, the latter of which contains the vertebrates. The much smaller basal phylum Xenacoelomorpha have an uncertain position within Bilateria. Animals first appeared in the fossil record in the late Cryogenian period and diversified in the subsequent Ediacaran period in what is known as the Avalon explosion. Earlier evidence of animals is still controversial; the sponge-like organism Otavia has been dated back to the Tonian period at the start of the Neoproterozoic, but its identity as an animal is heavily contested.[5] Nearly all modern animal phyla first appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago (Mya), and most classes during the Ordovician radiation 485.4 Mya. Common to all living animals, 6,331 groups of genes have been identified that may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived about 650 Mya during the Cryogenian period. Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics, which are effective at demonstrating the evolutionary relationships between taxa.
Body of Water (musical).  Body of Water is a indie-rock musical created by Tony Kienitz and Tanna Herr with music by Jim Walker.[1] It entails the life of fourteen teens left behind in a civil war crisis, awaiting further signals from their parents while hiding in a secluded mountain cabin. The show was the inaugural production of A Theatre Near U, a theatre and film academy for teenagers in the San Francisco Bay Area.[2] A group of teenagers meet at a secluded cabin in the woods; their parents, who are now missing had instructed them to go there to hide from ideological extremists.[1] The teens decide they will wait for the adults to arrive, but as times goes on they slowly realize that their parents may never arrive.[3] The show was adapted from music written by Jim Walker, and the cast album of the show was digitally released on October 12, 2014. The music for the show was nominated for Best Original Music by the San Francisco Bay Area Critics Circle Excellence in Theatre Awards.[5][6] 
RMS Empress of Japan (1890).  RMS Empress of Japan, also known as the Queen of the Pacific, was an ocean liner built in 1890–1891[1] by Naval Construction & Armaments Co, Barrow-in-Furness, England  for Canadian Pacific Steamships (CP).[2]  This ship – the first of two CP vessels to be named Empress of Japan[3]  – regularly traversed the trans-Pacific route between the west coast of Canada and the Far East until 1922.[4] During the First World War she served as armed merchant cruiser, becoming HMS Empress of Japan for the period that she was a commissioned ship of the Royal Navy. Over the course of her career, Empress of Japan traversed 4 million kilometres (2.5 million miles).[5]  She made 315 Pacific crossings.[4] In 1891, Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) and the British government reached agreement on a contract for subsidized mail service between Britain and Hong Kong via Canada; and the route began to be serviced by three specially designed ocean liners.  Each of these three vessels was given an Imperial name.[6] Empress of Japan and her two running mates – RMS Empress of China and the RMS Empress of India – created a flexible foundation for the CPR trans-Pacific fleet which would ply this route for the next half century.[4]
States of Germany.  The Federal Republic of Germany is a federation and consists of sixteen partly sovereign states.[a] Of the 16 states, 13 are so-called area-states (Flächenländer); in these, below the level of the state government, there is a division into local authorities (counties and county-level cities) that have their own administration. Two states, Berlin and Hamburg, are city-states, in which there is no separation between state government and local administration. The state of Bremen is a special case: the state consists of the cities of Bremen, for which the state government also serves as the municipal administration, and Bremerhaven, which has its own local administration separate from the state government. It is therefore a mixture of a city-state and an area-state. Three states, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia, use the appellation Freistaat (free state); this title is merely stylistic and carries no legal or political significance (similar to the US states that call themselves a commonwealth). The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was created in 1949 through the unification of the three western zones previously under American, British, and French administration in the aftermath of World War II. Initially, the states of the Federal Republic were Baden (until 1952), Bavaria (in German: Bayern), Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse (Hessen), Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen), Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz), Schleswig-Holstein, Württemberg-Baden (until 1952), and Württemberg-Hohenzollern (until 1952). West Berlin, while still under occupation by the Western Allies, viewed itself as part of the Federal Republic and was largely integrated and considered a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern merged into Baden-Württemberg. In 1957, the Saar Protectorate joined the Federal Republic as the state of Saarland. The next major change occurred with German reunification in 1990, in which the territory of the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany) became part of the Federal Republic, by accession of the re-established eastern states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern), Saxony (Sachsen), Saxony-Anhalt (Sachsen-Anhalt), and Thuringia (Thüringen), and the reunification of West and East Berlin into a city state. A referendum in 1996 to merge Berlin with surrounding Brandenburg failed to reach the necessary majority vote in Brandenburg, while a majority of Berliners voted in favour. It was the states that formed the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. This was in contrast to the post-war development in Austria, where the national Bund (federation) was constituted first, and then the individual states were carved out as units of that federal nation.
Civilian. In wars, civilians are people who are not members of any armed force to the conflict.[1] It is a war crime under the law of armed conflict to deliberately target civilians with military attacks, along with numerous other considerations to minimize civilian casualties during times of war. Civilians engaging in hostilities are considered unlawful combatants, and lose their protection from attack. It is slightly different from a non-combatant, because some non-combatants are not civilians (for example, people who are not in a military but support war effort or military operations, military chaplains, or military personnel who are serving with a neutral country). Civilians in the territories of a party to an armed conflict are entitled to certain privileges under the customary laws of war and international treaties such as the Fourth Geneva Convention. The privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is a civil war or an international one. More broadly, the term can refer to any people in the general public who are outside of a particular group. For example, when reporting on incidents, members of first responder services (such as firefighters and law enforcement) may colloquially refer to members of the public as civilians.[2] The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien. Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities in time of war, rather than just civilians.[3] The International Committee of the Red Cross 1958 Commentary on 1949 Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War states: Every person in enemy hands must have some status under international law: he is either a prisoner of war and, as such, covered by the Third Convention, a civilian covered by the Fourth Convention, or again, a member of the medical personnel of the armed forces who is covered by the First Convention. There is no intermediate status; nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, and above all, satisfactory from the humanitarian point of view.[4] The ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents (the treaties of humanitarian law do not expressly contain these terms). They may be prosecuted under the domestic law of the detaining state for such action.[5][6][7][8][9]
North Rhine-Westphalia.  North Rhine-Westphalia or North-Rhine/Westphalia,[a] commonly shortened to NRW,[b] is a state (Bundesland) in Western Germany. With more than 18 million inhabitants, it is the most populous state in Germany. Apart from the city-states (Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen), it is also the most densely populated state in Germany. Covering an area of 34,084 km2 (13,160 sq mi), it is the fourth-largest German state by size. North Rhine-Westphalia features 30 of the 81 German municipalities with over 100,000 inhabitants, including Cologne (over 1 million), the state capital Düsseldorf (630,000), Dortmund and Essen (about 590,000 inhabitants each) and other cities predominantly located in the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area, the largest urban area in Germany and the fourth-largest on the European continent. The location of the Rhine-Ruhr at the heart of the European Blue Banana makes it well connected to other major European cities and metropolitan areas like the Randstad, the Flemish Diamond and the Frankfurt Rhine-Main Region. North Rhine-Westphalia was established in 1946 after World War II from the Prussian provinces of Westphalia and the northern part of Rhine Province (North Rhine), and the Free State of Lippe by the British military administration in Allied-occupied Germany and became a state of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. The city of Bonn served as the federal capital until the reunification of Germany in 1990 and as the seat of government until 1999. Culturally, North Rhine-Westphalia is not a uniform area; there are significant differences, especially in traditional customs, between the Rhineland region on the one hand and the regions of Westphalia and Lippe on the other. Its economy is the largest among German states by GRDP but is below the national average in GRDP per capita.
Coat of arms of Poland.  The coat of arms of Poland[a] is the heraldic symbol representing Poland. The current version was adopted in 1990. It is a white, crowned eagle with a golden beak and talons, on a red background. In Poland, the coat of arms as a whole is referred to as godło both in official documents and colloquial speech,[1] despite the fact that other coats of arms are usually called a herb (e.g. the Nałęcz herb or the coat of arms of Finland). This stems from the fact that in Polish heraldry, the word godło (plural: godła) means only a heraldic charge (in this particular case a white crowned eagle) and not an entire coat of arms, but it is also an archaic word for a national symbol of any sort.[2] In later legislation only the herb retained this designation; it is unknown why. The coat of arms of the Republic of Poland is described in two legal documents: the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997[3] and the Coat of Arms, Colors and Anthem of the Republic of Poland, and State Seals Act (Ustawa o godle, barwach i hymnie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz o pieczęciach państwowych) of 1980 with subsequent amendments[1] (henceforth referred to as the Coat of Arms Act). The Crown was restored on December 31, 1989 by the Act of December 29, 1989 amending the Constitution of the Polish Peoples Republic (Article 1, point 19).[4] However, the new emblem design was introduced only on February 22, 1990, by the Act of February 9, 1990 amending the provisions on the coat of arms, colors and anthem of the Republic of Poland.[5]
RMS Empress of Japan (1929).  RMS Empress of Japan was an ocean liner built in 1929–1930 by Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering Company at Govan on the Clyde in Scotland for Canadian Pacific Steamships (CP).  This ship was the second of two CP vessels to be named Empress of Japan[1] – regularly traversed the trans-Pacific route between the west coast of Canada and the Far East until 1942. In 1942, she was renamed RMS Empress of Scotland – the second of two CP vessels to be named Empress of Scotland.[2]  In 1957, the Hamburg Atlantic Line purchased the ship and re-named her TS Hanseatic.[3] By the 1920s the Canadian Pacific conglomerate had established a sea/rail connection between Europe and the Far East. The companys steamships would carry passengers from Great Britain to Canada, the same companys railroad carried passengers across the North American continent to Vancouver, where passengers boarded another Canadian Pacific ship that would carry them across the Pacific to Asia. This was at the time the fastest way to reach the Far East from Europe. In the late 1920s Canadian Pacific decided to modernize their Pacific and Atlantic fleets, with the aim of reducing the journey time between Europe and the Far East by two days.[4] The new liner intended for the transpacific service was envisioned at approximately 25,000 gross register tons, 203.05 m (666 ft 2 in) in length and capable of carrying 1173 passengers in four classes.[3] Construction of the vessel was awarded to Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering Company at Govan near Glasgow in Scotland.[5] She was launched on 17 December 1929 and named Empress of Japan. Originally Canadian Pacific had planned on constructing a sister ship for her for the Pacific service, but due to the Great Depression the second ship was left unrealized. Instead, the company decided to concentrate their resources on Empress of Britain, a larger version of Empress of Japan under construction for their trans-Atlantic service. Empress of Britain was approximately 16,000 GRT larger than Empress of Japan.[6]
Flag of Poland.  The national flag of Poland (flaga Polski [ˈfla.ɡa ˈpɔl.ski]) consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width, the upper one white and the lower one red. The two colours are defined in the Polish constitution as the national colours. A variant of the flag with the national coat of arms in the middle of the white fess is legally reserved for official use abroad and at sea. A similar flag with the addition of a white eagle is used as the naval ensign of Poland. White and red were officially adopted as national colours in 1831, although these were associated with Poland since the Middle Ages and were emphasized on royal banners. They are of heraldic origin and derive from the tinctures (colours) of the coats of arms of the two constituent nations of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (i.e., the White Eagle of Poland, and the Pursuer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a white knight riding a white horse), both on a red shield. Until 1831, Polish soldiers wore cockades of various colour combinations. The national flag was officially adopted in 1919. Since 2004, Polish Flag Day has been celebrated on 2 May. The flag is flown continuously on the buildings of the highest national authorities, such as the parliament and the presidential palace. Other institutions and many Polish people fly the national flag on national holidays and other special occasions of national significance. Current Polish law does not restrict the use of the national flag without the coat of arms, as long as the flag is not disrespected.
Orography.  Orography is the study of the topographic relief of mountains,[1] and can more broadly include hills, and any part of a regions elevated terrain.[2] Orography (also known as oreography, orology, or oreology) falls within the broader discipline of geomorphology.[3] The term orography comes from the Greek: όρος, hill, γράφω, to write. Mountain ranges and elevated land masses have a major impact on global climate. For instance, the elevated areas of East Africa substantially determine the strength of the Indian monsoon.[4] In scientific models, such as general circulation models, orography defines the lower boundary of the model over land.[citation needed] When a rivers tributaries or settlements by the river are listed in orographic sequence, they are in order from the highest (nearest the source of the river) to the lowest or mainstem (nearest the mouth).[citation needed] This method of listing tributaries is similar to the Strahler Stream Order, where the headwater tributaries are listed as category 1. Orographic precipitation, also known as relief precipitation, is precipitation generated by a forced upward movement of air upon encountering a physiographic upland (see anabatic wind). This lifting can be caused by:
Charge (heraldry). In heraldry, a charge is any emblem or device occupying the field of an escutcheon (shield). That may be a geometric design (sometimes called an ordinary) or a symbolic representation of a person, animal, plant, object, building, or other device. In French blazon, the ordinaries are called pièces, and other charges are called meubles ([the] mobile [ones]). The term charge can also be used as a verb; for example, if an escutcheon depicts three lions, it is said to be charged with three lions; similarly, a crest or even a charge itself may be charged, such as a pair of eagle wings charged with trefoils (as on the coat of arms of Brandenburg). It is important to distinguish between the ordinaries and divisions of the field, as they typically follow similar patterns, such as a shield divided per chevron, as distinct from being charged with a chevron. While thousands of objects found in religion, nature, mythology, or technology have appeared in armory, there are several charges (such as the cross, the eagle, and the lion) that have contributed to the distinctive flavour of heraldic design. Only these and a few other notable charges (crowns, stars, keys, etc.) are discussed in this article. In addition to being shown in the regular way, charges may be blazoned as umbrated (shadowed), detailed,[a] (rather incorrectly) outlined,[2] highly unusually shaded[3] and rather irregularly in silhouette or, more ambiguously, confusingly, and unhelpfully, futuristic,[4] stylized or simplified.[5] There are also several units in the United States Air Force with charges blazoned as mythical,[6] or beasts as chimerical,[7] but those conceptions are meaningless and irrelevant[original research?] to the conception of heraldry, and it does not affect the appearance of those charges[citation needed]. Unlike mobile charges, the ordinary charges[8] reach to the edge of the field. Some heraldic writers[b] distinguish, albeit arbitrarily, between (honourable) ordinaries and sub-ordinaries. While some authors hold that only nine charges are honourable ordinaries, exactly which ones fit into this category is a subject of constant disagreement. The remainder are often termed sub-ordinaries, and narrower or smaller versions of the ordinaries are called diminutives. While the term ordinaries is generally recognised, so much dispute may be found among sources regarding which are honourable and which are relegated to the category of sub-ordinaries that indeed one of the leading authors in the field, Arthur Charles Fox-Davies (1871–1928), wrote at length on what he calls the utter absurdity of the necessity for any [such] classification at all, stating that the ordinaries and sub-ordinaries are, in his mind, no more than first charges.[9] Apparently ceding the point for the moment, Fox-Davies lists the generally agreed-upon honourable ordinaries as the bend, fess, pale, pile, chevron, cross, saltire, and chief.[9] Woodcock sheds some light on the matter, stating that earlier writers such as Leigh, Holme and Guillim proposed that honourable ordinaries should occupy one-third of the field, while later writers such as Edmondson favoured one-fifth, on the grounds that a bend, pale, or chevron occupying one-third of the field makes the coat look clumsy and disagreeable.[10] Woodcock goes so far as to enumerate the ordinaries thus: The first Honourable Ordinary is the cross, the second is the chief, the third is the pale, the fourth is the bend, the fifth is the fess, the sixth is the inescutcheon, the seventh is the chevron, the eighth is the saltire, and the ninth is the bar, while stating that some writers prefer the bordure as the ninth ordinary.[11] Volborth, having decidedly less to say on the matter, agrees that the classifications are arbitrary and the subject of disagreement, and lists the definite ordinaries as the chief, pale, bend, fess, chevron, cross and saltire.[12] Boutell lists the chief, pale, bend, bend sinister, fess, bar, cross, saltire and chevron as the honourable ordinaries.[13] Thus, the chief, bend, pale, fess, chevron, cross and saltire appear to be the undisputed ordinaries, while authors disagree over the status of the pile, bar, inescutcheon, bordure and others.
Non-governmental organization.  A  non-governmental organization (NGO) is an entity that is not part of the government. This can include non-profit and for-profit entities. An NGO may get a significant percentage or even all of its funding from government sources. An NGO typically is thought to be a nonprofit organization that operates partially independent of government control. Nonprofit NGOs often focus on humanitarian or social issues but can also include clubs and associations offering services to members. Some nonprofit NGOs, like the World Economic Forum, may also act as lobby groups for corporations. Unlike international organizations (IOs), which directly interact with sovereign states and governments, NGOs are independent from them. The term as it is used today was first introduced in Article 71 of the newly formed United Nations Charter in 1945.[1] While there is no fixed or formal definition for what NGOs are, they are generally defined as nonprofit entities that are independent of government management or direction—although they may receive government funding.[1] According to the UN Department of Global Communications, an NGO is a not-for profit, voluntary citizens group that is organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good.[2] The term NGO is used inconsistently, and is sometimes used synonymously with civil society organization (CSO), which is any association founded by citizens.[3] In some countries, NGOs are known as nonprofit organizations while  political parties and trade unions are sometimes considered NGOs as well.[4] NGOs are classified by (1) orientation- entailing the type of activities an NGO undertakes, such as activities involving human rights, consumer protection, environmentalism, health, or development; and (2) level of operation, which indicates the scale at which an organization works: local, regional, national, or international.[4]
National flag.  A national flag is a flag that represents and symbolizes a given nation. It is flown by the government of that nation, but can also be flown by its citizens. A national flag is typically designed with specific meanings for its colors and symbols, which may also be used separately from the flag as a symbol of the nation. The design of a national flag is sometimes altered after the occurrence of important historical events. Historically, flags originated as military standards, used as field signs. Throughout history, various examples of such proto-flags exist: the white cloth banners of the Zhou dynastys armies in the 11th century BC, the vexillum standards flown by the armies of the Roman Empire, the Black Standard famously carried by Muhammad which later became the flag of the Abbasid Caliphate, and the various Raven banners flown by Viking chieftains. Angelino Dulcert published a series of comprehensive Portolan charts in the 14th century AD, which famously showcased the flags of several polities depicted – although these are not uniformly national flags, as some were likely the personal standards of the respective nations rulers. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the maritime flag. During the 13th century, the republics of Genoa and Venice both used maritime flags; William Gordon Perrin wrote that the republic of Genoa was one of the earliest states to adopt a national flag.[1] The current design of the flag of the Netherlands originates as a variant of the late 16th century orange-white-blue Prinsenvlag (Princes Flag), that was used in the Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648), evolving in the early 17th century as the red-white-blue Statenvlag (States Flag), the naval flag of the States-General of the Dutch Republic, making the Dutch flag perhaps the oldest tricolour flag in continuous use, although standardisation of the exact colours is of a much later date.[2][3]
Bay. A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay.[1][2][3] A large bay is usually called a gulf, sea, sound, or bight. A cove is a small, circular bay with a narrow entrance. A fjord is an elongated bay formed by glacial action.[4] The term embayment is also used for related features, such as extinct bays or freshwater environments. A bay can be the estuary of a river, such as the Chesapeake Bay, an estuary of the Susquehanna River.[2] Bays may also be nested within each other; for example, James Bay is an arm of Hudson Bay in northeastern Canada. Some bays are large enough to have varied marine geology, such as the Bay of Bengal (2,600,000 km2 or 1,000,000 sq mi) and Hudson Bay (1,230,000 km2 or 470,000 sq mi). The land surrounding a bay often reduces the strength of winds and blocks waves. Bays may have as wide a variety of shoreline characteristics as other shorelines. In some cases, bays have beaches, which are usually characterized by a steep upper foreshore with a broad, flat fronting terrace.[5] Bays were significant in the history of human settlement because they provided easy access to marine resources like fisheries.[6] Later they were important in the development of sea trade as the safe anchorage they provide encouraged their selection as ports.[7] The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines a bay as a well-marked indentation in the coastline, whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its mouth as to contain land-locked waters and constitute more than a mere curvature of the coast. An indentation, however, shall not be regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as (or larger than) that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation[8][a] – otherwise, it would be referred to as a bight. A gulf is a large inlet from an ocean or their seas into a landmass,[13] larger and typically (though not always) with a narrower opening than a bay.[14] The term was used traditionally for large, highly indented navigable bodies of salt water that are enclosed by the coastline.[13] Many gulfs are major shipping areas, such as the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Finland, and Gulf of Aden.[14]
Flag of Serbia.  The flag of Serbia (Serbian: застава Србије, romanized: zastava Srbije), also known as the Tricolour (Serbian: тробојка, romanized: trobojka), is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands, red on the top, blue in the middle, and white on the bottom (on civil flag), with the lesser coat of arms left of center (on state flag). The same tricolour, in altering variations, has been used since the 19th century as the flag of the state of Serbia and the Serb people. The current form of the flag was adopted in 2004 and slightly redesigned in 2010.[1] The son of King Stefan Vladislav (reigned 1233–1243), župan Desa, sent delegates from Kotor to Dubrovnik to bring back part of the kings treasury held at Ragusa, which they did on 3 July 1281; the inventory list included, among other things, a flag of red and blue color.[2] It is described as vexillum unum de zendato rubeo et blavo—a flag of fabric red and blue; zendato (Serbian: čenda) being a type of light, silky fabric.[3] This is the oldest known attestation of colours of a Serbian flag; the oldest known Serbian flag was red and blue.[2] But already in 1271 the flag colors of župan Desa were red and white.[4] Although the color order is not known, the version with horizontal red and blue is sometimes used in medieval-themed events in modern Serbia.[5] Hungarian King Bela IV mentioned in his charter dated 8 April 1268, that his army had defeated King Stefan Uroš I (reigned 1243–1276), and that when he hosted some foreign rulers, his magnates brought captured Serbs and in the sign of triumph, the flag of King Uroš before the court of Bela IV, and erected it there.[2] In 1326, king Stefan Dečanski sent a delegate to the Mamluk Sultanate in Alexandria and sought a flag in yellow colour, to be used as a war flag.[6] The Byzantines mention that there were several war flags hoisted by the Serbs at the Battle of Velbazhd (1330), and the yellow one was likely one of those.[2]
CP Ships.  CP Ships was a large Canadian shipping company established in the 19th century. From the late 1880s until after World War II, the company was Canadas largest operator of Atlantic and Pacific steamships. Many immigrants travelled on CP ships from Europe to Canada. In 1914 the sinking of the Canadian Pacific steamship RMS Empress of Ireland just before World War I became the largest maritime disaster in Canadian history.  The company provided Canadian Merchant Navy vessels in World Wars I and II. Twelve vessels were lost due to enemy action in World War II, including the RMS Empress of Britain, which was the largest ship ever sunk by a German U-boat. The company moved to a model of container shipping from passenger, freight and mail service in the 1960s due to competitive pressure from the airline industry. The company was a part of the Canadian Pacific Ltd. conglomerate. It was spun out as a separate company in 2001. In 2005, it was purchased by TUI AG and is now part of the companys Hapag-Lloyd division. The Atlantic and Pacific passenger liners of Canadian Pacific were always British-flagged and largely British-manned and were not part of the Canadian Merchant Marine, ownership being with the British-registered Canadian Pacific Steamships Ltd. subsidiary. In the early 1880s, the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) negotiated with the Government of the United Kingdom to establish trans-Pacific steamship routes between Vancouver, British Columbia and the Far East.[1] The trans-Pacific services of Canadian Pacific were begun by Sir William Cornelius Van Horne, the Canadian-American builder of the railroad network in 1887. In that year, Sir William chartered three vessels from Cunard Line; SS Abyssinia, SS Parthia, and SS Batavia—as a beginning of the CP fleet.[2] The agency for chartering and managing the ships was secured by Adamson, Bell and Company for the first three years.[3] When the new shipping line had shown to be profitable, Canadian Pacific decided not to renew the contract with Adamson, Bell and Company and to run the line itself.[4]
Ria.  A ria (/ˈriːə/;[1] Galician: ría, feminine noun derived from río, river) is a coastal inlet formed by the partial submergence of an unglaciated river valley. It is a drowned river valley that remains open to the sea. Typically rias have a dendritic, treelike outline although they can be straight and without significant branches. This pattern is inherited from the dendritic drainage pattern of the flooded river valley. The drowning of river valleys along a stretch of coast and formation of rias results in an extremely irregular and indented coastline. Often, there are naturally occurring islands, which are summits of partly submerged, pre-existing hill peaks.  (Islands may also be artificial, such as those constructed for the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel.) A ria coast is a coastline having several parallel rias separated by prominent ridges, extending a distance inland.[2][3][4] The sea level change that caused the submergence of a river valley may be either eustatic (where global sea levels rise), or isostatic (where the local land sinks). The result is often a very large estuary at the mouth of a relatively insignificant river (or else sediments would quickly fill the ria). The Kingsbridge Estuary in Devon, England, is an extreme example of a ria forming an estuary disproportionate to the size of its river; no significant river flows into it at all, only a number of small streams.[4] The word ria comes from Galician ría which comes from río (river). Rias are present all along the Galician coast in Spain. As originally defined, the term was restricted to drowned river valleys cut parallel to the structure of the country rock that was at right angles to the coastline. However the definition of ria was later expanded to other flooded river valleys regardless of the structure of the country rock.[citation needed]
Scandinavia.  Nordic territories that are not part of Scandinavia: Chronological history Scandinavia is a subregion of northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. Scandinavia most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. It can sometimes also refer to the Scandinavian Peninsula (which excludes Denmark but includes a part of northern Finland). In English usage, Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym for Nordic countries.[6] Iceland and the Faroe Islands are sometimes included in Scandinavia for their ethnolinguistic relations with Sweden, Norway and Denmark. While Finland differs from other Nordic countries in this respect, some authors call it Scandinavian due to its economic and cultural similarities.[4][5] The geography of the region is varied, from the Norwegian fjords in the west and Scandinavian mountains covering parts of Norway and Sweden, to the low and flat areas of Denmark in the south, as well as archipelagos and lakes in the east. Most of the population in the region live in the more temperate southern regions, with the northern parts having long, cold winters.
Nordic cross flag.  A Nordic cross flag is a flag bearing the design of the Nordic or Scandinavian cross, a cross symbol in a rectangular field, with the centre of the cross shifted towards the hoist. All independent Nordic countries have adopted such flags in the modern period, and while the Nordic cross is named for its use in the national flags of the Nordic nations, the term is used universally by vexillologists, in reference not only to the flags of the Nordic countries but to other flags with similar designs.[1] The cross design represents Christianity,[2][3][4] and was first seen in the Dannebrog, the national flag of Denmark in the first half of the 13th century. The same design, but with a red Nordic cross on a yellow background, was used as union flag during the Kalmar union (1397 to 1523), and when that union fell apart in 1523 the same design, but with a yellow cross on a blue background (derived from the Swedish coat of arms adopted in 1442), was adopted as national flag of Sweden, while Norway adopted their flag in 1821. After gaining independence the other Nordic countries adopted national flags of the same design, Iceland in 1915 and Finland in 1918. The Norwegian flag was the first Nordic cross flag with three colours.  All Nordic flags may be flown as gonfalons as well. Some of these flags are historical. Also, flag proportions may vary between the different flags and sometimes even between different versions of the same flag. The Flag of Greenland is the only national flag of a Nordic country or territory without a Nordic Cross. When Greenland was granted home rule, the present flag — with a graphic design unique to Greenland — was adopted in June 1985, supported by fourteen votes against eleven who supported a proposed green-and-white Nordic cross.[5]
Kure, Hiroshima. Kure (呉市, Kure-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [kɯꜜ.ɾe, kɯ.ɾeꜜ.ɕi], locally [kɯ.ɾeꜜ][1]) is a city in the Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. As of 30 April 2023[update], the city had an estimated population of 208,024 in 106,616 households and a population density of 590 persons per km2.[2] The total area of the city is 352.80 square kilometres (136.22 sq mi). With a strong industrial and naval heritage, Kure hosts the second-oldest naval dockyard in Japan and remains an important base for the Japan Maritime Self-Defence Force. The area of Kure is part of ancient Aki Province, and the port of Kure was an important seaport for Hiroshima Domain in the Edo period. The Kure Naval District was first established in 1889, leading to the construction of the Kure Naval Arsenal and the rapid growth of steel production and shipbuilding in the city. Kure was formally incorporated on October 1, 1902. From 1889 until the end of the Pacific War, the city served as the headquarters of the Kure Naval District. Kure dockyards recorded a number of significant engineering firsts including the launching of the first major domestically built capital ship, the battlecruiser Tsukuba (1905)[3] and the launching of the largest battleship ever built, the Yamato (1940).[4] During the Pacific War, Kure acted as the Imperial Japanese Navys single-largest naval base and arsenal. Most of the citys industry and workforce were employed in the service of the naval installations, munitions factories and associated support functions. In the later stages of the conflict Kure came under sustained aerial bombardment culminating in the bombing of Kure in June and July 1945.
Japanese cruiser Itsukushima.  Itsukushima (厳島) was the lead ship in the Matsushima class of protected cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Like her sister ships, (Matsushima and Hashidate) the name Itsukushima comes from one of the traditional Three Views of Japan, in this case, the Itsukushima Shrine in Hiroshima prefecture on the Seto Inland Sea, home to a famous Shinto-Buddhist shrine dedicated to the Buddhist goddess Benzaiten. Forming the backbone of the Imperial Japanese Navy during the First Sino-Japanese War, the Matsushima-class cruisers were based on the principles of Jeune Ecole, as promoted by French military advisor and naval architect Louis-Émile Bertin.[1] The Japanese government did not have the resources or budget to build a battleship navy to counter the various foreign powers active in Asia; instead, Japan adopted the radical theory of using smaller, faster warships, with light armor and small caliber long-range guns, coupled with a massive single 320 mm (12.6 in) Canet gun. The design eventually proved impractical, as the recoil from the huge cannon was too much for a vessel of such small displacement, and its reloading time was impractically long; however, the Matsushima-class cruisers served their purpose well against the poorly equipped and poorly led Imperial Chinese Beiyang Fleet. Itsukushima was built by the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée naval shipyards at La Seyne-sur-Mer, in France, and was launched on 18 June 1889.[2] She underwent trials by the builder in September and October, and achieved an average maximum speed of 16.78 knots on 15 October 1890. Itsukushima differed from her sister ship Hashidate primarily in that her windows were square instead of rectangular, and in that Hashidate had a stronger engine.
Honorific speech in Japanese. The Japanese language has a system of honorific speech, referred to as keigo (Japanese: 敬語; literally respectful language), parts of speech one function of which is to show that the speaker wants to convey respect for either the listener or someone mentioned in the utterance.  Their use is widely seen in a variety of business or formal social situations.  Honorifics in Japanese can also be used to show unfamiliarity (social distance), or they can be used to show that the speaker is cultured and sophisticated enough to have mastered the ins and outs of the system.[1] Japanese honorific titles, often simply called honorifics, consist of suffixes and prefixes when referring to others in a conversation. The system is very extensive, having its own special vocabulary and grammatical forms to express various levels of respectful, humble, and polite speech. It closely resembles other honorifics systems found in the East Asian cultural sphere, such as honorifics in Korean. Japanese uses honorific constructions to show or emphasize social rank, social intimacy or similarity in rank. The choice of pronoun used, for example, will express the social relationship between the person speaking and the person being referred to, and Japanese often avoids pronouns entirely in favor of more explicit titles or kinship terms.[2] Honorific speech is often longer, and sometimes much longer, than more direct speech. Some extreme, but not uncommon, examples include the following: When asking a question: the first is casually between friends, the second is a junior person asking a superior in a formal meeting:
Cold Food Festival. The Cold Food or Hanshi Festival (寒食节) is a traditional Chinese holiday which developed from the local commemoration of the death of the Jin nobleman Jie Zitui in the 7th century BC under the Zhou dynasty, into an occasion across East Asia for the commemoration and veneration of ancestors by the 7th-century Tang dynasty. Its name derives from the tradition of avoiding the lighting of any kind of fire, even for the preparation of food. This practice originally occurred at midwinter for as long as a month, but the hardship this involved led to repeated attempts to ban its observance out of concern for its practitioners. By the end of the Three Kingdoms period (3rd century), it was limited to three days in the spring around the Qingming solar term. Under the Tang, ancestral observance was limited to the single day which is now the Tomb-Sweeping Festival. The Tomb-Sweeping Festival is an official holiday in several countries, and the Cold Food Festival which stretches either side of it continues to see some observance in China, South Korea, and Vietnam. The usual story for the origin of the Cold Food and Tomb-Sweeping Festivals concerns the 7th-century-BC Jin nobleman Jie Zhitui,[1] a model of self-sacrificing loyalty.[2] During the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, the Zhou Kingdom began to break up into its constituent parts and their lords gained more and more freedom from central control. One of these states was Jin, around modern Shanxi. As was common among wealthy Chinese at the time, its duke had many wives. One of them, Li Ji, was of lower status and came from the Rong tribes who lived to Chinas west, but successfully schemed to become a full wife and to establish her son as the dukes successor. Her older stepson Ji Chonger was framed for revolting against the duke in 655 BC, forcing the prince to flee for his life to his mothers family among the Di tribes north of China. Only 15 of his men followed him into exile. These included Jie Zhitui, who entertained the prince with his poems and music. He was so considerate of his lord that once, when their supplies were stolen while traveling through Wey, he used meat from his own thigh to make soup to relieve the princes hunger.[3] In 636 BC, the duke of Qin finally invaded Jin on Chongers behalf and installed him as its duke. (Posthumously, he became known as the Wen or Civilized Duke of Jin.) In 635 BC,[4] the new duke was generous to those who had helped him in adversity but overlooked Jie, who sadly withdrew into poor obscurity in the forests near Mt Mian.[1] The duke sent repeated envoys to lure Jie back to court, but he felt no ambition for political power. Too loyal to directly criticize his master but too principled to accept a place in a corrupt administration,[5] he opted to simply remain in seclusion. Annoyed, the duke ordered a forest fire to be started around three sides of the mountain to smoke Jie and his mother out of hiding.[6] Instead of coming out, they were burnt alive.[1] Jies charred corpse was found still standing, embracing[6] or tightly bound[5] to a tree. In his remorse, the duke renamed the mountain Mt. Jie, established the town still known as Jiexiu (Jies Rest),[citation needed] and inaugurated the Cold Food Festival as a memorial period for Jie.[1] In addition to the festival, the story also occasioned the Chinese proverb that, while some can burn off an entire mountain, others are kept from even lighting up to eat their rice.[citation needed]
Prefix. A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word.[1] Particularly in the study of languages, a prefix is also called a preformative, because it alters the form of the word to which it is affixed. Prefixes, like other affixes, can be either inflectional, creating a new form of a word with the same basic meaning and same lexical category, or derivational, creating a new word with a new semantic meaning and sometimes also a different lexical category.[2] Prefixes, like all affixes, are usually bound morphemes.[1] English has no inflectional prefixes, using only suffixes for that purpose. Adding a prefix to the beginning of an English word changes it to a different word. For example, when the prefix un- is added to the word happy, it creates the word unhappy. The word prefix is itself made up of the stem fix (meaning attach, in this case), and the prefix pre- (meaning before), both of which are derived from Latin roots. This is a fairly comprehensive, although not exhaustive, list of derivational prefixes in English. Depending on precisely how one defines a derivational prefix, some of the neoclassical combining forms may or may not qualify for inclusion in such a list. This list takes the broad view that acro- and auto- count as English derivational prefixes because they function the same way like that of prefixes such as over- and self- do.
Germany.  Germany,[d] officially the Federal Republic of Germany,[e] is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen constituent states have a total population of over 82 million, making it the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany borders Denmark to the north; Poland and the Czech Republic to the east; Austria and Switzerland to the south; and France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west. The nations capital and most populous city is Berlin and its main financial centre is Frankfurt; the largest urban area is the Ruhr. Settlement in the territory of modern Germany began in the Lower Paleolithic, with various tribes inhabiting it from the Neolithic onward, chiefly the Celts, with Germanic tribes inhabiting the north. Romans named the area Germania. In 962, the Kingdom of Germany formed the bulk of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. Following the Napoleonic Wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the German Confederation was formed in 1815. Unification of Germany into the modern nation-state, led by Prussia, established the German Empire in 1871. After World War I and a revolution, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic. The Nazi rise to power in 1933 led to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship, World War II, and the Holocaust. In 1949, after the war and Allied occupation, Germany was organised into two separate polities with limited sovereignty: the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), or West Germany, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany. The FRG was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1951, while the GDR was a communist Eastern Bloc state and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the fall of the communist led-government in East Germany, German reunification saw the former East German states join the FRG on 3 October 1990. Germany is a developed country with a strong economy; it has the largest economy in Europe by nominal GDP. As a major force in several industrial, scientific and technological sectors, Germany is both the worlds third-largest exporter and third-largest importer. Widely considered a great power, Germany is part of multiple international organisations and forums. It has the third-highest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites: 55, of which 52 are cultural.
Greece (disambiguation). Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in south-east Europe.
Hellenic Republic (disambiguation). Hellenic Republic is the current official name of Greece. The term is also used for: This was also the official name of the Greek junta from 1 July 1973 until 24 July 1974.
William Russell (English actor).  William Russell Enoch (19 November 1924 – 3 June 2024) was an English actor who performed as both Russell Enoch and William Russell.  His career on stage and screen spanned over seven decades and he first achieved prominence in the title role of the television series The Adventures of Sir Lancelot (1956–1957). In 1963, he was in the original lead cast of BBC1s Doctor Who, playing the role of schoolteacher Ian Chesterton from the shows first episode until 1965. Russells film roles include parts in The Man Who Never Was (1956), The Great Escape (1963) and Superman (1978). On television, he appeared as Ted Sullivan in Coronation Street in 1992. In his later years, he continued his association with Doctor Who and returned as Ian for a 2022 cameo in The Power of the Doctor, 57 years after the character left, which won him a Guinness World Record for the longest gap between TV appearances. William Russell Enoch was born on 19 November 1924 in Sunderland, County Durham,[1] to Eva Compston (née Pile) and Alfred James Enoch. He was educated at Wolverhampton Grammar School and Oxford University and became interested in acting at an early age.[2] He was involved in organising entertainment during his national service in the Royal Air Force and then, after university, went into repertory theatre. In 1963, Russell was cast in Doctor Who as science teacher Ian Chesterton, the Doctors first male companion, appearing in all episodes of the first two seasons of the programme except the last four.
Japanese minelayer Itsukushima. Itsukushima (厳島) was a medium-sized minelayer of the Imperial Japanese Navy, which was in service during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. She was named after Itsukushima, a sacred island in Hiroshima Prefecture of Japan. She was the first warship in the Imperial Japanese Navy with all-diesel engine propulsion.[2] Under the fiscal 1923 budget, the Imperial Japanese Navy authorized a minelayer to supplement its aging minelayers, the former cruisers Aso, and Tokiwa. The new vessel was designed to carry 500 Type 5 naval mines, and to incorporate design features developed through operational experience gained in World War I. Initial plans to procure a 3,000-ton vessel were scaled back to 2,000 tons due to budget limitations.[3] Itsukushima was launched by the Uraga Dock Company on 22 May 1929, and was commissioned into service on 26 December 1929.[4] After commissioning, Itsukushima was assigned to the Yokosuka Naval District as a reserve and training vessel, making occasional cruises to the South Seas Mandate and Bonin Islands. She was commanded by Captain (Prince) Teruhisa Komatsu from December 1930 to November 1931. During the Combined Fleet Maneuvers of 1935, she was attached to the IJN 4th Fleet and suffered damage due to a typhoon in what was termed the Fourth Fleet Incident. The damage required several months of extensive repairs, resulting in an almost complete rebuild by May 1936. She was commanded by Captain (Prince) Prince Fushimi Hiroyoshi from November 1935 to December 1936. Itsukushima was assigned to the IJN 3rd Fleet from 20 October 1936, but is reassigned directly to the Combined Fleet after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. After patrols off the Chinese coast until October 1937, Itsukushima was reassigned back to the IJN 3rd Fleet and stationed at Ryojun Guard District. From December 1937 to 20 March 1938, Itsukushima was assigned to the IJN 4th Fleet, and then back to Yokosuka Naval District, but based at Sasebo. From August 1938, under the command of the IJN 3rd Fleet,[4] Itsukushima began patrols of the Yangzi River in China. However, at the end of 1938, she was removed from active duty and placed on reserve status and returned to Yokosuka. Istukushima was reactivated on 15 November 1940 under the Combined Fleet and resumed patrols of the China coast to April 1941, when she was reassigned back to the IJN 3rd Fleet and deployed to Palau in December 1941. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Itsukushima was assigned to the Southern Philippines Striking Force of the IJN 3rd Fleet under the overall command of Admiral Ibō Takahashi, and tasked with mining the San Bernardino Strait.[4]
Rudolph Cartier. Rudolph Cartier (born Rudolph Kacser, renamed himself in Germany to Rudolph Katscher;[1] 17 April 1904 – 7 June 1994) was an Austrian television director, filmmaker, screenwriter and producer who worked predominantly in British television, exclusively for the BBC. He is best known for his 1950s collaborations with screenwriter Nigel Kneale, most notably the Quatermass serials and their 1954 adaptation of George Orwells dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. After studying architecture and then drama, Cartier began his career as a screenwriter and then film director in Berlin, working for UFA Studios. After a brief spell in the United States he moved to the United Kingdom in 1935. Initially failing to gain a foothold in the British film industry, he did some scripting work for BBC Television in 1939 before the service was suspended at the outbreak of the Second World War. After the war, he occasionally worked for British films before he was again hired by the BBC in 1952. He soon became one of the public service broadcasters leading directors and went on to produce and direct over 120 productions in the next 24 years, ending his television career with the play Loyalties in 1976. Active in both dramatic programming and opera, Cartier won the equivalent of a BAFTA in 1957 for his work in the former, and one of his operatic productions was given an award at the 1962 Salzburg Festival. The British Film Institutes Screenonline website describes him as a true pioneer of television,[2] while the critic Peter Black once wrote that: Nobody was within a mile of Rudolph Cartier in the trick of making a picture on a TV screen seem as wide and as deep as CinemaScope.[3] Born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary (now Austria), Cartier initially studied to become an architect, before changing career paths and enrolling to study drama at the Vienna Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.[1][3] There he was taught by Max Reinhardt, who proved a major influence on Cartier.[1] Reinhardt thought of a script as being similar to a musical score, which should be interpreted by a director in the same way as a musician interpreting a piece of music—an approach with which Cartier agreed.[3] Cartier became involved in the film industry in 1929, when he successfully submitted a script to a company based in Berlin, Germany.[1] He then became a staff scriptwriter for UFA Studios, the primary German film company of the era, for which he worked on crime films and thrillers.[4] While at UFA, he worked with noted writers, directors and producers including Ewald André Dupont and Erich Pommer.[3] In 1933 he became a film director, overseeing the thriller Invisible Opponent for producer Sam Spiegel.[2]
Historical drama. A historical drama (also period drama, period piece or just period) is a dramatic work set in the past, usually used in the context of film and television, which presents historical events and characters with varying degrees of fiction such as creative dialogue or scenes which compress separate events. The biographical film is a type of historical drama which generally focuses on a single individual or well-defined group. Historical dramas can include romances, adventure films, and swashbucklers. Historical drama can be differentiated from historical fiction, which generally present fictional characters and events against a backdrop of historical events. A period piece may be set in a vague or general era such as the Middle Ages, or a specific period such as the Roaring Twenties, or the recent past. In different eras different subgenres have risen to popularity, such as the westerns and sword and sandal films that dominated North American cinema in the 1950s. The costume drama is often separated as a genre of historical dramas. Early critics defined them as films focusing on romance and relationships in sumptuous surroundings, contrasting them with other historical dramas believed to have more serious themes. Other critics have defended costume dramas, and argued that they are disparaged because they are a genre directed towards women.[1] Historical dramas have also been described as a conservative genre, glorifying an imagined past that never existed.[2] Historical drama may include mostly fictionalized narratives based on actual people or historical events, such as the history plays of Shakespeare,[3] Apollo 13, The Tudors, Braveheart, Pocahontas, Chernobyl, Enemy at the Gates, Les Misérables, and Titanic.[4]  Works may include references to real-life people or events from the relevant time period or contain factually accurate representations of the time period. Works that focus on accurately portraying specific historical events or persons are instead known as docudrama, such as The Report. Where a persons life is central to the story, such a work is known as biographical drama, with notable examples being films such as Alexander,[5] Frida, House of Saddam, Lincoln, Lust for Life, Raging Bull, Stalin, and Oppenheimer.
Aiko, Princess Toshi.  The EmperorThe Empress The Emperor EmeritusThe Empress Emerita Aiko, Princess Toshi (敬宮愛子内親王, Toshi-no-miya Aiko Naishinnō; born 1 December 2001) is a member of the Imperial House of Japan. She is the only child of Emperor Naruhito and Empress Masako.[1] Following her birth, the ongoing Japanese imperial succession debate had resulted in some politicians holding a favorable view on rescinding agnatic primogeniture (male-only imperial succession) originally implemented in 1889 and retained by the Allies of World War II on the Constitution of Japan.[2] However, once her uncle Crown Prince Fumihito had his son, Hisahito in September 2006, Hisahito became second in the line of succession following his father. Aiko remains at present legally ineligible to inherit the throne and she cannot succeed her father, while debate about the possibility of having future empresses regnant continues.
Fjord (disambiguation). A fjord (or fiord) a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier. Fjord may also refer to: 
Hisashi Owada. Hisashi Owada (小和田 恆, Owada Hisashi; born 18 September 1932) is a Japanese former jurist, diplomat and law professor. He served as a judge on the International Court of Justice from 6 February 2003 until 7 June 2018, and was president of the court from 2009 to 2012.[1] He is the father of Empress Masako and the father-in-law of the reigning Emperor of Japan, Naruhito. Owada was born in Shibata, Niigata Prefecture, Japan,[2]  the third of seven children.[3] Owadas father Takeo is descended from the Owada clan, whose head Shinroku—Masakos 4th-great-grandfather[4]—was called to Murakami in 1787 to serve the Naito clan which the Tokugawa shōgun had installed as the citys rulers sixty-seven years earlier.[4] After the fall of the shogunate, the Owadas participated in a salmon-fishing cooperative,[3] the proceeds of which provided schooling for many local children, including Takeo.[3] Takeo became principal of a prefectural high school in modern-day Joetsu city and head of its board of education.[3] Takeo and his wife would have seven children, all of whom survived infancy to graduate from university or teaching college.[3] His five sons all graduated from the University of Tokyo[5]—Akira, who would become assistant professor at the University of London and professor at Senshu University;[6] Takashi, who would become a lawyer; Hisashi; Osamu, who would become head of the Japan National Tourist Organization; and Makoto, who would become an inspector at the Ministry of Transportations Ports and Harbors Bureau.[5] His two daughters Yasuko and Toshiko would marry highly, the former to managing director of Krosaki-Harima Tadashi Katada and the latter to one-time managing director of the Industrial Bank of Japan (IBJ) Kazuhide Kashiwabara.[3] After earning a B.A. from the University of Tokyo in 1955, Owada passed the civil service examinations to join the Diplomatic and Consular Service, now known as the Foreign Service.[7]
Honorifics (linguistics). In linguistics, an honorific (abbreviated HON) is a grammatical or morphosyntactic form that encodes the relative social status of the participants of the conversation. Distinct from honorific titles, linguistic honorifics convey formality FORM, social distance, politeness POL, humility HBL, deference, or respect through the choice of an alternate form such as an affix, clitic, grammatical case, change in person or number, or an entirely different lexical item. A key feature of an honorific system is that one can convey the same message in both honorific and familiar forms—i.e., it is possible to say something like (as in an oft-cited example from Brown and Levinson) The soup is hot in a way that confers honor or deference on one of the participants of the conversation. Honorific speech is a type of social deixis, as an understanding of the context—in this case, the social status of the speaker relative to the other participants or bystanders—is crucial to its use. There are three main types of honorifics, categorized according to the individual whose status is being expressed:[1] Addressee honorifics express the social status of the person being spoken to (the hearer), regardless of what is being talked about. For example, Javanese has three different words for house depending on the status level of the person spoken to. Referent honorifics express the status of the person being spoken about. In this type of honorific, both the referent (the person being spoken about) and the target (the person whose status is being expressed) of the honorific expression are the same. This is exemplified by the T–V distinction present in many Indo-European languages, in which a different second-person pronoun (such as tu or vous in French) is chosen based on the relative social status of the speaker and the hearer (the hearer, in this case, also being the referent).[2] Bystander honorifics express the status of someone who is nearby, but not a participant in the conversation (the overhearer). These are the least common, and are found primarily in avoidance speech such as the mother-in-law languages of aboriginal Australia, where one changes ones speech in the presence of an in-law or other tabooed relative. A fourth type, the Speaker/Situation honorific, does not concern the status of any participant or bystander, but the circumstances and environment in which the conversation is occurring. The classic example of this is diglossia, in which an elevated or high form of a language is used in situations where more formality is called for, and a vernacular or low form of a language is used in more casual situations.
Coat of arms of Greece.  The coat of arms of Greece (Greek: Εθνόσημο, lit. national emblem, [eθˈnosimo] ⓘ) or national seal of Greece comprises a white Greek cross on a blue escutcheon, surrounded by two laurel branches. It has been in use in its current form since 1975. Prior to the adoption of the current coat of arms, Greece used a number of different designs, some of which were not heraldic; the first heraldic design was introduced in 1832 and its main element, the blue shield with the white cross, has been the base for all other national coats of arms since then. The design is a heraldic representation of the Greek national flag adopted in 1822, which featured a white cross on a blue field. The proper heraldic description of the coat of arms is: Azure, a cross Argent. The Law regulating the coat of arms does not specify a tincture for the laurel branches, implying proper (or vert, i.e. green). Official usage portrays the laurel branches as monochrome blue, while a version with the branches in gold is used by the military and on the presidential standard. Since standardisation in 2010, the Government of Greece has used a stylised version of the coat of arms as a government logo, again in monochrome. In periods of monarchy, the shield was topped by a royal crown and surrounded by elaborate ornamentation expressive of royal authority, including male figures as supporters, the Order of the Redeemer, a mantle and pavilion, and the royal motto. The shield was also sometimes charged with the dynastic arms of House of Wittelsbach under Otto of Greece, and by those of the House of Glücksburg after his exile. Other designs adopted prior to 1832 made heavy use of ancient Greek imagery, such as Athena and her owl, as well as other popular revolutionary symbols such as the Phoenix rising from its ashes, symbolising the rebirth of Greece as an independent state. The political thinker and revolutionary Rigas Feraios was the first to propose a national emblem for Greece,[1] including a hand-drawing rendition of it in his hand-written New Political Constitution of 1797.[2] Rigas proposal was composed of a club of Heracles, with the words Liberty – Equality – Fraternity superimposed on it, and three crosses topping it.[1] In his Map of Greece of 1796–1797, Rigas explains that the club stands for the power of Greece, but its use was not limited to ethnic Greeks and could also be used by any of the other Balkan peoples he envisaged would make up his multi-ethnic Hellenic Republic.[1] In his selection of this device, however, he was directly influenced by the Jacobin radicalism of the French Revolution, which utilised the device of the club of Heracles as a symbol of democratic power.[1] The national colours he proposed were red, white, and black, symbolising self-determination, purity, and sacrifice respectively.[2] The club, sewn onto a white cockade, would be the identifying mark by which free democrats and equal brothers would recognise each other.[2] This design was never officially adopted.
Eleftheria i thanatos.  Eleftheria i thanatos (Greek: Ελευθερία ή θάνατος, IPA: [elefθeˈri.a i ˈθanatos]; Freedom or Death) is the motto of Greece.[1][2] It originated in the Greek songs of resistance that were powerful motivating factors for independence. It was adopted in 1814 by the Filiki Eteria, a secret organization formed specifically for the overthrow of Ottoman rule. The motto arose during the Greek War of Independence in the 1820s, where it was a war cry for the Greeks who rebelled against Ottoman rule.[3] It was adopted after the Greek War of Independence and is still in use today. One explanation for the 9 stripes on the Greek flag is that they represent the nine syllables of the motto, five blue stripes for the syllables Eleftheria and four white stripes for i thanatos.[4][5] The motto symbolized and still symbolizes the resolve of the people of Greece against tyranny and oppression. Part of the emblem of the Filiki Eteria were two flags with the letters ΗΕΑ and ΗΘΣ; These represent Ή ΕλευθερίΑ Ή ΘάνατοΣ, Either Freedom, or Death.[6][7] This is also the motto of the 4th Infantry Division of the Greek Army.[8] Nikos Kazantzakis novel Captain Michalis was subtitled Freedom or Death, which became its title in the United States, Germany, France, and other countries.
Sean Connery.  Sir Thomas Sean Connery (25 August 1930 – 31 October 2020) was a Scottish actor. He was the first actor to portray the fictional British secret agent James Bond in motion pictures, starring in seven Bond films between 1962 and 1983.[1][2][3] Connery originated the role in Dr. No (1962) and continued starring as Bond in the Eon Productions films From Russia with Love (1963), Goldfinger (1964), Thunderball (1965), You Only Live Twice (1967) and Diamonds Are Forever (1971). Connery made his final appearance in the franchise in Never Say Never Again (1983), a non-Eon-produced Bond film. Connery is also known for his work with directors such as Alfred Hitchcock, Sidney Lumet and John Huston. Their films in which Connery appeared included Marnie (1964), The Hill (1965), The Offence (1973), Murder on the Orient Express (1974) and The Man Who Would Be King (1975). He also acted in Robin and Marian (1976), A Bridge Too Far (1977), Time Bandits (1981), Highlander, The Name of the Rose (both 1986), Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989), The Hunt for Red October (1990), Dragonheart, The Rock (both 1996) and Finding Forrester (2000). His final on-screen role was as Allan Quatermain in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003). Connery received numerous accolades. For his role in The Untouchables (1987), he received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor (making him the first Scottish actor to win a major Oscar)[4] and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture; and in the same year he received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor for his role in The Name of the Rose–. He also received honorary awards such as the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1987, the BAFTA Fellowship in 1998[5] and the Kennedy Center Honors in 1999. Connery was made a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters in France and a knight by Queen Elizabeth II for his services to drama in the 2000 New Year Honours.[6] Thomas Sean Connery was born at the Royal Maternity Hospital in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 25 August 1930; he was named after his paternal grandfather.[7][8] Connery was of half-Irish and half-Scottish descent. He was brought up at No. 176 Fountainbridge, a block which has since been demolished.[9] His mother, Euphemia McBain Effie McLean, was a cleaning woman. The daughter of Neil McLean and Helen Forbes Ross, she was named after her fathers mother, Euphemia McBain, wife of John McLean and daughter of William McBain from Ceres in Fife.[10][11] Connerys father, Joseph Connery, was a factory worker and lorry driver.[12]
Flag of Greece.  The national flag of Greece, popularly referred to as the Blue-and-White (Γαλανόλευκη, Galanólefki) or the Cyan-and-White (Κυανόλευκη, Kyanólefki), is officially recognised by Greece as one of its national symbols and has 5 equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white. There is a blue canton in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolises Eastern Orthodox Christianity. The blazon of the flag is azure, four bars argent; on a canton of the field a Greek cross throughout of the second. The official flag ratio is 144:23.[1] The shade of blue used in the flag has varied throughout its history, from light blue to dark blue, the latter being increasingly used since the late 1960s. It was officially adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus on 13 January 1822. While the nine stripes do not have any official meaning, the most popular interpretation says that they represent the syllables of the phrase Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος (Freedom or Death): the five blue stripes for the syllables in Ελευθερία, the four white for those of ή Θάνατος. White and blue symbolize the colours of the Greek sky and sea.[2] It has been suggested by historians that the current flag derived from an older design, the virtually identical flag of the powerful Cretan Kallergis family. This flag was based on their coat of arms, whose pattern is supposed to be derived from the standards of their claimed ancestor, Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (963–969 AD). This pattern (according to not easily verifiable descriptions) included nine stripes of alternating blue and white, as well as a cross, assumed to be placed on the upper left.[3] Although the use of alternating blue and white – or silver – stripes on (several centuries-old) Kallergis coats of arms is well documented, no depiction of the above described pattern (with the nine stripes and the cross) survives.[4] The Byzantines, like the Romans before them, used a variety of flags and banners, primarily to denote different military units. These were generally square or rectangular, with a number of streamers attached.[5] Most prominent among the early Byzantine flags was the labarum. In the surviving pictorial sources of the middle and later Empire, primarily the illustrated Skylitzes Chronicle, the predominating colours are red and blue in horizontal stripes, with a cross often placed in the centre of the flag. Other common symbols, prominently featuring on seals, were depictions of Christ, the Virgin Mary and saints, but these represent personal rather than family or state symbols. Western European-style heraldry was largely unknown until the last centuries of the Empire.[6]
Ensign (flag). An ensign is a maritime flag that is used for the national identification of a ship.[1] It is the largest flag and is generally flown at the stern (rear) of the ship while in port. Depending on the ships origin, it may sometimes be identical with a jack on the bow of the ship when in a port. Jacks are more common on warships than on merchant ships. The Middle English ensign is derived from the Latin word insignia. Vexillologists distinguish between three varieties of ensigns: Some countries like the United States and France use just one flag as an ensign and also as a jack, while lacking special cantons and transparent identification. All ships of the seagoing services of the United States Government except for the United States Coast Guard fly the national flag as their ensign, although the ships of some agencies also fly an agency flag as a distinctive mark. Countries like Ukraine, Italy, Russia, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Japan use different ensigns. These are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, a ship under contract to carry mail, or a yacht, for example.
BBC One.  BBC One is a British free-to-air public broadcast television channel owned and operated by the BBC. It is the corporations oldest and flagship channel, and is known for broadcasting mainstream programming, which includes BBC News television bulletins, primetime drama and entertainment, and live BBC Sport events. The channel was launched on 2 November 1936 under the name BBC Television Service, which was the worlds first regular television service with a high level of image resolution.[b] It was renamed BBC TV in 1960 and used this name until the launch of the second BBC channel, BBC Two, in 1964. The main channel then became known as BBC1. The channel adopted the current spelling of BBC One in 1997. The channels annual budget for 2012–2013 was £1.14 billion.[1] It is funded by the television licence fee together with the BBCs other domestic television stations and shows uninterrupted programming without commercial advertising. The television channel had the highest reach share of any broadcaster in the United Kingdom as at 2019,[2] ahead of its traditional rival for ratings leadership ITV.[3] In 2013, a study conducted across 14 countries by the polling organisation Populus found BBC One to be the station most favourably viewed by its country, with BBC Two coming in third place.[4] BBC One is available via most major television providers in the United Kingdom.
Inlet. An inlet is a typically long and narrow indentation of a shoreline such as a small arm, cove, bay, sound, fjord, lagoon or marsh,[1] that leads to an enclosed larger body of water such as a lake, estuary, gulf or marginal sea. In marine geography, the term inlet usually refers to either the actual channel between an enclosed bay and the open ocean and is often called an entrance, or a significant recession in the shore of a sea, lake or large river. A certain kind of inlet created by past glaciation is a fjord, typically but not always in mountainous coastlines and also in montane lakes. Multi-arm complexes of large inlets or fjords may be called sounds, e.g., Puget Sound, Howe Sound, Karmsund (sund is Scandinavian for sound). Some fjord-type inlets are called canals, e.g., Portland Canal, Lynn Canal, Hood Canal, and some are channels, e.g., Dean Channel and Douglas Channel. Tidal amplitude, wave intensity, and wave direction are all factors that influence sediment flux in inlets.[2] On low slope sandy coastlines, inlets often separate barrier islands and can form as the result of storm events.[3] Alongshore sediment transport can cause inlets to close if the action of tidal currents flowing through an inlet do not flush accumulated sediment out of the inlet.[4]
Ensign (flag). An ensign is a maritime flag that is used for the national identification of a ship.[1] It is the largest flag and is generally flown at the stern (rear) of the ship while in port. Depending on the ships origin, it may sometimes be identical with a jack on the bow of the ship when in a port. Jacks are more common on warships than on merchant ships. The Middle English ensign is derived from the Latin word insignia. Vexillologists distinguish between three varieties of ensigns: Some countries like the United States and France use just one flag as an ensign and also as a jack, while lacking special cantons and transparent identification. All ships of the seagoing services of the United States Government except for the United States Coast Guard fly the national flag as their ensign, although the ships of some agencies also fly an agency flag as a distinctive mark. Countries like Ukraine, Italy, Russia, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Japan use different ensigns. These are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, a ship under contract to carry mail, or a yacht, for example.
Red Ensign.  The Red Ensign or Red Duster is the civil ensign of the United Kingdom. It is one of the British ensigns, and it is used either plain or defaced with either a badge or a charge, mostly in the right half. It is the flag flown by British merchant or passenger ships since 1707. Prior to 1707, an English red ensign and a Scottish red ensign were flown by the English Royal Navy and the Royal Scots Navy, respectively. The precise date of the first appearance of these earlier red ensigns is not known, but surviving payment receipts indicate that the English navy was paying to have such flags sewn in the 1620s. Prior to the reorganisation of the Royal Navy in 1864, the plain red ensign had been the ensign of one of three squadrons of the Royal Navy, the Red Squadron, as early as 1558. By 1620, the plain red ensign started to appear with the Cross of St George in the upper-left canton. The Colony of Massachusetts used the red ensign from its founding; after a sermon by Roger Williams in 1636, equating crosses with the papacy, Governor Endicott ordered the St George cross removed from the flag. The Great and General Court of the colony found that Endicott had exceeded the lymits of his calling, and yet left the flag without its cross for a number of decades afterward.[1]
Geirangerfjord. Geirangerfjorden (Norwegian)[1] or Geiranger Fjord (English)[2][3][4] is a fjord in the Sunnmøre region of Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is located entirely in Stranda Municipality. It is a 15-kilometre-long (9+1⁄2 mi) branch off the Sunnylvsfjorden, which itself is a branch off the Storfjorden (lit. Great Fjord). The small village of Geiranger is located at the end of the fjord where the Geirangelva river empties into it. The fjord is one of Norways most visited tourist sites. In 2005, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, jointly with the Nærøyfjorden as the West Norwegian Fjords site. This status was challenged by the disputed plans to build power lines across the fjord.[5][needs update] The Geiranger - Hellesylt Ferry, a car ferry which doubles as a sightseeing trip, is operated by Fjord1 Nordvestlandske. It runs lengthwise along the fjord between the small towns of Geiranger and Hellesylt. The fjord is scheduled to require zero-emissions ships in 2026.[6] Along the fjords sides there lie a number of now-abandoned farms. Some restoration has been made by the Storfjordens venner association. The most commonly visited among these are Skageflå, Knivsflå, and Blomberg. Skageflå may also be reached on foot from Geiranger, while the others require a boat excursion. The fjord is also host to several waterfalls such as Seven Sisters Falls. Magdalene Thoresen, Henrik Ibsens mother-in-law, said of the area:
List of mountain types. Mountains and hills can be characterized in several ways. Some mountains are volcanoes and can be characterized by the type of lava and eruptive history. Other mountains are shaped by glacial processes and can be characterized by their shape. Finally, many mountains can be characterized by the type of rock that make up their composition.
Glacier.  A glacier (US:  /ˈɡleɪʃər/; UK:  /ˈɡlæsiə/ or  /ˈɡleɪsiə/) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock,[2] that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such as crevasses and seracs, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as cirques, moraines, or fjords. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land[3][4][5] and is distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water. On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets (also known as continental glaciers) in the polar regions, but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceanias high-latitude oceanic island countries such as New Zealand. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard-Kuh in Iran.[6] With more than 7,000 known glaciers, Pakistan has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions.[7][1] Glaciers cover about 10% of Earths land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km2 (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of Antarcticas 13.2 million km2 (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers.[8] The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km3.[9] Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the worlds freshwater.[10][11] Many glaciers from temperate, alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a water source that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g., precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change and are a major source of variations in sea level.
Mount Misen (Ayabe). Mount Misen (弥仙山, Misen-zan) is a mountain in Oyogi-cho (於与岐町), Ayabe, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan that is considered to be sacred by the Oomoto religion.[2][3] Osei Jinja (於成神社) on Mount Misen is where the religions founder, Nao Deguchi, secluded herself in October 19, 1901 (lunar calendar date: September 8, 1901)[4] and received divine revelations (as described in Chapter 10 of Volume 38 in the Reikai Monogatari[5]). Nao Deguchi would perform daily ablutions at a nearby waterfall called Fudo Waterfall, which is also known today as Ōmoto kaiso shūgyō no taki (大本開祖修業の滝).[6] Osei Jinja and the waterfall are situated near each other, and both of them are located about midway up the mountain. On May 24, 1903 (lunar calendar date: April 28, 1903),[4] Nao Deguchi ascended the mountain again with Onisaburo Deguchi and her daughter Sumiko Deguchi to honor the mountains deities at Kinpū Jinja (金峰神社) on the summit of Mount Misen.[7] According to Michi no Shiori,[8] The mountain Misen in Oyogi 於与岐 (in the district of Tango 丹後) is the holy mountain where are honoured the god Konohanasakuya-hime and the god Hikohohodemi. These two gods govern the holy function of mediation between the gods.
Normal route. A normal route or normal way (French: voie normale; German: Normalweg) is the most frequently used climbing route for ascending and descending a given mountain peak; it is usually the easiest — although not necessarily easy (see image) — and often the most straightforward route (e.g. such as the Goûter Route on Mont Blanc).[2][3] Other generic names include the tourist route or trade route, and some climbing routes have specific normal route names such as the Yak Route on Mount Everest.[4]  This climbing-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Torii (disambiguation). A torii (鳥居) is a traditional Shinto shrine gate. Torii may refer to:
World Heritage Site.  World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity.[1] To be selected, a World Heritage Site is nominated by its host country and determined by the UNESCOs World Heritage Committee to be a unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable, having a special cultural or physical significance, and to be under a sufficient system of legal protection. World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities,[a] deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas, and others.[4][5] A World Heritage Site may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humankind and serve as evidence of humanitys intellectual history on the planet, or it might be a place of great natural beauty.[6] As of July 2025, a total of 1,248 World Heritage Sites exist across 170 countries.[7] The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones.[1] The World Heritage Sites list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the United Nations General Assembly, and advised by reviews of international panels of experts in natural or cultural history, and education.[8]
Hatsukaichi. Hatsukaichi (廿日市市, Hatsukaichi-shi) is a city located in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan.  As of 1 May 2023[update], the city had an estimated population of 116,087 in 53,320 households and a population density of 240 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 489.48 square kilometres (188.99 sq mi). Hatsukaichi is located in far southwestern Hiroshima Prefecture. In the north, the spine of the Chūgoku Mountains borders Shimane and Yamaguchi prefectures, and in the south is the coastline of the Seto Inland Sea (Hiroshima Bay). While the coastal areas are becoming more urbanized, the inland rural areas are undergoing marked depopulation. Hiroshima Prefecture Shimane Prefecture Yamaguchi Prefecture
Igneous rock.  Igneous rock (igneous from Latin  igneus fiery), or magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in a terrestrial planets mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks. Igneous rock may form with crystallization to form granular, crystalline rocks, or without crystallization to form natural glasses. Igneous rocks occur in a wide range of geological settings: shields, platforms, orogens, basins, large igneous provinces, extended crust and oceanic crust. Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up 90–95% of the top 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) of the Earths crust by volume.[1] Igneous rocks form about 15% of the Earths current land surface.[note 1] Most of the Earths oceanic crust is made of igneous rock.
Kami. Kami (Japanese: 神; [kaꜜmi]) are the deities, divinities, spirits, mythological, spiritual, or natural phenomena that are venerated in the traditional Shinto religion of Japan. Kami can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, beings and the qualities that these beings express, and/or the spirits of venerated dead people. Many kami are considered the ancient ancestors of entire clans (some ancestors became kami upon their death if they were able to embody the values and virtues of kami in life). Traditionally, great leaders like the Emperor could be or became kami.[1] In Shinto, kami are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, and good and evil characteristics. They are manifestations of musubi (結び),[2] the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards. Kami are believed to be hidden from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own: shinkai (神界; the world of the kami).[3]: 22  To be in harmony with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature is to be conscious of kannagara no michi (随神の道 or 惟神の道; the way of the kami).[2] Kami is the Japanese word for a deity, divinity, or spirit.[4] It has been used to describe mind, God, Supreme Being, one of the Shinto deities, an effigy, a principle, and anything that is worshipped.[5][6] Although deity is the common interpretation of kami, some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term.[7][page needed] Some etymological suggestions are:
World Heritage Site.  World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity.[1] To be selected, a World Heritage Site is nominated by its host country and determined by the UNESCOs World Heritage Committee to be a unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable, having a special cultural or physical significance, and to be under a sufficient system of legal protection. World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities,[a] deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas, and others.[4][5] A World Heritage Site may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humankind and serve as evidence of humanitys intellectual history on the planet, or it might be a place of great natural beauty.[6] As of July 2025, a total of 1,248 World Heritage Sites exist across 170 countries.[7] The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones.[1] The World Heritage Sites list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the United Nations General Assembly, and advised by reviews of international panels of experts in natural or cultural history, and education.[8]
List of minor planets: 7001–8000. The following is a partial list of minor planets, running from minor-planet number 7001 through 8000, inclusive. The primary data for this and other partial lists is based on JPLs Small-Body Orbital Elements[1] and data available from the Minor Planet Center.[2][3] Critical list information is also provided by the MPC,[2][3] unless otherwise specified from Lowell Observatory.[4] A detailed description of the tables columns and additional sources are given on the main page including a complete list of every page in this series, and a statistical break-up on the dynamical classification of minor planets. Also see the summary list of all named bodies in numerical and alphabetical order, and the corresponding naming citations for the number range of this particular list. New namings may only be added to this list after official publication, as the preannouncement of names is condemned by the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union.   
World Heritage Sites by country.  As of July 2025, there are a total of 1,223 World Heritage Sites located across 168 countries, of which 952 are cultural, 231 are natural, and 40 are mixed properties.[1] The countries have been divided by the World Heritage Committee into five geographical regions: Africa; the Arab States; Asia and the Pacific; Europe and North America; and Latin America and the Caribbean. With 61 selected areas, Italy is the country with the most sites, followed by China with 60 and Germany with 55, and France with 54.[2] Of the 196 states party to the World Heritage Convention, 28 have no properties inscribed on the World Heritage List: The Bahamas, Bhutan, Brunei, Burundi, the Comoros, the Cook Islands, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Grenada, Guyana, Kuwait, Liberia, Maldives, Monaco, Nauru, Niue, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Somalia, South Sudan, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, and Tuvalu. Only one UN member state, Liechtenstein, has not ratified the World Heritage Convention. This overview lists the 23 countries with 15 or more World Heritage Sites:
Sashimono.  Sashimono (指物, 差物, 挿物) were small banners historically worn by soldiers in feudal Japan, for identification during battles.[1][2] Sashimono poles were attached to the backs of the dō cuirass by special fittings. Sashimono were worn both by foot soldiers, including the common soldiers known as ashigaru,[3] as well as by the elite samurai and members of the shogunate,[4] and in special holders on the horses of some cavalry.[citation needed] The banners, resembling small flags and bearing clan symbols, were most prominent during the Sengoku period, a long period of civil war in Japan from the middle 15th to early 17th century.[citation needed] Given the great variety in Japanese armour, sashimono were used to provide a kind of uniform to armies. Sashimono typically came in either square or short rectangular forms, although many variations existed. A variation that is often bigger and coloured is the uma-jirushi, which were large, personalized, sashimono-like flags worn by commanders. Similar to this were the very large and narrow nobori banners, which commonly took two or three men to hold erect and were used to control the direction of fighting during large battles. (Uma-jirushi and nobori are still used today at sports events, as Japanese versions of the banners common among Western sports audiences.)[citation needed] The banner hung from an L-shaped frame, which was attached to the chest armour dō or dou by a socket machi-uke or uketsubo near the waistline and hinged at shoulder level with a ring gattari or sashimono-gane. While this arrangement was perhaps one of the most common, there were other variations. Silk and leather were the most common materials used.
World Heritage Committee.  The World Heritage Committee is a committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization that selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.[1] It comprises representatives from 21 state parties[2][1] that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.[3] These parties vote on decisions and proposals related to the World Heritage Convention and World Heritage List. According to the World Heritage Convention, a committee members term of office is six years. However many States Parties choose to voluntarily limit their term to four years, in order to give other States Parties an opportunity to serve.[3]  All members elected at the 15th General Assembly (2005) voluntarily chose to reduce their term of office from six to four years.[3] Deliberations of the World Heritage Committee are aided by three advisory bodies, the IUCN, ICOMOS and ICCROM.[4][5] The World Heritage Committee meets once a year for an ordinary session to discuss the management of existing World Heritage Sites, and accept nominations by countries.[3] Extraordinary meetings can be convened at the request of two-thirds of the state members.[6] Meetings are held within the territory of state members of the World Heritage Committee at their invitation. Rotation between regions and cultures is a consideration for selection and the location for the next session is chosen by the committee at the end of each session.[6]
Uma-jirushi.  Uma-jirushi (馬印; horse insignia) were massive flags used in feudal Japan to identify a daimyō or equally important military commander on the field of battle. They came into prominence during the Sengoku period. While many were simply large flags, not very different from sashimono or hata-jirushi, most were three-dimensional figures, more like kites, and in the shape of bells, gongs, umbrellas, or streamers. While these standards took many forms, they all fall into two broad categories: the ō-uma-jirushi and the ko-uma-jirushi, the great standard and the lesser standard respectively. Poorer daimyo had just one, the lesser standard, while wealthier daimyo had both. In 1645, the Tokugawa shogunate formalized this, allowing daimyo with an income above 1300 koku to have a ko-uma-jirushi, and daimyo earning more than 6000 koku to have an ō-uma-jirushi as well. The ō-uma-jirushi was the nucleus of action on the battlefield, and while it aided the organization and morale of friendly troops, it also attracted the attention of enemy warriors. The carrier of the uma-jirushi, therefore, was arguably the most dangerous position to be in on the field. The ō-uma-jirushi was sometimes held in a leather bucket attached to the carriers belt; the especially large ones would often be securely strapped into a carrying frame on the warriors back. The carrier was provided with ropes to steady the standard in the wind, or while running. In the mid-1600s, a monk called Kyūan completed a text called O Uma Jirushi, a comprehensive illustrated survey of the heraldry of his time. This text describes the heraldry of most, if not all, of the major samurai families of the battles of the Sengoku period. The text still survives today, and remains one of the chief sources of heraldic information available today on this period in Japan.
Daimyo. Daimyo (大名, daimyō; English: /ˈdaɪm.joʊ/,[1] Japanese: [dai.mʲoꜜː] ⓘ[2]) were powerful Japanese magnates,[3] feudal lords[4] who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominally to the emperor and the kuge (an aristocratic class). In the term, dai (大) means large, and myō stands for myōden (名田), meaning private land.[5] From the shugo of the Muromachi period through the Sengoku period to the daimyo of the Edo period, the rank had a long and varied history. The backgrounds of daimyo also varied considerably; while some daimyo clans, notably the Mōri, Shimazu and Hosokawa, were cadet branches of the Imperial family or were descended from the kuge, other daimyo were promoted from the ranks of the samurai, notably during the Edo period. Daimyo often hired samurai to guard their land, and paid them in land or food, as relatively few could afford to pay them in money. The daimyo era ended soon after the Meiji Restoration, with the adoption of the prefecture system in 1871. The shugo daimyō (守護大名) were the first group of men to hold the title daimyō. They arose from among the shugo during the Muromachi period (approximately 1336–1573). The shugo-daimyo held not only military and police powers, but also economic power within a province. They accumulated these powers throughout the first decades of the Muromachi period. Major shugo-daimyō came from the Shiba, Hatakeyama, and Hosokawa clans, as well as the tozama clans of Yamana, Ōuchi, Takeda and Akamatsu. The greatest ruled multiple provinces.
Culture of Japan.   Japanese culture has changed greatly over the millennia, from the countrys prehistoric Jōmon period, to its contemporary modern culture, which absorbs influences from Asia and other regions of the world.[1] Since the Jomon period, ancestral groups like the Yayoi and Kofun, who arrived to Japan from Korea and China, respectively, have shaped Japanese culture. Rice cultivation and centralized leadership were introduced by these groups, shaping Japanese culture. Chinese dynasties, particularly the Tang dynasty, have influenced Japanese culture throughout history and brought it into the Sinosphere. After 220 years of isolation, the Meiji era opened Japan to Western influences, enriching and diversifying Japanese culture. Popular culture shows how much contemporary Japanese culture influences the world.[2] There are two competing hypotheses that try to explain the lineage of the Japanese people.[3][4]
Act on National Flag and Anthem.  The Act on National Flag and Anthem (国旗及び国歌に関する法律, Kokki Oyobi Kokka ni Kansuru Hōritsu), abbreviated as 国旗国歌法,[2] is a law that formally established Japans national flag and anthem. Before its ratification on August 13, 1999, there was no official flag or anthem for Japan. The nisshōki (日章旗) flag, commonly referred to as the hinomaru (日の丸),[3] had represented Japan unofficially since 1870; Kimigayo (君が代) had been used as Japans de facto anthem since 1880. After Japans defeat in World War II, there were suggestions to legislate the hinomaru and Kimigayo as the official symbols of Japan. However, a law to establish the hinomaru and Kimigayo as official in 1974 failed in the National Diet, due to the opposition of the Japan Teachers Union that insists they have a connection with Japanese militarism. It was suggested that both the hinomaru and Kimigayo should be made official after a school principal in Hiroshima committed suicide over a dispute regarding the use of the flag and anthem in a school ceremony. After a vote in both houses of the National Diet, the law was passed on August 9, 1999. Promulgated and enforced on August 13, 1999, it was considered one of the most controversial laws passed by the National Diet in the 1990s. The debate surrounding the law also revealed a split in the leadership of the opposition Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) and the unity of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and coalition partners. The passage of the law was met with mixed reactions. Although some Japanese hailed the passage, others felt that it was a shift toward restoring nationalistic feelings and culture: It was passed in time for the tenth anniversary of the Emperor Akihitos reign. In the countries that Japan had occupied during World War II, some felt that the laws passage, along with debates on laws related to military affairs and Yasukuni Shrine, marked a shift in Japan toward the political right. Regulations and government orders issued in the wake of this law, especially those issued by the Tokyo Board of Education, were also challenged in court by some Japanese due to conflicts with the Japanese constitution.[4][5]
Allan Warren.  Michael Allan Warren (born 26 October 1948) is an English portrait photographer and actor, primarily known for his portraits of British nobility, politicians, and celebrities. His subjects include Charles III, Constantine II, Cary Grant, Enoch Powell, Alec Douglas-Home, Sophia Loren, Louis Mountbatten and Laurence Olivier. After growing up in post-war London with his mother, Warren attended Terrys Juveniles, a stage school based in the Drury Lane Theatre. It was during this period that he attended auditions through which he received several assignments. One such piece of work was as a child presenter in The Five Oclock Club, which afforded him the opportunity to associate with individuals such as Marc Bolan (then performing as Toby Tyler), who would later employ Warren as his first manager.[2][3] Warren started his photographic career at the age of 20, when he was acting in Alan Bennetts play Forty Years On with John Gielgud in the West End at the Apollo Theatre.[1] Around this time, Warren bought his first second-hand camera and began to take photographs of his fellow actors. His first major assignment was in 1969 when his friend Mickey Deans asked him to cover his wedding to Judy Garland, which marked the beginning of Warrens work as a professional photographer.[4] After this decisive event, Warren embarked on his photography career, throughout which he took portraits of personalities including many actors, writers, musicians, politicians and members of the British royal family.[5][6] In the early 1980s Warren embarked on a quest to photograph all 30 British dukes.[7] Together with Angus Montagu, 12th Duke of Manchester he set up the Dukes Trust, a charity for children in need.[8][9][10] Warren has uploaded many pictures from his archive to Wikimedia Commons, and many of those images have been used on Wikipedia pages, including the page on Warren himself.[11]
Shinto shrine. A Shinto shrine (神社, jinja; archaic: shinsha, meaning: kami shrine)[1] is a structure whose main purpose is to house (enshrine) one or more kami, the deities of the Shinto religion.[2] The main hall (本殿, honden)[note 1] is where a shrines patron kami is or are enshrined.[2][3] The honden may be absent in cases where a shrine stands on or near a sacred mountain, tree, or other object which can be worshipped directly or in cases where a shrine possesses either an altar-like structure, called a himorogi, or an object believed to be capable of attracting spirits, called a yorishiro, which can also serve as direct bonds to a kami.[4] There may be a hall of worship (拝殿, haiden) and other structures as well. Although only one word (shrine) is used in English, in Japanese, Shinto shrines may carry any one of many different, non-equivalent names like gongen, -gū, jinja, jingū, mori, myōjin, -sha, taisha, ubusuna, or yashiro. Miniature shrines (hokora) can occasionally be found on roadsides. Large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines, sessha (摂社) or massha (末社).[note 2] Mikoshi, the palanquins which are carried on poles during festivals (matsuri), also enshrine kami and are therefore considered shrines. In 927 CE, the Engi-shiki (延喜式; lit. Procedures of the Engi Era) was promulgated. This work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined kami.[5] In 1972, the Agency for Cultural Affairs placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines (神社本庁).[6] Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine, are totally independent of any outside authority.[7] The number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000.[8] Since ancient times, the Shake (社家) families dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions, and at some shrines the hereditary succession continues to present day.
South Kensington.  South Kensington is a district at the West End of Central London in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. Historically it settled on part of the scattered Middlesex village of Brompton.[1] Its name was supplanted with the advent of the railways in the late 19th century and the opening (and shutting) and naming of local tube stations.[2] The area has many museums and cultural landmarks with a high number of visitors, such as the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. Adjacent affluent centres such as Knightsbridge, Chelsea and Kensington, have been considered as some of the most exclusive real estate in the world. Following the 1851 Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, an 87-acre (35 ha) area, west of what is now Exhibition Road, was purchased by the commissioners of the exhibition, in order to create a base for institutions dedicated to the arts and sciences, leading to the foundation of the Royal Albert Hall, three museums, the Royal School of Mines later a world renowned technological university, the Royal College of Music and the Royal College of Organists there. The market gardens of the rural area began to make way for a series of hospitals, such as the Brompton Hospital and the New Cancer Hospital along nearby Fulham Road.[3] Adjacent landowners began to develop the land in the 1860s as a result of the transport hub and the general urbanisation boom west of London, and led to the eventual absorption of Brompton and its station into Kensington. It was sealed by the arrival of the Metropolitan and District Railways at Brompton, but for public relations reasons, it was re-named South Kensington in 1868. To facilitate public access to the museums, the railway company built a pedestrian tunnel directly from the station concourse to an exit halfway up Exhibition Road, next to the now defunct Royal Mail sorting office, to avoid crowds having to cross the Cromwell Road. In 1906 the new Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway company opened the Brompton Road tube station in the vicinity, thus adding a link directly to the political, commercial and financial heart of the capital in Westminster, the West End and the City of London, but owing to under use, it was shut in 1934. During the Second World War it was used by the 26th (London) Anti-Aircraft Brigade.[4] Since the First World War it has become a cosmopolitan area attracting Belgian and French refugees, but also Poles during the Second World War and after, as well as latterly Spanish, Italian, and American expatriates. Some residents also have a Middle Eastern origin. The French presence is emphasised by the Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle, the French Institute, housing a theatre now used as the Ciné Lumière with nearby the Alliance française, as well as the Consulate General of France, not far from the French Embassy in Knightsbridge.[5] With a French bookshop and many international cafés in the area, it has been called Pariss 21st arrondissement.[6]
Rivulets.  Rivulets is the stage name of minimalist singer-songwriter Nathan Leavitt Amundson.[1][2] Rivulets was the first artist signed to Lows Chairkickers Union record label in 2001.[3] He then released his first, self-titled album in 2002 and DEBRIDEMENT in 2003.[4] Rivulets was subsequently signed by Blast First,[5] recording the album you are my home for Blast First Petite.[6] you are my home was eventually licensed by Important Records and released in 2006,[7] followed by Were Fucked in 2010, also on Important Records.[8] This was followed by the critically acclaimed I Remember Everything on Jellyfant Records in 2014.[9] Rivulets then signed with France-based label Talitres, releasing the sixth Rivulets album in Our Circle in 2018.[10][11][12] Musicians who have performed as part of Rivulets include: Alan Sparhawk (Low), Mimi Parker (Low), Bob Weston (Shellac).,[13] LD Beghtol (The Magnetic Fields), Chris Brokaw (Codeine), Christian Frederickson (Rachels), Jarboe (Swans), Haley Bonar, Jessica Bailiff, Jon DeRosa (Aarktica), Fred Lonberg-Holm, Nathan Vollmar (Jandek), and Francesco Candura (Jennifer Gentle). Outside of his work as Rivulets, Amundson has also seen success as songwriter for hire, having penned songs for Berlin-based pop artist Clara Hill among others.[14]
Hamilton, Bermuda.   Hamilton is the capital city of the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda, and the main settlement of Pembroke Parish. A port city, Hamilton is Bermudas financial and commercial centre, and a popular tourist destination. Its population of 854 (2016)[2] and its small land area make it one of the smallest capital cities in the world. The history of Hamilton as a British city began in 1790 when the government of Bermuda set aside 145 acres (59 ha) for its future seat, officially incorporated in 1793 by an Act of Parliament, and named for Governor Henry Hamilton. The colonys capital relocated to Hamilton from St Georges in 1815. The city has been at the political and military heart of Bermuda ever since. Government buildings include the parliament building, the Government House to the north, the former Admiralty House of the Royal Navy to the west (both in Pembroke), and the British Army garrison headquarters at Prospect Camp to its east. The Town of Hamilton became a city in 1897, ahead of the consecration in 1911 of the Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity (Church of England), which was under construction at the time. A Catholic cathedral, St. Theresas, was later constructed. In 1940, the Royal Navy commissioned a former US Navy destroyer as HMS Hamilton. The 2 November 1940, issue of The Royal Gazette, a newspaper published in the City of Hamilton, reported this in an article titled NEW DESTROYER HAS NAME OF HAMILTON: Mayor Here Receives Letter From Her Commander,[3] and began:
Stream (disambiguation). A stream is a body of moving water. Stream or streaming may also refer to:
Order of the British Empire.  The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities.[2] It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or a dame if female.[3] There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with the order, but are not members of it. The order was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, who created the order to recognise such persons, male or female, as may have rendered or shall hereafter render important services to Our Empire.[3] Equal recognition was to be given for services rendered in the UK and overseas.[4] Today, the majority of recipients are UK citizens, though a number of Commonwealth realms outside the UK continue to make appointments to the order.[5] Honorary awards may be made to citizens of other nations of which the orders sovereign is not the head of state. The five classes of appointment to the Order are, from highest grade to lowest grade: The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross and Knight or Dame Commander entitle their members to use the titles Sir for men and Dame for women before their forenames, except with honorary awards.[6]
Google Maps.  Google Maps is a web mapping platform and consumer application developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° interactive panoramic views of streets (Street View), real-time traffic conditions, and route planning for traveling by foot, car, bike, air (in beta) and public transportation. As of 2020[update], Google Maps was being used by over one billion people every month around the world.[1] Google Maps began as a C++ desktop program developed by brothers Lars and Jens Rasmussen, Stephen Ma and Noel Gordon in Australia at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application. After additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a real-time traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005.[2] The services front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax. Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites,[3] and offers a locator for businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allowed users to collaboratively expand and update the services mapping worldwide but was discontinued from March 2017. However, crowdsourced contributions to Google Maps were not discontinued as the company announced those features would be transferred to the Google Local Guides program,[4] although users that are not Local Guides can still contribute. Google Maps satellite view is a top-down or birds-eye view; most of the high-resolution imagery of cities is aerial photography taken from aircraft flying at 800 to 1,500 feet (240 to 460 m), while most other imagery is from satellites.[5] Much of the available satellite imagery is no more than three years old and is updated on a regular basis, according to a 2011 report.[6] Google Maps previously used a variant of the Mercator projection, and therefore could not accurately show areas around the poles.[7] In August 2018, the desktop version of Google Maps was updated to show a 3D globe. It is still possible to switch back to the 2D map in the settings. Google Maps for mobile devices was first released in 2006; the latest versions feature GPS turn-by-turn navigation along with dedicated parking assistance features. By 2013, it was found to be the worlds most popular smartphone app, with over 54% of global smartphone owners using it.[8] In 2017, the app was reported to have two billion users on Android, along with several other Google services including YouTube, Chrome, Gmail, Search, and Google Play.
Zheng (surname). Zheng (simplified Chinese: 郑; traditional Chinese: 鄭; pinyin: Zhèng; Wade–Giles: Cheng4, [ʈʂə́ŋ] ⓘ) is a Chinese surname. It is the 7th name on the Hundred Family Surnames poem. In 2006, Zheng ranked 21st in Chinas list of top 100 most common surnames. Zheng belongs to the second major group of ten surnames which makes up more than 10% of the Chinese population.[1][2][3] Zheng was a major surname of the rich and powerful during Chinas Tang dynasty.[4] In Republic of China (Taiwan) and Hong Kong, the name is normally romanized as Cheng or Tcheng (occasionally romanized as Chang in Hong Kong although that variant is more commonly used for another Chinese name, Zhang). In Malaysia, Cheng is commonly romanized as Cheng, Cheang, Chang, Tay, Tee and Teh. It is spelled as Tay in Singapore, The in Indonesia, and Ty in Philippines,[5] from the Hakka, Hokkien and Teochew pronunciation of the character. It is also romanized as Dang from Hokchew. The surname also has taken form outside of Chinese societies: in Korean, the name is written 정 and transliterated as Jeong, Jung, or Chung. It is the fifth most common Korean surname (after Kim, Lee, Park, and Choi), with about 4.85% of the South Korean population (2,230,611 people) having this name.[citation needed] The Zheng surname originated in Henan. In 806 BC, King Xuan, the penultimate king of the Western Zhou dynasty, enfeoffed his younger brother Prince You, who became posthumously known as Duke Huan of Zheng, at Zheng (present-day Hua County, Shaanxi).  Duke Huan was killed along with King You of Zhou when the Quanrong tribes sacked the Zhou capital Haojing in 771 BC.  Duke Huan was succeeded by his son Duke Wu, who helped King Ping of Zhou establish the Eastern Zhou dynasty in Luoyang, and his feudal state of Zheng was also moved east to present-day Henan. His descendants and many people of the state later adopted Zheng as their surname.[6][7][8] The city of Xingyang is considered as the origin place of the people whose surname is Zheng. Today, Xingyang is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhengzhou (鄭州) which translates to Settlement of Zheng. Zhengzhou is the capital of Henan province and is located within the boundaries of the ancient state of Zheng (state). There is also another city called Xinzheng (New Zheng), also under the administration of Zhengzhou.
Perizoma affinitata.  Perizoma affinitata, the rivulet, is a species of moth of the family Geometridae. It was first described by James Francis Stephens in 1831 and it is found in most of Europe. Its wingspan is 24–30 mm and is characterized by the narrow white postmedian band of the forewing and especially by the dark hindwing, with only a narrow, divided white or whitish band.  Northern and western Germany, and rather less extreme from England and according to Otto Staudinger it is distributed in central and northern Europe and Romania. - rivinata Fisch.-Rossl. has the white on the forewing much extended and the hindwing broadly or almost wholly white. It belongs chiefly to northern or mountain districts, but sometimes occurs as an aberration with the type England, N. Norway, the Alps, Carpathians. - magistraria Trti. and Verity is larger, the forewing grey, not brown, but darker than in hydrata and with broader white band; hindwing greyish with double whitish band; underside like that of rivinata. Terme di Valdieri, Maritime Alps.[2] The larva is rather powerful, pale pink with a dark head capsule and the dorsal side of the first body joint. The species is found in forest edges, hedges and on flower meadows.  The larvae feed on Silene species, including Silene dioica. The larvae can be found from June to September. The species overwinters as a pupa.
Hu Di. Hu Di (Chinese: 胡底; 1905 – September 1935) was a Chinese filmmaker and Communist secret agent during the Republic of China era. After the Kuomintang (KMT) began the Shanghai massacre in 1927, Hu worked as a mole in the Kuomintang secret service, together with Qian Zhuangfei and Li Kenong. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai called them the three most distinguished intelligence workers of the Party. Hu was executed in September 1935 by renegade Chinese Communist Party commander Zhang Guotao during the Long March. Hu was born Hu Baichang (Chinese: 胡百昌) in 1905 in Shucheng County, Anhui Province. He also used the names Hu Beifeng (Chinese: 胡北风) and Hu Ma (Chinese: 胡马).[1] In 1923, he was admitted to China University in Beijing, where he befriended Qian Zhuangfei and his wife Zhang Wenhua.[2][1] In 1925, the three secretly joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and they worked closely together.[3] They established the Guanghua Film Company, using filmmaking as a cover for their underground activities.[3][1] After the KMTs April 1927 massacre of the Communists in Shanghai, and the execution of CCP leader Li Dazhao by Fengtian clique leader Zhang Zuolin in Beijing, the three moved to Shanghai, where Hu found work at the Shanghai Film Company.[3][1] He met the experienced Communist underground worker Li Kenong and introduced him to Qian.[3] In 1929, Qian successfully infiltrated the KMTs secret service and was appointed the chief coordinator of the central intelligence headquarters in Nanjing,[3] in charge of recruiting more special agents.[4] This created opportunities for Hu Di and Li Kenong to join the KMT secret service as moles.[4] Hu was made the chief of the KMTs Tianjin secret service unit, disguised as the Great Wall News Agency, while Li ran the Shanghai unit, ostensibly the Broadcast News Service.[3] Their intelligence reports helped the Red Army in the Jiangxi Soviet thwart the first two of Chiang Kai-sheks Encirclement Campaigns.[4] On 24 April 1931, Gu Shunzhang, Zhou Enlais security chief and head of the CCPs dreaded Red Brigade, was arrested in Wuhan while on a mission to assassinate Chiang Kai-shek.[5][4] To save himself, Gu defected to the KMT, and disclosed his extensive knowledge about CCP organizations. Qian Zhuangfei intercepted a telegram sent by the Wuhan police to the Nanjing headquarters, and delivered the message to Li Kenong in Shanghai, who in turned informed Zhou Enlai[5][4] and telegraphed Hu Di, who immediately boarded a foreign ship and left Tianjin for Shanghai. In August 1931, Hu Di and Qian Zhuangfei left Shanghai for the Jiangxi Soviet, the CCP revolutionary base area in Jiangxi Province.[1]
Pori. Pori (Finnish: [ˈpori]; Swedish: Björneborg [bjœːrneˈborj] ⓘ; Latin: Arctopolis)[8] is a city in Finland and the regional capital of Satakunta. It is located on the west coast of the country, on the Gulf of Bothnia. The population of Pori is approximately 83,000, while the sub-region has a population of approximately 128,000. It is the 10th most populous municipality in Finland, and the eighth most populous urban area in the country. Pori is located some 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the Gulf of Bothnia, on the estuary of the Kokemäki River, 110 kilometres (68 mi) west of Tampere, 140 kilometres (87 mi) north of Turku and 241 kilometres (150 mi) north-west of Helsinki, the capital of Finland. Pori covers an area of 2,062.00 square kilometres (796.14 sq mi) of which 870.01 km2 (335.91 sq mi) is water.[3] The population density is 71.93/km2 (186.3/sq mi). Pori was established in 1558 by Duke John, who later became King John III of Sweden.[1][2] The municipality is unilingually Finnish. Pori was also once one of the main cities with Turku in the former Turku and Pori Province (1634–1997). The neighboring municipalities are Eurajoki, Kankaanpää, Kokemäki, Merikarvia, Nakkila, Pomarkku, Sastamala, Siikainen and Ulvila. Pori is especially known nationwide for its Jazz Festival, Yyteris sandy beaches, Kirjurinluoto, Porin Ässät ice hockey club, FC Jazz football club, which won two championships in the Veikkausliiga in the 1990s, and Pori Theater, which is the first Finnish-language theater in Finnish history.[9] Pori is also known for its local street food called porilainen.[10] During its history, the city of Pori has burned down nine times; only Oulu has burned more often, as many as ten times.[11][12][13][14][15] The current coat of arms of Pori was confirmed for use by President P. E. Svinhufvud on December 11, 1931,[16] and was later redrawn by Olof Eriksson. The city council reaffirmed the use of the redrawn version on October 27, 1959. The bear motif of the coat of arms comes from a 17th century seal and the motto, deus protector noster or God is our protector, is also on the coat of arms of the citys founder, Duke John.[1] The Finnish name Pori comes from the -borg part (meaning citadel, fortress or castle) of the original name in Swedish with a Fennicised pronunciation.[17] The whole Swedish name Björneborg literally means Bear Fortress or Bear Castle (Finnish: Karhulinna), and the Latin-Greek Arctopolis means Bear City (Finnish: Karhukaupunki).[18][19][20]
Hu Die (TV host). Hu Die (Chinese: 胡蝶; pinyin: Hú Dié; born February 16, 1983), also known as Fang Yuan, is a Chinese television hostess for China Central Television. She is from Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China.[1] In December 2007, she became the winner of CCTVs 5th host contest.[2] In 2005, Hu Die became a hostess. She hosted program Acting Arama [clarification needed] and Golden Days in CCTV-3. [1] In December 2007, she became the winner of CCTVs 5th host contest.[2] In 2008, she hosted Asia Today and China News in CCTV-4.[1] On July 27, 2009, she began to host Morning News.[1][3] In March 2009, she hosted the interactive program I have questions to the Premier on CCTV-4 during the NPC and CPPCC.[4] In December 2012, Hu Die hosted 2012 CCTV Champtionship of Internet Motels and Awards Ceremory.[5] In July 2014, she served as a guest of a special program of World Cup of CCTV-5.[6] In September 2016, she attended CCTV Mid-Autumn Festival Gala.[7] In May 2025, Hu Die referred to the Peoples Republic of China and Taiwan as separate countries during a live newscast, the footage of which was widely censored.[8]
Order of the British Empire.  The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities.[2] It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or a dame if female.[3] There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with the order, but are not members of it. The order was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, who created the order to recognise such persons, male or female, as may have rendered or shall hereafter render important services to Our Empire.[3] Equal recognition was to be given for services rendered in the UK and overseas.[4] Today, the majority of recipients are UK citizens, though a number of Commonwealth realms outside the UK continue to make appointments to the order.[5] Honorary awards may be made to citizens of other nations of which the orders sovereign is not the head of state. The five classes of appointment to the Order are, from highest grade to lowest grade: The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross and Knight or Dame Commander entitle their members to use the titles Sir for men and Dame for women before their forenames, except with honorary awards.[6]
Concord Music Group.  Concord Music Group was an American independent music company based in Beverly Hills, California, with worldwide (including the U.S.) distribution through Universal Music Group.[2][3] The company specialized in recordings and music publishing. On April 1, 2015, Concord Music Group merged with Bicycle Music Company to become Concord Bicycle Music.[4] In 2004, Concord Records acquired Fantasy, Inc., owner of the Prestige, Fantasy, Milestone, Riverside, Specialty, and the post-Atlantic Stax catalog. Concord then combined with Fantasy to form the independent Concord Music Group (CMG).[5] Also in 2004, CMG partnered with Starbucks to release the Ray Charles album Genius Loves Company,[6] which won eight GRAMMY Awards, including Album of the Year.[7] In 2005, CMG bought Telarc.[8] On December 18, 2006, CMG announced the re-launch of the soul label Stax; rights to the name were formerly held by Fantasy. New singers included Isaac Hayes and Angie Stone.[9] On March 12, 2007, Concord Music Group and Starbucks jointly founded the Hear Music label.[10] Paul McCartneys album Memory Almost Full was released in June 2007.[11] Hear Music went on to release albums by Joni Mitchell, James Taylor, Alanis Morissette, Carly Simon and John Mellencamp. In 2008, Village Roadshow Pictures Group (VRPG) and CMG completed their merger resulting in the creation of the new diversified entertainment group, Village Roadshow Entertainment Group.[12] In April 2010 it was announced that Paul McCartney transferred the distribution rights of his post-Beatles output to Concord from EMI.[13]
Samuel French. Samuel French (1821–1898) was an American entrepreneur who, together with British actor, playwright and theatrical manager Thomas Hailes Lacy, pioneered in the field of theatrical publishing and the licensing of plays.[1] French founded his publishing business in New York City in 1854. In 1859, he visited London, where he met Lacy, who had given up the stage and been active as a theatrical bookseller since the mid-1840s. Lacy, who had removed his shop from Wellington Street, Covent Garden to 89 Strand in 1857, had also started publishing acting editions of dramas. Lacys Acting Edition of Plays, published between 1848 and 1873, would eventually run to 99 volumes containing 1,485 individual pieces. French and Lacy became partners, each acting as the others agent across the Atlantic. In 1872, French decided to take up permanent residence in London, leaving his son Thomas Henry French in charge of the New York business. When Lacy retired in 1873, he sold out to French for £5,000. Lacy died in the same year, and French finally established his name as the most important theatrical publisher in England. At the time of his own death in 1898, almost all renowned English playwrights of the present and recent past had been represented by his company.
King Street, St Jamess.  King Street is a street in the St Jamess district of the City of Westminster. It runs south-west to north-east from St Jamess Street to St Jamess Square. King Street was probably named after Charles II, and is first mentioned in ratebooks in 1673, having been known before as Charles Street.[1] The 1200-seat St Jamess Theatre on the corner with Duke Street opened in 1835, but was demolished in 1957, despite widespread protests. Notable occupiers include the principal London premises of the auctioneers Christies,[2] and Palamon Capital Partners.[3]
Hu (surname). Hu (胡) is a Chinese surname. In 2006, it was the 15th most common surname in China.[1][2] In 2013, it was the 13th most common in China, with 13.7 million Chinese sharing this surname.[3] In 2019, Hu dropped to 15th most common surname in mainland China.[4] Some other, less common surnames pronounced Hu include 瓠, 護, 戶, 扈, 虎, 呼, 忽, 斛 and 壶. In Cantonese, “胡” is also pronounced as Wu or Woo. In Classical Chinese, hú 胡 meant: dewlap; wattle and was a variant Chinese character for how; why; what (he 何), long-lasting; far-reaching (xia 遐), part of a dagger-axe, hu- in butterfly (hudie 蝴蝶), or possibly Northern Barbarians.[5] According to tradition, the Hu (胡) surname has several historical origins. First, Hu could derive from the family of Duke Hu of Chen. King Wu of Zhou (r. 1046-043 BCE) enfeoffed his son-in-law Gui Man 媯滿 (supposedly a descendant of the legendary sage king Emperor Shun) with the state of Chen (in modern Henan Province). His posthumous name was Duke Hu, and his descendants adopted Hu as their surname. Second, Hu could derive from two Zhou vassal states named Hu 胡, one located near Luohe (Henan Province) or another near Fuyang (Anhui Province). Third, Hu could derive from non-Chinese people adopting it as their surname. For example, in the 496 Change of Xianbei names to Han names, Hegu/Gegu 紇骨 was changed to Hu 胡. Fourth, Hu could derive from the clan name of the ancient Tiele people within the Xiongnu confederation.[citation needed] Non-Chinese peoples and ethnic minorities in China sometimes took the Chinese exonym for their ethnic group as their surname. The best example is Hu 胡, which was anciently used to refer to barbarian groups on the northern and western frontiers of China.
Montriond. Montriond (French pronunciation: [mɔ̃tʁijɔ̃]; Arpitan: Meûryan) is a commune in the Haute-Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It is just north of the ski resorts of Morzine and Avoriaz in the Portes du Soleil ski resorts area. Just east lies Lac de Montriond, a small lake. Montrionds village centre features a small supermarket, ski/outdoors retailer and several restaurants as well as a tourist information office and a Mairie. This Haute-Savoie geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters. The Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters[1] or the Table of Standard Typefaces for Frequently-Used Chinese Characters[2] (Chinese: 常用國字標準字體表; pinyin: Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo) is a list of 4,808 commonly used Chinese characters. The standard typefaces were prescribed by Taiwans Ministry of Education, and have been adopted in the textbooks for primary and junior high schools in Taiwan since September 1982. The project to standardize frequently used Chinese characters  started in 1973. This work was undertaken by a task force consisting from the Graduate Institute of Chinese of the National Taiwan Normal University. The Chart was completed in 1978 and published in June 1979.[3] On September 1, 1982, the Ministry of Education promulgated the Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters, which contained 4,808 characters. In December of the same year, it publicized the Chart of Standard Forms of Less-Than-Common National Characters (Chinese: 次常用國字標準字體表; pinyin: Cì Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo), which included 6,341 characters.[3] In addition, 18,388 characters in the Chart of Rarely-Used National Characters (Chinese: 罕用國字標準字體表; pinyin: Hǎnyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo) and 18,588 characters in the Chart of Variant Characters (Chinese: 異體國字字表; pinyin: Yìtǐ Guózì Zìbiǎo) were established later.[3] These four charts include a total of 48,125 characters. On August 4, 1986, Chinese Standard Interchange Code (CNS 11643) was announced as a national standard. Its character encoding plane order is set based on the frequency of usage. The characters set and typeface of CNS 11643 were established on the basis of the Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters.[1]
Cinema of China.  The cinema of China is the filmmaking and film industry of mainland China, one of three distinct historical threads of Chinese-language cinema together with the cinema of Hong Kong and the cinema of Taiwan. China is the home of the largest movie and drama production complex and film studios in the world, the Oriental Movie Metropolis[6][7] and Hengdian World Studios. In 2012 the country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts behind only the United States. In 2016, the gross box office in China was CN¥45.71 billion (US$6.58 billion). China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios. In November 2016, China passed a film law banning content deemed harmful to the dignity, honor and interests of the Peoples Republic and encouraging the promotion of core socialist values, approved by the National Peoples Congress Standing Committee.[8] Motion pictures were introduced to China in 1896. They were introduced through foreign film exhibitors in treaty ports like Shanghai and Hong Kong.[9]: 68 China was one of the earliest countries to be exposed to the medium of film, due to Louis Lumière sending his cameraman to Shanghai a year after inventing cinematography.[10] The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China took place in Shanghai on 11 August 1896 as an act on a variety bill.[11] The first Chinese film, a recording of the Peking opera, Dingjun Mountain, was made in November 1905 in Beijing.[12] For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the Far East.[13]
St Jamess.  St Jamess is a district of Westminster, and a central district in the City of Westminster, London, forming part of the West End. The area was once part of the northwestern gardens and parks of St. Jamess Palace and much of it is still owned by the Crown Estate.  During the Restoration in the 17th century, the area was developed as a residential location for the British aristocracy, and around the 19th century was the focus of the development of their gentlemens clubs. Once part of the parish of St Martin in the Fields, much of it formed the parish of St James from 1685 to 1922. Since the Second World War the area has transitioned from residential to commercial use. St Jamess is bounded to the north by Piccadilly and Mayfair, to the west by Green Park, to the south by The Mall and St. Jamess Park, and to the east by Haymarket. The areas name is derived from the dedication of a 12th-century leper hospital to Saint James the Less.[2][3] The hospital site is now occupied by St Jamess Palace.[4] The area became known as Clubland because of the historic presence of gentlemens clubs.[5][5] The section of Regent Street (colloquially known as Lower Regent Street) that runs between Waterloo Place and Piccadilly Circus has been officially renamed Regent Street St Jamess.
John Hare (actor).  Sir John Hare (16 May 1844 – 28 December 1921), born John Joseph Fairs, was an English actor and theatre manager of the later 19th– and early 20th centuries. Born and brought up in London, with frequent visits to the West End, Hare had a passion for the theatre from his childhood. After acting as an amateur as a young man he joined a professional company in Liverpool, before making his London debut in 1865 at the age of 21 with Marie Wiltons company. Wilton was a pioneer of naturalistic theatre, with which Hare was greatly in sympathy, and he quickly gained a reputation in character roles, particularly in comedies. Within a decade Hare was well enough established to go into management. He was in partnership with the actor W. H. Kendal at the Court Theatre from 1875 to 1879, and from 1879 to 1888 at the St Jamess Theatre with Kendal and the latters wife, Madge. They presented, mostly successfully, a succession of new British plays, adaptations of French works, and revivals. At the Garrick Theatre from 1888 to 1895 Hare had a solo managerial career, after which he concentrated on acting – in the US, on tour in the British provinces, and in the West End. Among the playwrights with whom Hare was closely associated were T. W. Robertson, W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Wing Pinero. Hare was admired for his carefully observed characterisations, his comedic flair and his handsomely-mounted productions. He was knighted in 1907, and died in London in 1921 at the age of 77, four years after his last stage appearance.
St. James Theatre (disambiguation). St. James Theatre is a Broadway theatre in New York City. St. James Theatre may also refer to:
John Braham (tenor).  John Braham (c. 1774 – 17 February 1856) was an English tenor opera singer born in London. His long career led him to become one of Europes leading opera stars. He also wrote a number of songs, of minor importance, although The Death of Nelson is still remembered. His success, and that of his offspring in marrying into the British aristocracy, are also notable examples of Jewish social mobility in the early 19th century. Brahams precise origins are uncertain. The favoured (but specious) present account in contemporary sources of reference is that he was possibly a son of John Abraham or Abrahams, who was possibly an operative at the Drury Lane Theatre who died in 1779 and his wife, who may have been Esther, who may have been a sister of the hazzan at the Great Synagogue of London, Myer Lyon. Braham has also been held to be related to various other London musicians with the surname of Abrahams. There is however no documentary evidence for any of these supposed connections.[1] It is however fairly certain that Braham was left an orphan at an early age. There are stories of his selling pencils in the street as an urchin (a common trade for the Jewish poor at the time). Braham was a meshorrer (descant singer) at the Great Synagogue, and here his abilities were noted by Lyon, who led a double life as an operatic tenor at the theatre at Covent Garden (under the name of Michaele Leoni). Brahams first stage appearance was in fact at Leonis Covent Garden 1787 benefit, when he sang Thomas Arnes The soldier tir’d of war’s alarms. He next appeared in June at the Royalty Theatre, again with Leoni.[2]
List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters.   The List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters (Chinese: 常用字字形表; Jyutping: soeng4 jung6 zi6 zi6 jing4 biu2) is a list of 4762 commonly used Chinese characters and their standardized forms prescribed by the Hong Kong Education Bureau. The list is meant to be taught in primary and middle schools in Hong Kong, but does not place restrictions on typefaces used for printing such as Ming, gothic, or rounded gothic typeface styles. Research and compilation work on the list began in July 1984. The work was undertaken by Professor Lei Hok-ming (李學銘) of the Department of Chinese of the Education Bureau Institute of Language in Education (ILE) (語文教育學院) and other scholars within the department. A Committee for the Research of Commonly-Used Chinese Character Graphemes, composed of scholars from various academic institutions, also participated in the examination and approval process for each character. The list was completed in September 1985 and published in September 1986. The list was revised more thoroughly upon republications in 1990, 1997, and 2000. The 1990 revision was undertaken by three professors in the Chinese department of the ILE. In 2000, the ILE had become a part of the Education University of Hong Kong, so the editing process was undertaken by three professors (Ze Gaa-hou 謝家浩, Lou Hing-kiu 盧興翹, and Sitou Sau-mei 司徒秀薇) of the Education University, along with Lei Hok-ming, who was at Hong Kong Polytechnic University at the time.
Toyotomi clan. The Toyotomi clan (Japanese: shinjitai: 豊臣氏 / kyujitai: 豐臣氏, Hepburn: Toyotomi-shi) was a Japanese clan that ruled over the Japanese before the Edo period. The most influential figure within the Toyotomi was Toyotomi Hideyoshi, one of the three unifiers of Japan. Oda Nobunaga was another primary unifier and the ruler of the Oda clan at the time. Hideyoshi joined Nobunaga at a young age, but was not highly regarded because of his peasant background. Nevertheless, Hideyoshis increasing influence allowed him to seize a significant degree of power from the Oda clan following Oda Nobunagas death in 1582. As the virtual ruler of most of Japan, Hideyoshi received the new clan name Toyotomi in 1585 from the emperor, and achieved the unification of Japan in 1590.[1] When Hideyoshi died in 1598, his son Toyotomi Hideyori was only five years old. Five regents were appointed to rule until his maturity, and conflicts among them began quickly. In 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu deposed Hideyori and took power after winning the Battle of Sekigahara. In 1614, Hideyori came into conflict with the Tokugawa shogunate, leading to Tokugawa Ieyasus Siege of Osaka from 1614 to 1615. As a result of the siege, Hideyori and his mother, Yodo-dono, committed seppuku in the flames of Osaka castle. After their death, the Toyotomi clan dissolved, leaving the Tokugawa clan to solidify their rule of Japan and the last member of the Toyotomi clan was Tenshuni [ja] (1609–1645). A rumor said that Toyotomi Hideyoris son Toyotomi Kunimatsu escaped execution, and another rumor said that Hideyori had an illegitimate son named Amakusa Shirō. This Japanese clan article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Imperial Court in Kyoto. The Imperial Court in Kyoto was the nominal ruling government of Japan from 794 AD until the Meiji period (1868–1912), after which the court was moved from Kyoto (formerly Heian-kyō) to Tokyo (formerly Edo) and integrated into the Meiji government.[1] Upon the court being moved to Kyoto from Nagaoka by Emperor Kanmu (737–806),[2] the struggles for power regarding the throne that had characterized the Nara period diminished.[1] Kyoto was selected as the location for the court because of its proper amount of rivers and mountains which were believed to be the most auspicious surroundings for the new capital.[1] The capital itself was built in imitation of Changan, the Chinese capital of the Tang dynasty, closely following the theories of yin-yang.[1] The most prominent group of people within the court was the civil aristocracy (kuge) which was the ruling class of society that exercised power on behalf of the emperor.[3] Kyotos identity as a political, economic, and cultural centre started to be challenged in the post-1185 era with the rise of the shogunate system which gradually seized governance from the emperor.[2] Minamoto no Yoritomo was the first to establish the post of the shōgun as hereditary, receiving the title in 1192.[4] After Yoritomo launched the shogunate, true political power was in the hand of the shōguns, who were mistaken several times for the emperors of Japan by representatives of Western countries. The Kamakura shogunate (or Kamakura bakufu) would go on to last for almost 150 years, from 1185 to 1333.[4] 
Capital of Japan. The capital of Japan is Tokyo.[1][2][3] Throughout history, the national capital of Japan has been in locations other than Tokyo. The oldest capital is Nara. While no laws have designated Tokyo as the Japanese capital, many laws have defined a capital area (首都圏, shuto-ken) that incorporates Tokyo. Article 2 of the Metropolitan Area Readjustment Act (首都圏整備法) of 1956 states: In this Act, the term capital area shall denote a broad region comprising both the territory of the Tokyo Metropolis as well as outlying regions designated by cabinet order. This implies that the government has designated Tokyo as the capital of Japan, although (again) it is not explicitly stated, and the definition of the capital area is purposely restricted to the terms of that specific law.[4] Other laws referring to the capital area include the Capital Expressway Public Corporation Law (首都高速道路公団法),[5] the Capital Area Greenbelt Preservation Law (首都圏近郊緑地保全法), the Act on Arrangement of Suburban Development and Redevelopment Areas and Urban Development Areas in Metropolitan Area (首都圏の近郊整備地帯及び都市開発区域の整備に関する法律), the Act on States Special Financial Measures on Arrangement of Suburban Development and Redevelopment Areas, etc. in Tokyo Metropolitan Area, Kinki Area and Chubu Area (首都圏、近畿圏及び中部圏の近郊整備地帯等の整備のための国の財政上の特別措置に関する法律), and the Special Measurements for Greater Tokyo Area earthquakes Law (首都直下地震対策特別措置法).[6][7] In February 2018, Seiji Osaka, a member of the House of Representatives, asked the government where the capital of Japan is. In response, Shinzo Abe stated that while no laws define the capital of Japan, they believed that the capital of Japan is Tokyo is widely accepted by the people.[8][9] Traditionally, the home of the Emperor is considered the capital. From 794 through 1868, the Emperor lived in Heian-kyō, modern-day Kyoto.[10][11] After 1868, the seat of the Government of Japan and the location of the Emperors home was moved to Edo, which it renamed Tokyo.[12] This term for capital was never used to refer to Kyoto. Indeed, shuto came into use during the 1860s as a gloss of the English term capital.
Paulownia.  Six to 17 species, including: Paulownia catalpifolia Paulownia elongata Paulownia fargesii Paulownia fortunei Paulownia kawakamii Paulownia taiwaniana Paulownia tomentosa Paulownia (/pɔːˈloʊniə/ paw-LOH-nee-ə) is a genus of seven to 17 species of hardwood trees (depending on taxonomic authority) in the family Paulowniaceae, the order Lamiales. The genus and family are native to east Asia and are widespread across China.[1] The genus, originally Pavlovnia but now usually spelled Paulownia, was named in honour of Anna Pavlovna, queen consort of The Netherlands (1795–1865), daughter of Tsar Paul I of Russia. It is also called princess tree for the same reason.[2] It was originally sought after as an exotic ornamental tree in Europe and Asia, and later introduced to North America in 1844. Its fruits (botanically capsules) were also used as packaging material for goods shipped from East Asia to North America, leading to Paulownia groves where they were dumped near major ports. The tree has not persisted prominently in US gardens, in part due to its overwintering brown fruits that some consider ugly.[3] In some areas it has escaped cultivation and is found in disturbed plots. Some US authorities consider the genus an invasive species,[4] but in Europe, where it is also grown in gardens, it is not regarded as invasive. Paulownia trees produce as many as 20 million tiny seeds per year. However, the seeds are very susceptible to soil biota and only colonize well on sterile soils (such as after a high temperature wildfire). Well-drained soil is also essential. Successful plantations usually purchase plants that have been professionally propagated from root cuttings or seedlings.[5] Although seeds, seedlings, and roots of even mature trees are susceptible to rot, the wood is not and is used for boat building and surfboards.
Nitta clan. The Nitta clan (新田氏, Nitta-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [ɲiꜜt.ta(.ɕi)][1]) was one of several major families descended from the Seiwa Genji, and numbered among the chief enemies of the Hōjō clan regents, and later the Ashikaga shogunate. The common ancestor of the Nitta, Minamoto no Yoshishige (1135–1202), was the elder brother of Minamoto no Yoshiyasu, the common ancestor of the Ashikaga clan. Yoshishige was a landowner in the Nitta District of Kōzuke Province in present-day Gunma Prefecture. Yoshishige supported Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) in the Battle of Ishibashiyama of 1180 against the Taira clan.[2] The Nitta clan rose to importance in the early 13th century; they controlled Kozuke Province, and had little influence in Kamakura, the capital of the Kamakura shogunate, because their ancestor, Minamoto no Yoshishige had not joined his fellow clansmen in the Genpei War a century earlier. In the 1330s, Nitta Yoshisada led the clan and a number of other Minamoto vassals against the Hōjō clan regents. They succeeded, in June 1333, in destroying the Bakufus buildings in Kamakura. The Nitta clan played an important role once again, allying with the Date clan and the Southern Courts, during the Nanboku-cho wars of the late 14th century. 
Mikawa Province. Mikawa Province (三河国, Mikawa no Kuni; Japanese pronunciation: [mʲiꜜ.ka.wa (no kɯ.ɲi), mʲi.ka.waꜜ-][1]) was an old province in the area that today forms the eastern half of Aichi Prefecture.[2] Its abbreviated form name was Sanshū (三州 or 参州). Mikawa bordered on Owari, Mino, Shinano, and Tōtōmi Provinces. Mikawa is classified as one of the provinces of the Tōkaidō. Under the Engishiki classification system, Mikawa was ranked as a superior country (上国) and a near country (近国) in terms of its distance from the capital. Mikawa is mentioned in records of the Taika Reform dated 645, as well as various Nara period chronicles, including the Kujiki, although the area has been settled since at least the Japanese Paleolithic period, as evidenced by numerous remains found by archaeologists. Early records mention a Nishi-Mikawa no kuni and a Higashi-Mikawa no kuni, also known as Ho Province (穂国, Ho no kuni). Although considered one administrative unit under the Engishiki classification system, this division (roughly based at the Yasaku River) persisted informally into the Edo period. The exact location of the provincial capital is not known. Traditionally considered to have been located in the Ko-machi (国府町) area of the modern city of Toyokawa because of the place name, archaeological investigations at the Hakuho-machi area of Toyota from 1991 to 1997 have revealed extensive ruins and ceramic shards indicating the possibility that the provincial capital was located there. Furthermore, the ruins of the Kokubun-ji of Mikawa Province was located in 1999 a short distance away from the Toyota site. On the other hand, the Ichinomiya of the province, Toga jinja is located in what is now part of Toyokawa, as well as a temple which claims to be a successor to the original provincial temple. During the Heian period, the province was divided into numerous shōen controlled by local samurai clans. During the Kamakura period but it came under the control of Adachi Morinaga, followed by the Ashikaga clan. For much of the Muromachi period it was controlled by the Isshiki clan. However, by the Sengoku period, the province had fragmented into many small territories largely dominated by the Matsudaira clan, and contested by the Imagawa clan to the east and the Oda clan to the west. It was united under Tokugawa Ieyasu after the power of the Imagawa had been destroyed at the Battle of Okehazama. After the creation of the Tokugawa shogunate, parts of the province were assigned as feudal domains to trusted hereditary retainers as fudai daimyōs, with large portions retained as shihaisho territory administered by various hatamoto directly under the shogunate. During the Edo period, Mikawa was the only area permitted by the shogunate to produce gunpowder, which led to its modern fireworks industry.
Matsudaira clan. The Matsudaira clan (松平氏, Matsudaira-shi) was a Japanese samurai clan that descended from the Minamoto clan. It originated in and took its name from Matsudaira village, in Mikawa Province (modern-day Aichi Prefecture).  During the Sengoku period, the chieftain of the main line of the Matsudaira clan, Matsudaira Motoyasu became a powerful regional daimyo under Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi and changed his name to Tokugawa Ieyasu. He subsequently seized power as the first shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan during the Edo period until the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, many cadet branches of the clan retained the Matsudaira surname, and numerous new branches were formed in the decades after Ieyasu. Some of those branches were also of daimyō status. After the Meiji Restoration and the abolition of the han system, the Tokugawa and Matsudaira clans became part of the new kazoku nobility.[1] The Matsudaira clan originated in Mikawa Province.[2] Its origins are uncertain, but in the Sengoku era, the clan claimed descent from the medieval Seiwa Genji branch of the Minamoto clan. According to this claim, the founder of the Matsudaira line was Matsudaira Chikauji, who lived in the 14th century and established himself in Mikawa Province, at Matsudaira village. The location of Matsudaira village is within the borders of the modern city of Toyota, Aichi. A number  of locations associated with the early history of the clan were collectively designated a National Historic Site of Japan in the year 2000.[3] These include: In its territory in Mikawa Province, the Matsudaira clan was surrounded by much more powerful neighbors. To the west was the territory of the Oda clan of Owari Province; to the east, the Imagawa clan of Suruga. Each generation of Matsudaira family head had to carefully negotiate his relationship with these neighbors.
Minamoto clan. Minamoto (源; Japanese pronunciation: [mʲi.na.mo.to][1]) was a noble surname bestowed by the Emperors of Japan upon members of the imperial family who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the nobility since 814.[2][3][4] Several noble lines were bestowed the surname, the most notable of which was the Seiwa Genji, whose descendants established the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates following the Heian era. The Minamoto was one of the four great clans that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian period in Japanese history—the other three were the Fujiwara, the Taira, and the Tachibana.[5][6] In the late Heian period, Minamoto rivalry with the Taira culminated in the Genpei War (1180–1185 AD). The Minamoto emerged victorious and established Japans first shogunate in Kamakura under Minamoto no Yoritomo, who appointed himself as shōgun in 1192, ushering in the Kamakura period (1192–1333 AD) of Japanese history. The name Genpei comes from alternate readings of the kanji Minamoto (源 Gen) and Taira (平 Hei). The Kamakura Shogunate was overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo in the Kenmu Restoration of 1333. Three years later the Kenmu government would then itself be overthrown by the Ashikaga clan, descendants of the Seiwa Genji who established the Ashikaga shogunate (1333 to 1573). The Minamoto clan is also called the Genji (源氏; [ɡeɲ.dʑi],[1] lit. Minamoto clan), or less frequently, the Genke (源家; House of Minamoto), using the onyomi readings of gen (源) for Minamoto, while shi or ji (氏) means clan, and ke (家) is used as a suffix for extended family.[7] The Emperors of Japan bestowed noble surnames upon members of the imperial family who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the nobility.[2][3][4] In May 814, the first emperor to grant the surname Minamoto was Emperor Saga, to his seventh son—Minamoto no Makoto, in Heian-Kyō (modern Kyōto).[8][3]: 18 [4] The practice was most prevalent during the Heian period (794–1185 AD), although its last occurrence was during the Sengoku period. The Taira were another such offshoot of the imperial dynasty, making both clans distant relatives.[9]
Wake no Kiyomaro. Wake no Kiyomaro (和気 清麻呂; 733–799) was a high-ranking Japanese official during the Nara period. He was born in Bizen Province (now Wake, Okayama) to a family of politically important, devoted Buddhists who hoped to keep Buddhism and politics separate through religious reform. He became a trusted advisor to Emperor Kanmu, a position which he used to encourage the development of Buddhism in a direction which would prevent it from posing a threat to the government.[1][2] According to the Shoku Nihongi, he was sent to the Usa Shrine to receive a divine message; stating that only those of descent from Amaterasu could become emperor, it refuted the previous divine message claiming Dōkyō was to be the next emperor after Empress Kōken (later Empress Shōtoku).[3] This report angered Dōkyō, who used his influence with the Empress to have an edict issued sending Kiyomaro into exile; he also had the sinews of Kiyomaros legs cut, and only the protection of the Fujiwara clan saved him from being killed outright.[4] The following year, however, Empress Shōtoku died. She was succeeded by Emperor Kōnin, who in turn exiled Dōkyō to Shimotsuke Province and not only recalled Wake no Kiyomaro from exile, but also appointed him as both kami (governor) of Bizen Province and Udaijin (junior minister of state).[4][5] The following year, he petitioned the governor of Dazaifu to send officials to Usa to investigate allegations of fraudulent oracles; in his later report, Wake no Kiyomaro stated that out of five oracles checked, two were found to be fabricated. This resulted in the government relieving Usa no Ikemori of his position as head priest and replacing him with the previously-disgraced Ōga no Tamaro. Following this, Wake no Kiyomaro returned to Yamato.[5] He remained a trusted advisor to Emperor Kammu; in the spring of 793, he convinced the emperor to abandon the delay-plagued construction of a capital at Nagaoka and instead seek another location to the northeast, at Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyōto.[3] His face appeared on 10-yen notes issued from 1888.[6]
Hong Kong.  Hong Kong[e] is a special administrative region of China. Situated on Chinas southern coast just south of Shenzhen, it consists of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. With 7.5 million residents in a 1,114-square-kilometre (430 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the world. Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841–1842 as a consequence of losing the First Opium War. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The territory was handed over from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of one country, two systems.[f] Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages,[17][18] Hong Kong is now one of the worlds most significant financial centres and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the worlds third-ranked global financial centre behind New York City and London, ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the ninth most traded currency in the world. Home to the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the second largest number of ultra high-net-worth individuals.[19][20] The city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, while severe income inequality still exists among the population. Hong Kong is the city with the most skyscrapers in the world, even though its housing is consistently in high demand. Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.955, ranking eighth in the world and currently the only place in Asia to be in the top ten. The city has the highest life expectancy in the world, and a public transport usage exceeding 90 per cent.
Government Seal of Japan.  The Government Seal of Japan, one of the countrys national seals, is the emblem (mon) of paulownia used by the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the executive branch of the Government of Japan on official documents. It is generally known as the 5-7 Paulownia (五七桐, Go-shichi (no) Kiri), used by those in power and is the official emblem of the Japanese government today. It resembles a stylized paulownia with 5-7-5 flowers. It is one of various paulownia mon, collectively known as the Paulownia Seals (桐紋, kirimon) or the Paulownia Flower Seals (桐花紋, tōkamon).[1][2] Before the Chrysanthemum Seal was used extensively, the Paulownia Seal originally was the private symbol of the Japanese Imperial Family, from as early as the sixteenth century. The Toyotomi clan, led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, later adopted the Paulownia Seal for use as the crest of his clan. After the Meiji Restoration, the seal was eventually adopted as the emblem of the Japanese government.[3][4] It is now mainly used by the Japanese government, as a contrast to the Chrysanthemum Seal which represents the Emperor as the symbol of the sovereignty of the State, and members of the Imperial Family. More than 140 designs exist. The most common one is the 5–3 Paulownia (五三桐, Go-san no Kiri), consisting of three leaves and an inflorescence of 3–5–3 flowers.[1][2] It is found in the emblems of the Ministry of Justice, the Imperial Guard Headquarters, and the University of  Tsukuba. The 5-7 Paulownia and 5-3 Paulownia are also called Go-shichi Giri and Go-san Giri without the particle no respectively, due to consonant mutation (Kiri → Giri) known as rendaku in the Japanese language. The Paulownia Seals contain the leaves and flowers of Paulownia tomentosa (princess tree), which is called kiri (桐) or shirogiri (白桐) in Japanese.
Nagaoka-kyō. Nagaoka-kyō (長岡京) was the capital of Japan from 784 to 794. Its location was in Otokuni District, Yamashiro Province, corresponding to a 4.3 x 5.3 kilometer area spanning the borders of modern cities of  Mukō and Nagaokakyō, Kyoto, the town of Ōyamazaki, and the Nishikyō-ku ward of the city of Kyoto. The ruins of the palace have been found in the Kaidecho neighbourhood of the city of Mukō and have been designated as a National Historic Site since 1964, with the area under protection expanded in 2016. [1] Nagaoka-kyō was built by order of Emperor Kanmu, who instructed that the new capital be established 40 kilometers north of Heijō-kyō in an attempt to overcome Heijō-kyōs various geographical weaknesses. Nagaoka-kyō, was situated at the confluence point of three major rivers, where the Katsura River and the Uji River, formed the Yodo River. A port called Yamazakitsu was established to unload goods from all over the country, where they were transferred to small ships. This made it easy to transport supplies efficiently by boat to Nagaoka-kyō, whereas Heijō-kyō could only be reached by land routes. In addition, Ogura Pond which existed at the time to the southeast of Nagaoka-kyō expected to be used as a logistics base. Archaeological excavations have revealed that almost every house in Nagaoka-kyō had a well, and measures were also taken to deal with sewage, both of which had been problems in Heijō-kyō. Running water from the side of the road was drawn into houses to flush away excrement. The natural spring water from the northwest of Nagaoka-kyō naturally flowed southeast through the city, which was built on a gentle slope, and this washed away filth into the river, keeping the city clean. The imperial palace was situated on a minor plateau 15 meters higher than the city, visually demonstrating the authority of the emperor, whereas Heijō-kyō was completely flat.  Furthermore, the main seaport of Naniwa-tsu on the Seto Inland Sea has silted up and was increasingly unusable. The location of Nagaoka-kyō facilities the development of a new route via the Kanzaki River towards Lake Biwa an Omi Province.[2] The new capital was also intended to rectify Heijō-kyōs various political weaknesses. Per the Shoku Nihongi, Emperor Kanmu consulted closely with Fujiwara no Tanetsugu on the location of the new capital. Nagaoka happened to be Tanetsugus family home, and a strong support base for the Fujiwara clan. Other reasons included a desire for distance from the increasingly politicized clergy of the great Buddhist establishments in Heijō-kyō, and a desire to improve relations with the economically powerful toraijin immigrant clans of southern Yamashiro Province from whom his mother was descended. New Years ceremonies were held at the Nagaoka-kyō palace on New Years Day in 785, which means that the palace was completed only six months after construction of the capital began. The construction of the palace was undertaken over with consideration to opposition from the people of Heijō-kyō to the relocation of the capital. At that time, it was common for palaces to be built by demolishing the original structures and relocating the buildings to the new site; however, in the case of Nagaoka-kyō, the structures of Heijō-kyō were left intact in situ, and the Naniwa-kyō palace was relocated instead. Nonetheless, in September of the same year, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu was assassinated, and several officials associated with the great state temple of Tōdai-ji were implicated. Emperor Kanmus younger brother, Imperial Prince Sawara, was also imprisoned and exiled because of his strong opposition to the move of the capital. The prince died while en route to his exile, still harboring a grudge. After his death, various incidents occurred in 792, such as famine and epidemics due to drought, the successive deaths of the Empress and other close relatives of Emperor Kanmu, arson of the main hall of Ise Grand Shrine, and the onset of illness of the Crown Prince.  The following year, an onmyōji declared that these disasters were caused by the onryō, or vengeful spirit of Prince Sawara. Despite efforts at appeasing the princes spirit, heavy rains followed by floods caused great damage to Nagaoka-kyō. Wake no Kiyomaro, the aristocrat in charge of flood control proposed relocation of the capital. A new site was selected to the northeast in 793 and the capital officially relocated to Heian-kyō in 794.[2] After the transfer of the capital, the former Nagaoka-kyō area became the domain of Sugawara no Michizane, and the Nagaoka Tenman-gu Shinto shrine was constructed after his exile in 901. Although the name of Nagaoka survived as a place name, the actual site of the palace was lost for many centuries. The site of the palace was only re-discovered in 1954 and extensive archaeological excavations have been conducted since.[2]
Heraldic badge. A heraldic badge, emblem, impresa, device, or personal device worn as a badge indicates allegiance to, or the property of, an individual, family or corporate body. Medieval forms are usually called a livery badge, and also a cognizance. They are para-heraldic, not necessarily using elements from the coat of arms of the person or family they represent, though many do, often taking the crest or supporters. Their use is more flexible than that of arms proper. Badges worn on clothing were common in the late Middle Ages, particularly in England. They could be made of base metal, cloth or other materials and worn on the clothing of the followers of the person in question; grander forms would be worn by important persons, with the Dunstable Swan Jewel in enamelled gold a rare survivor. Livery collars were also given to important persons, often with the badge as a pendant. The badge would also be embroidered or appliqued on standards, horse trappings, livery uniforms, and other belongings.  Many medieval badges survive in English pub names. Badges with a distinctly heraldic character in England date to about the reign (1327–1377) of King Edward III.[1] In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the followers, retainers, dependants, and partisans of famous and powerful personages and houses bore well-known badges – precisely because they were known and recognised. (In contrast, the coat of arms was used exclusively by the individual to whom it belonged.) Badges occasionally imitated a charge in the bearers coat of arms, or had a more or less direct reference to such a charge.  More often, badges commemorated some remarkable exploit, illustrated a family or feudal alliance, or indicated some territorial rights or pretensions. Some badges are rebuses, making a pun or play-on-words of the owners name.  It was not uncommon for the same personage or family to use more than one badge; and, on the other hand, two or more badges were often borne in combination, to form a single compound device. Livery badges were especially common in England from the mid-fourteenth century until about the end of the fifteenth century, a period of intense factional conflict which saw the deposition of Richard II and the Wars of the Roses.  A lavish badge like the Dunstable Swan Jewel would only have been worn by the person whose device was represented, members of his family or important supporters, and possibly servants who were in regular very close contact with him.  However the jewel lacks the ultimate luxury of being set with gems, for example having ruby eyes, like the lion pendants worn by Sir John Donne and his wife[2] and several examples listed on the 1397 treasure roll of King Richard II. In the Wilton Diptych, Richards own badge has pearls on the antler tips, which the angels badges lack.  The white hart in the badge on the Treasury Roll, which the painted one may have copied, had pearls and sat on a grass bed made of emeralds,[3] and a hart badge of Richards inventoried in the possession of Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1435 was set with 22 pearls, two spinels, two sapphires, a ruby and a huge diamond.[4]
Emblem. An emblem is an abstract or representational pictorial image that represents a concept, like a moral truth, or an allegory, or a person, like a monarch or saint.[1] Although the words emblem and symbol are often used interchangeably, an emblem is a pattern that is used to represent an idea or an individual. An emblem develops in concrete, visual terms some abstraction: a deity, a tribe or nation, or a virtue or vice.[clarification needed] An emblem may be worn or otherwise used as an identifying badge or patch. For example, in America, police officers badges refer to their personal metal emblem whereas their woven emblems on uniforms identify members of a particular unit. A real or metal cockle shell, the emblem of James the Great, sewn onto the hat or clothes, identified a medieval pilgrim to his shrine at Santiago de Compostela. In the Middle Ages, many saints were given emblems, which served to identify them in paintings and other images: St. Catherine of Alexandria had a wheel, or a sword, St. Anthony the Abbot, a pig and a small bell. These are also called attributes, especially when shown carried by or close to the saint in art. Monarchs and other grand persons increasingly adopted personal devices or emblems that were distinct from their family heraldry. The most famous include Louis XIV of Frances sun, the salamander of Francis I of France, the boar of Richard III of England and the armillary sphere of Manuel I of Portugal. In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, there was a fashion, started in Italy, for making large medals with a portrait head on the obverse and the emblem on the reverse; these would be given to friends and as diplomatic gifts. Pisanello produced many of the earliest and finest of these. A symbol, on the other hand, substitutes one thing for another, in a more concrete fashion:[1] A totem is specifically an animal emblem that expresses the spirit of a clan. Emblems in heraldry are known as charges. The lion passant serves as the emblem of England, the lion rampant as the emblem of Scotland.
Public security. Public security or public safety is the prevention of and protection from events that could endanger the safety and security of the public from significant danger, injury, or property damage. It is often conducted by a state government to ensure the protection of citizens, persons in their territory, organizations, and institutions against threats to their well-being, survival, and prosperity.[1] The public safety issues that a municipality, county, regional, or federal jurisdiction may handle include crimes (ranging from misdemeanors to felonies), structure fires, conflagrations, medical emergencies, mass-casualty incidents, disasters, terrorism, and other concerns. Public safety organizations are organizations that conduct public safety. They generally consist of emergency services and first responders such as law enforcement, fire services, emergency medical services, security forces, and military forces. They are often operated by a government, though some private public safety organizations exist where possible. Organized crime and international terrorism are hardly deterred by geographical, linguistic, or financial barriers. The latter has largely contributed to public security becoming an important political and economic issue, nationally as well as internationally. Politics, public organizations and businesses closely collaborate to guarantee public security and maintain a stable environment for economic prosperity. Although public security significantly contributes to the attractiveness of a location, the productivity of its people, and hence the overall success of an economy, the sector frequently suffers from low budgets, limited resources, and inadequate information systems. Large events, pandemics, severe accidents, environmental disasters, and terrorist attacks pose additional threats to public security and order.
Chinese Character Simplification Scheme.   The Chinese Character Simplification Scheme is a list of simplified Chinese characters promulgated in 1956 by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China. It contains the vast majority of simplified characters in use today. To distinguish it from the second round of simplified Chinese characters published in 1977, the 1956 list is also known as the First Chinese Character Simplification Scheme. In 1952, the Language Reform Research Committee of China first drafted the List of Frequently Used Simplification of Chinese Characters (常用漢字簡化表草案), affirming the principle of only describing and stating the concepts of the ancient [Han] people, not creating [new characters].[1] The Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft) was published on 7 January 1955 for public consultation. It consists of three sections: List of simplification of 798 characters (draft) (798個漢字簡化表草案), List of 400 Variant Characters Intended to Be Abolished (Draft) (擬廢除的400個異體字表草案) and List of Simplification in Handwriting of Character Components (Draft) (漢字偏旁手寫簡化表草案). The second and third sections were deleted in the modification process. The modified Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft) was passed by the National Language Reform Meeting after discussion in October 1955, followed by modifications by the Language Reform Committee of China in accordance to the outcome of the discussions. The modified draft was reviewed by the State Councils Committee for the Application of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme.
Community service. Community service is unpaid work performed by a person or group of people for the benefit and betterment of their community.[1] In many cases, people doing community service are compensated in other ways, such as getting a lunch for free. In many countries, there are programs to incite people to do community service. In some cases, it is possible to replace a criminal justice sanctions with community service.  There may also be school or class requirements. Obtaining certain benefits may be linked to doing some form of community service. For all these reasons, it is distinct from volunteering. (Community) service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis and may be performed for a variety of reasons, including: Community service and volunteerism are supported and encouraged across the world, influenced by a mix of personal, societal, and cultural factors. Research shows that individual traits like personality and religiosity, combined with organizational settings, play a significant role in fostering long-term volunteerism.[5] Different methods to encourage volunteering can result in volunteers motivated by their own interests or a desire to help others, suggesting the importance of promoting community engagement and altruism for sustained involvement.[6] A study spanning 21 countries linked economic development, education, cultural values, and political systems to higher rates of formal volunteering, indicating a global perspective on volunteer engagement.[7] Student volunteering, particularly in Western English-speaking countries, is driven by altruistic and career-oriented motivations, highlighting a strong culture of volunteerism among young people.[8] Moreover, the motivation to volunteer varies with cultural values across different regions, and is shaped by societal expectations and cultural norms.[9] Some educational jurisdictions in the United States require students to perform community service hours to graduate from high school. In some high schools in Washington, for example, students must finish 200 hours of community service to get a diploma. Some school districts in Washington, including Seattle Public Schools, differentiate between community service and service learning, requiring students to demonstrate that their work has contributed to their education.[10] If a student in high school is taking an Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) course, community service is often needed. Whether American public schools could require volunteer hours for high school graduation was challenged in Immediato v. Rye Neck School District, but the court found no violation. Many other high schools do not require community service hours for graduation, but still see an impressive number of students get involved in their communities. For example, in Palo Alto, California, students at Palo Alto High School log about 45,000 hours of community service every year.[11] As a result, the schools College and Career Center awards 250–300 students the Presidents Volunteer Service Award every year for their hard work.
Human geography.  Human geography, also known as anthropogeography, is a branch of geography that studies how people interact with places. It focuses on the spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their environments.  Examples include patterns like urban sprawl and urban redevelopment.[1] It looks at how social interactions connect with the environment using both qualitative (descriptive) and quantitative (numerical) methods.[2][3] This multidisciplinary field draws from sociology, anthropology, economics, and environmental science, helping build a more complete understanding of how human activity shapes the spaces we live in.[4] The Royal Geographical Society was founded in England in 1830.[5] The first professor of geography in the United Kingdom was appointed in 1883,[6] and the first major geographical intellect to emerge in the UK was Halford John Mackinder, appointed professor of geography at the London School of Economics in 1922.[6] The National Geographic Society was founded in the United States in 1888 and began publication of the National Geographic magazine which became, and continues to be, a great popularizer of geographic information. The society has long supported geographic research and education on geographical topics. The Association of American Geographers was founded in 1904 and was renamed the American Association of Geographers in 2016 to better reflect the increasingly international character of its membership.
Health care.   Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement or maintenance of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. The term includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, tertiary care, and public health. Access to health care may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, influenced by social and economic conditions and health policies. Providing health care services means the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes.[3] Factors to consider in terms of health care access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographical and logistical barriers (such as additional transportation costs and the ability to take paid time off work to use such services), sociocultural expectations, and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with health care providers, poor health literacy, low income).[4] Limitations to health care services affect negatively the use of medical services, the efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates). Health systems are the organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well-maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies.
List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters.  The List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters is the current standard list of 8,105 Chinese characters published by the government of the Peoples Republic of China and promulgated in June 2013. The project began in 2001, originally named the Table of Standard Chinese Characters. This table integrates the First Batch of Simplified Characters (1955), the Complete List of Simplified Characters (initially published in 1964, last revised in 1986), and the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese (1988), while also refining and improving it based on the current usage of characters in mainland China. After 8 years of development, a draft for public comment was released on August 12, 2009. It was officially promulgated on June 5, 2013, becoming the standard for the use of Chinese characters in general societal applications, and all previously related character lists were discontinued from that date. Of the characters included, 3,500 are in Tier 1 and designated as frequently used characters; Tier 2 includes 3,000 characters that are designated as commonly used characters but less frequently used than those in Tier 1; Tier 3 includes characters commonly used as names and terminology. The list also offers a table of correspondences between 2,546 Simplified Chinese characters and 2,574 Traditional Chinese characters, along with other selected variant forms. This table replaced all previous related standards, and provides the authoritative list of characters and glyph shapes for Simplified Chinese in China. The Table eliminates 500 characters that were in the previous version. This project was led by Professor Wan Ning from the Beijing Normal Universitys School of Chinese Language and Literature. Contributing to the project were Professor Wang Lijun, Associate Professor Bu Shixia, and Professor Ling Lijun, also from the School of Chinese Language and Literature. The Table underwent over 90 revisions over a span of 10 years before its release. In Unicode, some characters in the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters are located outside of the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP).
List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese.  The List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese (simplified Chinese: 现代汉语通用字表; traditional Chinese: 現代漢語通用字表; pinyin: Xiàndài Hànyǔ Tōngyòngzì Biǎo) is a list of 7,000 commonly used Chinese characters in Chinese. It was created in 1988 in the Peoples Republic of China.[1] In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters has replaced the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese as the standard for Chinese characters in the Peoples Republic of China.[2]  This Chinese character-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Pejorative. A pejorative word, phrase, slur, or derogatory term is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative or disrespectful connotation, a low opinion, or a lack of respect toward someone or something.[1] It is also used to express criticism, hostility, or disregard. Sometimes, a term is regarded as pejorative in some social or ethnic groups but not in others or may be originally pejorative but later adopt a non-pejorative sense (or vice versa) in some or all contexts. The word pejorative is derived from a Late Latin past participle stem of peiorare, meaning to make worse, from peior worse.[2] In historical linguistics, the process of an inoffensive word becoming pejorative is a form of semantic drift known as pejoration. An example of pejoration is the shift in meaning of the word silly from meaning that a person was happy and fortunate to meaning that they are foolish and unsophisticated.[3] The process of pejoration can repeat itself around a single concept, leaping from word to word in a phenomenon known as the euphemism treadmill, for example as in the successive pejoration of the terms bog-house, privy-house, latrine, water closet, toilet, bathroom, and restroom (US English).[4][5] When a term begins as pejorative and eventually is adopted in a non-pejorative sense, this is called melioration or amelioration. One example is the shift in meaning of the word nice from meaning a person was foolish to meaning that a person is pleasant.[6] When performed deliberately, it is described as reclamation or reappropriation.[7] An example of a word that has been reclaimed by portions of the community that it targets is queer, which began being re-appropriated as a positive descriptor in the early 1990s by activist groups.[8] However, due to its history and – in some regions – continued use as a pejorative, there remain LGBT individuals who are uncomfortable with having this term applied to them.[9] The use of the racial slur nigger (specifically the -a variant) by African Americans is often viewed as another act of reclamation, though some people of sub-Saharan African descent object to the use of the word under any circumstances.[10]
Public health.   Public health is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals.[1][2] Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.[3] The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being, among other factors.[4] Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health.[5] Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a countrys overall healthcare system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.[6][7] A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty and limited implementation of comprehensive public health policies. Developed nations are at greater risk of certain public health crises, including childhood obesity, although overweight populations in low- and middle-income countries are catching up.[8]
Penny dreadful (disambiguation). A penny dreadful is a 19th-century British fiction publication that cost a penny. Penny Dreadful or Penny Dreadfuls may also refer to:
Serial (literature).  In literature, a serial is a printing or publishing format by which a single larger work, often a work of narrative fiction, is published in smaller, sequential instalments. The instalments are also known as numbers, parts, fascicules or fascicles, and may be released either as separate publications or within sequential issues of a periodical publication, such as a magazine or newspaper.[1] Serialisation can also begin with a single short story that is subsequently turned into a series.  Historically, such series have been published in periodicals. Popular short-story series are often published together in book form as collections. The growth of moveable type in the 17th century prompted episodic and often disconnected narratives such as LAstrée and Le Grand Cyrus. At that time, books remained a premium item, so to reduce the price and expand the market, publishers produced large works in lower-cost instalments called fascicles.[2]  These had the added attraction of allowing a publisher to gauge the popularity of a work without incurring the expense of a substantial print run of bound volumes: if the work was not a success, no bound volumes needed to be prepared.  If, on the other hand, the serialised book sold well, it was a good bet that bound volumes would sell well, too. Serialised fiction surged in popularity during Britains Victorian era, due to a combination of the rise of literacy, technological advances in printing, and improved economics of distribution.[3]: 34  Most Victorian novels first appeared as instalments in monthly or weekly periodicals.[3]: 13  The wild success of Charles Dickenss The Pickwick Papers, first published in 1836, is widely considered to have established the viability and appeal of the serialised format within periodical literature.  During that era, the line between quality and commercial literature was not distinct.[3]: 31  Other famous writers who wrote serial literature for popular magazines were Wilkie Collins, inventor of the detective novel with The Moonstone; Anthony Trollope, many of whose novels were published in serial form in Cornhill magazine;  and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who created the Sherlock Holmes stories originally for serialisation in The Strand magazine.
General List of Simplified Chinese Characters. The General List of Simplified Chinese Characters (simplified Chinese: 简化字总表; traditional Chinese: 簡化字總表; pinyin: Jiǎnhuàzì zǒngbiǎo) was the standard list of simplified Chinese characters published in China in 1964. It largely ratified and revised the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme promulgated in 1956, and served as the main reference for the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters published in 2013.[1][2] The General List of Simplified Chinese Characters was released again in 1986 with some revision, alongside the rescission of the second round of simplified Chinese characters that had been announced in 1977. The General List of Simplified Chinese Characters includes three sub-lists with a total of 2274 simplified characters and 14 simplified components.[1][3] On 7 January 1964, the Chinese Character Reform Committee submitted a Request for Instructions on the Simplification of Chinese Characters to the State Council, mentioning that due to the lack of clarity on analogy simplification in the original Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (汉字简化方案), there is some disagreement and confusion in the application field of publication”.[4] On 24 February 1964, the State Council instructed: The simplified characters listed in the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme should be similarly simplified when used as pianpang components in other characters; the components listed in the scheme, except for 讠、饣、糸、钅, should also be simplified when used as independent characters. In May 1964, based on this instruction and on the basis of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme, the Chinese Character Reform Committee edited and published the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters.[1][5] In December 1977, the Chinese Character Reform Committee issued the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft).  The draft was not discussed by members of the Chinese Character Reform Committee before it was released. After it was released, all parties in the society expressed many opinions. It was generally believed that the number of simplified characters was too large and that some simplified characters were not mature enough. The Chinese Character Reform Committee made many revisions, but never satisfactory.[5] On 25 February 1986, the State Language Commission submitted to the State Council the Request for Instructions on Abolition of the Second Chinese Character Simplification Plan (Draft) and Correcting the Confusion of Chinese Characters in Society. In June 1986, the State Council approved the abolition of this draft and instructed: In the future, we should be cautious about the simplification of Chinese characters, so that the forms of Chinese characters can remain relatively stable for a period of time, so as to facilitate social application.[6][3]
Penny (British pre-decimal coin).  The British pre-decimal penny was a denomination of sterling coinage worth 1⁄240 of one pound or 1⁄12 of one shilling. Its symbol was d, from the Roman denarius. It was a continuation of the earlier English penny, and in Scotland it had the same monetary value as one pre-1707 Scottish shilling, thus the English penny was called sgillin in Scottish Gaelic. The penny was originally minted in silver, but from the late 18th century it was minted in copper, and then after 1860 in bronze. The plural of penny is pence (often added as an unstressed suffix) when referring to an amount of money, and pennies when referring to a number of coins.[1] Thus 8d is eightpence or eight pence, but eight pennies means specifically eight individual penny coins. Before Decimal Day in 1971, sterling used the Carolingian monetary system (£sd), under which the largest unit was a pound (£) divisible into 20 shillings (s), each of 12 pence (d). The pre-decimal penny was demonetised on 1 September 1971, just over six months after decimalisation, and replaced (in effect) by the decimal half new penny, with +1⁄2p being worth 1.2d.
Inca (disambiguation). The Inca Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Inca, Inka, or İncə may also refer to:
Seal (emblem). A seal is a device for making an impression in wax, clay, paper, or some other medium, including an embossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, or to prevent interference with a package or envelope by applying a seal which had to be broken to open the container (hence the modern English verb to seal, which implies secure closing without an actual wax seal). The seal-making device is also referred to as the seal matrix or die; the imprint it creates as the seal impression (or, more rarely, the sealing).[1] If the impression is made purely as a relief resulting from the greater pressure on the paper where the high parts of the matrix touch, the seal is known as a dry seal; in other cases ink or another liquid or liquefied medium is used, in another color than the paper. In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the seal matrix is in intaglio (cut below the flat surface) and therefore the design on the impressions made is in relief (raised above the surface). The design on the impression will reverse (be a mirror-image of) that of the matrix, which is especially important when script is included in the design, as it very often is. This will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. However engraved gems were often carved in relief, called cameo in this context, giving a counter-relief or intaglio impression when used as seals. The process is essentially that of a mould. Most seals have always given a single impression on an essentially flat surface, but in medieval Europe two-sided seals with two matrices were often used by institutions or rulers (such as towns, bishops and kings) to make two-sided or fully three-dimensional impressions in wax, with a tag, a piece of ribbon or strip of parchment, running through them. These pendent seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached (single-sided seals were treated in the same way). In the United States, the word seal is sometimes assigned to a facsimile of the seal design (in monochrome or color), which may be used in a variety of contexts including architectural settings, on flags, or on official letterheads. Thus, for example, the Great Seal of the United States, among other uses, appears on the reverse of the one-dollar bill; and several of the seals of the U.S. states appear on their respective state flags. In Europe, although coats of arms and heraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the seal design in its entirety rarely appears as a graphical emblem and is used mainly as originally intended: as an impression on documents.
Short Story (Gershwin). Short Story is a piece for violin and piano composed by George Gershwin in 1925.[1] Gershwin composed the duet from two other short works that premiered at the same time as his Three Preludes. He combined a section of the Novelette in Fourths and another slower work (the forgotten Rubato prelude) to create this piece.[1] The 1940s two-piano, four-hands arrangement by the duo-pianists Al and Lee Reiser was published by Associated Music Publishers.[2] This article about a composition for a chamber music group is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Mingxing, Shanxi. Mingxing (Chinese: 明星; pinyin: Míngxīng) (formerly Taigu or Taiku) is a town and township-level division and seat of Taigu County, Shanxi, China. It is a seat of a third order administration division.[1] It lies southwest of Jinzhong and comprises nine administrative villages, eleven communities, with a total area of 22 square kilometres (8.5 sq mi). It has a total population of 60,500 people, of which 43,988 are urban dwellers.[2]  The language spoken by a majority of inhabitants is Standard Mandarin. The town is called Mingxing which means “Ming Star (Town)” or literally Bright Star (Town). There are numerous temples in the city dated to the Ming dynasty, such as the Dacheng Hall of the Temple of Confucius of Taigu. Its Wubian White Tower is also of note.  This Shanxi location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Incan (disambiguation). Incan is of or pertaining to the Incas, their culture or empire, the Inca Empire. Incan may also refer to:
Second round of simplified Chinese characters. The second round of Chinese character simplification[b] was an aborted script reform promulgated on 20 December 1977 by the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). It was intended to replace the first round of simplified characters already in use. The complete proposal contained two lists: the first list consisted of 248 characters to be simplified, and the second list consisted of 605 characters to be evaluated and discussed. Of these characters, 21 from the first list and 40 from the second served as components, which modified some 4,500 characters. Following widespread confusion and opposition, the second round of simplification was officially rescinded on 24 June 1986 by the State Council. Since then, the PRC has used the first-round simplified characters as its official script. Rather than ruling out further simplification, however, the retraction declared that further reform of the Chinese characters should be done with caution. Today, some second-round simplified characters, while considered non-standard, continue to survive in informal usage. The traditional relationship between written Chinese and vernacular Chinese varieties has been compared to that of Latin with the Romance languages in the Renaissance era.[1] The modern simplification movement grew out of efforts to make the written language more accessible, which culminated in the replacement of Classical Chinese with written vernacular Chinese in the early 20th century.[2] The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and subsequent loss of prestige associated with classical writing helped facilitate this shift, but a series of further reforms aided by the efforts of reformers like Qian Xuantong were ultimately thwarted by conservative elements in the new government and the intellectual class.[3][4] Continuing the work of previous reformers, in 1956 the Peoples Republic of China promulgated the Scheme of Simplified Chinese Characters, later referred to as the First Round or First Scheme. The plan was adjusted slightly in the following years, eventually stabilizing in 1964 with a definitive list of character simplifications. These are the simplified Chinese characters that are used today in mainland China and Singapore.[5] Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau did not adopt the simplifications, and the characters used in those places are known as traditional Chinese characters.[6] Also released in 1964 was a directive for further simplification in order to improve literacy, with the goal of eventually reducing the number of strokes in commonly used characters to ten or fewer. This was to take place gradually, with consideration for both ease of production [writing] and ease of recognition [reading]. In 1975, a second round of simplifications, the Second Scheme, was submitted by the Script Reform Committee of China to the State Council for approval. Like the First Scheme, it contained two lists, where the first table (comprising 248 characters) was for immediate use, and the second table (comprising 605 characters) for evaluation and discussion.[8] Of these characters, 21 from the first list and 40 from the second also served as components of other characters, which caused the Second Scheme to modify some 4,500 characters.[9] On 20 December 1977, major newspapers such as the Peoples Daily and the Guangming Daily published the second-round simplifications along with editorials and articles endorsing the changes. Both newspapers began to use the characters from the first list the following day.[10]
Dick Turpin.  Richard Turpin (bapt. 21 September 1705 – 7 April 1739) was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft. Turpin may have followed his fathers trade as a butcher early in his life but, by the early 1730s, he had joined a gang of deer thieves and, later, became a poacher, burglar, horse thief, and killer.  He is also known for a fictional 200-mile (320 km) overnight ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess, a story that was made famous by the Victorian novelist William Harrison Ainsworth almost 100 years after Turpins death. Turpins involvement in the crime with which he is most closely associated—highway robbery—followed the arrest of the other members of his gang in 1735. He then disappeared from public view towards the end of that year, only to resurface in 1737 with two new accomplices, one of whom Turpin may have accidentally shot and killed.  Turpin fled from the scene and shortly afterwards killed a man who attempted his capture. Later that year, he moved to Yorkshire and assumed the alias of John Palmer. While he was staying at an inn, local magistrates became suspicious of Palmer and made enquiries as to how he funded his lifestyle. Suspected of being a horse thief, Palmer was imprisoned in York Castle, to be tried at the next assizes. Turpins true identity was revealed by a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law from his prison cell, which fell into the hands of the authorities. On 22 March 1739, Turpin was found guilty on two charges of horse theft and sentenced to death. He was hanged at Knavesmire on 7 April 1739. Turpin became the subject of legend after his execution, romanticised as dashing and heroic in English ballads and popular theatre of the 18th and 19th centuries and in film and television of the 20th century.
Wade–Giles.  Wade–Giles (/weɪd ˈdʒaɪlz/ wayd JYLZ) is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese. It developed from the system produced by Thomas Francis Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giless A Chinese–English Dictionary (1892). The romanization systems in common use until the late 19th century were based on the Nanjing dialect, but Wade–Giles was based on the Beijing dialect and was the system of transcription familiar in the English-speaking world for most of the 20th century. Both of these kinds of transcription were used in postal romanizations (romanized place-names standardized for postal uses). In mainland China, Wade–Giles has been mostly replaced by Hanyu Pinyin, which was officially adopted in 1958, with exceptions for the romanized forms of some of the most commonly used names of locations and persons, and other proper nouns. The romanized name for most locations, persons and other proper nouns in Taiwan is based on the Wade–Giles derived romanized form, for example Kaohsiung, the Matsu Islands and Chiang Ching-kuo. Wade–Giles was developed by Thomas Francis Wade, a scholar of Chinese and a British ambassador in China who was the first professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge. Wade published Yü-yen Tzŭ-erh Chi (語言自邇集; 语言自迩集)[2]  in 1867, the first textbook on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin in English,[3] which became the basis for the system later known as Wade–Giles. The system, designed to transcribe Chinese terms for Chinese specialists, was further refined in 1892 by Herbert Giles (in A Chinese–English Dictionary), a British diplomat in China, and his son Lionel Giles,[citation needed] a curator at the British Museum.[4] Taiwan used Wade–Giles for decades as the de facto standard, co-existing with several official romanizations in succession, namely, Gwoyeu Romatzyh (1928), Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (1986), and Tongyong Pinyin (2000). The Kuomintang (KMT) has previously promoted pinyin with Ma Ying-jeous successful presidential bid in 2008 and in a number of cities with Kuomintang mayors.[citation needed] However, the Tsai Ing-wen administration and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) along with the majority of the people in Taiwan, both native and overseas, use spelling and transcribe their legal names based on the Wade–Giles system, as well as the other aforementioned systems.[citation needed]
Story paper.  A story paper is a periodical publication similar to a literary magazine, but featuring illustrations and text stories, and aimed towards children and teenagers. Also known in Britain as boys weeklies, story papers were phenomenally popular before the outbreak of the Second World War. Among the most well-known British story papers was Boys Own Paper, which ran from 1879 to 1967. The first known edition of what would later become known as a story paper was The Young Gentlemans Magazine, published in 1777. The first story paper to really take off was The Boys and Girls Penny Magazine, first published in September 1832. In 1866, Charles Stephens began selling Boys of England on the English streets for a penny—the first penny dreadful. Story papers in this style minimized the expense of writing in order to produce an extremely cheap product. Strictly speaking, the penny dreadful died off by the turn of the century, but this term was still used to refer to story papers throughout their history. The Halfpenny Marvel, first published in 1893, was founded to counteract the pernicious influences of the Penny Dreadfuls, according to its title page. A book about these weeklies (also called bloods because of their savage contents) was created in 1948 by E. S. Turner, called Boys Will be Boys.
List of Even Stevens episodes.  The following is  a list of episodes for the Disney Channel Original Series, Even Stevens. The series ran from June 17, 2000, to June 2, 2003 with 65 episodes produced spanning 3 seasons. Ren hosts a slumber party, but Louis plans to sell tickets to watch the party in order to buy a suit of armor. Louis and Twitty soon realize a younger boy has been spying on them. They catch him and demand to know what he wants, but he admits that hes new to town and only wants to make friends. When they are on the verge of turning him away, Louis takes kindly to the boys nerve, and nicknames him Beans, ultimately using him in his slumber party spying scheme. Ren and Louis show their animosity on a local reality game show. Meanwhile, Donnie asks Nelson to help him talk to his French-speaking date Sandrine (Danica McKellar). Ren contracts influenza and her parents insist she stay in bed, but she is unwilling to forfeit her perfect attendance record. Once at school, everyone, including herself, starts singing and dancing in musical numbers. Unfortunately, she ends up unprepared for a major school project which she must present that day. Louis gives his all to getting out of Coach Tugnuts physical endurance test, rallying his fellow students to overpower Tugnut. At the end of the day, Ren sings a song about going to the moon in 1969 to compensate for her lack of a full report and ultimately gets an F. She suddenly wakes up in bed again, having recovered from her condition, and realizes the days events were all a dream.
List of Casualty specials. Casualty is a British medical drama television series that premiered in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 6 September 1986.[1] It is the longest-running emergency medical drama television series in the world,[2] and the most enduring medical drama broadcast on primetime television in the world.[3] Casualty is set in the fictional Holby City Hospital and focuses on the staff and patients of the hospitals emergency department (ED).[4] The drama was created by Jeremy Brock and Paul Unwin, while Geraint Morris produced the first three series.[5] The drama has aired for 38 series and a 39th series currently airs. Over 1,000 episodes have aired in total.[6] Holby City, a spin-off of Casualty, was commissioned in 1998 and began airing on 12 January 1999.[7][8] The two shows are closely related with several crossover events occurring between them. Some crossovers broadcast between December 2004 and December 2005 are styled as episodes of Casualty@Holby City.[9] A British police procedural drama and spin-off to Casualty, HolbyBlue was announced on 27 April 2006.[10] It began on 8 May 2007 and was cancelled in August 2008 after 2 series and 20 episodes were broadcast.[11][12] Casualty has produced 19 special episodes, including the first webisode commissioned for a BBC continuing drama.[13] Belinda Campbell, who executively produced the drama between 2007 and 2011, thought that webisodes would be a new [way] to add value for our loyal fans, something which the team constantly look to do.[13] Casualty filmed a sketch for charity telethon Children in Need in 2009, featuring charity mascot Pudsey Bear. In 2010, cast members on the show filmed a tribute to BBC soap opera EastEnders and Blue Peter presenter Joel Defries presented a segment of the show from the Casualty set. To celebrate Casualtys thirtieth anniversary, original cast members Derek Thompson and Cathy Shipton filmed a special episode, Back to Ours, showing moments from their careers on the show. Webisodes have been created to explore characters in more detail: The Parting of the Ways focuses on Alistair (Joe McFadden); Under Fire details Sam Nicholls (Charlotte Salt) backstory; and Scars and Nightmares explores the backstory of Iain Dean (Michael Stevenson). Other webisodes are designed to help progress storylines on the main show: Short Story explores Ruth Winters (Georgia Taylor) stay at the hospitals psychiatric ward; Mistletoe and Rum follows the secret relationship between Tess Bateman (Suzanne Packer) and Adrian Fletch Fletcher (Alex Walkinshaw); Nurse Factor supports the introduction of four new student nurse characters; Gone in Sixty Seconds gives an insight into a bus crash; Mrs Walker-To-Be explores the night before Zoe Hanna (Sunetra Sarker) and Max Walkers (Jamie Davis) wedding; and On Call starts a storyline featuring Caleb Knight (Richard Winsor) being told he has a daughter.  Some webisodes have been standalone and not followed in the main show: The Kids Arent Alright focuses on Jeff Colliers (Matt Bardock) estrangement from his children; The Spirit of Christmas and The First Noel are Christmas specials; and Radio Holby sees Noel Garcia (Tony Marshall) become the hospitals radio DJ. The Parting of the Ways is an eight-minute webisode and the first webisode to be produced for BBC continuing dramas.[13] The webisode was announced on 7 October 2009 and was released on 31 October.[13] It is written by David Roden, directed by Simon Meyers and produced by Rebecca Hedderly.[30] As Polly Emmerson (Sophia Di Martino) continues to be stalked by homeless man Alistair (Joe McFadden), the webisode follows the events between the series 24 episodes Regrets and Every Breath You Take.[13] The webisode, which is from the viewpoint of Alistair, focuses on the gritty world of life on the streets and Alistairs struggle with his mental well-being as Polly reports him to the police.[13][30] Executive producer Belinda Campbell praised Di Martino, McFadden and Roden, and described the webisode as a really special viewing opportunity for die-hard Casualty lovers.[13] She thought that The Parting of the Ways would be a good alternative method of exploring a a hitherto unseen world.[13] She also described the special as innovative.[13] McFadden liked the alternative method of filming and enjoyed exploring his character in more detail. He also liked being able to portray a grittier version of the drama.[13] Short Story is a two-part webisode focusing on Ruth Winters (Georgia Taylor) stay at the hospitals psychiatric ward.[31] The first part of the webisode was released on 12 March 2011,[17] and the second part of the webisode was released on 2 April 2011.[18] The special is directed by Reza Moradi and produced by Nicola Larder.[31] Part 1 of the webisode features physciatrist Andrew Brookfield (Matthew Kelly) trying to bond with Ruth, while dealing with an upset patient and a delivery of a horse from an unstable patient.[17] Taylor found herself not heavily involved in the first part of Short Story and is featured in the back of several scenes. Moradi was unsure about filming with a horse and wanted to use an alternative animal.[31] Initially, Taylor wondered how they would include a horse in the scene, suggesting that they might use computer-generated imagery (CGI) or a robotic horse.[31] Kelly, who had equinophobia, received a phone call from his agent, before he had read the script, and she informed him of the use of a horse. However, after meeting Billy, the horse used in filming, he called him one of the most gorgeous creatures I have ever seen in my entire life.[31] The horse was only used for one morning.[31] Due to the use of a horse in filming, there were several health and safety procedures. Taylor stated that whenever she approached the horse, a health and safety officer would ask her to move away. Larder enjoyed the filming of Short Story.[31]
Short Story (horse). Short Story (1923 – 1939) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare. After showing considerable promise as a two-year-old, Short Story finished third in the 1000 Guineas in the following spring and then won the Epsom Oaks by four lengths. She never won again but was placed in the Nassau Stakes, Yorkshire Oaks and Park Hill Stakes. As a broodmare she produced one good racehorse, but otherwise made little impact as a dam of winners. The stable lad that took care of Short Story and rode her on work mornings was Ernest Sparrowhawk. Sir Alfred Munnings painted Short Story together with Alec Taylor and Ernest Sparrowhawk. The painting is in the National gallery. Short Story was a bay mare bred in the United Kingdom by her owner Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor. She was sent into training with Alec Taylor, Jr. at his stable at Manton, Wiltshire.[2] She was sired by Buchan, who won the Eclipse Stakes, Champion Stakes and Doncaster Cup as well as finishing second in the 2000 Guineas and the Epsom Derby. As a breeding stallion he made his mark as a sire of fillies including Book Law and the dams of Airborne and Sun Castle.[2] Her dam, Long Suit, finished third in the Oaks in 1921 and was a half sister to the influential broodmare Pinprick.[3]
North Pacific (sidewheeler). North Pacific was an early steamboat operating in Puget Sound, on the Columbia River, and in British Columbia and Alaska. The vessels nickname was the White Schooner which was not based on the vessels rig, but rather on speed, as to schoon in nautical parlance originally meant to go fast.[1] North Pacific was built in San Francisco for E.A. and L.M. Starr.[1] The Starrs were pioneer businessmen in Portland. The Starrs had been unsuccessfully trying to compete with Finch and Wright, first with the sidewheeler Alida and then with the small steamer Isabel. The Starrs brought North Pacific to Puget Sound in 1871 to compete with the firm of D.B. Finch and Capt. Tom Wright (1828–1906). Finch and Wright had run the pioneer sidewheeler Eliza Anderson on the Sound, and had recently replaced the Anderson with the faster sidewheeler Olympia (later known as the Princess Louise). North Pacific was 166.8 ft (50.84 m) long, with a beam of 29 ft (8.84 m) and 10.3 ft (3.14 m) depth of hold.[2][3] North Pacific was assessed at 488.73 gross register tons, with tons in this instance being a measure of volume and not weight.[2] The official merchant vessel registry number was 18685.[2] North Pacific was driven by a single-cylinder walking beam engine, 40-inch-diameter (1,000 mm) piston, 120-inch (3,000 mm) stroke[1] When North Pacific arrived at Puget Sound in June 1871, the vessel was considered to be the finest (and was certainly one of the largest) vessels yet to operate in the area.[1] On June 27, 1871, North Pacific raced Olympia across the Strait of Juan de Fuca from Victoria, British Columbia to Port Townsend, Washington, beating Olympia by three minutes. A lot of money was wagered on the outcome, and the bets were paid off at Port Townsend. Newell described the scene:
Edward S. Ellis.  Edward Sylvester Ellis (April 11, 1840 – June 20, 1916) was an American author.[1][2] Ellis was a teacher, school administrator, journalist, and the author of hundreds of books and magazine articles[3]  that he produced by his name and by a number of pen names. Notable fiction stories by Ellis include The Steam Man of the Prairies[4] and Seth Jones, or the Captives of the Frontier.[5] Internationally, Edward S. Ellis is probably known best for his Deerfoot novels read widely by young boys until the 1950s. Seth Jones was a prototypical early dime novel published by Beadle and Adams.[6] It is said that Seth Jones was one of Abraham Lincolns favorite stories.[7] During the mid-1880s, after a fiction-writing career of some thirty years, Ellis eventually began composing more serious works of biography, history, and persuasive writing.  Of note was The Life of Colonel David Crockett, which had the story of Davy Crockett giving a speech usually called Not Yours To Give.  It was a speech in opposition to awarding money to a Navy widow on the grounds that Congress had no Constitutional mandate to give charity.  It was said to have been inspired by Crocketts meeting with a Horatio Bunce, a much quoted man in Libertarian circles, but one for whom historical evidence is non-existent. Besides the one hundred fifty-nine books published by his own name, Ellis work was published under various pseudonyms, including:[1]
North Pacific Airlines. North Pacific Airlines (NPA) was a commuter air carrier formed in 1987 which operated scheduled passenger service on behalf of United Airlines via a code sharing agreement as a United Express carrier initially from the Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (SEA) to three destinations in Washington state and also to Portland, Oregon. By 1989, the airline had expanded its route network and was serving fifteen destinations located in Idaho, Montana, Oregon and Washington state (see destination list below). In 1991, the airline, which was owned by WestAir Holding, Inc., was merged with WestAir Commuter Airlines which operated flights in California and other states as a United Express carrier. WestAir Commuter Airlines was also owned by the WestAir Holding corporation.[2] Another commuter air carrier which used the North Pacific Airlines name operated in Alaska as NPA from the early to mid-1980s.[4] According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), North Pacific Airlines was operating United Express service with British Aerospace BAe Jetstream 31 and Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia propjets to the following destinations in late 1989:[5]
North Pacific Steamship Company. The North Pacific Steamship Company was a shipping company operating along the west coast of the United States and to South America during the late 19th century and early 20th century. The North Pacific Steamship Company was chartered in March 1869 in Oregon, with a capital of $5,000,000. The company was the successor to the California, Oregon and Mexican Steamship Company.[1] In 1906, the company purchased the George W. Elder, which had been launched in 1874. The company also operated the steamship Roanoke, launched in 1882. Both boats had been built as nightboats for the Old Dominion Steamship Company. On July 21, 1907, the former running mate to the George W. Elder, the Columbia collided with the lumber schooner San Pedro off Shelter Cove, California, causing the Columbia to sink, killing 88 people. Among the dead was Captain Peter A. Doran, a former commander of the George W. Elder. Both the George W. Elder and Roanoke arrived at the site of the disaster and picked up Columbias survivors from the badly damaged San Pedro. The George W. Elder returned some of the survivors to Astoria, Oregon.[2] The George W. Elder also towed the San Pedro to shore, following the disaster.[3] During World War I, the George W. Elder was leased by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, which was at the time owned by the Grace Line. The George W. Elder was used during this time as part of a four ship feeder service for Central American and Mexican ports.
Northern Pacific Railway. The Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was an important American transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the Western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest between 1864 and 1970. It was approved and chartered by the 38th Congress of the United States in the national / federal capital of Washington, D.C., during the last years of the American Civil War (1861–1865), and received nearly 40 million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of adjacent land grants, which it used to raise additional money in Europe (especially in President Henry Villards home country of the new German Empire), for construction funding. Construction began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean, just south of the United States-Canada border when Ulysses S. Grant, drove in the final golden spike completing the line in western Montana Territory (future State of Montana in 1889), on September 8, 1883. The railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the western Federal territories and later states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the N.P. had an international branch, Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway (formed 1888), running north to Winnipeg, capital of the province of Manitoba, in the newly organized Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. This joint venture ended in 1899 and remaining Canadian trackage and Winnipeg East Yard acquired by the Canadian Northern Railway in 1901.[1] The Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in the state capital of Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the N.P. merged with other lines over a century later in 1970 to form the modern Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the famous Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway to become the renamed BNSF Railway in 1996, operating in the western U.S. The 38th United States Congress chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the northwestern coast of the United States on the Pacific Ocean, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking the federal territory of Washington and state of Oregon to the rest of the country (plus connecting the northern Great Plains of central Canada to the northern states of the U.S. and especially its Midwestern big cities, manufacturing centers and markets.[2] The U.S. Congress granted the Northern Pacific Railroad a generous potential bonanza of 60 million acres (94,000 sq mi; 240,000 km2) of land adjacent to the line in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped western territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[2] It could not use all the land and in the end accepted just under 40 million acres of the allotment.[3]
Magazine (disambiguation). A magazine is a kind of periodical publication. Magazine may also refer to:
Paper mill. A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags, and other ingredients. Prior to the invention and adoption of the Fourdrinier machine and other types of paper machine that use an endless belt, all paper in a paper mill was made by hand, one sheet at a time, by specialized laborers. Historical investigations into the origin of the paper mill are complicated by differing definitions and loose terminology from modern authors: Many modern scholars use the term to refer indiscriminately to all kinds of mills, whether powered by humans, by animals or by water. Their propensity to refer to any ancient paper manufacturing center as a mill, without further specifying its exact power source, has increased the difficulty of identifying the particularly efficient and historically important water-powered type.[1] The use of human and animal powered mills was known to Muslim and Chinese papermakers. However, evidence for water-powered paper mills is elusive among both prior to the 11th century.[2][3][4][5] The general absence of the use of water-powered paper mills in Muslim papermaking prior to the 11th century is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors at the time to call a production center not a mill, but a paper manufactory.[6] Scholars have identified paper mills in Abbasid-era Baghdad in 794–795. The evidence that waterpower was applied to papermaking at this time is a matter of scholarly debate.[7] In the Moroccan city of Fez, Ibn Battuta speaks of 400 mill stones for paper.[8] Since Ibn Battuta does not mention the use of water-power and such a number of water-mills would be grotesquely high, the passage is generally taken to refer to human or animal force.[4][8] An exhaustive survey of milling in Al-Andalus did not uncover water-powered paper mills, nor do the Spanish books of property distribution (Repartimientos) after the Christian reconquest refer to any.[9] Arabic texts never use the term mill in connection with papermaking, and the most thorough account of Muslim papermaking at the time, the one by the Zirid Sultan Al-Muizz ibn Badis, describes the art purely in terms of a handcraft.[9] Donald Hill has identified a possible reference to a water-powered paper mill in Samarkand, in the 11th-century work of the Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni, but concludes that the passage is too brief to enable us to say with certainty that it refers to a water-powered paper mill.[10][11] This is seen by Leor Halevi as evidence of Samarkand first harnessing waterpower in the production of paper, but notes that it is not known if waterpower was applied to papermaking elsewhere across the Islamic world at the time.[12] Robert I. Burns remains sceptical, given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere prior to the 13th century.[1]
Cellulose fiber.  Cellulose fibers (/ˈsɛljʊloʊs, -loʊz/)[1] are fibers made with ethers or esters of cellulose, which can be obtained from the bark, wood or leaves of plants, or from other plant-based material. In addition to cellulose, the fibers may also contain hemicellulose and lignin, with different percentages of these components altering the mechanical properties of the fibers. The main applications of cellulose fibers are in the textile industry, as chemical filters, and as fiber-reinforcement composites,[2] due to their similar properties to engineered fibers, being another option for biocomposites and polymer composites. Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula.[3] Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon (artificial silk) from cellulose began in the 1890s, and cellophane was invented in 1912. In 1893, Arthur D. Little of Boston, invented yet another cellulosic product, acetate, and developed it as a film. The first commercial textile uses for acetate in fiber form were developed by the Celanese Company in 1924. Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived enzymes) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda. Cellulose is a polymer made of repeating glucose molecules attached end to end.[4] A cellulose molecule may be from several hundred to over 10,000 glucose units long. Cellulose is similar in form to complex carbohydrates like starch and glycogen. These polysaccharides are also made from multiple subunits of glucose. The difference between cellulose and other complex carbohydrate molecules is how the glucose molecules are linked together. In addition, cellulose is a straight chain polymer, and each cellulose molecule is long and rod-like. This differs from starch, which is a coiled molecule. A result of these differences in structure is that, compared to starch and other carbohydrates, cellulose cannot be broken down into its glucose subunits by any enzymes produced by animals.
Short Stories (The Statler Brothers album).  Short Stories is the seventeenth studio album by American country music group The Statler Brothers. It was released in 1977 via Mercury Records.[1] The album peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart.
Lignocellulosic biomass. Lignocellulose  refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels.[1] It is composed of two kinds of carbohydrate polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose, and an aromatic-rich polymer called lignin.[1] Any biomass rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass.[2] Each component has a distinct chemical behavior. Being a composite of three very different components makes the processing of lignocellulose challenging. The evolved resistance to degradation or even separation is referred to as recalcitrance. Overcoming this recalcitrance to produce useful, high value products requires a combination of heat, chemicals, enzymes, and microorganisms.[3][4][5][6] These carbohydrate-containing polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and they are covalently bound to lignin. Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified as virgin biomass, waste biomass, and energy crops. Virgin biomass includes plants. Waste biomass is produced as a low value byproduct of various industrial sectors such as agriculture (corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, straw etc.) and forestry (saw mill and paper mill discards). Energy crops are crops with a high yield of lignocellulosic biomass produced as a raw material for the production of second-generation biofuel; examples include switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and elephant grass. The biofuels generated from these energy crops are sources of sustainable energy.[7][8] Lignocellulose consists of three components, each with properties that pose challenges to commercial applications.[10] Many crops are of interest for their ability to provide high yields of biomass. Some can be harvested multiple times each year. These include poplar trees and Miscanthus giganteus. The premier energy crop is sugarcane, which is a source of the readily fermentable sucrose and the lignocellulosic by-product bagasse. Lignocellulosic biomass is the feedstock for the pulp and paper industry. In this process lignin and hemicellulose are typically separated from the plant material leaving the fibrous cellulose component to be processed for paper production, or chemical cellulose.[13] Through the pulp process most of the lignin is removed and discharged as waste material in the form of effluent/wastewater before then being used as low-value fuel to generate electricity and heat.[13] In principle, the world’s current sugar demand could be fulfilled by repurposing pulp and paper mills for lignocellulosic sugar production, making it a promising resilient food.[14]
Short Stories (Jon and Vangelis album). Short Stories is the debut album by Jon and Vangelis, the collaboration between Jon Anderson of the progressive rock band Yes and electronic music pioneer Vangelis. This was not the first time that the two had worked together: Vangelis had auditioned to be Rick Wakemans replacement in Yes in 1974, but the role was given to Patrick Moraz. In 1975, Anderson sang on So Long Ago So Clear from Heaven and Hell. Putting overdubs aside, the cuts on Short Stories were all improvised one-take tape recordings tracked in 1979, with the albums working title Spont. [Spontaneous] Music based on this process.[2] Vangelis said that the album may have taken a total of only two and a half non-consecutive weeks to produce, and just four days to start with.[2] Both Anderson and Vangelis wanted to work together just to have a fun time, the former explaining, I wont say effortless, but the enjoyment of making music without prior conceptions, without deciding what its going to be. Just do it.[2] Sounds writer John Gill, who interviewed the pair for an article regarding how Short Stories was made, said that the two apparently wanted to make an album that would be out of the styles they had commonly been labeled under by both the press and consumers with past releases.[2] Short Stories garners numerous elements of classical, pop, rock and folk.[3] Critical response to Short Stories, both upon release and in retrospect, has been mixed. A Smash Hits journalist put the blame entirely on Anderson for making the album entirely unlistenable; he jokingly described his lyrics as the kind of cosmic drivel that gets hippies a bad name, and felt that the tuneless melodies were written by just coming up with notes and pitches at random.[6] Billboard Magazine observer said that Andersons clear voice and his lyrics fit well with the structure of the compositions based on swirling keyboard work.[7] In a retrospective review, AllMusic reviewer Dave Connolly called the record underwhelming, saying that it had very few nearly memorable moments. He criticised it for being more focused on melody than making the arrangements less amorphous and paper-thin, an issue also present on the last Yes album Anderson sang on before working on Short Stories, Tormato.[4] Gary Graff, who wrote a mixed review for The Beaver County Times, mainly criticised Vangelis musical work on the record, feeling it was much more of a Vangelis album than a collaborative LP between him and Anderson, although superior to Vangeliss previous releases. He praised Andersons vocal performance, calling it far better than how he sang on Tormato, but opined that his lyrics use word play and imagery that are inaccessible for average listeners. Graff also found the songs overlong, writing that listeners could lose interest in a track after only three minutes. He wrote that it would garner fans of the works of bands such as Pink Floyd and King Crimson but lose the interest of the Yes fan base.[8] In a more favourable reviews, The Sydney Morning Heralds Madeleine dHaeye called Short Stories an innovative, pleasing combination of two highly talented musicians exploring new horizons, highlighting Andersons beautiful clarity of tone when singing high pitches and Vangeliss finely matched accompaniments.[9] In 1982, R. S. Murthi reviewed the album for the New Straits Times as one of the Aesthetes of electronics, spotlighting Andersons spirited energy and Vangelis skillful musical arrangements.[3]
Short Stories (magazine).  Short Stories was an American fiction magazine published between 1890 and 1959. Short Stories began its existence as a literary periodical, carrying work by Rudyard Kipling, Émile Zola, Bret Harte, Ivan Turgenev and Anna Katharine Green.[1] The magazine advertised itself with the slogan Twenty-Five Stories for Twenty-Five Cents. After a few years, Short Stories became dominated by reprinted fiction. The magazine was sold in 1904 and eventually purchased by Doubleday, Page and Company, which in 1910 transformed Short Stories into a quality pulp.  The magazines new editor, Harry E. Maule (1886-1971)  placed an emphasis on Short Stories carrying well-written fiction; pulp magazine historian Robert Sampson states  For Short Stories, like Adventure and  Blue Book to follow, rose above the expedient prose of rival magazines like ivory towers thrusting up from swampland.[1] By 1916, Maules Short Stories was selling 95,000 copies a month.[2] Short Stories was initially known for publishing crime fiction by authors including Max Pemberton, Thomas W. Hanshew and Hugh Pendexter.[1] In the 1920s and 1930s, however, Short Stories was best known as a publisher of Western stories, with many of the best-known Western fiction writers such as Clarence E. Mulford, Max Brand, Luke Short, Ernest Haycox, W. C. Tuttle, James B. Hendryx, Barry Scobee,[3] Bertrand William Sinclair and B. M. Bower appearing in its pages.[4] Short Stories also carried adventure fiction, such as Northern tales set in the Yukon, and adventures in the South Seas or Sub-Saharan Africa. The magazines writers in the adventure genre included George Allan England, H. Bedford-Jones, Gordon MacCreagh, J. Allan Dunn, L. Patrick Greene (stories set in Africa), William Wirt (who chronicled the exploits of a mercenary, Jimmie Cordie), and George F. Worts and Captain Frederick Moore (who wrote about South Sea adventures).[5] Thriller writers Edgar Wallace, Sax Rohmer and Dornford Yates had stories in the magazine in this period, as did Vincent Starrett, who wrote about private investigator Jimmie Lavender for Short Stories.[6]  Albert Richard Wetjen contributed sea stories to the magazine.[7] Short Stories also published a large number of adventure stories featuring the Foreign Legion. The magazines practitioners in this sub-genre included J.D. Newsom (with humorous stories about Legionnaires Mike Curialo and Albert Withers), Georges Surdez, Robert Carse and Bob Du Soe.[7] Some of the serials published in Short Stories were later published in hardback by Doubleday. These included Jimmie Dale and the Blue Envelope Murder, by Frank L. Packard.[7]
North Pacific Coast Railroad.   The North Pacific Coast Railroad (NPC) was a common carrier 3 ft (914 mm) narrow-gauge steam railroad begun in 1874 and sold in 1902 to new owners who renamed it the North Shore Railroad (California) (NSR) and rebuilt the southern section into a standard-gauge electric railway.[1] The NPC operated in the northern California counties of Marin and Sonoma that carried redwood lumber, local dairy and agricultural products, express and passengers. The NPC operated almost 93 mi (150 km) of track that extended from a pier at Sausalito (which connected the line via ferry to San Francisco) and operated northwest to Duncans Mills and Cazadero (also known as Ingrams). The NPC became the North Shore Railroad (California) (NSR) on March 7, 1902. In 1907 the North Shore Railroad became part of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad (NWP). Southern portions of the line were standard gauged and electrified by the North Shore for suburban passenger service, though tracks north of Point Reyes Station remained 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge until abandonment in the late 1930s. Mileposts conform to Southern Pacific Railroad convention of distance from San Francisco:[2]
Quartering (heraldry). Quartering is a method of joining several different coats of arms together in one shield by dividing the shield into equal parts and placing different coats of arms in each division.[1] Typically, a quartering consists of a division into four equal parts, two above and two below (party per cross).  Occasionally the division is instead along both diagonals (party per saltire) again creating four parts but now at top, bottom, left, and right. An example of party per cross is the coat of arms of the United Kingdom, as used outside Scotland, which consists of four quarters, displaying the Arms of England, Scotland and Ireland, with the coat for England repeated at the end. (In the royal arms as used in Scotland, the Scottish coat appears in the first and fourth quarters and the English one second.).  An example of party per saltire is the arms of the medieval Kingdom of Sicily which also consists of four sections, with top and bottom displaying the coat of the Crown of Aragon, and left and right the coat of the Sicily branch of the Hohenstaufen dynasty during their reign as Holy Roman Emperors. In most traditions, there is no limit on the number of divisions allowed. For example, the records of the College of Arms include a shield of 323 quarterings for the family of Lloyd of Stockton. These 323 quarterings include numerous repeated attributed arms assigned to Welsh chieftains from the 9th century or earlier.[2] Another example of a shield of many quarterings is the coat of arms of the Powys-Lybbe family, which contains 64 quarterings. Different rules apply in Scottish heraldry, and may well apply in other jurisdictions like Canada and South Africa.
Fiber crop.  Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are traditionally used to make paper, cloth, or rope.[1] Fiber crops are characterized by having a large concentration of cellulose, which is what gives them their strength. The fibers may be chemically modified, like in viscose (used to make rayon and cellophane). In recent years, materials scientists have begun exploring further use of these fibers in composite materials. Due to cellulose being the main factor of a plant fibers strength, this is what scientists are looking to manipulate to create different types of fibers. Fiber crops are generally harvestable after a single growing season, as distinct from trees, which are typically grown for many years before being harvested for such materials as wood pulp fiber or lacebark. In specific circumstances, fiber crops can be superior to wood pulp fiber in terms of technical performance, environmental impact or cost.[2] There are a number of issues regarding the use of fiber crops to make pulp.[3] One of these is seasonal availability.  While trees can be harvested continuously, many field crops are harvested once during the year and must be stored such that the crop doesnt rot over a period of many months. Considering that many pulp mills require several thousand tonnes of fiber source per day, storage of the fiber source can be a major issue.
O. E. Middleton.  O.E. (Osman Edward or Ted) Middleton (born 25 March 1925 in Christchurch, died 14 August 2010 in Dunedin) was a New Zealand writer of short stories, described as belonging to the vernacular critical realist tradition of Frank Sargeson.[1] He was the brother of noted New Zealand novelist Ian Middleton, and like him also blind from middle age.[2] Mentored by Frank Sargeson in Auckland in the late 1950s, he moved to Dunedin to take up the Robert Burns Fellowship (1970) at the University of Otago. Prominent New Zealand author Janet Frame once said, O. E. Middleton is a fine writer ... Hes the only NZ writer who has made me weep over a story — one called The Stone in a volume of that title.[3] Middleton was the recipient of several awards, including the Hubert Church Award and the 2006 Janet Frame Literary Award. His Selected Stories shared first prize for Fiction in the New Zealand Book Awards in 1976. A plaque featuring a quote from Middletons 1970 Notebook was unveiled in February 2022 as part of the Dunedin Writers Walk.[4] 
Short Stories (Harry Chapin album).  Short Stories is the third studio album by the American singer-songwriter Harry Chapin, released in 1973. (see 1973 in music). W.O.L.D., Mr Tanner and Mail Order Annie remained amongst his most popular works for the rest of his life.[citation needed] W.O.L.D. went to number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and had commercial success in the top 10 in other countries such as Canada.
Drug.  A drug is any chemical substance  other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect.[1][2] Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption via a patch on the skin, suppository, or dissolution under the tongue. A pharmaceutical drug, also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent, or diagnose a disease or to promote well-being.[3] Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction from medicinal plants, but more recently also by organic synthesis.[4] Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.[3] Pharmaceutical drugs are often classified into drug classes—groups of related drugs that have similar chemical structures, the same mechanism of action (binding to the same biological target), a related mode of action, and that are used to treat the same disease.[5][6] The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC), the most widely used drug classification system, assigns drugs a unique ATC code, which is an alphanumeric code that assigns it to specific drug classes within the ATC system. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. This classifies drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties.[7] Psychoactive drugs are substances that affect the function of the central nervous system, altering perception, mood or consciousness.[8] These drugs are divided into different groups such as: stimulants, depressants, antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and hallucinogens. These psychoactive drugs have been proven useful in treating a wide range of medical conditions including mental disorders around the world. The most widely used drugs in the world include caffeine, nicotine and alcohol,[9] which are also considered recreational drugs, since they are used for pleasure rather than medicinal purposes.[10] All drugs can have potential side effects.[11] Abuse of several psychoactive drugs can cause addiction or physical dependence.[12] Excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis. Many recreational drugs are illicit; international treaties such as the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition.
Violence.  Violence is characterized as the use of physical force by humans to cause harm to other living beings, such as pain, injury, disablement, death, damage and destruction. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines violence as the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation;[1] it recognizes the need to include violence not resulting in injury or death.[2] The World Health Organization (WHO) divides violence into three broad categories: self-directed, interpersonal, and collective.[3] This categorization differentiates between violence inflicted to and by oneself, by another individual or a small group, and by larger groups such as states. Alternatively, violence can primarily be classified as either instrumental or hostile.[4] Self-inflicted violence comes in two forms. The first is suicidal behaviour, which includes suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts. The second is self-harm, which includes acts such as self-mutilation. According to WHO, collective violence refers to the instrumental use of violence by people who identify themselves as members of a group – whether this group is transitory or has a more permanent identity – against another group or set of individuals in order to achieve political, economic or social objectives.[5]: 82  Collective violence may be targeted[6][7][8][9][10][11] or stochastic.
Libido. In psychology, libido (/lɪˈbiːdoʊ/ lih-BEE-doh; from Latin  libīdō) is a desiring energy, usually conceived of as sexual in nature, but sometimes also encompasses other forms of needs.[1] The term was originally developed by Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalysis. Initially it referred only to specific sexual needs, but he later expanded the concept to a universal desire, with the id being its great reservoir.[2][3] As driving energy behind all life processes, libido became the source of the social engagement (maternal love instinct, for example), sexual behaviour, pursuit for nutrition, skin pleasure, knowledge and victory in all areas of self- and species preservation.[4][5] Equated the libido with the Eros of Platonic philosophy,[6] Freud further differentiated two inherent operators: the life drive and the death drive.[7] Both aspects are working complementary to each other: While the death drive, also called Destrudo or Thanatos, embodies the principle of analytical decomposition of complex phenomenon, the effect of life drive (Greek Bios) is to reassemble or synthesise the parts of the decomposition in a way that serves the organisms regeneration and reproduction. Freuds most abstract description of libido represents an energetic potential that begins like a bow to tense up unpleasantly (noticeable hunger) in order to pleasantly relax again (noticeable satisfaction); its nature is both physical and psychological.[8] Starting from the id in the fertilised egg, libido initiates also the emergence of two further instances: the ego (function of conscious perception), and the superego, which specialises in retrievable storage of experiences (long-term memory). Together with libido as their source, these three instances represent the common core of all branches of psychoanalysis. From a neurobiological point of view, the inner perception and regulation of the various innate needs are mediated through the nucleus accumbens by neurotransmitters and hormones; in relation to sexuality, these are mainly testosterone, oestrogen and dopamine.[9] Each of the needs can be influenced by the others (e.g. baby feeding is inextricably connected with sociality); but above all, their fulfilment requires the libidinal satisfaction of curiosity. Without this research instinct of mind, the control of bodily motoric would be impossible, the arrow from the bow called life [10] wouldnt do its work (death). Just as happiness is anchored in the fulfilment of all innate needs, disturbances through social stress resulting from lifestyle, traumatisation in early childhood or during war, mental and bodily illness lead to suffering that is inwardly noticeable and conscious to the ego. Through the capacity of empathy, linguistic and facial expressions of emotion ultimately also affect the human environment. Influential figures applying psychoanalysis Influential works applying psychoanalysis
Wood.   Wood is a structural tissue/material found as xylem in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material – a natural composite of cellulosic fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees,[1] or more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere, such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree, it performs a mechanical-support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients among the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, woodchips, or fibers. Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuel, as a construction material, for making tools and weapons, furniture and paper. More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate. As of 2020, the growing stock of forests worldwide was about 557 billion cubic meters.[2] As an abundant, carbon-neutral[3] renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy. In 2008, approximately 3.97 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested.[2] Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction.[4]
Periodical literature.  Periodical literature (singularly called a periodical publication or simply a periodical) consists of published works that appear in new releases on a regular schedule (issues or numbers, often numerically divided into annual volumes). The most familiar example of periodical literature is the newspaper, but the magazine and the academic journal are also periodicals, as are some modern websites, e-journals, and other electronic-only publications produced recurrently on a schedule. Periodical publications cover a wide variety of topics, from academic, technical, and trade, to general-interest subjects such as leisure and entertainment. Articles within a periodical are usually organized around a single main subject or theme and include a title, date of publication, author(s), and brief summary of the article. A periodical typically contains an editorial section that comments on subjects of interest to its readers. Other common features are reviews of recently published books and films, columns that express the authors opinions about various topics, and advertisements. A periodical is a serial publication. A book series is also a serial publication, but is not typically called a periodical. An encyclopedia or dictionary is also a book, and might be called a serial publication if it is published in many different editions over time. A periodical series, such as a journal series, is a sequence of journals having certain characteristics in common that are formally identified together as a group (see academic journal series). Periodicals are typically published and referenced by volume and issue (also known as issue number or number). Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, and issue refers to how many times that periodical has been published during that year. For example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, volume 10, issue 4. Roman numerals are sometimes used in reference to the volume number.[1]
Harpers Magazine. Harpers Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in New York City in June 1850, it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States.[a] Harpers Magazine has won 22 National Magazine Awards.[1] The magazine has published works of prominent authors and political figures, including Herman Melville, Woodrow Wilson, and Winston Churchill. Willie Morriss resignation as editor in 1971 was considered a major event, and many other employees of the magazine resigned with him. The magazine has developed into the 21st century, adding several blogs.  It is related under the same publisher to Harpers Bazaar magazine, focused on fashion, and several other Harpers titles but each publication is independently produced. Although it shares historically ties to the publishing house Harper, it is not currently unaffiliated as it merged with William Collins, Sons to become HarperCollins. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center study, Harpers Magazine, along with The Atlantic, and The New Yorker, ranked highest in college-educated readership among major American media outlets.[2] Harpers Magazine began as Harpers New Monthly Magazine in New York City in June 1850, by publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines Harpers Weekly and Harpers Bazaar, and grew to become HarperCollins. The first press run of Harpers Magazine included 7,500 copies and sold out almost immediately. Six months later, the magazines circulation had grown to 50,000.[3] The early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters.[4] The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, and in time commentary by the likes of Winston Churchill and Woodrow Wilson. Portions of Herman Melvilles novel Moby-Dick were first published in the October 1851 issue of Harpers under the title, The Town-Hos Story, named after Chapter 54 of Moby-Dick.[5]
Means of communication. Means of communication or media are used by people to communicate and exchange information with each other as an information sender and a receiver. Diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication are called mass media. Many different materials are used in communication. Maps, for example, save tedious explanations on how to get to a destination. A means of communication is therefore a means to an end to make communication between people easier, more understandable and, above all, clearer. In everyday language, the term means of communication is often equated with the medium. However, the term medium is used in media studies to refer to a large number of concepts, some of which do not correspond to everyday usage.[1][2] Means of communication are used for communication between sender and recipient and thus for the transmission of information. Elements of communication include a communication-triggering event, sender and recipient, a means of communication, a path of communication and contents of communication.[3] The path of communication is the path that a message travels between sender and recipient; in hierarchies the vertical line of communication is identical to command hierarchies.[4] Paths of communication can be physical (e.g. the road as transportation route) or non-physical (e.g. networks like a computer network). Contents of communication can be for example photography, data, graphics, language, or texts. Means of communication in the narrower sense refer to technical devices that transmit information.[5] They are the manifestations of contents of communication that can be perceived through the senses and replace the communication that originally ran from person to person and make them reproducible.[6] Up until the 19th century the term means of communication  was primarily applied to traffic and couriers and to means of transport and transportation routes, such as railways, roads and canals,[7] but also used to include post riders and stagecoachs. In 1861, the national economist Albert Schäffle defined a means of communication as an aid to the circulation of goods and financial services, which included, among other things, newspapers, telegraphy, mail, courier services, remittance advice, invoices, and bills of lading.[8]
Obscenity.  An obscenity is any utterance or act that strongly offends the prevalent morality of the time.[1] It is derived from the Latin obscēnus, obscaenus, boding ill; disgusting; indecent, of uncertain etymology.[2] Generally, the term can be used to indicate strong moral repugnance and outrage in expressions such as obscene profits and the obscenity of war. As a legal term, it usually refers to descriptions and depictions of people engaged in sexual and excretory activity. In the United States, issues of obscenity raise issues of limitations on the freedom of speech and of the press, which are otherwise protected by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Federal obscenity law in the U.S. is unusual in that there is no uniform national standard. Former Justice Potter Stewart of the Supreme Court of the United States, in attempting to classify what material constituted exactly what is obscene, famously wrote, I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced ... [b]ut I know it when I see it....[3] In the U.S., the 1973 ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court in Miller v. California established a three-tiered test to determine what was obscene—and thus not protected, versus what was merely erotic and thus protected by the First Amendment. Delivering the opinion of the court, Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote: The basic guidelines for the trier of fact must be: (a) whether the average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest, (b) whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law; and (c) whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.[4]
Dead zone. Dead zone may refer to:
Hypoxia (environmental). Hypoxia refers to low oxygen conditions. Hypoxia is problematic for air-breathing organisms, yet it is essential for many anaerobic organisms. Hypoxia applies to many situations, but usually refers to the atmosphere and natural waters.[3] Atmospheric hypoxia occurs naturally at high altitudes. Total atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases, causing a lower partial pressure of oxygen, which is defined as hypobaric hypoxia. Oxygen remains at 20.9% of the total gas mixture, differing from hypoxic hypoxia, where the percentage of oxygen in the air (or blood) is decreased. This is common in the sealed burrows of some subterranean animals, such as blesmols.[4] Atmospheric hypoxia is also the basis of altitude training, which is a standard part of training for elite athletes. Several companies mimic hypoxia using normobaric artificial atmosphere. An aquatic system lacking dissolved oxygen (0% saturation) is termed anaerobic, reducing, or anoxic. In water, oxygen levels are approximately 7 ppm or 0.0007% in good quality water, but fluctuate.[5] Many organisms require hypoxic conditions. Oxygen is poisonous to anaerobic bacteria for example.[3] Oxygen depletion is typically expressed as a percentage of the oxygen that would dissolve in the water at the prevailing temperature and salinity. A system with low concentration—in the range between 1 and 30% saturation—is called hypoxic or dysoxic. Most fish cannot live below 30% saturation since they rely on oxygen to derive energy from their nutrients. Hypoxia leads to impaired reproduction of remaining fish via endocrine disruption.[6] A healthy aquatic environment should seldom experience less than 80% saturation. The exaerobic zone is found at the boundary of anoxic and hypoxic zones.
Anoxic waters. Anoxic waters are areas of sea water, fresh water, or groundwater that are depleted of dissolved oxygen.  The US Geological Survey defines anoxic groundwater as those with dissolved oxygen concentration of less than 0.5 milligrams per litre.[1] Anoxic waters can be contrasted with hypoxic waters, which are low (but not lacking) in dissolved oxygen.  Often, hypoxia is defined as waters that have less than 2 milligrams per litre of dissolved oxygen.[2] This condition is generally found in areas that have restricted water exchange. In most cases, oxygen is prevented from reaching the deeper levels by a physical barrier,[3] as well as by a pronounced density stratification, in which, for instance, denser, colder or hypersaline waters rest at the bottom of a basin.  Anoxic conditions will occur if the rate of oxidation of organic matter by bacteria is greater than the supply of dissolved oxygen. Anoxic waters are a natural phenomenon,[4] and have occurred throughout geological history. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, a mass extinction of species from the worlds oceans, may have resulted from widespread anoxic conditions combined with ocean acidification driven by a massive release of carbon dioxide into Earths atmosphere.[5]  Many lakes have a permanent or temporary anoxic layer created by respiration depleting oxygen at depth and thermal stratification preventing its resupply.[6] Anoxic basins exist in the Baltic Sea,[7] the Black Sea, the Cariaco Trench, various fjord valleys, and elsewhere.[8] Eutrophication has likely increased the extent of anoxic zones in areas including the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Mexico,[9] and Hood Canal in Washington State.[10] Anoxic conditions result from a combination of environmental conditions including density stratification,[11] inputs of organic material or other reducing agents, and physical barriers to water circulation.  In fjords, shallow sills at the entrance may prevent circulation, while at continental boundaries, circulation may be especially low while organic material input from production at upper levels is exceptionally high.[12] In wastewater treatment, the absence of oxygen alone is indicated anoxic while the term anaerobic is used to indicate the absence of any common electron acceptor such as nitrate, sulfate or oxygen.
South Pacific (novel).  South Pacific (1992) is a book by American author James A. Michener. As retold by Michener, the book is based on Rodgers and Hammersteins award-winning musical, South Pacific based on Micheners 1947 book Tales of the South Pacific, about the lives of officers, nurses, a French expatriate, and natives on the islands of the South Pacific during World War II. Includes discussion of the original Broadway production and its cast. Unpaginated glossy pages with some beautiful full-page color illustrations.[1]  This article about a World War II novel first published in the 1940s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Tales of the South Pacific.  Tales of the South Pacific is a Pulitzer Prize-winning collection of sequentially related short stories by James A. Michener about the Pacific campaign in World War II. The stories are based on observations and anecdotes he collected while stationed as a lieutenant commander in the US Navy at the Espiritu Santo Naval Base on the island of Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides Islands (now known as Vanuatu). Written in 1946 and published in 1947, the book was loosely adapted in 1949 as the Broadway musical South Pacific, which itself formed the basis of two films dating from 1958 and 2001. The stories take place in the environs of the Coral Sea and the Solomon Islands. Michener as narrator gives a first-person voice to several of the stories as an unnamed Commander, performing duties similar to those that he himself performed during World War II. Two stories are narrated by a named Navy pilot. The stories are interconnected by recurring characters and several loose plot lines. One plot line in particular is the preparation for and execution of a fictitious amphibious invasion, code-named Alligator. The focus of the stories is, however, the interactions between Americans and a variety of colonial, immigrant, and indigenous characters.
Ocean deoxygenation. Ocean deoxygenation is the reduction of the oxygen content in different parts of the ocean due to human activities.[2][3] There are two areas where this occurs. Firstly, it occurs in coastal zones where eutrophication has driven some quite rapid (in a few decades) declines in oxygen to very low levels.[2] This type of ocean deoxygenation is also called dead zones. Secondly, ocean deoxygenation occurs also in the open ocean. In that part of the ocean, there is nowadays an ongoing reduction in oxygen levels. As a result, the naturally occurring low oxygen areas (so called oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)) are now expanding slowly.[4] This expansion is happening as a consequence of human caused climate change.[5][6] The resulting decrease in oxygen content of the oceans poses a threat to marine life, as well as to people who depend on marine life for nutrition or livelihood.[7][8][9] A decrease in ocean oxygen levels affects how productive the ocean is, how nutrients and carbon move around, and how marine habitats function.[10][11] As the oceans become warmer this increases the loss of oxygen in the oceans. This is because the warmer temperatures increase ocean stratification. The reason for this lies in the multiple connections between density and solubility effects that result from warming.[12][13] As a side effect, the availability of nutrients for marine life is reduced, therefore adding further stress to marine organisms. The rising temperatures in the oceans also cause a reduced solubility of oxygen in the water, which can explain about 50% of oxygen loss in the upper level of the ocean (>1000 m). Warmer ocean water holds less oxygen and is more buoyant than cooler water. This leads to reduced mixing of oxygenated water near the surface with deeper water, which naturally contains less oxygen. Warmer water also raises oxygen demand from living organisms; as a result, less oxygen is available for marine life.[14] Studies have shown that oceans have already lost 1-2% of their oxygen since the middle of the 20th century,[15][16] and model simulations predict a decline of up to 7% in the global ocean O2 content over the next hundred years. The decline of oxygen is projected to continue for a thousand years or more.[17] The term ocean deoxygenation has been used increasingly by international scientific bodies because it captures the decreasing trend of the world oceans oxygen inventory.[2] Oceanographers and others have discussed what phrase best describes the phenomenon to non-specialists. Among the options considered have been ocean suffocation[18], marine deoxygenation, ocean oxygen depletion and ocean hypoxia.
Teppanyaki.  Teppanyaki (鉄板焼き, teppan-yaki), often called hibachi (火鉢, fire bowl) in the Western world,[1] is a post-World War II style[2] of Japanese cuisine that uses an iron griddle to cook food. The word teppanyaki is derived from teppan (鉄板), the metal plate on which it is cooked, and yaki (焼き), which means grilled, broiled, or pan-fried. In Japan, teppanyaki refers to dishes cooked using a teppan, including steak, shrimp, okonomiyaki, yakisoba, and monjayaki. Teppan are typically propane-heated, flat-surfaced, and are widely used to cook food in front of guests at restaurants. They are commonly confused with the hibachi barbecue grill, which is called shichirin in Japanese, and has a charcoal or gas flame and is made with an open grate design. With a solid griddle-type cook surface, the teppan is capable of cooking small or semisolid  ingredients such as rice, egg and finely chopped vegetables.[1] The originator of the teppanyaki-style steakhouse is believed to be Shigeji Fujioka of the Japanese restaurant chain Misono.[3] The restaurant claims to be the first to introduce the concept of cooking Western-influenced food on a teppan in Japan, in 1945.[4][5] They soon found the cuisine was less popular with the Japanese than it was with foreigners, who enjoyed both watching the skilled maneuvers of the chefs preparing the food and the cuisine itself, which is somewhat more familiar than more traditional Japanese dishes. As the restaurants became more popular with tourists, the chain increased the performance aspect of the chefs preparation, such as stacking onion slices to produce a flaming onion volcano.[citation needed] Another piece of equipment in the same family is a flattop grill, consisting of a flat piece of steel over circular burners and typically smaller and round, like a Mongolian barbecue.[6][better source needed]
South Pacific (1958 film).  South Pacific is a 1958 American romantic musical film based on the 1949 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical South Pacific, which in turn is loosely based on James A. Micheners 1947 short-story collection Tales of the South Pacific. The film, directed by Joshua Logan, stars Rossano Brazzi, Mitzi Gaynor, John Kerr and Ray Walston in the leading roles with Juanita Hall as Bloody Mary, the part that she had played in the original stage production. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards, winning the Academy Award for Best Sound for Fred Hynes. It is set in 1943, during World War II, on an island in the South Pacific. During World War II, the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marines are preparing a counteroffensive against the Imperial Japanese Navy in the islands of the South Pacific. Lieutenant Joe Cable, a Marine officer, asks a local French planter, Emile de Becque, to assist with a reconnaissance mission behind Japanese lines, but de Becque declines; he has fallen in love with U.S. Navy nurse Nellie Forbush and does not want to get involved. Luther Billis, a Navy Construction Battalion sailor (Seabee), persuades Cable to visit the nearby island of Bali Hai, where Cable falls in love with a local girl, Liat. Nellie, although in love with de Becque, is tormented by the revelation that he had children with a Polynesian woman (who has since died) and runs away, while Cable says he will not marry Liat; he is distressed by the thought of bringing her back to his family, fearing their reaction. Distraught by his separation from Nellie and with nothing to lose, de Becque volunteers to go with Cable, who wishes to complete the mission and live the rest of his life on Bali Hai with Liat. The two men fly to a local fishing boat in order to secretly access a Japanese-held island, to provide vital intelligence for the U.S. Navy. The group comes under heavy fire from a Japanese plane and Cable is killed, but the mission is a success and the Navy gains knowledge that allows it to move on the Japanese forces.
Privately held company. A privately held company (or simply a private company) is a company whose shares and related rights or obligations are not offered for public subscription or publicly negotiated in their respective listed markets. Instead, the companys stock is offered, owned, traded or exchanged privately, also known as over-the-counter. Related terms are unlisted organisation, unquoted company and private equity. Private companies are often less well-known than their publicly traded counterparts but still have major importance in the worlds economy. For example, in 2008, the 441 largest private companies in the United States accounted for $1.8 trillion in revenues and employed 6.2 million people, according to Forbes.[1] In general, all companies that are not owned by the government are classified as private enterprises. This definition encompasses both publicly traded and privately held companies, as their investors are individuals. Private ownership of productive assets differs from state ownership or collective ownership (as in worker-owned companies). This usage is often found in former Eastern Bloc countries to differentiate from former state-owned enterprises,[citation needed] but it may be used anywhere in contrast to a state-owned or a collectively owned company. In the United States, a privately held company refers to a business entity owned by private stakeholders, investors, or company founders, and its shares are not available for public purchase on stock exchanges. That contrasts with public companies, whose shares are publicly traded, which allows investing by the general public.
Pornography.  Pornography (colloquially called porn or porno) is sexually suggestive material, such as a picture, video, text, or audio, intended for sexual arousal.[a] Made for consumption by adults, pornographic depictions have evolved from cave paintings, some forty millennia ago, to modern-day virtual reality presentations. A general distinction of adults-only sexual content is made, classifying it as pornography or erotica. The oldest artifacts considered pornographic were discovered in Germany in 2008 and are dated to be at least 35,000 years old.[b] Human enchantment with sexual imagery representations has been a constant throughout history. However, the reception of such imagery varied according to the historical, cultural, and national contexts. The Indian Sanskrit text Kama Sutra (3rd century CE) contained prose, poetry, and illustrations regarding sexual behavior, and the book was celebrated; while the British English text Fanny Hill (1748), considered the first original English prose pornography, has been one of the most prosecuted and banned books. In the late 19th century, a film by Thomas Edison that depicted a kiss was denounced as obscene in the United States, whereas Eugène Pirous 1896 film Bedtime for the Bride was received very favorably in France. Starting from the mid-twentieth century on, societal attitudes towards sexuality became lenient in the Western world where legal definitions of obscenity were made limited. In 1969, Blue Movie by Andy Warhol became the first film to depict unsimulated sex that received a wide theatrical release in the United States. This was followed by the Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984). The introduction of home video and the World Wide Web in the late 20th century led to global growth in the pornography business. Beginning in the 21st century, greater access to the Internet and affordable smartphones made pornography more mainstream. Pornography has been vouched to provision a safe outlet for sexual desires that may not be satisfied within relationships and be a facilitator of sexual fulfillment in people who do not have a partner. Pornography consumption is found to induce psychological moods and emotions similar to those evoked during sexual intercourse and casual sex. Pornography usage is considered a widespread recreational activity in-line with other digitally mediated activities such as use of social media or video games.[c] People who regard porn as sex education material were identified as more likely not to use condoms in their own sex life, thereby assuming a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs); performers working for pornographic studios undergo regular testing for STIs unlike much of the general public. Comparative studies indicate higher tolerance and consumption of pornography among adults tends to be associated with their greater support for gender equality. Among feminist groups, some seek to abolish pornography believing it to be harmful, while others oppose censorship efforts insisting it is benign. A longitudinal study ascertained pornography use is not a predictive factor in intimate partner violence.[d] Porn Studies, started in 2014, is the first international peer-reviewed, academic journal dedicated to critical study of pornographic products and services. Currently, the production of pornographic films featuring male and female actors is often linked to prostitution in that women are filmed during paid sex, with or without their consent. In many cases, they are also pressured or coerced into performing certain sexual acts that they would not do of their own accord.[1][2][3] In most pornographic films, footage is edited together and viewers are presented with sequencies of sexual acts that do not exist in real sexual relationships between people. Preparatory acts that satisfy real needs are omitted. What viewers see is the result of acting performances.[4]
Pacific–Farallon Ridge. The Pacific-Farallon Ridge was a spreading ridge during the Late Cretaceous that extended 10,000 km in length and separated the Pacific Plate to the west and the Farallon Plate to the east. It ran south from the Pacific-Farallon-Kula triple junction at 51°N to the Pacific-Farallon-Antarctic triple junction at 43°S.[1] As the Farallon Plate subducted obliquely under the North American Plate, the Pacific-Farallon Ridge approached and eventually made contact with the North American Plate about 30 million years ago.[2] On average, this ridge had an equatorial spreading rate of 13.5 cm per year until its eventual collision with the North American Plate. In present day, the Pacific-Farallon Ridge no longer formally exists since the Farallon Plate has been broken up or subducted beneath the North American Plate, and the ridge has segmented, having been mostly subducted as well. The most notable remnant of the Pacific-Farallon Ridge is the 4000 km Pacific-Nazca segment of the East Pacific Rise.[3] As a spreading ridge, the Pacific-Farallon Ridge was a divergent plate boundary, which is where the two plates are moving away from each other. Partial mantle melting occurs beneath such ridges, which forms new oceanic crust. The Pacific-Farallon Ridge was thought to be a particularly productive spreading ridge, and there are estimates that the ridge and its remnants have formed up to 45% of all oceanic lithosphere since 83 million years ago.[4] The spreading rate of the Pacific-Farallon Ridge has varied throughout its lifetime with an acceleration of its spreading rate occurring 55 to 48 million years ago, around the same time that a significant portion of the Farallon Plate broke to form the Vancouver Plate.[5] The spreading rate decreased once the ridge made contact with the North American Plate 16 million years ago.[6] As the Farallon Plate made contact with the North American Plate and began subducting beneath it, it fragmented into the Juan de Fuca Plate and Cocos Plate, and then later fragmented further to form the Rivera Plate.[7] Once the Pacific-Farallon Ridge began subducting beneath the North American Plate, the remains of the Farallon Plate broke apart to form the Monterey, Arguello, Magdalena, and Guadelupe Microplates, and the southern portion of the ridge rotated in a clockwise manner.[8] The contact of the ridge with North America marked a transition of the Pacific-Farallon Ridge from being a globally oriented spreading ridge system to a locally oriented one. The distinction between these systems is that slab pull and gravitational gliding forces determine the characteristics of the globally oriented whereas those of the locally oriented are influenced by the contact of the ridge with the North American Plate.[9] As the Pacific-Farallon Ridge began its subduction underneath the North American plate 30 million years ago, its southern segment, the East Pacific Rise continued spreading. The East Pacific Rise did not begin its subduction under the North American Plate until 20 million years ago, and the presently surviving portion of the East Pacific Rise is the Pacific-Nazca segment. The present-day spreading from the East Pacific Rise dominates the spreading regime in the Central and South Pacific.[10] 
Pacific Rim. The Pacific Rim comprises the lands around the rim of the Pacific Ocean.  The Pacific Basin includes the Pacific Rim and the islands in the Pacific Ocean.[1]  The Pacific Rim roughly overlaps with the geological Pacific Ring of Fire. This is a list of countries that are generally considered to be a part of the Pacific Rim, since they lie along the Pacific Ocean.[2] Arranging from north to south, west to east in directional order.  The Pacific has much international shipping. The top 10 busiest container ports, with the exception of Dubais Port of Jebel Ali (9th), are in the Rim nations. They are home to 29 of the worlds 50 busiest container shipping ports: 
Pacific, California.   38°45′37″N 120°30′26″W / 38.76028°N 120.50722°W / 38.76028; -120.50722 Pacific is a small unincorporated community in El Dorado County, California.[1] It is located 3.25 miles (5 km) east of Pollock Pines,[2] at an elevation of 3396 feet (1035 m).[1]  It lies along U.S. Highway 50. The ZIP code is 95726. The community is inside area code 530. A post office operated in Pacific from 1880 to 1893 and from 1894 to 1958, when it was transferred to the nearby community of Pacific House.[2]
South Pacific (musical).  South Pacific is a musical composed by Richard Rodgers, with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II and book by Hammerstein and Joshua Logan. The work premiered in 1949 on Broadway and was an immediate hit, running for 1,925 performances. The plot is based on James A. Micheners Pulitzer Prize–winning 1947 book Tales of the South Pacific and combines elements of several of those stories. Rodgers and Hammerstein believed they could write a musical based on Micheners work that would be financially successful and, at the same time, send a strong progressive message on racism. The plot centers on an American nurse stationed on a South Pacific island during World War II, who falls in love with a middle-aged expatriate French plantation owner but struggles to accept his mixed-race children. A secondary romance, between a U.S. Marine lieutenant and a young Tonkinese woman, explores his fears of the social consequences should he marry his Asian sweetheart. The issue of racial prejudice is candidly explored throughout the musical, most controversially in the lieutenants song, Youve Got to Be Carefully Taught.  Supporting characters, including a comic petty officer and the Tonkinese girls mother, help to tie the stories together.  Because he lacked military knowledge, Hammerstein had difficulty writing that part of the script. The director of the original production, Logan, assisted him and received credit as co-writer of the book. The original Broadway production enjoyed immense critical and box-office success, became the second-longest running Broadway musical to that point (behind Rodgers and Hammersteins earlier Oklahoma! (1943)), and has remained popular ever since. After they signed Ezio Pinza and Mary Martin as the leads, Rodgers and Hammerstein wrote several of the songs with the particular talents of their stars in mind.  The piece won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1950.  Especially in the Southern U.S., its racial theme provoked controversy, for which its authors were unapologetic. Several of its songs, including Bali Hai, Im Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair, Some Enchanted Evening, There Is Nothing Like a Dame, Happy Talk, Younger Than Springtime, and Im in Love with a Wonderful Guy, have become popular standards. The production won ten Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Score, and Best Libretto, and it is the only musical production to win Tony Awards in all four acting categories. Its original cast album was the bestselling record of the 1940s, and other recordings of the show have also been popular. The show has enjoyed many successful revivals and tours, spawning a 1958 film and television adaptations. The 2008 Broadway revival, a critical success, ran for 996 performances and won seven Tonys, including Best Musical Revival.
Pacific–Kula Ridge. The Pacific-Kula Ridge is a former mid-ocean ridge that existed between the Pacific and Kula plates in the Pacific Ocean during the Paleogene period. Its appearance was in an east–west direction and the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain had its attribution with the ridge.[1] The Pacific-Kula Ridge lay south of the Hawaii hotspot around 80 million years ago, moving northward relative to the hotspot.[2]   This tectonics article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Oxygen.  Oxygen is a chemical element; it has symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and a potent oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds. Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earths crust, making up almost half of the Earths crust in the form of various oxides such as water, carbon dioxide, iron oxides and silicates.[7] It is the third-most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium. At standard temperature and pressure, two oxygen atoms will bind covalently to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the chemical formula O2. Dioxygen gas currently constitutes approximately 20.95% molar fraction of the Earths atmosphere, though this has changed considerably over long periods of time in Earths history. A much rarer triatomic allotrope of oxygen, ozone (O3), strongly absorbs the UVB and UVC wavelengths and forms a protective ozone layer at the lower stratosphere, which shields the biosphere from ionizing ultraviolet radiation. However, ozone present at the surface is a corrosive byproduct of smog and thus an air pollutant. All eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, fungi, algae and most protists, need oxygen for cellular respiration, a process that extracts chemical energy by the reaction of oxygen with organic molecules derived from food and releases carbon dioxide as a waste product.  Many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen atoms, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats, as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells, teeth, and bone. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, the major constituent of lifeforms. Oxygen in Earths atmosphere is produced by biotic photosynthesis, in which photon energy in sunlight is captured by chlorophyll to split water molecules and then react with carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and oxygen is released as a byproduct. Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic activities of autotroph such as cyanobacteria, chloroplast-bearing algae and plants. Oxygen was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774. Priority is often given for Priestley because his work was published first. Priestley, however, called oxygen dephlogisticated air, and did not recognize it as a chemical element. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier first recognized oxygen as a chemical element and correctly characterized the role it plays in combustion.
Pacific Ocean.  Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earths five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is bounded by the continents of Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east. At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as defined with a southern Antarctic border), the Pacific Ocean is the largest division of the World Ocean and the hydrosphere and covers approximately 46% of Earths water surface and about 32% of the planets total surface area, larger than its entire land area (148,000,000 km2 (57,000,000 sq mi)).[1] The centers of both the water hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, as well as the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, are in the Pacific Ocean. Ocean circulation (caused by the Coriolis effect) subdivides it[2] into two largely independent volumes of water that meet at the equator, the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean (or more loosely the South Seas). The Pacific Ocean can also be informally divided by the International Date Line into the East Pacific and the West Pacific, which allows it to be further divided into four quadrants, namely the Northeast Pacific off the coasts of North America, the Southeast Pacific off South America, the Northwest Pacific off Far Eastern/Pacific Asia, and the Southwest Pacific around Oceania.
Western Pacific Airlines. Western Pacific Airlines, or WestPac, was an airline which operated in the United States from 1995 to 1998.  A low-cost carrier, it was formed in 1994 under the name Commercial Air, later changed to Western Pacific, and began operating scheduled passenger flights on April 28, 1995, with eight Boeing 737-300s.  Edward Gaylord of Gaylord Entertainment Company was involved in the formation and management of the airline. Its headquarters were in unincorporated El Paso County, Colorado, near Colorado Springs.[1][2] Originally based at Colorado Springs Airport, Western Pacific routes were mainly west of the Mississippi River. Routes were extended to the eastern U.S. and on the west coast as new Boeing 737-300 aircraft were acquired. At one point the airline operated leased Boeing 727-200 jetliners as well. The airline declared bankruptcy in February 1998 and ceased operations. The WestPac livery could be encountered in variations on the basic Western Pacific livery, but most aircraft were painted in logojet schemes. They included advertisements for: The company also had other schemes with no corporate affiliations or advertising. They were: In 1995, a marketing promotion with Rupert Murdoch’s American Fox network led to one of the airlines Boing 737-300 being painted with characters from The Simpsons. According to Fox, this was because it would give people a chuckle and that people at the airport will notice it.  [3]
Pacific–Antarctic Ridge. The Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (PAR, Antarctic Pacific Ridge, South Pacific Rise, South Pacific Ridge)[4] is a divergent tectonic plate boundary located on the seafloor of the South Pacific Ocean, separating the Pacific plate from the  Antarctic plate. It is regarded as the southern section of the East Pacific Rise in some usages, generally south of the Challenger fracture zone which is associated with a triple junction between the Juan Fernández microplate, the Pacific plate and the Antarctic plate. It stretches from there in a general southwesterly direction to the Macquarie Triple Junction south of New Zealand.[5] The divergence rate between the two plates along the ridge is believed to vary from about 5.4 centimetres per year (2.1 in/year) near 65°S to 7.4 centimetres per year (2.9 in/year) near the Udintsev fracture zone at 55°S.[6]: 1281  This area of transition in sea floor spreading rate has been mapped by multiple techniques and occurs near the Heirtzler fracture zone.[1] The ridge is related to the Late Cretaceous breakup of Gondwana. To the southeast the historic Bellingshausen plate separated the Pacific and Antarctic plates between about 84 to 61 million years ago.[7]: Fig 9.  Until about 33 million years ago, the Proto-Antipodes fracture zone well to the south separated two independent spreading centers, now merged, being the Antarctic–Pacific Ridge and that of the Antarctic–Campbell Plateau.[7]: 14 Fracture zones are generally areas of low gravity on the seafloor parallel to a spreading center.[1] The named fracture zones going southwest along the rise, include: Stretching for 4,300 km (2,700 mi) north-west from the Eltanin fault system which intersects the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge to the Osbourn Seamount at Tonga and Kermadec Junction[9] is a long line of seamounts called the Louisville Ridge – the longest such chain in  the Pacific[10] – thought to have formed from the Pacific Plate sliding over a long-lived center of upwelling magma called the Louisville hotspot.
Far East.  The Far East is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including North, East and Southeast Asia.[1][2] South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term.[3][4] In modern times, the term Far East has widely fallen out of use and been substituted by Asia–Pacific,[5] while the terms Middle East and Near East, although now pertaining to different territories, are still commonly used today. The term first came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 15th century, particularly the British, denoting the Far East as the farthest of the three Easts, beyond the Near East and the Middle East.[6] Likewise, during the Qing dynasty of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term Tàixī (泰西) – i.e., anything further west than the Arab world – was used to refer to the Western countries. Since the mid-20th century, the term has mostly gone out of use for the region in international mass media outlets due to its perceived Eurocentric connotations.[7][8][9] North Asia is sometimes excluded due to cultural and ethnic differences.[10] The term is still used in Russia to refer to its sparsely populated easternmost regions (being far in this case from the political, economic and cultural centres, Moscow and Saint Petersburg).
Western Pacific Railroad.  The Western Pacific Railroad (reporting mark WP) was a Class I railroad in the United States. It was formed in 1903 as an attempt to break the near-monopoly the Southern Pacific Railroad had on rail service into northern California. WPs Feather River Route directly competed with SPs portion of the Overland Route for rail traffic between Salt Lake City/Ogden, Utah, and Oakland, California, for nearly 80 years. The Western Pacific was one of the original operators of the California Zephyr passenger line. In 1982, the Western Pacific was acquired by the Union Pacific Corporation and it was merged into the Union Pacific Railroad.[1] The original Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870) was established in 1862 to build the westernmost portion of the first transcontinental railroad, between Sacramento and San Jose, California (later to Oakland).  After completing the last link from Sacramento to Oakland, this company was absorbed into the Central Pacific Railroad in 1870. The second company to use the western pacific appellation was the Western Pacific Railway Company, founded in 1903. Under the direction of George Jay Gould I, the Western Pacific Railway proposed to build a standard gauge track connection to the Pacific Coast for his aspiring Gould transcontinental system. Construction was financed by the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, a company in the Gould system, which had lost access to California due to the attempted acquisition of the Southern Pacific Railroad by the Rio Grandes main rival, the Union Pacific Railroad. The Western Pacific Railway acquired the Alameda and San Joaquin Railroad and began construction on what became known as the Feather River Route. Completed in 1909, it was the last major rail line connected to California. After Western Pacific Railway Company defaulted on mortgage bonds, its assets were sold in 1916 to The Western Pacific Railroad Company.
British Western Pacific Territories.  The British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT) was a colonial entity created in 1877 for the administration of a series of Pacific islands in Oceania under a single representative of the British Crown, styled the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. Except for Fiji and the Solomon Islands, most of these colonial possessions were relatively small islands. The Pacific Islanders Protection Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 51), then later, the Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890 (53 & 54 Vict. c. 37), provided for jurisdiction over British subjects in the Pacific.[1] In 1877 the position of Western Pacific High Commissioner was formalised by the Western Pacific Order in Council 1877 by the Privy Council of the United Kingdom.[1] Article 12 established the Chief Justice of Fiji as the Chief Judicial Commissioner for the Western Pacific.[1][2] The Order in Council created the colonial entity – the British Western Pacific Territories – and granted the authority to manage the engagement of indentured labourers and to otherwise give the colonial entity authority over British subjects in the Western Pacific beyond the jurisdiction of British and colonial Australian laws.[1] The Governor of Fiji was given authority over persons and acts in the islands south of the equator. The Governor, as High Commissioner and Consul-General, was given the authority: to conduct diplomatic relations with local representatives of the foreign powers, to regulate the labour trade where  it was conducted by British subjects only, and to maintain law and order among British subjects in the Pacific islands where there were no recognised governments.[1] The High Commissioner appointed resident commissioners to manage specific island territories. Following a commission of inquiry, a revised Order in Council was issued in 1893, which gave the resident commissioners wider autonomy over the islands under their control.[1] The composition of the territories of the BWPT varied over time.[1][3][4] As the islands were spread over the South Pacific, administration of the territories was problematic.[5] The most durable members were Fiji (from 1877 to 1952) and the Solomon Islands (from 1893 to 1976). Between 1942 and 1945, the high commission was suspended. While most islands were under British military administration, the Solomon Islands and Gilbert Islands came under Japanese occupation.
Mississippi Valley (disambiguation). The Mississippi Valley is a valley which the Mississippi River flows through. Mississippi Valley may also refer to:
Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870). The Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870) was formed in 1862 to build a railroad from Sacramento, California, to the San Francisco Bay, the westernmost portion of the First transcontinental railroad.  After the completion of the railroad from Sacramento to Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, and then the Oakland Pier on November 8, 1869, which was the Pacific coast terminus of the transcontinental railroad, the Western Pacific Railroad was absorbed in 1870 into the Central Pacific Railroad. The Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870) was formed in December 1862 by a group led by Timothy Dame and including Charles McLaughlin and Peter Donahue, all associated with the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad (SF&SJ), to build a railroad from San Jose north to Niles (then called Vallejo Mills), east through Niles Canyon (then called Alameda Cañon), north to Pleasanton, east through the Livermore Valley, and over Altamont Pass to Stockton, then north to Sacramento,[2] with the plan that the transcontinental railroad would follow the Western Pacific to San Jose and then the SF&SJ to San Francisco. At the completion of the SF&SJ in January 1864, it was reported that the general contract for the Western Pacific was awarded to McLaughlin & Houston and that negotiations for iron, equipment, and rolling stock had begun.[3] On October 31, 1864, the Central Pacific Railroad assigned all the rights of the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 to the Western Pacific for the route between Sacramento and San Jose, including land grants.[4]  The amending Act of March 3, 1865 ratified and confirmed the assignment made by Central Pacific Railroad to Western Pacific Railroad and authorized Western Pacific Railroad as one of the charter companies.[5] The construction of the Western Pacific Railroad began in February 1865 near San Jose and northward under a contract taken by J.B. Cox & Myers.[6]  After Chinese laborers had helped complete the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad in 1864, a force of 500 Chinese laborers was grading the roadbed and laying tracks for the Western Pacific in 1865.[7]  By October 1866, Western Pacific completed 20 miles (32 km) of track north and east from San Jose, reaching halfway into Alameda Cañon (now Niles Canyon) to a point just beyond Farwell.[8] The first cars left San Jose to Vallejo Canyon (Alameda Cañon) on October 2.[9][10] It had also surveyed, and started work on some places on, the rest of the line through Alameda Cañon, through Livermore Valley, over Livermore Pass (now Altamont Pass), and on to Stockton and Sacramento, before running out of money and halting all construction.  Part of the difficulty was that federal land grants were not available where Mexican land grants had previously been made. In June 1867, the five Associates (Big Four plus E. B. Crocker) of the Central Pacific completed a complicated transaction with moribund Western Pacific (WP) and resuscitated it and its assets while Charles McLaughlin, the only Western Pacific owner left, retained rights to sell his land grants.[2][11]: 335–339  In September 1867, Governor Stanford led a party to show them the projected WP line, which would captured his interest that it would soon be dubbed The Governors Road.[11]: 339, 407  In October 1867, patterned after the structure of the ill-fated Crédit Mobilier of America, the Contract and Finance Company was incorporated to act as the stock/asset holding/laundering subsidiary formally independent of Central Pacific, but informally transferring stocks/assets back to the five CP Associates, to finance the construction and purchase of railroad.[11]: 408, 739 n35
Alberta.  Alberta is a province in Canada. It is a part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to its west, Saskatchewan to its east, the Northwest Territories to its north, and the U.S. state of Montana to its south. Alberta and Saskatchewan are the only two landlocked Canadian provinces.[7] The eastern part of the province is occupied by the Great Plains, while the western part borders the Rocky Mountains. The province has a predominantly continental climate, but seasonal temperatures tend to swing rapidly because it is so arid. Those swings are less pronounced in western Alberta because of its occasional Chinook winds.[8] [9] Alberta is the fourth largest province by area, at 661,848 square kilometres (255,541 square miles),[10] and the fourth most populous, with 4,262,635 residents.[2] Albertas capital is Edmonton; its largest city is Calgary.[11] The two cities are Albertas largest census metropolitan areas.[12] More than half of Albertans live in Edmonton or Calgary, which encourages a continuing rivalry between the two cities. English is the provinces official language. In 2016, 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone, 1.8% were francophone and 22.2% were allophone.[13] Albertas economy is advanced, open, market-based, and characterized by a highly educated workforce, strong institutions and property rights, and sophisticated financial markets. The service sector employs 80% of Albertans, in fields like healthcare, education, professional services, retail, tourism and financial services. The industrial base includes manufacturing, construction, and agriculture (10%, 5%, and 2% of employment respectively), while the knowledge economy includes about 3000 tech companies employing an estimated 60,000 people, mainly in Calgary and Edmonton.[14] The energy sector employs 5% of Albertans but significantly impacts exports and GDP.[15] Albertas exports, primarily US-bound,[16] consist of 70% oil and gas, 13% food products, and 12% industrial products.[17] Oil and gas are culturally influential, having shaped politics, generated striking it rich narratives, and created boom-and-bust cycles.[18] In 2023, Albertas output was $350 billion, 15% of Canadas GDP.[19] Until the 1930s, Albertas political landscape consisted of two major parties: the centre-left Liberals and the agrarian United Farmers of Alberta. Today, Alberta is generally perceived as a conservative province. The right-wing Social Credit Party held office continually from 1935 to 1971 before the centre-right Progressive Conservatives held office continually from 1971 to 2015, the latter being the longest unbroken run in government at the provincial or federal level in Canadian history. Since before it became part of Canada, Alberta has been home to several First Nations, such as Plains Indians and Woodland Cree. It was historically also a territory used by fur traders of the rival companies Hudsons Bay Company and North West Company. The Dominion of Canada bought the lands that would become Alberta as part of the NWT in 1870.[20] From the late 1800s to the early 1900s, many immigrants arrived in an effort to prevent the prairies from being annexed by the United States. Growing wheat and cattle ranching became very profitable during this period. In 1905, the Alberta Act was passed, creating the province of Alberta.[21] Massive oil reserves were discovered in 1947. The exploitation of oil sands began in 1967.[22]
Mississippi (disambiguation). Mississippi is a southern state of the United States of America. Mississippi may also refer to:
Effigy Mounds National Monument.  Effigy Mounds National Monument preserves more than 200 prehistoric mounds built by pre-Columbian Mound Builder cultures, mostly in the first millennium CE, during the later part of the  Woodland period of pre-Columbian North America. Numerous effigy mounds are shaped like animals, including bears and birds. The monument is located primarily in Allamakee County, Iowa, with a small part in Clayton County, Iowa, in the midwestern United States.[4] The parks visitor center is located in Harpers Ferry, Iowa, just north of Marquette. In 2017, the Effigy Mounds were featured in the America the Beautiful Quarters Program. Prehistoric earthworks by mound builder cultures are common in the Midwest.  However, mounds in the shape of mammals, birds, or reptiles, known as effigies, apparently were constructed primarily by peoples in what is now known as southern Wisconsin, northeast Iowa, and small parts of Minnesota and Illinois. An exception is the Great Serpent Mound in southwestern Ohio. Effigy Mounds National Monument takes in the western edge of the effigy region. The North Unit (67 mounds) and South Unit (29 mounds) are located where the counties meet along the Mississippi River. They are contiguous and easily accessible. The Sny Magill Unit (112 mounds) is approximately 11 miles (18 km) south of the other units, and offers no visitor facilities. Other mounds are located on remote parts of the Monument property.[5] The monument contains 2,526 acres (10.22 km2) with 206 mounds, of which 31 are effigies. The largest, Great Bear Mound, measures 42 meters from head to tail and rises over a meter above the original ground level.
Farming (disambiguation). Farming, or agriculture, is the science, art and practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Farming may also refer to:
Novellae Constitutiones. The Novellae Constitutiones (new constitutions; Ancient Greek: Νεαραὶ διατάξεις, romanized: Nearaì diatáxeis), or Justinians Novels, are now considered one of the four major units of Roman law initiated by Roman emperor Justinian I in the course of his long reign (AD 527–565). The other three pieces are: the Codex Justinianus, the Digest, and the Institutes. Justinians quaestor Tribonian was primarily responsible for compiling these last three.  Together, the four parts are known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. Whereas the Code, Digest, and Institutes were designed by Justinian as coherent works, the Novels are diverse laws enacted after 534 (when he promulgated the second edition of the Code) that never were officially compiled during his reign.[1]. Justinian’s first Code, issued in 529, compiled and harmonized the imperial enactments (constitutiones, or constitutions) of previous emperors.[2]  After the Code was promulgated, only it, and not the prior imperial legislation, could be cited as law.[3]  However, in 530 and 531, Justinian issued the quinquaginta decisiones (fifty decisions) that resolved differences among the writings of classical jurists, and he continued to issue other new laws as well.[4]  This meant the Code could no longer be the sole, unified source of imperial legislation.  Hence, in 534 Justinian issued the Constitutio cordi nobis,[5]  creating a second edition of the Code (Codex repetitae praelectionis). This edition integrated his new legislation into the imperial enactments in the first edition and superseded it. Justinian continued to legislate after he created the second edition of the Code. Thus, in his pragmatic sanction of 554 (Sanctio pragmatica pro petitione Vigilii),[6] he foresaw that he would need to maintain a collection of these new constitutions modifying the Code (novellae constitutiones, quae post nostri codicis confectionem). This he did in the form of an archive called the Liber legum or Libri legum.[7] While Justinian never made an official manuscript compilation of the new laws, private persons filled this void by making unofficial collections in several forms.  The following timeline provides a succinct description of these collections and explains how they were transmitted through the centuries.[8] 
Novel (Roman law). In Roman law, a novel (Latin: novella constitutio, new decree; Greek: νεαρά, romanized: neara) is a new decree or edict,[1] in other words a new law. The term was used from the fourth century AD onwards and was specifically used for laws issued after the publishing of the Codex Theodosianus in 438 and then for the Justiniac Novels, or Novellae Constitutiones. The term was used on and off in later Roman history until falling out of use during the late Byzantine period.[1]  This article about Roman law is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Mississippi (disambiguation). Mississippi is a southern state of the United States of America. Mississippi may also refer to:
The Novel.  The Novel (1991) is a novel written by American author James A. Michener. A departure from Micheners  better known historical fiction, The Novel is told from the viewpoints of four different characters involved in the life and work of a writer of Amish historical novels based in a fictional Pennsylvania Dutch town named Grenzler, in rural Pennsylvania.[1] There is much discussion of writing, not all of it in support of Micheners own style. Many story devices discussed by the characters are later used by Michener in this same story.  This article about a historical novel of the 1990s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Owl City.  Owl City is an American electronic music project created in 2007 in Owatonna, Minnesota. It is one of several projects by singer, songwriter and multi-instrumentalist Adam Young, who created the project while experimenting with music in his parents basement. Owl City developed a following on the social networking site Myspace, like many musicians who achieved success in the late 2000s, before signing with Universal Republic Records, now Republic Records, in 2008. After two independent releases, his debut EP Of June (2007) and debut studio album Maybe Im Dreaming (2008), Owl City gained mainstream popularity with its 2009 major-label debut and second studio album, Ocean Eyes, which includes the Diamond certified single Fireflies. The album was certified 2× Platinum in the United States, with Fireflies being certified Diamond in January 2023. In June 2011, Owl City released its third studio album, All Things Bright and Beautiful, which was followed by The Midsummer Station in August 2012. He released his fifth studio album and last under Republic Records, Mobile Orchestra in July 2015. He released his sixth and seventh studio album Cinematic (2018) and Coco Moon (2023), independently. Owl City has recorded songs for several animated films, including Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of GaHoole, Wreck-It Ralph, The Croods and The Smurfs 2.[2] Owl City also has released several charting singles, most notably Good Time and Fireflies.
Novel (film).  Novel is a 2008 Indian Malayalam-language romantic drama film produced and directed by East Coast Vijayan in his directorial debut. The film stars Jayaram and Sadha in the lead role. The film marks the debut of Sadha in Malayalam cinema. Sethunath (Jayaram) is a prosperous business man and also a writer. However, when his creation titled Swantham becomes a best seller and bags the commonwealth awards. The writer is the least interested so much so that he is not even aware who translated his work & earned the award for the book. Aneesa, a journalist, is determined to get a personal interview with her favorite writer Sethu and does not hesitate to get it at the expense of bribing Sethus secretary Subramaniam Swamy and finally succeeds. Luckily for her, Sethu is impressed with her resilience and also the fact that she comes from the same orphanage that he hailed from makes him open his heart. He talks about his failed marriage and Priyanandini (Sadha) whom he encounters during the making of a lottery commercial. Gradually, Priya reaches the pinnacle of stardom with the support of Sethu. In this process, both of them fall in love with each other and decide to get married. Manju (Shari), Sethus wife from the US does not allow this. What does Manju do forms the rest of the story.
Regular script. The regular script[a] is the newest of the major Chinese script styles, emerging during the Three Kingdoms period c. 230 CE, and stylistically mature by the 7th century. It is the most common style used in modern text. In its traditional form it is the third-most common in publishing after the Ming and Gothic types used exclusively in print.[1] The Xuanhe Calligraphy Manual (宣和書譜) credits Wang Cizhong [zh] with creating the regular script, based on the clerical script of the early Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). It became popular during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms periods,[2] with Zhong Yao (c. 151 – 230 BC),[3] a calligrapher in the state of Cao Wei (220–266), being credited as its first master, known as the father of regular script. His famous works include the Xuanshi biao (宣示表), Jianjizhi biao (薦季直表), and Liming biao (力命表). Palaeographer Qiu Xigui[2] describes the script in Xuanshi biao as: ...clearly emerging from the womb of early period semi-cursive script. If one were to write the tidily written variety of early period semi-cursive script in a more dignified fashion and were to use consistently the pause technique [(頓; dùn)], used to reinforce the beginning or ending of a stroke when ending horizontal strokes, a practice which already appears in early period semi-cursive script, and further were to make use of right-falling strokes with thick feet, the result would be a style of calligraphy like that in the Xuān shì biǎo. However, very few wrote in this script at the time other than a few literati; most continued writing in the neo-clerical script, or a hybrid form of semi-cursive and neo-clerical.[2] The regular script did not become dominant until the 5th century during the early Northern and Southern period (420–589); there was a variety of the regular script which emerged from neo-clerical as well as regular scripts[4] known as Wei regular (魏楷; Wèikǎi) or Wei stele (魏碑; Wèibēi). Thus, the regular script is descended both from the early semi-cursive style as well as from the neo-clerical script. The script is considered to have become stylistically mature during the Tang dynasty (618–907), with the most famous and oft-imitated calligraphers of that period being the early Tangs Four Great Calligraphers (初唐四大家): Ouyang Xun, Yu Shinan, Chu Suiliang, and Xue Ji, as well as the tandem of Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan.
Agriculture in ants. Agriculture and domestication are practices undertaken by certain ant species and colonies. These ants use agricultural methods and are known as one of the few animal groups, along with Homo sapiens, to have achieved the level of eusociality necessary to practice agriculture. It is estimated that ants began this practice at least 50 million years ago. The domestication of plant, fungus, and animal species by ants is well documented. For some ant species or groups, this is an activity essential to their survival, particularly in a symbiotic relationship with the cultivated species, especially plants or fungi. Some plants require the presence of ants for their survival and offer benefits to the ants in return, creating a mutualistic relationship between their species. The agricultural practices of ants vary widely from one species to another, but they can engage in creating compost necessary for plant growth, fighting pathogens that affect cultivated species, destroying invasive species that threaten their crops, creating ant gardens of up to fifty different plants, optimizing crops by adapting to the solar cycle and other natural cycles, or generally engaging in grooming activities. In some cases, it is believed that ants can achieve productivity levels similar to the early stages of human agriculture. Ants also domesticate numerous animal species, especially aphids and Lepidoptera. Discovered only in 2016, ant farming and agriculture with plants is a rapidly evolving field of discoveries. As of 2022, it is estimated that ants assist in the dispersal of seeds for over 11,000 plant species, are in mutualistic relationships with at least 700 plant species, and engage in purely agricultural processes with hundreds of others. Regarding domesticated animals, more than 1,000 of the 4,000 known species of aphids and around 500 species of Lepidoptera are affected by ant domestication. The use of the term agriculture, which may not be entirely appropriate for mutualistic relationships—particularly in cases where a colony is hosted by a plant, such as a tree, in exchange for protection and aid in its survival and growth—is well documented in the scientific literature for processes where ants create crops and directly cultivate plants or fungi.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The use of the term domestication is also well established when ant domestication has led to specific evolutionary changes in the species involved.[1] It remains difficult to determine the causes that led different ant species to adopt these behaviors over millions of years of evolution, due to the vast diversity of behaviors depending on the location, the plants, fungi, and animals involved, as well as the great diversity of ant species. However, numerous studies focus particularly on these evolutionary developments, especially in a comparative framework with the human species, to identify commonalities and differences between the two processes.[1][4] Overall, it seems that leafcutter ant species that developed agricultural practices involving fungi began doing so at least 65-55 million years ago and may have been the first to have engaged in such behavior, though its not certain.[3][7][8] The common ancestor of these species is dated to -65/-55 million years ago.[9] It seems, according to research dating from 2017, that this change occurred in dry habitats, notably in South America.[10] As with the causes that led to such behavioral evolution in certain ants, it remains difficult to assess the overall prevalence of these behaviors. As of 2022, it is estimated that ants assist in the dispersal of seeds for over 11,000 plant species, are in mutualistic relationships with at least 700 plant species, and engage in purely agricultural processes with hundreds of others.[11] Regarding domesticated animals, more than 1,000 of the 4,000 known species of aphids and around 500 species of Lepidoptera are affected by ant domestication.[11] In comparison, Homo sapiens engages in farming and agriculture with 260 plant, 470 animal and 100 mushroom-forming fungal species.[10] Plant farming by ants was only discovered in 2016, making it a very young and rapidly evolving field of study.[9] However, these phenomena appear to involve hundreds of different ant species out of the approximately 13,000 species discovered to date.[9] In 2022, it was believed that approximately 37 various ant species engaged in true plant cultivation, without considering domestication and fungiculture.[12]
Center-pivot irrigation. Center-pivot irrigation (sometimes called central pivot irrigation), also called water-wheel and circle irrigation, is a method of crop irrigation in which equipment rotates around a pivot and crops are watered with sprinklers.[1][2] A circular area centered on a pivot is irrigated, often creating a circular pattern in crops when viewed from above (sometimes referred to as crop circles, not to be confused with those formed by circular flattening of a section of a crop in a field).[3] Most center pivots were initially water-powered, however today most are propelled by electric motors. Center-pivot irrigation systems are beneficial due to their ability to efficiently use water and optimize a farms yield. The systems are highly effective on large land fields. On March 23, 1914 James A. Norton of Odebolt, Iowa, filed the patent for the center pivot irrigation system. On August 17, 1915, it was granted as patent #1150144.  The patent drawings shows multiple pairs of wheels supporting a pipe that is moved in a circle around a center pivot point.  The description is:  Watering arrangements making use of movable installations on wheels or the like movable around a pivot centre. Center-pivot irrigation was invented in 1940[4] by the farmer Frank Zybach,[5] who lived in Strasburg, Colorado.[4] It is recognized as an effective method to improve water distribution to fields.[3] In 1952, Zybach went into business with A. E. Trowbridge, a friend, Ethan James Olson, from Columbus, Nebraska. Trowbridge put up $25,000 (equivalent to $296,000 in 2024) and got 49% of the patent rights. Zybach moved back from Colorado to Columbus, opened a shop, hired a few men, moved the height of the pipe up to 1.8 m (6 ft), and went into business. In the first two years of operation, they sold only 19 systems. The early designs were finicky and few farmers understood the systems. Zybach kept improving his designs and focused on making his machines better, rather than attempting to sell systems with problems.[6]
Calgary.  Calgary (/ˈkælɡəri/[11]) is a city in the Canadian province of Alberta. As of 2021, the city proper had a population of 1,306,784 and a metropolitan population of 1,481,806 making it the third-largest city and fifth-largest metropolitan area in Canada.[12] Calgary is at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the southwest of the province, in the transitional area between the Rocky Mountain Foothills and the Canadian Prairies, about 80 km (50 mi) east of the front ranges of the Canadian Rockies, roughly 299 km (186 mi) south of the provincial capital of Edmonton and approximately 240 km (150 mi) north of the Canada–United States border. The city anchors the south end of the Statistics Canada-defined urban area, the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor.[13] Calgarys economy includes activity in many sectors: energy; financial services; film and television; transportation and logistics; technology; manufacturing; aerospace; health and wellness; retail; and tourism.[14] The Calgary Metropolitan Region is home to Canadas second-largest number of corporate head offices among the countrys 800 largest corporations.[15] In 2015, Calgary had the largest number of millionaires per capita of any major Canadian city.[16] In 2022, Calgary was ranked alongside Zürich as the third most livable city in the world, ranking first in Canada and in North America.[17] In 1988, it became the first Canadian city to host the Olympic Winter Games.[18] Calgary was named after Calgary Castle (in Scottish Gaelic, Caisteal Chalgairidh) on the Isle of Mull in Scotland.[19] Colonel James Macleod, the Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police, had been a frequent summer guest there. In 1876, shortly after returning to Canada, he suggested its name for what became Fort Calgary.
Zhang (surname 章). Zhāng is a Chinese surname. According to a 2013 study it was the 122-most common surname, shared by 1,570,000 people or 0.120% of the population, with the province with the most people being Zhejiang.[1] It is the 40th name on the Hundred Family Surnames poem. The surname written 章 in Chữ Nôm is clearly distinguished and written as Trang or Chương.[citation needed] 章 was unlisted among the top 100 in either location. In 2015 it was reported 88th.[citation needed] 章 combines the characters 音 (yin, sound, (musical) note) and 十 (shi, ten). It originally meant brilliant, to display, a distinctive mark[2] and was used as the name of a fief, but as a common noun in modern use it means an article in a newspaper or magazine or a chapter in a book or law. The surname 章 (Old Chinese: *taŋ[2]) originated from the legendary Yan Emperor, whose personal surname was Jiang (姜). On the establishment of the state of Qi, Jiang Ziya apportioned the land among his many descendants, including a one known as Zhang (鄣国). Some of the people of this state simplified the character and took 章 as their surname, particularly after it was annexed by Qi.[3][full citation needed] The Middle Chinese pronunciation of the name was Tsyang, the beginnings of what we now know to be the Zhang surname.[2] It means stamp, seal in Chinese.
Calgary.  Calgary (/ˈkælɡəri/[11]) is a city in the Canadian province of Alberta. As of 2021, the city proper had a population of 1,306,784 and a metropolitan population of 1,481,806 making it the third-largest city and fifth-largest metropolitan area in Canada.[12] Calgary is at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the southwest of the province, in the transitional area between the Rocky Mountain Foothills and the Canadian Prairies, about 80 km (50 mi) east of the front ranges of the Canadian Rockies, roughly 299 km (186 mi) south of the provincial capital of Edmonton and approximately 240 km (150 mi) north of the Canada–United States border. The city anchors the south end of the Statistics Canada-defined urban area, the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor.[13] Calgarys economy includes activity in many sectors: energy; financial services; film and television; transportation and logistics; technology; manufacturing; aerospace; health and wellness; retail; and tourism.[14] The Calgary Metropolitan Region is home to Canadas second-largest number of corporate head offices among the countrys 800 largest corporations.[15] In 2015, Calgary had the largest number of millionaires per capita of any major Canadian city.[16] In 2022, Calgary was ranked alongside Zürich as the third most livable city in the world, ranking first in Canada and in North America.[17] In 1988, it became the first Canadian city to host the Olympic Winter Games.[18] Calgary was named after Calgary Castle (in Scottish Gaelic, Caisteal Chalgairidh) on the Isle of Mull in Scotland.[19] Colonel James Macleod, the Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police, had been a frequent summer guest there. In 1876, shortly after returning to Canada, he suggested its name for what became Fort Calgary.
Chang (surname). Cháng (/tʃɑːŋ/)[1] is the pinyin romanization of the Chinese surname 常 (Cháng). It was listed 80th among the Song-era Hundred Family Surnames. Chang is also the Wade-Giles romanization of two Chinese surnames written Zhang in pinyin: one extremely common and written 張 in Traditional Chinese and 张 in Simplified Chinese, and another quite rare and written as 章 in both systems. There is also a rare case of 鄭 in Hong Kong written as Chang as well. For full details on them, see the Zhang 章 and Zheng 鄭 article. In Macao, this is the spelling of the surname Zeng 曾. Chang is also a common spelling of the surname 陈/陳 (Chen in Mandarin pinyin) in Peru. 常 is romanized as Chang in Wade-Giles, although the apostrophe is often omitted in practice. It is romanized as Soeng and Sheung in Cantonese; Seong and Siông in Minnan languages; and Sioh in Teochew. It is occasionally romanized Sōng and Thōng as well.[citation needed] It is the source of the Vietnamese surname Thường and the Korean surname romanized as Sang (상). It is also another Romanization of the Korean surname Jang. In Japanese, it is romanized as Jō.
Teoh. Teoh (also commonly rendered as Teo) is a romanised Chinese family name. It is a romanization of Teochew and Hokkien names, particularly simplified Chinese: 张; traditional Chinese: (張; pinyin: Zhāng; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: tiuⁿ / tioⁿ; HKG Cantonese: Cheung). It is also rendered as Tiu, Tio, Thio, and Tiew. The romanization Teo is the 11th-most-common surname among Chinese Singaporeans, with 46,800 bearers making up 1.9% of that population.[1] In the United States, the romanization Tiu was the most common during the 1990 census, ranked 32,695th overall, and the romanization Teo was the most common during the year 2000 census, ranked 26,141st overall.[2] 
Pacific Northwest Wrestling.  Pacific Northwest Wrestling (PNW) (also known as Big Time Wrestling and Portland Wrestling) is the common name used to refer to several different professional wrestling companies, both past and present, based in Portland, Oregon, United States. The first such company (that would later become Portland Wrestling) was founded by Herb Owen in 1925.[1] It was the Northwest territory[2] of the National Wrestling Alliance from the Alliances inception in 1948 until 1992.[3] The area was brought to its prime by Herbs son, Don Owen, and this version of Pacific Northwest Wrestling saw many of the top names in pro wrestling come through on a regular basis. The Pacific Northwest was considered one of the main pro wrestling territories from the 1960s to the 1980s. Portland Wrestling was forced to close its doors in July 1992. The closure came as a result of a slowdown in professional wrestling during the early 1990s, a declaration of bankruptcy by Portland Wrestlings main television sponsor, and negative fallout from a shift in regulatory emphasis by the Oregon Athletic Commission. The telecasts, which originated on Portland station KPTV, ended in December 1991 and were replaced on KPTV by syndicated WWF programming.[3] Portland Wrestlings referee Sandy Barr purchased the company from the Owen family in 1992 and continued the tradition of professional wrestling in the Pacific Northwest under the name Championship Wrestling USA. A new wrestling promotion emerged in 2000, calling itself Portland Wrestling and claiming to be a restart of the original Pacific Northwest/Portland Wrestling. It stressed a title lineage (through Len Denton) to the old NWA PNW Championships. Unlike the Don Owen promotion, the new incarnation of Portland Wrestling was not an NWA member. Due to legal problems the companys owner encountered, the promotion was forced to close down in 2007 and the owner sold his ownership rights to former announcer Don Coss.  Coss, in conjunction with Roddy Piper, one of Owens biggest latter-day stars and a Portland-area resident, launched a new promotion in 2012 centered on a television program entitled Portland Wrestling Uncut.  This program also originated on KPTV, though it would later move to another Portland television station.
Cheung. Cheung is a Cantonese romanization of several Chinese surnames, including 張 (simplified Chinese: 张; Jyutping: Zoeng1; pinyin: Zhāng; Wade–Giles: Chang1; Vietnamese: Trương), 章 (Jyutping: Zoeng1; pinyin: Zhāng), and 蔣 (simplified Chinese: 蒋; Jyutping: Zoeng2; pinyin: Jiǎng). It is a fairly common American surname, listed 3,672nd during the 1990 US census and 2,069th during the year 2000 US census.[1]
History of agriculture.   Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin. The development of agriculture about 12,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming.[1] Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 104,000 years ago.[2] However, domestication did not occur until much later. The earliest evidence of small-scale cultivation of edible grasses is from around 21,000 BC with the Ohalo II people on the shores of the Sea of Galilee.[3] By around 9500 BC, the eight Neolithic founder crops – emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas, and flax – were cultivated in the Levant.[4] Rye may have been cultivated earlier, but this claim remains controversial.[5] Regardless, ryes spread from Southwest Asia to the Atlantic was independent of the Neolithic founder crop package.[6] Rice was domesticated in China by 6200 BC[7] with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Rice was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.[8][9] Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by sheep. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC. Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3000 BC. In subsaharan Africa, sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 3000 BC, along with pearl millet by 2000 BC.[10][11] Yams were domesticated in several distinct locations, including West Africa (unknown date), and cowpeas by 2500 BC.[12][13] Rice (African rice) was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.[8][9] Teff and likely finger millet were domesticated in Ethiopia by 3000 BC, along with noog, ensete, and coffee.[14][15] Other plant foods domesticated in Africa include watermelon, okra, tamarind and black eyed peas, along with tree crops such as the kola nut and oil palm.[16] Plantains were cultivated in Africa by 3000 BC and bananas by 1500 BC.[17][18] The helmeted guineafowl was domesticated in West Africa.[19] Sanga cattle was likely also domesticated in North-East Africa, around 7000 BC, and later crossbred with other species.[20][21]
Northwestern United States.  The Northwestern United States, also known as the American Northwest or simply the Northwest, is an informal geographic region of the United States. The region consistently includes the states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana and Wyoming. Some sources include Southeast Alaska in the Northwest. The related but distinct term Pacific Northwest generally excludes areas from the Rockies eastward, whereas the term Inland Northwest excludes areas west of the Cascades. The Northwestern United States is a subportion of the Western United States (which is, itself, even more ambiguous).  In contrast, states included in the neighboring regions (Southwestern United States and Great Plains) and Utah are not simultaneously considered part of both regions. Like the southwestern United States, the Northwest definition has moved westward over time. The current area includes the old Oregon Territory (created in 1848–Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and areas in Montana west of the Continental Divide).[1] The region is similar to Federal Region X, which comprises Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Alaska. It is home to about 14.3 million people (as of 2016). Some of the fastest growing cities in this region and in the nation include Seattle, Spokane, Bellevue, Tacoma, Kennewick, Pasco, Yakima, Portland, Eugene, Salem, Boise, Idaho Falls, Missoula, Bozeman, and Billings.
Pacific Northwest Bell. The Pacific Northwest Bell Telephone Company was an American telecommunications company based in Seattle, Washington. It was a local exchange carrier for the Bell System, the AT&T Corporation-controlled network of companies, providing telecommunications services in Oregon, Washington, and northern Idaho. Pacific Northwest Bell was formed in 1961 when it was spun off from the Pacific Telephone and Telegraph Company. Pacific Northwest Bell was split from AT&T in 1984 as ordered in the settlement of United States v. AT&T and became a subsidiary of US West, a then-newly formed Regional Bell Operating Company. US West consolidated its three main operating subsidiaries in 1991. US West merged with Qwest in 2000, and the US West brand was replaced by the Qwest brand.[1] Qwest Communications merged with Louisiana-based CenturyLink in 2011, and the Qwest brand was replaced by the CenturyLink brand. It now does business with the Lumen Technologies brand as of 2020.[2][3] On March 7, 1883, the Sunset Telephone-Telegraph Company opened for business with 90 subscribers. This first office was in rented space in the Western Union Telegraph office. Weeks later the company moved into its own building at the corner of Second Avenue and Cherry Street in Seattle, WA.[4] In 1899 the original company was reincorporated as the Sunset Telephone and Telegraph Company and continued under that name until 1917 when the Sunset Company (which had grown to provide service throughout Washington and northern Idaho) merged with the Pacific Telephone and Telegraph Company. Telephones began to crop up all over Oregon, Washington and northern Idaho. The first Seattle-Tacoma to Portland toll line was built in 1893. Assorted independent telephone companies set up competitive business throughout Oregon and Washington. With competition both the Bell and independent companies found it hard to do business and make money. Under the leadership of J. P. Morgan, the nations most powerful banker, the Bell companies around the country began to buy out their major competitors. By 1924, the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company had acquired most of the independents property along the Pacific Coast. Headquartered in San Francisco, the Bell operating company served customers in California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington and northern Idaho. As the Pacific Northwest grew in population, AT&T made plans to split off Pacific Telephone and Telegraphs operations there to better serve the region. AT&T started the process by creating a division within the company called Pacific Telephone Northwest on February 1, 1960, then filing articles of incorporation for Pacific Northwest Bell, the new entity that would serve the region, on March 27, 1961.[5][6] The Washington Public Service Commission approved the formation of Pacific Northwest Bell on June 5, with the separation occurring at midnight on July 1.[7][5] Its service territory included Oregon, Washington and northern Idaho (Southern Idaho was served by Mountain Bell). The new companys first major job was to build the worlds most advanced telephone service to serve the Seattle Worlds Fair which was scheduled to open in less than ten months (April 21, 1962.) This was accomplished.
Greater China.  In ethnogeography, Greater China is a loosely defined term that refers to the region sharing cultural and economic ties with the Chinese people, often used by international enterprises or organisations in unofficial usage.[1][2][3][4][failed verification] The notion contains a great deal of ambiguity in its geographical coverage and politico-economic implications,[5] because some users use it to refer to the commercial ties among ethnic Chinese, whereas others are more interested in cultural interactions, and still others in the prospects for political reunification.[6] The term encompass linkages among regional Chinese communities,[7][8] but usually refers to an area encompassing the People’s Republic of China (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau) and the Republic of China (known as Taiwan), places where the majority population is culturally Chinese.[9][10] Some analysts may also include places which have predominantly ethnic Chinese population such as Singapore.[11] The terms usage is contested; some observers in Taiwan characterise the term as harmful or a conflation of distinct polities and markets,[4] while the Chinese government has avoided it, either to allay fears of its economic expansionism or to avoid suggesting Taiwan (known as the Republic of China) and the Peoples Republic of China are on equal footing.[original research?] Australian sinologist Wang Gungwu has characterised the concept as a myth, and wrong if applied to overseas Chinese communities.[12] Multinational corporations frequently use the term when naming their headquarters in the region. For example, Procter & Gamble uses the term to name its regional headquarters in Guangzhou that also operates in Hong Kong and Taipei;[13] Apple Inc. uses it when referring to its regional headquarters in Shanghai.[14][15] The term is often used to avoid invoking sensitivities over the political status of Taiwan.[16] Contrastingly, it has been used in reference to Chinese irredentism in nationalist contexts, such as the notion that China should reclaim its lost territories to create a Greater China.[17][18]
Origins of agriculture in West Asia.  Agriculture in West Asia can be traced back to the early Neolithic in the Near East, between 10,000 and 8,000 BC, when a series of domestications by human communities took place, primarily involving a few plants (cereals and legumes) and animals (sheep, goats, bos, and pigs). In these regions, this gradually led to the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry and their expansion to other parts of the world. The Neolithic is commonly defined as the transition from a “predatory” economy of hunter-gatherers (or “collectors”) to a “productive” economy of farmer-breeders, which places the question of plant and animal domestication at the heart of the upheavals brought about by this period. Farming and livestock breeding appeared in areas of rich biological diversity, where domesticated plants and animals were found in the wild. These regions also contain a large number of food resources in their natural state. Before their domestication, domesticated plants and animals were exploited in the form of gathering and hunting, with the methods and techniques required for domestication already known at the end of the Palaeolithic. Between 9500 and 8500 B.C., “pre-domestic” forms of agriculture were introduced; plants still had a wild character, but their reproduction was controlled by humans. Control of wild animals also began in the same period. These practices gradually led to the emergence of domesticated plant and animal species, which are distinct from the wild forms from which they derive. From a biological point of view, these domesticated species undergo a transition from natural selection to artificial selection by humans. This indicates the conclusion of the domestication process in the period between 8500 BC and 8000 BC. From this point onwards, village communities relied more on the “agro-pastoral” system, combining agriculture and animal husbandry, and less on hunting, fishing, and gathering practices. Many explanations have been put forward to explain why these changes have occurred, none of which has achieved consensus. The sedentary (or semi-sedentary) lifestyle introduced as early as the Final Epipalaeolithic (c. 12500 BC - 10000 BC) precedes the phenomenon and can therefore no longer be seen as its consequence, but may be one of its causes. Questions have focused on demographic changes since the increase in population prompted human communities to better control their food resources and domesticate. Climatic changes occur during the transition phase between the end of the last Ice Age and the beginning of the Holocene, which coincides with the domestication process and is therefore one of the factors to be taken into account. Other research has emphasized the “symbolic” aspects of the phenomenon, which alters mans relationship with nature. The development of agriculture is a fundamental process in human history. It led to strong demographic growth and was accompanied by numerous material (notably the appearance of ceramics) and mental changes. Although the Near East was not the only focus of domestication worldwide, it was probably the earliest and most influential. The expansion of agriculture, and with it the Neolithic village lifestyle, was rapid after 8000 B.C., spreading throughout the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, North and East Africa, and Europe. The species domesticated during this period formed the basis of the economies of these regions until the modern era, and gained even more territory.
Iowa.   Iowa (/ˈaɪ.əwə/ ⓘ EYE-ə-wə)[8][9][10] is a state in the upper Midwestern region of the United States. It borders the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west; Wisconsin to the northeast, Illinois to the east and southeast, Missouri to the south, Nebraska to the west, South Dakota to the northwest, and Minnesota to the north. Iowa is the 26th largest in total area and the 31st most populous of the 50 U.S. states, with a population of 3.19 million.[11] The states capital, most populous city, and largest metropolitan area fully located within the state is Des Moines. A portion of the larger Omaha, Nebraska, metropolitan area extends into three counties of southwest Iowa.[12] Other metropolitan statistical areas in Iowa include Iowa City, Cedar Rapids, Waterloo-Cedar Falls, Ames, Dubuque, Sioux City, and the Iowa portion of the Quad Cities. Iowa is home to 940 small towns, though its population is increasingly urbanized as small communities and rural areas decline in population.[13][14] During the 18th and early 19th centuries, Iowa was a part of French Louisiana and Spanish Louisiana; its state flag is patterned after the flag of France. After the Louisiana Purchase, pioneers laid the foundation for an agriculture-based economy in the heart of the Corn Belt.[15] In the latter half of the 20th century, Iowas agricultural economy began to transition to a diversified economy of advanced manufacturing, processing, financial services, information technology, biotechnology, and green energy production.[16][17]
Seas (disambiguation). Seas include marginal seas, areas of water, various gulfs, bights, bays, and straits. Seas or SEAS may also refer to:
Sinicization. Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix sino-, Chinese, relating to China) is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, cultural practices, and ethnic identity of the Han Chinese—the largest ethnic group of China. Areas of influence include diet, writing, industry, education, language/lexicon, law, architectural style, politics, philosophy, religion, science and technology, value systems, and lifestyle. The term sinicization is also often used to refer to processes or policies of acculturation or assimilation of norms from China on neighboring East Asian societies, or on minority ethnic groups within China. Evidence of this process is reflected in the histories of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam in the adoption of the Chinese writing system, which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to other Asian countries. In recent times, the term Sinicization has sometimes been used more narrowly in reference to specific policies of the Government of China towards ethnic minorities as well as the promotion of ethnic unity.[1] The assimilation policy is a type of Chinese nationalism aimed at strengthening the Chinese national identity (Zhonghua minzu) among the population. Proponents believe it will help to develop shared values, pride in being the countrys citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China.[citation needed] Critics argue that assimilation destroys ethnic diversity, language diversity, and cultural diversity. The historian James A. Millward has claimed that the Peoples Republic of China has used the concept of sinicization as a means to obscure Han settler colonialism.[2]
Sea Kumada. Sea Kumada (熊田 聖亜, Kumada Sea; born July 18, 2001) is a Japanese child actress and tarento. She is best known for her work in Saya Zamurai, for which she won a Newcomer of the Year Award at the 35th Japan Academy Prize ceremony. Her sister is child actress Koko Kumada. Sea Kumada was born July 18, 2001, in Tokyo, Japan. For the 2011 movie Saya Zamurai, directed by Hitoshi Matsumoto, she received one of the seven Newcomer of the Year awards at the 35th Japan Academy Prize ceremony.[1][2][3]
Bay. A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay.[1][2][3] A large bay is usually called a gulf, sea, sound, or bight. A cove is a small, circular bay with a narrow entrance. A fjord is an elongated bay formed by glacial action.[4] The term embayment is also used for related features, such as extinct bays or freshwater environments. A bay can be the estuary of a river, such as the Chesapeake Bay, an estuary of the Susquehanna River.[2] Bays may also be nested within each other; for example, James Bay is an arm of Hudson Bay in northeastern Canada. Some bays are large enough to have varied marine geology, such as the Bay of Bengal (2,600,000 km2 or 1,000,000 sq mi) and Hudson Bay (1,230,000 km2 or 470,000 sq mi). The land surrounding a bay often reduces the strength of winds and blocks waves. Bays may have as wide a variety of shoreline characteristics as other shorelines. In some cases, bays have beaches, which are usually characterized by a steep upper foreshore with a broad, flat fronting terrace.[5] Bays were significant in the history of human settlement because they provided easy access to marine resources like fisheries.[6] Later they were important in the development of sea trade as the safe anchorage they provide encouraged their selection as ports.[7] The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines a bay as a well-marked indentation in the coastline, whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its mouth as to contain land-locked waters and constitute more than a mere curvature of the coast. An indentation, however, shall not be regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as (or larger than) that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation[8][a] – otherwise, it would be referred to as a bight. A gulf is a large inlet from an ocean or their seas into a landmass,[13] larger and typically (though not always) with a narrower opening than a bay.[14] The term was used traditionally for large, highly indented navigable bodies of salt water that are enclosed by the coastline.[13] Many gulfs are major shipping areas, such as the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Finland, and Gulf of Aden.[14]
Southeast Africa.  Southeast Africa,[1][2] or Southeastern Africa,[3][a] is an African region that is intermediate between East Africa[b] and Southern Africa.[c][8] It comprises the countries Botswana, Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi,[9] Mozambique,[10][11] Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda,[12] Zambia and Zimbabwe[13] in the mainland, with the island-nations of Madagascar, Mauritius, Comoros, and Seychelles also included.[10] East and southern Africa are among the earliest regions where modern humans (Homo sapiens) and their predecessors are believed to have lived. In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/H. sapiens, representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in South and East Africa.[14][15] Bantu-speakers traversed from Central Africa into Southeast Africa approximately 3,000 years ago.[10] In the 19th and 20th centuries, David Livingstone[16] and Frederick Courtney Selous visited Southeast Africa. The latter wrote down his experiences in the book Travel and Adventure in South-East Africa.[17]
International Hydrographic Organization.  The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) (French: Organisation Hydrographique Internationale) is an intergovernmental organization representing hydrography.[1][2] As of August 2025,[update] the IHO comprised 103 member states. A principal aim of the IHO is to ensure that the worlds seas, oceans and navigable waters are properly surveyed and charted. It does this through the setting of international standards and through its capacity building programs and offices. The IHO enjoys observer status at the United Nations, where it is the recognized competent authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting.[3] When referring to hydrography and nautical charting in conventions and similar instruments, it is the IHO standards and specifications that are normally used. During the 19th century, many maritime nations established hydrographic offices to provide means for improving the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigational services. There were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. In 1889, an International Maritime Conference was held at Washington, D.C., and it was proposed to establish a permanent international commission. Similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at Saint Petersburg in 1908 and the International Maritime Conference held at Saint Petersburg in 1912.[4]
Bight (geography). In geography, a bight (/baɪt/) is a concave bend or curvature in a coastline, river or other geographical feature,[1] or it may refer to a very open bay formed by such a feature.[2]  Such bays are typically broad, open, shallow and only slightly recessed.[3] The size of bights differs greatly, which may be as small as a bend in a river or large like a sound.   Large bights are shallower than sounds.[citation needed] Traditionally, explorers defined a bight as a bay that could be sailed out of on a single tack in a square-rigged sailing vessel, regardless of the direction of the wind[citation needed] (typically meaning the apex of the bight is less than 25 degrees from the edges[citation needed]). According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, an indentation with an area as large as (or larger than) that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation, can be regarded as a bay not merely a bight.[4] The term is derived from Old English byht (bend, angle, corner; bay, bight) with German Bucht and Danish bugt as cognates, both meaning bay. Bight is not etymologically related to bite (Old English bītan).
Ilminster.  Ilminster is a market town and civil parish in Somerset, England, with a population of 5,808.[1] Bypassed in 1988, the town now lies just east of the junction of the A303 (London to Exeter) and the A358 (Taunton to Chard and Axminster). The parish includes the hamlet of Sea. Ilminster is mentioned in documents dating from 725 and in a Charter granted to Muchelney Abbey (10 miles (16 km) to the north) by Æthelred the Unready in 995. Ilminster is also mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as ‘Ileminstre’, meaning The church on the River Isle from the Old English ysle and mynster. By this period Ilminster was a flourishing community and was granted the right to hold a weekly market, which it still does. Ilminster was part of the hundred of Abdick and Bulstone.[2][3] In 1645 during the English Civil War Ilminster was the scene of a skirmish between parliamentary troops under Edward Massie and Royalist forces under Lord Goring, who fought for control of the bridges prior to the Battle of Langport.[4]
Provinces of China.  Provinces Autonomous regions Sub-provincial autonomous prefectures Autonomous prefectures
Jiangzhe. Jiangzhe may refer to:
Qiantang River. The Qiantang River, formerly known as the Hangchow River[1][2][3] or Tsientang River, is a river in East China. An important commercial artery, it runs for 459 kilometers (285 mi) through Zhejiang, passing through the provincial capital Hangzhou before flowing into the East China Sea via Hangzhou Bay south of Shanghai. Its original name, the Zhe River or Zhe Jiang, is the origin of the name of Zhejiang province. The river is also known, along with Hangzhou Bay, for having what is called by locals as the Silver Dragon,  the worlds largest tidal bore, a phenomenon where the leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave (or waves) that can rise to a height of 9 meters (30 ft) and travels up the river or narrow bay at top speeds of 40 km/h (25 mph; 11 m/s) against the direction of the river or bays current, and can be seen from miles away.[4][5][6]  Its upper stretch near the Anhui–Jiangxi border is also known as the Xinan River (新安, Newly Peaceful); its middle stretch through the mountains of Zhejiang is also known as the Fuchun River (富春江, Abundant Spring River); and the former name of its lower stretch—the Zhe (浙) or Crooked River—gave Zhejiang Province its name.[7] Historically, it was first documented in the Classic of Mountains and Seas as the Zhejiang River (浙江). It appeared later in the Zhuangzi as the Zhe River (淛河) and then in the Water Classic as the Jianjiang River (漸江水). All those names probably originate from the Old Yue language of the Baiyue peoples.[8] In the early 18th century, the Kangxi Dictionary glossed the Zhejiang River as taking its name from its crooked lower stretch and the countercurrent tidal bore.[9] The Qiantang Rivers current name, literally the River of King Qians Dyke, is similarly somewhat misleading. Rather than being named directly after the Qian kings of Wuyue, it instead took the name from its lower stretch within Qiantang County (zh:钱塘县), a former name of Hangzhou City, and only later in the 20th century became known by the name throughout its course.[10]
Korea.  Korea[a] is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula,[b] Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in Asia in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK). Both countries proclaimed independence in 1948, and the two countries fought the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. The region is bordered by China to the north and Russia to the northeast, across the Amnok (Yalu) and Duman (Tumen) rivers, and is separated from Japan to the southeast by the Korea Strait. Known human habitation of the Korean peninsula dates to 40,000 BC.[3] The kingdom of Gojoseon, which according to tradition was founded in 2333 BC, fell to the Han dynasty in 108 BC. It was followed by the Three Kingdoms period, in which Korea was divided into Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. In 668 AD, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with the aid of the Tang dynasty, forming Unified Silla; Balhae succeeded Goguryeo in the north. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla collapsed into three states, beginning the Later Three Kingdoms period. In 918, Goguryeo was resurrected as Goryeo, which achieved what has been called a true national unification by Korean historians, as it unified both the Later Three Kingdoms and the ruling class of Balhae after its fall.[4] Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was highly cultured and saw the invention of the first metal movable type. During the 13th century, Goryeo became a vassal state of the Mongol Empire. Goryeo overthrew Mongol rule before falling to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established the Joseon dynasty in 1392. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace; the Hangul, the Korean alphabet was created and Confucianism became influential. This ended with Japanese and Qing invasions, which brought devastation to Joseon and led to Korean isolationism. After the invasions, an isolated Joseon experienced another nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. In the final years of the 19th century, Japan forced Joseon to open up and Joseon experienced turmoil such as the Kapsin Coup, Donghak Peasant Revolution, and the assassination of Empress Myeongseong. In 1895, Japan defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War and China lost suzerainty over Korea and Korea was placed under further Japanese influence. In 1897, the centuries old Joseon was replaced by the Korean Empire with the Joseons last king, Gojong, becoming the Emperor of the Korean Empire. Japans further victory in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, expelled Russian influence in Korea and Manchuria. In 1905, the Korean Empire became a protectorate of the Empire of Japan. In 1910, the Empire of Japan officially annexed the Korean peninsula. Korea under Japanese rule was marked by industrialization and modernization, economic exploitation, and brutal suppression of the Korean independence movement, as reflected in the 1919 March First Movement. The Japanese suppressed Korean culture, and during World War II forcefully mobilized millions of Koreans to support its war effort. In 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies, and the Soviet Union and United States agreed to divide Korea into two military occupation zones divided by the 38th parallel, with the Soviet zone in the north and American zone in the south. The division was meant to be temporary, with plans for Korea to be reunited under a single government. In 1948, the DPRK and ROK were established with the backing of each power, and ongoing tensions led to the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, which came to involve U.S.-led United Nations and communist Chinese forces. The war ended in stalemate in 1953, but without a peace treaty. A demilitarized zone was created between the countries, approximating the original partition. This status contributes to the high tensions that divide the peninsula, and both states claim to be the sole legitimate government of Korea. South Korea is a regional power and a developed country, with its economy ranked as the worlds fourteenth-largest by GDP (PPP). Its armed forces are one of the worlds strongest militaries, with the worlds second-largest standing army by military and paramilitary personnel. South Korea has been renowned for its globally influential pop culture, particularly in music (K-pop) and cinema, a phenomenon referred to as the Korean Wave. North Korea follows Songun, a military first policy which prioritizes the Korean Peoples Army in state affairs and resources. It possesses nuclear weapons, and is the country with the highest number of military personnel, with a total of 7.8 million active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel, or approximately 30% of its population. Its active duty army of 1.3 million soldiers is the fourth-largest in the world, consisting of 4.9% of its population. North Korea is widely considered to have the worst human rights record in the world.
Han Chinese.  The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people,[a] are an East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China.[18] With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the worlds largest ethnic group, making up about 17.5% of the world population. The Han Chinese represent 91.11% of the population in China and 97% of the population in Taiwan.[19][20] Han Chinese are also a significant diasporic group in Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. In Singapore, people of Han Chinese or Chinese descent make up around 75% of the countrys population.[21] The Han Chinese have exerted a primary formative influence in the development and growth of Chinese civilization.[22][23][24] Originating from Zhongyuan, the Han Chinese trace their ancestry to the Huaxia people, a confederation of agricultural tribes that lived along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River[25][26][27][28] in the north central plains of China. The Huaxia are the progenitors of Chinese civilization and ancestors of the modern Han Chinese.[29][30] Han Chinese people and culture later spread southwards in the Chinese mainland, driven by large and sustained waves of migration during successive periods of Chinese history, for example the Qin (221–206 BC) and Han (202 BC – 220 AD) dynasties, leading to a demographic and economic tilt towards the south, and the absorption of various non-Han ethnic groups over the centuries at various points in Chinese history.[27][31][32] The Han Chinese became the main inhabitants of the fertile lowland areas and cities of southern China by the time of the Tang and Song dynasties,[33] with minority tribes occupying the highlands. The term Han not only refers to a specific ethnic collective, but also points to a shared ancestry, history, and cultural identity. The term Huaxia was used by the ancient Chinese philosopher Confuciuss contemporaries during the Warring States period to elucidate the shared ethnicity of all Chinese;[34] Chinese people called themselves Hua ren.[35] The Warring States period led to the emergence of the Zhou-era Chinese referring to themselves as being Huaxia (华夏; literally: the beautiful grandeur): under the Hua–Yi distinction, a Hua culture (華; 华; often translated as civilized) was contrasted to that of peoples perceived as Yi (夷; Yí; often translated as barbarian; ‘non-Han) living on the peripheries of the Zhou kingdoms.[36][27][37][38] Overseas Chinese who possess non-Chinese citizenship are commonly referred as Hua people (华人; 華人) or Huazu (华族; 華族). The two respective aforementioned terms are applied solely to those with a Han background that is semantically distinct from Zhongguo ren (中国人; 中國人; literally: China person) which has connotations and implications limited to being citizens and nationals of China, especially with regard to ethnic minorities in China.[39][40][23]
Hybrid martial arts. Hybrid martial arts, also known as hybrid fighting systems or sometimes eclectic martial arts or freestyle martial arts, referred to as mixed martial arts or fighting systems that incorporate techniques and theories from several martial arts. While numerous martial arts borrow or adapt from other arts and to some extent could be considered hybrids, a hybrid martial art emphasizes its disparate origins. The idea of hybridization or mixing of martial arts traditions originates in the 5th century BC. The concept rose to wide popularity during 5th century BC in Greek Olympic game Pankration, which uses aspects derived from various arts including boxing and wrestling. Hybrid martial arts are systems that blend techniques and philosophies from multiple traditional martial arts, creating comprehensive and adaptable methods for self-defense, sport, and combat. These arts typically integrate striking, grappling, and weapons training, allowing practitioners to handle various combat scenarios effectively. Some notable hybrid martial arts include: These hybrid martial arts highlight the diversity and adaptability of martial systems, drawing from various disciplines to create effective methods for different contexts. They illustrate the evolution and integration of martial arts practices across cultures and time periods.
The Sea (2000 film). The Sea (Catalan: El mar)  is a 2000 Spanish drama film directed by Agustí Villaronga, starring Roger Casamayor. It is based on a novel by Blai Bonet. The plot, set in Mallorca, follows the fates of three childhood friends traumatized by the violence they witnessed during the Spanish Civil War. Ten years later, they are reunited in a sanatorium for TB patients. The film won the Manfred Salzgeber Award at the Berlin International Film Festival. In the summer of 1936, the violence of the Spanish Civil war reaches a small village in Mallorca. Four children: Andreu Ramallo, Manuel Tur, Pau Inglada and a girl, Francisca, are witness to the execution of leftists at the hands of pro-Franco villagers. Pau, whose father has been killed the previous day by the lead executioner, plans to avenge his fathers murder by torturing Julià Ballester, the son of his fathers killer. His idea is to force the boy to drink castor oil. However, things go wrong when the boy, Julià Ballester, taunts them and Pau becomes enraged. He brutally kills Julià by bashing his head against a rock and then stabbing him in the throat. Unable to deal with what he has just done, Pau commits suicide by jumping down a hole into a cave. The remaining children, Andreu, Manuel, and Francisca, are witnesses to these tragic events. Over a decade later, Ramallo, now a cocky young man, is sent to a tuberculosis sanatorium on Mallorca to recuperate from the initial stages of the disease. Ramallo, like all the tubercular and lung diseased patients, is placed in a large dormitory style room. However, as a patients health dwindles and they are expected to die, they are sent to a private room numbered 13. Ramallo with his boastfulness and stories of sexual prowess attracts the admiration of the other patients, particularly from Galindo, the youngest. Ramallo is surprised to find that Manuel Tur, his childhood friend, is also a patient. A pale and drawn man, Manuel has found solace for his illness in religion. Even more surprising is the sight of the beautiful Francisca, now a selfless nun, nursing the sick. Alcántara, the brutal caretaker and Carmen, his unhappy wife, run the place. Shortly after his arrival, Ramallo receives the unwanted visit of Don Eugeni Morell, his former boss, smuggling contraband. The well-to-do, middle-aged Morell has also sexually exploited him for a long time. Morells visit makes Ramallo furious and he tries to disassociate himself from the crime lord, who has been funding him. As a reminder than he wants to count only on himself, Ramallo gets his own name tattooed on his chest by Alcántara. Manuel has a pet cat that he dotes on. In a fit of anger, Ramallo kicks the cat almost to death. Manuel gives the dying animal back to Ramallo to put it out of its misery. They bury the animal together and reconcile, remembering their childhood friendship. Ramallo wants to cut his link to Morell for good but needs money to get away, but his first attempt—stealing some money from the church of the sanatorium—fails when he is discovered by Francisca. As a child, Francisca had a crush on Ramallo and now she is glad to see him again, but assures him that she is perfectly happy as a nun. Ramallo then starts scheming to hijack smuggled goods from Morell. He recruits Manuel in helping him to steal the keys of Alcántaras car in order to go to the nearby port. In the middle of this dealing, Galindos death affects Ramallo deeply. Carmen has a soft spot for Manuel and tries to seduce him. At first, Manuel tries to resist because she is married, but she assures him that she is unhappy in her marriage and only feels disgust for her husband. They have sex, but when Manuel finds out that she came to visit him on Ramallos suggestion, he tells her to leave him alone. Manuel angrily confronts Ramallo, accusing him of being jealous of his purity. Ramallo silences him by telling him that his anger is because he is secretly in love with Ramallo. In fact, attracted to his friend, Manuel steals Ramallos clothes but, in his morbid religious fervor, fights his desires that he believes are diabolical. Manuels sexual panic turns into self-inflicted stigmata.
Southeast Asia.  Southeast Asia[b] is the geographical southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of mainland Australia, which is part of Oceania.[5] Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and the Indian Ocean. Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia, Maritime Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere. Mainland Southeast Asia is entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. Timor-Leste and the southern portion of Indonesia are the parts of Southeast Asia that lie south of the equator. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with both heavy seismic and volcanic activities.[6] The Sunda plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Laos, northern Vietnam, and northern Luzon of the Philippines, while the Sunda plate only includes western Indonesia to as far east as the Indonesian province of Bali. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lesser Sunda Islands, and Timor are part of the Alpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia as well as Timor-Leste are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, particularly in the Philippines and Indonesia.[7] It covers about 4,500,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 8% of Eurasia and 3% of Earths total land area. Its total population is more than 675 million, about 8.5% of the worlds population. It is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia.[8] The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups.[9] Ten countries in the region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational, and cultural integration among its members.[10] Southeast Asia is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world. There are many different languages and ethnicities in the region. Historically, Southeast Asia was significantly influenced by Indian, Chinese, Muslim, and colonial cultures, which became core components of the regions cultural and political institutions. Most modern Southeast Asian countries were colonised by European powers. European colonisation exploited natural resources and labour from the lands they conquered, and attempted to spread European institutions to the region.[11] Several Southeast Asian countries were also briefly occupied by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The aftermath of World War II saw most of the region decolonised. Today, Southeast Asia is predominantly governed by independent states.[12]
Giuseppe Patroni Griffi.  Giuseppe Patroni Griffi (26 February 1921 – 15 December 2005) was an Italian playwright, screenwriter, director and author.[1][2] He was born in Naples in an aristocratic family and moved to Rome immediately after the end of World War II and spent his professional life there. Patroni Griffi is considered one of the most prominent contributors to Italian theater and film in post-war Italy. Roberto Rossellini made a film from his play Anima nera.[citation needed] His first listed film writing credit was on the 1952 musical Canzoni di mezzo secolo. Patroni Griffi would later direct Charlotte Rampling, Elizabeth Taylor, Marcello Mastroianni, Laura Antonelli, Florinda Bolkan, Terence Stamp, Fabio Testi.[citation needed]
Close-quarters battle.  Close-quarters battle (CQB), also called close-quarters combat (CQC), is a close combat situation between multiple combatants involving ranged (typically firearm-based) or melee combat.[1] It can occur between military units, law enforcement and criminal elements, and in other similar situations. CQB is typically defined as a short duration, high intensity conflict characterized by sudden violence at close range.[2] Close-quarters battle has occurred since the beginning of warfare, in the form of melee combat, the use of ranged weaponry (such as slings, bows, and muskets) at close range, and the necessity of bayonets.[clarification needed] During World War I, CQB was a significant part of trench warfare, where enemy soldiers would fight in close and narrow quarters in attempts to capture trenches. The origins of modern close-quarters battle lie in the combat methods pioneered by Assistant Commissioner William E. Fairbairn of the Shanghai Municipal Police, the police force of the Shanghai International Settlement (1854–1943).[citation needed] After the 1925 May Thirtieth Movement, Fairbairn was tasked with developing a dedicated auxiliary squad for riot control and aggressive policing. After absorbing the most appropriate elements from a variety of martial arts experts, Fairbairn condensed these arts into a martial art he called defendu. The aim of defendu was to be as brutally effective as possible, while also being relatively easy for recruits and trainees to learn compared to other martial arts. The method incorporated both less-lethal and lethal fighting tactics, such as point shooting, firearm combat techniques, and the use of more ad hoc weapons such as chairs or table legs. During World War II, Fairbairn was recruited to train Allied special forces in defendu. During this period, he expanded defendus lethality for military purposes, calling it the Silent Killing Close Quarters Combat method; this became standard combat training for British special forces. He also published a textbook for CQB training called Get Tough.[3] U.S. Army officers Rex Applegate and Anthony Biddle were taught Fairbairns methods at a training facility in Scotland, and adopted the program for the training of Allied operatives at Camp X in Ontario, Canada. Applegate published his work in 1943, called Kill or Get Killed.[4] During the war, training was provided to British Commandos, the First Special Service Force, OSS operatives, U.S. Army Rangers, and Marine Raiders. Other military martial arts were later introduced elsewhere, including European Unifight, Chinese sanshou, Soviet sambo, and the Israeli kapap and Krav Maga.
La Mer (film). La Mer (also known as The Sea) is an 1895 French short black-and-white silent documentary film directed and produced by Louis Lumière. Given its age, this short film is available to freely download from the Internet. The film formed part of the first commercial presentation of the Lumière Cinématographe on 28 December 1895 at the Salon Indien, Grand Café, 14 Boulevard des Capuchins, Paris.[1] As with all early Lumière movies, this film was made in a 35 mm format with an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. It was filmed by means of the Cinématographe, an all-in-one camera, which also serves as a film projector and developer.[2] This 38 second film has a very simple plot in which four boys and a plump woman (perhaps their mother) walk along a jetty and then dive into stormy water, only to then struggle to the shore and repeat the process. This article related to a French film of the 1890s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Seattle.  Seattle (/siˈætəl/ ⓘ see-AT-əl) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. It is the 18th-most populous city in the United States with a population of 780,995 in 2024,[3] while the Seattle metropolitan area at over 4.15 million residents is the 15th-most populous metropolitan area in the nation.[11] The city is the county seat of King County, the most populous county in Washington. Seattles growth rate of 21.1% between 2010 and 2020 made it one of the countrys fastest-growing large cities.[12] Seattle is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and Lake Washington. It is the northernmost major city in the United States, located about 100 miles (160 km) south of the Canadian border. A gateway for trade with East Asia, the Port of Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2021[update].[13] The Seattle area has been inhabited by Native Americans (such as the Duwamish, who had at least 17 villages around Elliot Bay) for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers.[14] Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, Oregon, on the schooner Exact at Alki Point on November 13, 1851.[15] The settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay in 1852 and named Seattle in honor of Chief Seattle, a prominent 19th-century leader of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Seattle currently has relatively high populations of Native Americans as well as Americans with strong Asian, African, European, and Scandinavian ancestry, and, as of 2015, hosts the fifth-highest percentage of residents who identify as LGBT among major metropolitan areas in the U.S. (4.8 percent).[16] Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late 19th century the city had become a commercial and shipbuilding center as a gateway to Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush. The city grew after World War II, partly due to the local company Boeing, which established Seattle as a center for its manufacturing of aircraft. Beginning in the 1980s, the Seattle area developed into a technology center; Microsoft established its headquarters in the region. Alaska Airlines is based at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport in SeaTac, Washington. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, which increased the citys population by almost 50,000 in the decade between 1990 and 2000.
The Sea (1933 film).  The Sea (Polish: Morze) is a 1933 Polish short documentary film directed by Wanda Jakubowska. It was nominated for an Academy Award in 1933 for Best Short Subject (Novelty).[1] This article related to a Polish film of the 1930s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Ocean.  The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth.[8] The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as oceans (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic/Southern, and Arctic Ocean),[9][10][11]  and are themselves mostly divided into seas, gulfs and subsequent bodies of water. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water[8] and is the primary component of Earths hydrosphere, acting as a huge reservoir of heat for Earths energy budget, as well as for its carbon cycle and water cycle, forming the basis for climate and weather patterns worldwide. The ocean is essential to life on Earth, harbouring most of Earths animals and protist life,[12] originating photosynthesis and therefore Earths atmospheric oxygen, still supplying half of it.[13] Ocean scientists split the ocean into vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. Horizontally the ocean covers the oceanic crust, which it shapes. Where the ocean meets dry land it covers relatively shallow continental shelfs, which are part of Earths continental crust. Human activity is mostly coastal with high negative impacts on marine life. Vertically the pelagic zone is the open oceans water column from the surface to the ocean floor. The water column is further divided into zones based on depth and the amount of light present. The photic zone starts at the surface and is defined to be the depth at which light intensity is only 1% of the surface value[14]: 36  (approximately 200 m in the open ocean). This is the zone where photosynthesis can occur. In this process plants and microscopic algae (free-floating phytoplankton) use light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients to produce organic matter. As a result, the photic zone is the most biodiverse and the source of the food supply which sustains most of the ocean ecosystem. Light can only penetrate a few hundred more meters; the rest of the deeper ocean is cold and dark (these zones are called mesopelagic and aphotic zones). Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F). Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about −2 °C (28 °F). In all parts of the ocean, deep ocean temperatures range between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F).[15] Constant circulation of water in the ocean creates ocean currents. Those currents are caused by forces operating on the water, such as temperature and salinity differences, atmospheric circulation (wind), and the Coriolis effect.[16] Tides create tidal currents, while wind and waves cause surface currents. The Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current, Agulhas Current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current are all major ocean currents. Such currents transport massive amounts of water, gases, pollutants and heat to different parts of the world, and from the surface into the deep ocean.  All this has impacts on the global climate system. Ocean water contains dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. An exchange of these gases occurs at the oceans surface. The solubility of these gases depends on the temperature and salinity of the water.[17] The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is rising due to CO2 emissions, mainly from fossil fuel combustion. As the oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, a higher concentration leads to ocean acidification (a drop in pH value).[18]
Seattle.  Seattle (/siˈætəl/ ⓘ see-AT-əl) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. It is the 18th-most populous city in the United States with a population of 780,995 in 2024,[3] while the Seattle metropolitan area at over 4.15 million residents is the 15th-most populous metropolitan area in the nation.[11] The city is the county seat of King County, the most populous county in Washington. Seattles growth rate of 21.1% between 2010 and 2020 made it one of the countrys fastest-growing large cities.[12] Seattle is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and Lake Washington. It is the northernmost major city in the United States, located about 100 miles (160 km) south of the Canadian border. A gateway for trade with East Asia, the Port of Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2021[update].[13] The Seattle area has been inhabited by Native Americans (such as the Duwamish, who had at least 17 villages around Elliot Bay) for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers.[14] Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, Oregon, on the schooner Exact at Alki Point on November 13, 1851.[15] The settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay in 1852 and named Seattle in honor of Chief Seattle, a prominent 19th-century leader of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Seattle currently has relatively high populations of Native Americans as well as Americans with strong Asian, African, European, and Scandinavian ancestry, and, as of 2015, hosts the fifth-highest percentage of residents who identify as LGBT among major metropolitan areas in the U.S. (4.8 percent).[16] Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late 19th century the city had become a commercial and shipbuilding center as a gateway to Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush. The city grew after World War II, partly due to the local company Boeing, which established Seattle as a center for its manufacturing of aircraft. Beginning in the 1980s, the Seattle area developed into a technology center; Microsoft established its headquarters in the region. Alaska Airlines is based at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport in SeaTac, Washington. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, which increased the citys population by almost 50,000 in the decade between 1990 and 2000.
Shuangyu. Shuangyu (Chinese: 雙嶼; pinyin: Shuāngyǔ; lit. Double Island) was a port on Liuheng Island [zh] (六橫島) off the coast of Zhejiang, China. During the 16th century, the port served as an illegal entrepôt of international trade, attracting traders from Japan, Southeast Asia, and Portugal in a time when private overseas trade was banned by Chinas ruling Ming dynasty. Portuguese sources called the place Liampó, taking the name of the nearby city of Ningbo on the mainland.[1] Shuangyus days as a smuggling hub and pirate haven began as early as 1524 and lasted until its destruction by the Ming navy in 1548, an event that was greatly exaggerated (and wrongly dated) by the 16th-century Portuguese travel writer Fernão Mendes Pinto. In the 16th century, a global demand for Chinese products like silk and porcelain coincided with a high demand of silver in China. However, the premier suppliers of silver in East Asia, the Japanese and the Portuguese, could not legally trade in China to meet the massive demand. At the same time, Chinese merchants were prevented from trading with foreigners due to the Ming dynastys maritime prohibition laws. To conduct private trade in China, the Japanese and Portuguese traders collaborated with smugglers on island ports along the Zhejiang and Fujian coast. Among these ports, Shuangyu emerged as the primary emporium of clandestine trade,[2] since it was at a reasonable distance from the markets of Ningbo and Hangzhou, but also sufficiently far away from the Ming coast authorities.[3] The earliest mentions of Shuangyu as a smuggling port notes that the chaos on the Zhejiang coast (a reference to the Ningbo incident of 1523) caused an overstocking of commodities at Shuangyu in 1524.[4] At first, Shuangyu only had temporary mat-sheds for the smugglers to house themselves and their goods during the trading season.[5] In 1539, Fujianese traders started to guide foreign traders from Patani and Malacca to barter in Shuangyu and started to occupy the island. They were soon joined by the Fujianese merchants Jinzi Lao (金子老, Gold Elder) and Li Guangtou (李光頭, Baldy Li), who led the Portuguese and assorted adventurers to Shuangyu. Attracted by the growing trade on the Zhejiang coast, the syndicate led by Xu Dong (許棟) and his brothers moved their base of operations from the Malay Peninsula to Shuangyu. The existing clout of the Xu syndicate and its close partnership with the Portuguese made it the foremost smuggling bloc by 1542 after a series of mergers among the merchant-pirates in Shuangyu.[5] The Ming authorities began to clamp down on smuggling in 1543, viewing such activities in the same vein as wokou piracy. However, the Xu syndicate was able to repulse these initial Ming attacks on Shuangyu with the aid of Portuguese firearms. Hardened by their victories against the Ming navy, the smugglers expanded their network of activities down the coast of China all the way to Guangdong and inland to the metropolis of Nanjing, with Shuangyu being their hub.[5] In 1544, this network was further expanded when the Japan-based merchant Wang Zhi joined the Xu syndicate, bringing along his Japanese connections to Shuangyu. Thus Shuangyu reached its zenith as the biggest entrépot in maritime East Asia trading goods from Europe and Asia.[6] On the eve of its destruction, Shuangyu had an estimated population of 600 Wo barbarians, a term that referred to the Japanese but might have also included other foreigners at the time.[7] At Shuangyus height of prosperity, local residents of Shuangyu willingly aided the pirates, since the smuggling trade brought considerable wealth to the island. The villagers, who previously relied on subsistence agriculture and fishing to make a living, turned to making weapons and armour for Wang Zhi and other pirates of the area: [They] melted copper coins to make shot, used saltpeter to make gunpowder, iron to make swords and guns, and leather to make their armour.[8] Their admiration for the pirates was such that not only did they provide the pirates with daily necessities, they also gave women and pledged their own children. Many youngsters willingly joined Wang Zhis group.[8] As for the Portuguese in the Shuangyu settlement, the friar Gaspar da Cruz wrote that they were so firmly settled and with such freedom, that nothing was lacking them save having a gallows and pelourinho,[9] a freedom that they and their Chinese accomplices sometimes abused when they make great thefts and robberies, and killed some of the people.[9]
Prefecture-level city. Provinces Autonomous regions Sub-provincial autonomous prefectures Autonomous prefectures Leagues (Aimag) (abolishing)
Ningbo (disambiguation). Ningbo is a city in Zhejiang, China. Ningbo may also refer to:
Bopomofo.  Bopomofo, also called Zhuyin Fuhao[1] (/dʒuːˌjɪn fuːˈhaʊ/ joo-YIN foo-HOW; 注音符號; Zhùyīn fúhào; phonetic symbols), or simply Zhuyin,[2] is a transliteration system for Standard Chinese and other Sinitic languages. It is the principal method of teaching Chinese Mandarin pronunciation in Taiwan. It consists of 37 characters and five tone marks, which together can transcribe all possible sounds in Mandarin Chinese. Bopomofo was first introduced in China during the 1910s by the Beiyang government, where it was used alongside Wade–Giles, a romanization system which used a modified Latin alphabet. Today, Bopomofo is more common in Taiwan than on the mainland, and is used as the primary electronic input method for Taiwanese Mandarin, as well as in dictionaries and other non-official documents. Bopomofo is the name used for the system by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and Unicode. Analogous to how the word alphabet is derived from the names of the first two letters alpha and beta, the name bopomofo derives from the first four syllabographs in the systems conventional consonant order: ㄅ, ㄆ, ㄇ, and ㄈ.[3] In Taiwan the system is commonly known by its official name Zhuyin fuhao (注音符號; phonetic symbols), or simply as zhuyin (注音; phonetic notation). In official documents, it is occasionally called Mandarin Phonetic Symbols I (國語注音符號第一式), abbreviated as MPS I (注音一式),[4][5] to distinguish it from the Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (MPS II) system published in 1984. Formerly, the system was named Guoyin zimu (國音字母; national language alphabet) and Zhuyin zimu (注音字母; phonetic alphabet).[4]
The Sea (2002 film). The Sea, (Icelandic: Hafið (pronunciationⓘ)), is a 2002 Icelandic comedy drama film, directed by Baltasar Kormákur. The film tells the story of a wealthy Icelandic family, owners of a fish industry company in a small Icelandic coastal town, and various family issues they have to deal with. The Sea was filmed almost entirely in and around Neskaupstaður. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 49% approval rating, based on 51 reviews with an average rating of 5.6/10. The websites consensus reads, This look at a fraught family reunion should be easily relatable, but The Sea drowns viewers in melodrama when it should be carrying them toward darkly comedic shores.[1] On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 52 out of 100, which is based on 23 critics, indicating mixed or average reviews.[2] The film won eight awards at the Edda Awards, Iceland in 2002 (Best Actor for Gunnar Eyjólfsson, Best Actress for Elva Ósk Ólafsdóttir, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Supporting Actor for Sigurður Skúlason, Best Supporting Actress for Herdís Þorvaldsdóttir, Film of the Year and Professional Category: Sound/Vision), where it was also nominated for 4 more awards. In the same year, it was nominated for the Nordic Council Film Prize and for the Golden Shell at the San Sebastián International Film Festival. In 2003, it won the FIPRESCI Prize at the Istanbul International Film Festival, where it was also nominated for the Golden Tulip, and the Audience Award at the Tromsø International Film Festival in Norway. 
Wu Chinese.  Wu (simplified Chinese: 吴语; traditional Chinese: 吳語; pinyin: Wúyǔ; Wugniu and IPA:6wu-gniu6 [ɦu˩.nʲy˦] (Shanghainese), 2ghou-gniu6 [ɦou˨.nʲy˧] (Suzhounese)) is a major group of Sinitic languages spoken primarily in Shanghai, Zhejiang province, and parts of Jiangsu province, especially south of the Yangtze River,[2] which makes up the cultural region of Wu. The Wu languages are at times simply called Shanghainese, especially when introduced to foreigners. The Suzhounese variety was the prestige dialect of Wu as of the 19th century, but had been replaced in status by Shanghainese by the turn of the 20th century, coinciding with a period of rapid language change in the city.[3] The languages of Northern Wu constitute a language family and are mutually intelligible, while those of Southern Wu do not form a phylogenetic language family and are not mutually intelligible.[2] Historical linguists view Wu of great significance because of its obviously distinct nature.[4] The Wu languages typically preserve all voiced initials of medieval Chinese, as well as the checked tone in the form of a glottal stop.[5] Wu varieties also have noticeably unique morphological and syntactic innovations,[6] as well as lexicon exclusively found in the Wu grouping. It is also of note that the influential linguist Chao Yuen Ren was a native speaker of Changzhounese, a variety of Northern Wu.[7] The Wu varieties, especially that of Suzhou, are traditionally perceived as soft in the ears of speakers of both Wu and non-Wu languages, leading to the idiom the tender speech of Wu (吴侬软语; 吳儂軟語). Most speakers of Wu varieties do not readily identify with or are entirely unaware of this term for their speech, since the classificatory imposition of Wu used in linguistics today is a relatively recent coinage. Saying someone speaks Wu is therefore akin to saying someone speaks a Romance language; it is not a particularly defined entity like Standard Mandarin or Hochdeutsch. Most speakers are aware of their local varietys affinities only with other similarly classified varieties. They generally refer only to their local Wu variety, rather than to the dialect family as a whole. This is typically done by affixing 話 (speech) to a locations endonym. For example, 溫州話 (Wu Chinese pronunciation: [ʔy˧꜖ tɕiɤu˧꜖ ɦo˩꜒꜔]) is used for Wenzhounese. Affixing 閒話 is also common, and more typical of Northern Wu, as in 嘉興閒話 (Wugniu: ka-shin ghae-o) for the Jiaxing variety [zh]. Names for the group as a whole include:
Atlantic Basin (disambiguation). The Atlantic Basin is the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic Basin may also refer to:
Sub-provincial division. Provinces Autonomous regions Sub-provincial autonomous prefectures Autonomous prefectures Leagues (Aimag) (abolishing)
Yinzhou, Ningbo. Yinzhou (Chinese: 鄞州; pinyin: Yínzhōu) is a district of the major city of Ningbo, Zhejiang province, China. In 220 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, established three counties called Yin (鄞), Mao (鄮)  and Gouzhang (句章).[1] Later they were merged into Gouzhang county during the Sui dynasty. It was renamed Mao county during the Tang dynasty. It had assumed its current name of Yin in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The city of Ningbo was administrated by Yin county until after the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China. At the same time, Yin county became a county of Ningbo city. On April 19, 2002, it was renamed Yinzhou District. It is one of the few counties that has kept the same name since its establishment more than 2000 years ago.[citation needed] Subdistricts:[2] Towns: The only township is Longguan Township (龙观乡)
Ancient Warfare (magazine). Ancient Warfare is a glossy Dutch bi-monthly military history magazine. Ancient Warfare was started in 2007.[2] It is published in Rotterdam by the Dutch publishing company Karwansaray.[3] The magazine was founded by Jasper Oorthuys, who now serves as managing director and editor-in-chief.[3] Most of the magazines feature articles focus on a central theme per issue.[4] These include articles on a specific general, campaign or more abstract phenomenon such as sieges. Each issue usually starts off with a historical introduction to the theme. The introduction is usually followed by an article that delves into relevant sources for the theme, such as a historical narrative or an archaeological source. The theme is then fleshed out by articles on warriors, battles and generals that fit that issues theme. Among the authors are well-known specialists like Bob Bennett, Duncan B. Campbell, Ross Cowan, Lukas de Blois, Stephen English, Adrian Murdoch, Joseph Pietrykowski, Jona Lendering, and Mike Roberts. The magazine also includes news and letters from readers, as well as reviews of relevant books, games, models, and museums. The illustrations include original artwork, maps and photographs of artifacts. Online free features of the magazine include the editors blog and a podcast which is published to coincide with the magazine themes. Other spin-offs were specials on the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest and the nature of the Roman centuria. Since 2012, the yearly special is published in the form of a hardcover book. The first was Edge of Empire (2012), a reworked English translation of an originally Dutch book by Jona Lendering and Arjan Bosman on the Roman occupation of the Low Countries. The second was Henchmen of Ares: Warriors and Warfare in Early Greece (2013) written by then-editor Josho Brouwers and based on his PhD dissertation on Early Greek warfare.
Atlantic (disambiguation). The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans, that separates the old world from the new world. Atlantic may also refer to: 
North Atlantic (disambiguation). The North Atlantic is the portion of the Atlantic Ocean which lies north of the Equator. North Atlantic may also refer to:
South Atlantic (disambiguation). The South Atlantic is the portion of the Atlantic Ocean which lies south of the Equator. South Atlantic may also refer to:
Vietnam.  in Southeast Asia Vietnam,[e][f] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV),[g][h] is a country at the eastern edge of Mainland Southeast Asia. With an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, it is the worlds 15th-most populous country. One of two communist states in Southeast Asia,[i]  Vietnam is bordered by China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west, the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east; it also shares maritime borders with Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia to the south and southwest, the Philippines to the east, and China to the northeast. Its capital is Hanoi, while its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City. Vietnam was inhabited by the Paleolithic age, with states established in the first millennium BC on the Red River Delta in modern-day northern Vietnam.[15] The Han dynasty annexed northern and central Vietnam, which were subsequently under Chinese rule from 111 BC until the first dynasty emerged in 939. Successive monarchical dynasties absorbed Chinese influences through Confucianism and Buddhism, and expanded southward to the Mekong Delta, conquering Champa. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was effectively divided into two domains of Đàng Trong and Đàng Ngoài. The Nguyễn—the last imperial dynasty—surrendered to France in 1883. In 1887, its territory was integrated into French Indochina as three separate regions. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, the Viet Minh, a coalition front led by the communist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, launched the August Revolution and declared Vietnams independence from the Empire of Japan in 1945. Vietnam went through prolonged warfare in the 20th century. After World War II, France returned to reclaim colonial power in the First Indochina War, from which Vietnam emerged victorious in 1954. As a result of the treaties signed between the Viet Minh and France, Vietnam was also separated into two parts. The Vietnam War began shortly after, between the communist North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, and the anti-communist South Vietnam, supported by the United States. Upon the North Vietnamese victory in 1975, Vietnam reunified as a unitary communist state that self-designated as a socialist state under the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in 1976. An ineffective planned economy, a trade embargo by the West, and wars with Cambodia and China crippled the country further. In 1986, the CPV launched economic and political reforms similar to the Chinese economic reform, transforming the country to a socialist-oriented market economy. The reforms facilitated Vietnamese reintegration into the global economy and politics.
United States Marine Corps.  10 November 1775(249 years, 10 months)[2](as the Continental Marines) Joint Meritorious Unit Award  Navy Unit Commendation  Valorous Unit Award   Meritorious Unit Commendation  French Croix de guerre 1914–1918  Philippine Presidential Unit Citation  Korean Presidential Unit Citation  Vietnam Gallantry Cross The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines or simply the Marines, is the maritime land force service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations[11] through combined arms, implementing its own infantry, artillery, aerial, and special operations forces. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the six armed forces of the United States and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. The Marine Corps has been part of the United States Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834 with its sister service, the United States Navy.[12] The USMC operates installations on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world. Additionally, several of the Marines tactical aviation squadrons, primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the aircraft carriers.[13]
United States Navy.  13 October 1775(249 years, 11 months)(as the Continental Navy)[1][2] The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is the worlds most powerful navy with the largest displacement, at 4.5 million tons in 2021.[9] It has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with eleven in service, one undergoing trials, two new carriers under construction, and six other carriers planned as of 2024. With 336,978 personnel on active duty and 101,583 in the Ready Reserve, the U.S. Navy is the third largest of the United States military service branches in terms of personnel. It has 299 deployable combat vessels and about 4,012 operational aircraft as of  18 July 2023.[10][11] The U.S. Navy is one of six armed forces of the United States and one of eight uniformed services of the United States. The United States Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. After suffering significant loss of goods and personnel at the hands of the Barbary pirates from Algiers, the United States Congress passed the Naval Act of 1794 for the construction of six heavy frigates, the first ships of the Navy. The United States Navy played a major role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy and seizing control of its rivers. It played the central role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The United States Navy emerged from World War II as the most powerful navy in the world. The modern United States Navy maintains a sizable global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean, and the Indian Ocean. It is a blue-water navy with the ability to project force onto the littoral regions of the world, engage in forward deployments during peacetime and rapidly respond to regional crises, making it a frequent actor in American foreign and military policy. The United States Navy is part of the Department of the Navy, alongside the United States Marine Corps, which is its coequal sister service. The Department of the Navy is headed by the civilian secretary of the Navy. The Department of the Navy is itself a military department of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the secretary of defense. The chief of naval operations (CNO) is the most senior Navy officer serving in the Department of the Navy.[12]
Self Defense. Self-defense is a countermeasure that involves defending oneself Self Defense may also refer to:
English in the Commonwealth of Nations.   The use of the English language in current and former countries of the Commonwealth was largely inherited from British colonisation, with some exceptions. English forms part of the Commonwealths common culture and serves as the medium of inter-Commonwealth relations.[1][2] Commonwealth English refers to English as practised in the Commonwealth; the term is most often interchangeable with British English, but is also used to distinguish between British English and that in the rest of the Commonwealth.[3] English in the Commonwealth is diverse, and many regions have developed their own local varieties of the language. The official status of English varies; in Bangladesh, it lacks any but is widely used, and likewise in Cyprus, it is not official but is used as the lingua franca.[4][5] Written English in current and former Commonwealth countries generally favours British English spelling as opposed to that of American English,[6] with some exceptions, particularly in Canada, where there are strong influences from neighbouring American English.[7]
Early thermal weapons. Early thermal weapons, which used heat or burning action to destroy or damage enemy personnel, fortifications or territories, were employed in warfare during the ancient and post-classical periods (approximately the 8th century BC until the mid-16th century AD). Incendiary devices were frequently used as projectiles during warfare, particularly during sieges and naval battles: some substances were boiled or heated to inflict damage by scalding or burning; other substances relied on their chemical properties to inflict burns or damage. These weapons or devices could be used by individuals, thrown by siege engines, or utilised as army strategy. Incendiary mixtures, such as the petroleum-based Greek fire, could be launched by throwing machines or administered through a siphon. Sulfur- and oil-soaked materials were sometimes ignited and thrown at the enemy, or attached to spears, arrows and bolts and fired by hand or machine. The simplest and most common thermal projectiles were boiling water and hot sand, which could be poured over attacking personnel. Other anti-personnel weapons included the use of hot pitch, oil, resin, animal fat and other similar compounds. Smoke was used to confuse or drive off attackers. Substances such as quicklime and sulfur could be toxic and blinding. Fire and incendiary weapons were also used against enemy structures and territory, sometimes on a massive scale. Large tracts of land, towns and villages were frequently ignited as part of a scorched earth strategy. Some siege techniques—such as mining and boring—relied on combustibles and fire to complete the collapse of walls and structures. Towards the latter part of the period, gunpowder was invented, which increased the sophistication of the weapons, starting with fire lances, which led to the eventual development of the cannon and other firearms. Development of the early weapons has continued ever since, with modern war weapons such as napalm, flame throwers, and other explosives having direct roots in the original early thermal weapons. Fire-raising and other destructive strategies can still be seen in modern strategic bombing.
Baton (law enforcement).  A baton (also truncheon, nightstick, billy club, billystick, cosh, lathi, or simply stick) is a roughly cylindrical club made of wood, rubber, plastic, or metal. It is carried as a compliance tool and defensive weapon[1] by law-enforcement officers, correctional staff, security guards and military personnel. The name baton comes from the French bâton (stick), derived from Old French Baston, from Latin bastum.[2] As a weapon a baton may be used defensively (to block) or offensively (to strike, jab, or bludgeon), and it can aid in the application of armlocks. The usual striking or bludgeoning action is not produced by a simple and direct hit, as with an ordinary blunt object, but rather by bringing the arm down sharply while allowing the truncheon to pivot nearly freely forward and downward, so moving its tip much faster than its handle. Batons are also used for non-weapon purposes such as breaking windows to free individuals trapped in a vehicle, or turning out a suspects pockets during a search (as a precaution against sharp objects). Some people other than law enforcement officers use batons as weapons because of their simple construction and easy concealment. The use or carrying of batons or improvised clubs by people other than law enforcement officers is restricted by law in many countries. In the Victorian era, police in London carried truncheons about one foot long called billy clubs. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, this name was first recorded in 1848 as slang for a burglars crowbar. The meaning policemans club is first recorded 1856. The truncheon acted as the policemans Warrant Card as the Royal Crest attached to it indicated the policemans authority. This was always removed when the equipment left official service (often with the person who used it). Earlier on, the word was used in vulgar Latin (bastο—a stick helping walking,[3] from basta—hold).
Arctic.  The Arctic (/ˈɑːr(k)tɪk/;[1][Note 1] from Ancient Greek  ἄρκτος (árktos) bear) is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying north of the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway (Nordland, Troms, Finnmark, Svalbard and Jan Mayen), northernmost Sweden (Västerbotten, Norrbotten and Lappland), northern Finland (North Ostrobothnia, Kainuu and Lappi), Russia (Murmansk, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), the United States (Alaska), Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), and northern Iceland (Grímsey and Kolbeinsey), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places. The Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, and human societies.[3] Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός arktikos near the Bear, northern[4] and from the word ἄρκτος arktos meaning bear for either to the constellation known as Ursa Major, the Great Bear, which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere,[5][6] or the constellation Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris, the current north Pole Star, or North Star).[7]
Combat (disambiguation). Combat is purposeful violent conflict. Combat may also refer to:
Fight (disambiguation). A fight is a purposeful violent conflict of combat intended to establish dominance over the opposition. Fight or fighting may also refer to:
Medieval warfare.  Medieval warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. Technological, cultural, and social advancements had forced a severe transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery (see military history). In terms of fortification, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of the castle in Europe, which then spread to the Holy Land (modern day Israel and Palestine). The medieval knight was usually a mounted and armoured soldier, often connected with nobility or royalty, although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be enslaved persons. The cost of their armour, horses, and weapons was great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors. During the crusades, holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (see Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, etc.).[1] The light cavalry consisted usually of lighter armed and armoured men, who could have lances, javelins or missile weapons, such as bows or crossbows. In much of the Middle Ages, light cavalry usually consisted of wealthy commoners. Later in the Middle Ages, light cavalry would also include sergeants who were men who had trained as knights but could not afford the costs associated with the title. Light cavalry was used as scouts, skirmishers or outflankers. Many countries developed their styles of light cavalries, such as Hungarian mounted archers, Spanish jinetes, Italian and German mounted crossbowmen and English currours. The infantry was recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers.
Land warfare. Land warfare or ground warfare is the process of military operations eventuating in combat that takes place predominantly on the battlespace land surface of the planet.[1] Land warfare is categorized by the use of large numbers of combat personnel employing a diverse set of combat skills, methods and a wide variety of weapon systems and equipment, conducted in diverse terrains and weather environments. Land warfare, by virtue of being conducted in defence of urban and rural population areas, dominates the study of war, and is a focus for most national defence policy planning and financial considerations. Land warfare in history has undergone several distinct transitions in conduct from a large concentration of largely untrained and irregularly armed populace used in frontal assaults to current employment of combined arms concepts with highly trained regular troops using a wide variety of organisational, weapon and information systems, and employing a variety of strategic, operational and tactical doctrines. Although land combat in the past was conducted by the combat arms of the armed forces, since World War II it has largely involved three distinct types of combat units: infantry, armour, and artillery. These arms, since the Age of Sail, have used amphibious warfare concepts and methods to project power from the seas and oceans, and since the wide introduction of military transport aircraft and helicopters have used airborne forces and vertical envelopment to the variety of doctrines used to prosecute warfare on land. Land forces include personnel, weapons platforms, vehicles, and support elements operating on land to accomplish assigned missions and tasks.[2]
Timeline of the gunpowder age.   This is a timeline of the history of gunpowder and related topics such as weapons, warfare, and industrial applications. The timeline covers the history of gunpowder from the first hints of its origin as a Taoist alchemical product in China until its replacement by smokeless powder in the late 19th century (from 1884 to the present day). Major developments: Earliest stage of gunpowder development. Mentions of gunpowder ingredients and their uses in conjunction with each other. Major developments: Earliest definite references to a gunpowder formula and awareness of its danger.
Right of self-defense.  The right of self-defense is the right for people as individuals to commit a crime, violent or non-violent, for the purpose of defending their own life (self-defense) and property, or to defend the lives of others, in certain circumstances.[1] For example, while reckless driving is usually against the law, it can be justified if it was done to avoid a collision. The right, when it applies to the defense of another, is also called alter ego defense, defense of others, defense of a third person. Nations and states also have a right to self-defense in relation to their existence and independence.[2] In criminal law, if a defendant commits a crime because of a threat of deadly or grievous harm, or a reasonable perception of such harm, the defendant is said to have a perfect self-defense justification.[3] If a defendant commits a crime because of such a perception, and the perception is not reasonable, the defendant may have imperfect self-defense as an excuse.[3] Justification does not make a criminal use of force lawful; if the use of force is justified, it cannot be criminal at all.[4] The early theories make no distinction between defense of the person and defense of property. Whether consciously or not, this builds on the Roman Law principle of dominium where any attack on the members of the family or the property it owned was a personal attack on the pater familias –  the male head of the household, sole owner of all property belonging to the household, and endowed by law with dominion over all his descendants through the male line no matter their age.[5] The right to self-defense is phrased as the principle of vim vi repellere licet (it is permitted to repel force by force) in the Digest of Justitian (6th century). Another early application of this was Martin Luthers concept of justified resistance against a Beerwolf ruler, which was used in the doctrine of the lesser magistrate propounded in the 1550 Magdeburg Confession.
Ocean (disambiguation). An ocean is a major body of salt water on Earth. Ocean may also refer to:
History of gunpowder.   Gunpowder is the first explosive to have been created in the world. Popularly listed as one of the Four Great Inventions of China, it was invented during the late Tang dynasty (9th century) while the earliest recorded chemical formula for gunpowder dates to the Song dynasty (11th century). Knowledge of gunpowder spread rapidly throughout Eurasia, possibly as a result of the Mongol conquests during the 13th century, with written formulas for it appearing in the Middle East between 1240 and 1280 in a treatise by Hasan al-Rammah, and in Europe by 1267 in the Opus Majus by Roger Bacon. It was employed in warfare to some effect from at least the 10th century in weapons such as fire arrows, bombs, and the fire lance before the appearance of the gun in the 13th century. While the fire lance was eventually supplanted by the gun, other gunpowder weapons such as rockets and fire arrows continued to see use in China, Korea, India, and this eventually led to its use in the Middle East, Europe, and Africa. Bombs too never ceased to develop and continued to progress into the modern day as grenades, mines, and other explosive implements. Gunpowder has also been used for non-military purposes such as fireworks for entertainment, or in explosives for mining and tunneling. The evolution of guns led to the development of large artillery pieces, popularly known as bombards, during the 15th century, pioneered by states such as the Duchy of Burgundy. Firearms came to dominate early modern warfare in Europe by the 17th century. The gradual improvement of cannons firing heavier rounds for a greater impact against fortifications led to the invention of the star fort and the bastion in the Western world, where traditional city walls and castles were no longer suitable for defense. The use of gunpowder technology also spread throughout the Islamic world and to India, Korea, and Japan. The so-called Gunpowder Empires of the early modern period consisted of the Mughal Empire, Safavid Empire, and Ottoman Empire. The use of gunpowder in warfare during the course of the 19th century diminished due to the invention of smokeless powder. Gunpowder is often referred to today as black powder to distinguish it from the propellant used in contemporary firearms.[1]
Thure de Thulstrup.  Thure de Thulstrup (born Bror Thure Thulstrup;[1]April 5, 1848 – June 9, 1930) was an American illustrator with contributions for numerous magazines, including three decades of work for Harpers Weekly.[2] He primarily illustrated historical military scenes. Thulstrup was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on April 5, 1848.[3] His father was Swedens Secretary of the Navy amongst other such positions.[4] After graduating from the Royal Swedish Military Academy,[5] Thulstrup joined the Swedish military as an artillery officer at the age of twenty. However, he soon left Sweden for Paris, where he joined the French Foreign Legion and saw service in the Franco-Prussian War.[4] Thulstrup also served in the French part of Northern Africa as a member of the First Zouave Regiment.[5] After leaving the French Army, Thulstrup moved to Canada in 1872 to become a civil engineer.[5] He moved to the United States in 1873,[6] where he became an artist for the New York Daily Graphic, and, later, Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper, documenting local events.[7] As his skills improved, he became able to move into more and more prestigious roles, including work for Century, Harpers Monthly, and Scribners Magazine.[2] While living in New York, Thulstrup studied at the Art Students League.[6] His military pictures include a series of paintings depicting the American Civil War, and illustrations of a Virginian lifestyle in the middle of the eighteenth century.[5]
Home Defense.  Home Defense is a 1943 animated short film produced by Walt Disney Productions and distributed by RKO Radio Pictures.[1] The film shows Donald Duck and his three nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie serving as civilian aircraft spotters during World War II. The film was directed by Jack King, Clarence Nash voices the characters. The story takes place during World War II in which Donald Duck and his nephews, Huey, Dewey, and Louie, are serving as civilian aircraft spotters on the West Coast of the United States. In order to detect the sound of approaching enemy aircraft, Donald uses a listening apparatus consisting of headphones and a large horn amplifier pointed skyward. One morning at the listening post, Donald accidentally wakes up Huey, Dewey, and Louie who were sleeping nearby. The boys, serving as Donalds gun crew, retaliate by faking an airborne invasion as a prank. They fill a motorized toy plane with gingerbread paratroopers and fly it around the amplifier. Donald awakes, sees the plane, and shoots it down with his home-made anti-aircraft battery. As the plane is falling to earth, the gingerbread men deploy. When Donald sees the parachutes, he panics and hides in the grass while Huey, Dewey, and Louie create artificial combat noises. When Donald finally discovers the ruse, he angrily calls his nephews to attention and relieves them of duty. The nephews tearfully leave as Donald continues to listen for aircraft alone. Later, Donald hears the sound of a bee buzzing near the amplifier and believes that his nephews are playing a trick on him again. However, when he sees the boys are not up to anything, Donald returns to the listening post and continues to hear the bee, imagining the sound is approaching Japanese forces. Donald quickly reinstates the boys and has them man a large cannon. Donald carefully calculates the position of the sound and relays orders to Huey, Dewey, and Louie in aiming the cannon. After following Donalds instructions, the nephews aim the cannon directly at the acoustic horn where the bee is. Despite their objections, Donald orders them to fire the weapon, which sends the amplified blast into Donalds ears. The nephews laugh while Donald goes into his characteristic temper tantrum while suspended off the ground by his earphones.
List of countries by length of coastline.  This article contains a list of countries by length of coastline, in kilometers. Though the coastline paradox stipulates that coastlines do not have a well-defined length, there are various methods in use to measure coastlines through ratios and other metrics. A coastline of zero indicates that the country is landlocked. The coastline paradox states that a coastline does not have a well-defined length. Measurements of the length of a coastline behave like a fractal, being different at different scale intervals (distance between points on the coastline at which measurements are taken). The smaller the scale interval (meaning the more detailed the measurement), the longer the coastline will be.[a] This magnifying effect is greater for convoluted coastlines than for relatively smooth ones. Data are from the CIA World Factbook[2][3] and the World Resources Institute.[1] Non-sovereign areas are listed in italics.
New York City Police Department.  The City of New York Police Department, also referred to as New York City Police Department (NYPD), is the primary law enforcement agency within New York City. Established on May 23, 1845, the NYPD is the largest, and one of the oldest, municipal police departments in the United States.[8] The NYPD is headquartered at 1 Police Plaza, located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan near City Hall. The NYPDs regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules. Dedicated units of the NYPD include the Emergency Service Unit, K-9, harbor patrol, highway patrol, air support, bomb squad, counterterrorism, criminal intelligence, anti-organized crime, narcotics, mounted patrol, public transportation, and public housing units. The NYPD employs over 40,000 people, including more than 30,000 uniformed officers as of September 2023.[9][10] According to the official CompStat database, the NYPD responded to nearly 500,000 reports of crime and made over 200,000 arrests during 2019.[11][12] In 2020, it had a budget of US$6 billion.[2] However, the NYPDs actual spending often exceeds its budget.[13] The NYPDs history has been colored by police brutality, corruption, and misconduct, which critics argue persists till the present day.[14][15][16] Due to its high-profile location in New York City, the largest city and media center in the U.S., fictionalized versions of the NYPD and its officers have frequently been portrayed in novels, radio, television, motion pictures, and video games.
Borders of the oceans.   The borders of the oceans are the limits of Earths oceanic waters. The definition and number of oceans can vary depending on the adopted criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) of the five oceans are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern (Antarctic) Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other terms. Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. See also: List of seas on Earth for the seas included in each oceanic area. Though generally described as several separate oceans, the worlds oceanic waters constitute one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or  Global Ocean.[1][2] This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.[3]
History of criminal justice.  Throughout the history of criminal justice, evolving forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing reforms have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and economic conditions. Primates often have notions of fairness and sharing, with violations punished by exclusion or banishment from social groups.  In human history,  prior to agriculture, more nomadic cultures had systems of punishment for behavior or resistance. With the development of agriculture, which led to more closely populated cities and cultures and behavior to address fears of persons taking advantage of or causing harm to others, more formal systems of punishment for crimes developed, independently around the world, or based upon other cultures, including those developed in the early Babylonian laws of Hammurabi and the Hammurabic Code. A police force called the shurta was an urban force for the suppression of crime that originated as a branch of the military. They were responsible for dealing with brigands and allegedly rebels as well as exercising judicial functions (often in rivalry with the qadi).[1] The muhtasib was responsible for enforcing laws on markets, Islamic morality and sumptuary laws for dhimmis.[2]
Medieval fortification. Medieval fortification refers to medieval military methods that cover the development of fortification construction and use in Europe, roughly from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance. During this millennium, fortifications changed warfare, and in turn were modified to suit new tactics, weapons and siege techniques. Towers of medieval castles were usually made of stone, wood or a combination of both (with a stone base supporting a wooden loft). Often toward the later part of the era they included battlements and arrow loops. Arrow loops were vertical slits in the wall through which archers inside shot arrows at the attackers, but made it extremely difficult for attackers to get many arrows back through at the defenders. Sieges were common during the Middle Ages and because of this many cities fortified their walls and castles to defend against the use of siege engines by their attackers1. Many cities utilized catapults that would hurl stones and other missiles at enemy siege engines and soldiers. The most commonly used catapult for defense was the trebuchet, a torsion powered catapult that dominated the Middle Ages both offensively and defensively. The trebuchet was known for its considerable force but required a longer loading time compared to other siege engines, sometimes taking up to an hour, which lead to some cities using catapults such as the mangonel and onager instead, which could put projectiles downrange much faster than the trebuchet. The trebuchet’s destructive force caused engineers to thicken walls, round out towers, and to redesign fortifications so that they could employ trebuchets for defense. The Ayyubids between 1196 and 1218 built towers mounted with massive trebuchets, which hypothetically would use their height advantage to take out opposing siege engines.[1] Ballistas were another type of catapult utilized as a defensive weapon, however they were not often used. This is because their missiles sometimes lacked the force to dismantle enemy siege engines and their immobility confined them to the top of a citys towers were they could easily be taken out by enemy catapults, including offensive ballistas which were usually employed for the very reason of dismantling defenses on the top of towers and keeping defenders off of a walls battlements. After the invention of cannons near the beginning of 12th century CE, many torsion powered catapults became largely obsolete and cannons became commonplace medieval siege engines by the 15th century. While mostly used for offensive purposes, the first recorded use of a cannon in Europe was to defend the city of Algeciras during the siege of 1343-44.[2] However slow to load, cannons proved to be devastating weapons that could level a citys walls or destroy siege engines with only a single projectile. An exact nature of the walls of a medieval town or city would depend on the resources available for building them, the nature of the terrain, and the perceived threat. In northern Europe, early in the period, walls were likely to have been constructed of wood and proofed against small forces. Especially where stone was readily available for building, the wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security. This would have been the pattern of events in the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw in England. In many cases, the wall would have had an internal and an external pomoerium. This was a strip of clear ground immediately adjacent the wall. The word is from the late medieval, derived from the classical Latin post murum (behind the wall).
Bunkobon.  In Japan, bunkobon (文庫本) are small-format paperback books, designed to be affordable and space-saving. The great majority of bunkobon are A6 (105×148mm or 4.1×5.8) in size.[1] They are sometimes illustrated and like other Japanese paperbacks usually have a dust wrapper over a plain cover. Modern bunkobon can include bestsellers and works of scholarship alike and their pocketbook size make them useful while commuting.[2] They are used for similar purposes as Western mass market paperbacks: generally for cheaper editions of books which have already been published as hardbacks.[3] However, they are typically printed on durable paper and durably bound, and some works are initially published in bunkobon format. Bunkobon take their name from the publisher Iwanami Shoten, which, in 1927, launched the Iwanami Bunko (Iwanami Library), a series of international works aimed to bring the classics of new and old, east and west to the broadest possible audience. The original Iwanami Bunko series is credited for transforming books in Japan into affordable, mass-market commodities.[1] The bunkobon format began to flourish during the late 1920s, following the development of printing technology able to mass-produce cheap books and magazines. During this period, the Japanese industry further developed the bunkobon format based on German Reclams Universal-Bibliothek book formats.[4]
Challenger Deep.  The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point of the seabed of Earth, located in the western Pacific Ocean at the southern end of the Mariana Trench, in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia. The GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names indicates that the feature is situated at 11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917 and has an approximated maximum depth of 10,903 to 11,009 m (35,771 to 36,119 ft)[1] below sea level. A 2011 study placed the depth at 10,920 ± 10 m (35,827 ± 33 ft)[2] with a 2021 study revising the value to 10,935 ± 6 m (35,876 ± 20 ft) at a 95% confidence level.[3] The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ships HMS Challenger, whose expedition of 1872–1876 first located it, and HMS Challenger II, whose expedition of 1950–1952 established its record-setting depth.[4] The first descent by any vehicle was conducted by the United States Navy using the bathyscaphe Trieste in January 1960. As of July 2022[update], there were 27 people who have descended to the Challenger Deep. The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench, which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor. The Challenger Deep consists of three basins, each 6 to 10 km (3.7 to 6.2 mi) long, 2 km (1.2 mi) wide, and over 10,850 m (35,597 ft) in depth, oriented in echelon from west to east, separated by mounds between the basins 200 to 300 m (660 to 980 ft) higher. The three basins feature extends about 48 km (30 mi) west to east if measured at the 10,650 m (34,941 ft) isobath.[5] Both the western and eastern basins have recorded depths (by sonar bathymetry) in excess of 10,920 m (35,827 ft), while the center basin is slightly less deep.[6] The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island (one of the outer islands of Yap), 287 km (178 mi) southwest, and Guam, 304 km (189 mi) to the northeast.[7] Detailed sonar mapping of the western, center and eastern basins in June 2020 by the DSSV Pressure Drop combined with manned descents revealed that they undulate with slopes and piles of rocks above a bed of pelagic ooze. This conforms with the description of Challenger Deep as consisting of an elongated seabed section with distinct sub-basins or sediment-filled pools.[8]
Local Autonomy Act. The Local Autonomy Act (地方自治法, Chihō-jichi-hō), passed by the House of Representatives and the House of Peers on March 28, 1947[1] and promulgated as Law No. 67 of 1947 on April 17,[2][3] is an Act of devolution that established most of Japans contemporary local government structures and administrative divisions, including prefectures, municipalities[3] and other entities. On July 16, 1999, the law was amended to eliminate administrative functions imposed upon local governments by the central governments and to establish Committee for Settling National-Local Disputes.[4] The law and other relevant laws have been amended after the revision to promote decentralization.[5] The classification of local public entities (地方公共団体, chihō kōkyō dantai) (LPEs) are: Ordinary LPEs are the basic local governments. The distinction between ordinary and special LPEs is primarily relevant under the Constitution of Japan, which grants ordinary LPEs particular rights, including: Special LPEs do not have these authorities except as otherwise provided by statute. While special wards are regarded as basic local governments within Tokyo, other special LPEs are consortia of LPEs for specific fields such as schools, waterworks and waste management. LPEs are self-governing in many respects, but report indirectly to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in Tokyo, which monitors relations between LPEs, as well as relations between LPEs and the government. The Ministry generally approves all inter-prefectural special LPEs, while inter-municipal special LPEs are approved by prefectural governors.
Non-state actor. A non-state actor (NSA) is an individual or organization that has significant political influence but is not allied to any particular country or state.[1] The interests, structure, and influence of NSAs vary widely. For example, among NSAs are non-profit organizations, labor unions, non-governmental organizations, banks, corporations, media organizations, business magnates, peoples liberation movements, lobby groups, religious groups, aid agencies, and violent non-state actors such as paramilitary forces. Some common and influential classes of NSAs are listed here in alphabetical order: The proliferation of non-state actors since the Cold War ended has been one of the factors leading to the Cobweb Paradigm in international politics.[5] Under this paradigm, the traditional Westphalian nation-state experiences an erosion of power and sovereignty, and non-state actors are part of the cause. Facilitated by globalization, NSAs challenge nation-state borders and sovereignty claims. MNCs are not always sympathetic to national interests but are loyal to the corporations interests instead. NSAs challenge the nation-states sovereignty over internal matters through advocacy for societal issues, such as human rights and the environment.[4] Armed non-state actors operate without state control and are involved in internal and trans-border conflicts. The activity of such groups in armed conflicts adds layers of complexity to traditional conflict management and resolution. The conflicts are often fought not only between non-state actors and states but also between multiple NSA groups. Interventions in such conflicts is particularly challenging since international law and the norms governing the use of force for intervention or peacekeeping purposes were written primarily in the context of the nation-state.
Battle of Gettysburg.  The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ ⓘ)[14] was a three-day battle in the American Civil War, which was fought between the Union and Confederate armies between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil Wars turning point, leading to an ultimate victory of the Union and the preservation of the nation. The Battle of Gettysburg was the bloodiest battle of both the Civil War and of any battle in American military history, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties.[15] Union Major General George Meades Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lees invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.[fn 1][16] After his success in the Battle of Chancellorsville in Spotsylvania County, Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces through Shenandoah Valley to begin the Gettysburg Campaign, his second attempt to invade the North. With Lees army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia in the hopes of penetrating as far as Harrisburg or Philadelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to end the war. President Abraham Lincoln initially prodded Major General Joseph Hooker into pursuing Lee, then relieved him of command just three days before the Battle of Gettysburg commenced, replacing him with Meade. On July 1, 1863, as Lees forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union army, the two armies encountered each other, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, soon reinforced by two corps of Union infantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city.[17] On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Unions left flank, leading to fierce fighting at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devils Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Unions right flank, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culps Hill and Cemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culps Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg. Picketts Charge featured the main engagement, a Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line at Cemetery Ridge, which was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on the Fourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturous retreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day Battle of Gettysburg, the most in any battle in American history.
Imprint (trade name). An imprint of a publisher is a trade name under which it publishes a work. A single publishing company may have multiple imprints, often using the different names as brands to market works to various demographic consumer segments.[1] An imprint of a publisher is a trade name—a name that a business uses for trading commercial products or services—under which a work is published. Imprints typically have a defining character or mission. In some cases, the diversity results from the takeover of smaller publishers (or parts of their business) by a larger company. In the video game industry, some game companies operate various publishing labels. Electronic Arts (EA) 2008 CEO, John Riccitiello, stated that, with the establishing of Rockstar, Take-Two Interactive effectively invented the label corporate structure, which EA followed into in 2008.[2] This model has influenced rivals including Activision Blizzard, ZeniMax, Electronic Arts from 2008 to 2018, Warner Bros. Interactive, Embracer Group, and Koei Tecmo. Take-Two have had such models in place since 1997–1998. Take-Two is seen as a game holding company with autonomous game publishing and development subsidiaries.[3][4] Independently-owned game publishers like Devolver Digital also use the word label to describe themselves.[citation needed] A single publishing company may have multiple imprints, with the different imprints often used by the publisher to market works to different demographic consumer segments. For example, the objective of Viking—an imprint of the Penguin Group—is [t]o publish a strictly limited list of good nonfiction, such as biography, history and works on contemporary affairs, and distinguished fiction with some claim to permanent importance rather than ephemeral popular interest.[5] This publishing-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Loanword.  A loanword is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language (the recipient or target language), through the process of borrowing.[1][2] Borrowing is a metaphorical term that is well established in the linguistic field despite its acknowledged descriptive flaws: nothing is taken away from the donor language and there is no expectation of returning anything (i.e., the loanword).[3] Loanwords may be contrasted with calques, in which a word is borrowed into the recipient language by being directly translated from the donor language rather than being adopted in (an approximation of) its original form. They must also be distinguished from cognates, which are words in two or more related languages that are similar because they share an etymological origin in the ancestral language, rather than because one borrowed the word from the other. A loanword is distinguished from a calque (or loan translation), which is a word or phrase whose meaning or idiom is adopted from another language by word-for-word translation into existing words or word-forming roots of the recipient language.[4] Loanwords, in contrast, are not translated. Examples of loanwords in the English language include café (from French café, which means coffee), bazaar (from Persian bāzār, which means market), and kindergarten (from German Kindergarten, which literally means childrens garden). The word calque is a loanword, while the word loanword is a calque: calque comes from the French noun calque (tracing; imitation; close copy);[5] while the word loanword and the phrase loan translation are translated from German nouns Lehnwort[6] and Lehnübersetzung (German: [ˈleːnʔybɐˌzɛt͡sʊŋ] ⓘ).[7]
Indian Ocean.  Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the worlds five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) or approximately 20% of the water area of Earths surface.[4] It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean or Antarctica, depending on the definition in use.[5] The Indian Ocean has large marginal or regional seas, including the Andaman Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Laccadive Sea. Geologically, the Indian Ocean is the youngest of the oceans, and it has distinct features such as narrow continental shelves. Its average depth is 3,741 m. It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with the atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation, resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean is ecologically diverse, with important ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts a significant portion of the worlds tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. The climate around the Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons.
Times Square.  Times Square is a major commercial intersection, tourist destination, entertainment hub, and neighborhood in the Midtown Manhattan section of New York City. It is formed by the junction of Broadway, Seventh Avenue, and 42nd Street. Together with adjacent Duffy Square, Times Square is a bowtie-shaped plaza five blocks long between 42nd and 47th Streets.[2] Times Square is brightly lit by numerous digital billboards and advertisements as well as businesses offering 24/7 service. One of the worlds busiest pedestrian intersections,[3] it is also the hub of the Broadway Theater District[4] and a major center of the worlds entertainment industry.[5] Times Square is one of the worlds most visited tourist attractions, drawing an estimated 50 million visitors annually.[6] Approximately 330,000 people pass through Times Square daily,[7] many of them tourists,[8] while over 460,000 pedestrians walk through Times Square on its busiest days.[2] The Times Square–42nd Street and 42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal stations have consistently ranked as the busiest in the New York City Subway system, transporting more than 200,000 passengers daily.[9] Formerly known as Longacre Square, Times Square was renamed in 1904 after The New York Times moved its headquarters to the then newly erected Times Building, now One Times Square.[10] It is the site of the annual New Years Eve ball drop, which began on December 31, 1907, and continues to attract over a million visitors to Times Square every year,[11] in addition to a worldwide audience of one billion or more on various digital media platforms.[12] Times Square, specifically the intersection of Broadway and 42nd Street, is the eastern terminus of the Lincoln Highway, the first road across the United States for motorized vehicles.[13] Times Square is sometimes referred to as the Crossroads of the World,[14] the Center of the Universe,[15] and the heart of the Great White Way.[16][17][18]
Atsugi. Atsugi (厚木市, Atsugi-shi) is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 June 2021[update], the city had an estimated population of 223,960 and a population density of 2400 persons per km2.[1] The total area of the city is 93.83 square kilometres (36.23 sq mi).  While the name Atsugi is often associated with the United States Navy base named Naval Air Facility Atsugi, the base is actually not in Atsugi, but straddles the border between the nearby cities of Ayase and Yamato. Atsugi is located in the hilly center of Kanagawa Prefecture, approximately 45 kilometres (28 mi) from central Tokyo or 30 kilometres (19 mi) from central Yokohama. It is located at the northern end of the Sagami Plain created by the Sagami River, which originates from Lake Yamanaka, and straddles the Tanzawa Mountains in the west and the plain on the west bank of the Sagami River to the southeast. The Nakatsu River and Koayu River, which originate from the Higashitanzawa Mountains, join the Sagami River, which forms the border with Ebina, Zama, and Sagamihara. Parts of the western portion of the city are within the Tanzawa-Ōyama Quasi-National Park and include Mount Ōyama. Kanagawa Prefecture Atsugi has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Atsugi is 13.4 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1906 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 24.5 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.3 °C.[2] Per Japanese census data,[3] the population of Atsugi grew rapidly during the late 20th century and has plateaued in the 21st.
Index of Japan-related articles.  This page lists Japan-related articles.
Index of Japan-related articles (0–9).  This page lists Japan-related articles with titles beginning with a numeral or a symbol. For names of people, please list by surname (i.e., Tarō Yamada should be listed under Y, not T).
Police.   The police are a constituted body of people empowered by a state with the aim of enforcing the law and protecting the public order as well as the public itself.[1] This commonly includes ensuring the safety, health, and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime and civil disorder.[2][3] Their lawful powers encompass arrest and the use of force legitimized by the state via the monopoly on violence. The term is most commonly associated with the police forces of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from the military and other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.[4] Police forces are usually public sector services, funded through taxes. Law enforcement is only part of policing activity.[5] Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order.[6] In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property.[7] Police forces have become ubiquitous and a necessity in complex modern societies. However, their role can sometimes be controversial, as they may be involved to varying degrees in corruption, brutality, and the enforcement of authoritarian rule. A police force may also be referred to as a police department, police service, constabulary, gendarmerie, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, civil guard, or civic guard. Members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. Ireland differs from other English-speaking countries by using the Irish language terms Garda (singular) and Gardaí (plural), for both the national police force and its members. The word police is the most universal and similar terms can be seen in many non-English speaking countries.[8]
Austral. Austral means southern, often in reference to the Southern Hemisphere. Austral may also refer to:
Index of Japan-related articles (A).  This page lists Japan-related articles with romanized titles beginning with the letter A. For names of people, please list by surname (i.e., Tarō Yamada should be listed under Y, not T). Please also ignore particles (e.g. a, an, the) when listing articles (i.e., A City with No People should be listed under City).
Australasian (disambiguation). Australasian refers to Australasia, a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Australasian may also refer to:  Nn9jhv
Index of Japan-related articles (B).  This page lists Japan-related articles with romanized titles beginning with the letter B. For names of people, please list by surname (i.e., Tarō Yamada should be listed under Y, not T). Please also ignore particles (e.g. a, an, the) when listing articles (i.e., A City with No People should be listed under City).
Weekly Shōnen Jump.  Weekly Shōnen Jump (Japanese: 週刊少年ジャンプ, Hepburn: Shūkan Shōnen Janpu; stylized in English as WEEKLY JUMP) is a weekly shōnen manga anthology published in Japan by Shueisha under the Jump line of magazines. The manga series within the magazine consist of many action scenes and a fair amount of comedy. Chapters of the series that run in Weekly Shōnen Jump are collected and published in tankōbon volumes under the Jump Comics imprint every two to three months. It is one of the longest-running manga magazines, with the first issue being released with a cover date of August 1, 1968. The magazine has sold over 7.5 billion copies since 1968, making it the best-selling comic/manga magazine, ahead of competitors such as Weekly Shōnen Magazine and Weekly Shōnen Sunday. The mid-1980s to the mid-1990s represents the era when the magazines circulation was at its highest, 6.53 million copies per week, with a total readership of 18 million people in Japan. Throughout 2021, it had an average circulation of over 1.3 million copies per week. Many of the best-selling manga series—including One Piece, Dragon Ball, Naruto, Slam Dunk, KochiKame: Tokyo Beat Cops, and Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba—originate from Weekly Shōnen Jump. Weekly Shōnen Jump has sister magazines such as Jump SQ, V Jump, Saikyō Jump, and digital counterpart Shōnen Jump+ which boasts its own exclusive titles. The magazine has also had several international counterparts, including the North American Weekly Shonen Jump. It also spawned a crossover media franchise including anime and video games (since Famicom Jump) which bring together various Shōnen Jump characters. Weekly Shōnen Jump was launched by Shueisha on July 11, 1968,[5][6][a] to compete with the already-successful Weekly Shōnen Magazine and Weekly Shōnen Sunday.[8] Weekly Shōnen Jumps sister publication was a manga magazine called Shōnen Book, which was originally a male version of the short-lived shōjo manga anthology Shōjo Book.[9] Prior to issue 20, Weekly Shōnen Jump was originally called simply Shōnen Jump as it was originally a bi-weekly magazine. In 1969, Shōnen Book ceased publication[10] at which time Shōnen Jump became a weekly magazine[10] and a new monthly magazine called Bessatsu Shōnen Jump was made to take Shōnen Books place. This magazine was later rebranded as Monthly Shōnen Jump before eventually being discontinued and replaced by Jump SQ.
Toronto Police Service.  The Toronto Police Service (TPS) is a municipal police force in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and the primary agency responsible for providing law enforcement and policing services in Toronto. Established in 1834, it was the first local police service created in North America and is one of the oldest police services in the English-speaking world. It is the largest municipal police service in Canada, and the fourth largest police force in Canada after the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Ontario Provincial Police (OPP), and the Sûreté du Québec (SQ). With a 2023 budget of $1.16 billion, the Toronto Police Service ranks as the second largest expense of the City of Torontos annual operating budget, after the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). The City of Glasgow Police (c.1800, merged to form Strathclyde Police in 1975) and London Metropolitan Police (1829) were the first modern municipal police departments, but the Toronto Police is older than the New York City Police Department (1845), and Boston Police Department (1839). It is the second-oldest continuously operating municipal police force in the world. The Toronto Police Service was founded in 1834 as Toronto Police Force or sometimes as Toronto Police Department, when the city of Toronto was first created from the town of York.
Austrasia. Austrasia was a historical region and the northeastern realm within the core of the Frankish State during the Early Middle Ages, centering on the regions between Meuse, Moselle, Middle Rhine and the Main rivers. It included the original Frankish-ruled territories within what had been the northernmost part of Roman Gaul and parts of Roman Germania. It also stretched beyond the old Roman borders on the Rhine into Frankish areas which had never been formally under Roman rule. It came into being as a part of the Frankish Kingdom, founded by the Merovingian king Clovis I (481–511), who expanded Frankish rule further to the southwest, into the Gaul, whose northern regions came to be known as Neustria.[1] These two realms, or sub-kingdoms (Austrasia and Neustria), along with Aquitaine and Burgundy, were subsequently ruled by various ruler from the Merovingian dynasty, followed in the 8th and 9th centuries by their successors from the Carolingian dynasty, whose own powerbase was in Austrasia itself.[2] The two Frankish dynasties did not always have a single ruling monarch over the whole Frankish realm, and already by 561, Austrasia was ruled as a separate kingdom within the Frankish realm by the Merovingian king Sigebert I (561–575). Kings often allowed different family members to rule sub-kingdoms, and these were sometimes in conflict with each other, despite the underlying continuity of the overall Frankish state. In 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Austrasia was divided in three parts, with eastern section being assigned to the East Francia, central regions to the Middle Francia, and the most western part to the West Francia. Further divisions affected mostly the central part of Austrasia, ruled since the Treaty of Prüm (855) by king Lothair II, whose name gave rise to Lotharingia, that corresponded to central Austrasia. It was divided by the Treaty of Meerssen (870), but reunited by the Treaty of Ribemont (880), under the east Frankish rule. During the 9th century, Austrasia was still considered as one of the main regions (stem lands) within the Carolingian Empire, surrounded by Alamannia (to the south), Bavaria (to the south-east), Thuringia (to the north-east), and Saxony (to the north), as attested by the Royal Frankish Annals, and the Annals of Saint Bertin, that mentions not only Austrasia, but also Autrasians.[3][4] In time, central Austrasia was more frequently designated as Lotharingia, that became the prevailing term for those regions, while eastern parts of Austrasia came to be known as Franconia. The name Austrasia is not well attested in the Merovingian period. The first surviving record of the term is by Gregory of Tours, writing in about 580. It was later used by Aimoin of Fleury around 1000. It is presumably the latinization of an Old Frankish name, reconstructed as *Oster-rike (Eastern Kingdom).[5] As with the name Austria, it contains the word for east, and means eastern land. The term designated the original territory of the Franks in contrast to Neustria, which apparently meant the (new) western land.
Military (film).  Military is a 2003 Indian Tamil-language action drama film directed by Suraj, credited as G. Saisuresh. The film stars Sathyaraj and Rambha. A remake of the Malayalam film Hitler (1996), it was released on 28 February 2003, and became a box office failure.[1] Madhavan, locally known as Military, is a protective brother of five younger sisters: Ammu, Seetha, Nandhini, Kamali and Archana. Their father remarried after his first wifes death, and because of that his children do not speak to him. With his second wife, he has two daughters. Ammu, the eldest of Madhavans sisters, was raped by her widower professor. Madhavan asked Ammu to marry the professor, who was quite old. The other sisters did not know about the matter. Seetha elopes with her cousin Balasubramaniam and they later come to stay in their neighbourhood. Madhavans enemies try to kill his brother-in-law and put the blame on Madhavan. Luckily, his brother-in-law survives and tells the truth. The music was composed by Deva.[2] Military was released on 28 February 2003.[3] Malini Mannath of Chennai Online felt the remake fails to live up to the original and added while remaking it, the makers seem to have lost out on the feel of the original. It’s like they’ve just borrowed the scenes and situations, and rushed through the whole scenario. The natural flow is missing, leading to jerky narration.[4] Sify wrote the film fails to live up to the original and that Sathyaraj fails to make an impression as the elder brother of five sisters.[5] Visual Dasan of Kalki wrote despite being a sentimental plot about brother and sisters, it sustains the interest till the end due to new kind of scenes and natural humour and also praised the director keeping the flashback short but felt the only negative is antics of Vinu Chakravarthy and Ponnambalam and concluded the director deserves military salute for making a film which can be watched with families.[6] IndiaInfo wrote Except Satyaraj’s performance, the film has nothing much to rave about.[7]
State (polity).  A state is a political entity that regulates society and the population within a definite territory.[1] Government is considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states.[2][3] A country often has a single state, with various administrative divisions. A state may be a unitary state or some type of federal union; in the latter type, the term state is sometimes used to refer to the federated polities that make up the federation, and they may have some of the attributes of a sovereign state, except being under their federation and without the same capacity to act internationally. (Other terms that are used in such federal systems may include province, region or other terms.) For most of prehistory, people lived in stateless societies. The earliest forms of states arose about 5,500 years ago.[4] Over time societies became more stratified and developed institutions leading to centralised governments. These gained state capacity in conjunction with the growth of cities, which was often dependent on climate and economic development, with centralisation often spurred on by insecurity and territorial competition. Over time, varied forms of states developed, that used many different justifications for their existence (such as divine right, the theory of the social contract, etc.). Today, the modern nation state is the predominant form of state to which people are subject.[5] Sovereign states have sovereignty; any ingroups claim to have a state faces some practical limits via the degree to which other states recognize them as such. Satellite states are states that have de facto sovereignty but are often indirectly controlled by another state.
Crunchyroll Store Australia.  Crunchyroll Pty. Ltd.,[1] trading as Crunchyroll Store Australia, and previously known as Madman Anime, is an Australian video publisher and distribution company focused on Asian entertainment. The company handles licensing and distribution of anime in Australia and New Zealand. Originally part of independent film distributor Madman Entertainment, the company is now operated as a division of Crunchyroll, LLC, run by Sony through Sony Pictures Entertainment and Sony Music Entertainment Japans Aniplex. Madman Entertainment was founded in 1996 by Tim Anderson and Paul Wiegard as a mail order business specialising in imported anime titles, after following the success of Manga Entertainment in the United States and the United Kingdom.[2] Originally selling titles on VHS, the company became the second Australian distributor to author DVDs in-house, with the 1995 film Ghost in the Shell being their first DVD release. In 1998, Madman began airing anime on television, with Neon Genesis Evangelion airing on SBS TV. On 23 February 2008, Madman Entertainment announced that it had reached a distribution deal with Viz Media to distribute its manga titles in Australia and New Zealand.[3] The distribution deal ended in April 2016, with Simon & Schuster taking over distribution of Vizs catalogue, and Madman Entertainment ceasing distribution of all manga titles.[4] At the 2008 Supanova Pop Culture Expo, Madman Entertainment announced plans to explore new distribution methods. Madman Entertainment launched the Madman Screening Room, a video on demand streaming service, with School Rumble being the first title on the platform.[5] Madman Entertainment also began releasing Blu-ray Disc titles, starting with The Transformers: The Movie in June 2009.[6] On 1 June 2009, Madman Entertainment produced an English adaption of Tamagotchi: The Movie, a 2007 film based on the Tamagotchi digital pets from Bandai and WiZ. Madman also intended to dub the films sequel, Tamagotchi: Happiest Story in the Universe!, but the dub was cancelled for unknown reasons.
East Melbourne.  East Melbourne is an inner-city suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 2 km (1.2 mi) east of Melbournes Central Business District, located within the City of Melbourne local government area. East Melbourne recorded a population of 4,896 at the 2021 census.[1] East Melbourne is a small area of inner Melbourne, located between Richmond and the Central Business District. Broadly, it is bounded by Spring Street, Victoria Parade, Punt Road/Hoddle Street and Brunton Avenue. One of Melbournes earliest suburbs, East Melbourne has long been home to many significant government, health and religious institutions, including the Parliament of Victoria and offices of the Victoria State Government in the Parliamentary and Cathedral precincts, which are located on a gentle hill at the edge of the Melbournes Hoddle Grid, known as Eastern Hill. The world-famous Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) is located in Yarra Park, in the East Melbourne locality of Jolimont. East Melbourne has been affluent since its first establishment and contains some of the oldest Victorian homes and terrace houses and parks and gardens in Melbourne. The Parliamentary and Cathedral precincts are located on a gentle hill, known as Eastern Hill. Jolimont railway station is at the top of a ridge, which extends towards Bridge Road in Richmond, from which Jolimont slopes downwards towards the Yarra River and the residential section to the north slopes gradually towards the flatter areas of Fitzroy and Collingwood to the north and Richmond to the south.
Armed forces (disambiguation). Armed forces are the military of a nation. Armed forces may also refer to:
Australia (continent).  The continent of Australia, sometimes known in technical contexts as Sahul (/səˈhuːl/),[note 5] Australia-New Guinea, Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia,[1][2][3] is located within the Southern and Eastern hemispheres, near the Maritime Southeast Asia.[4] The continent includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea), the Aru Islands, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, most of the Coral Sea Islands, and some other nearby islands. Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, more specifically in the subregion of Australasia, Australia is the smallest of the seven traditional continents. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land into the combined landmass of Sahul. The name Sahul derives from the Sahul Shelf, which is a part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into todays low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. With a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres (3,310,000 sq mi), the Australian continent is the smallest, lowest, flattest, and second-driest continent (after Antarctica) on Earth.[5] As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.[6] Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse countries in the world.[7] It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its people live in urban centres.[8] West Papua, a region in Indonesia, is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[9] Australia, the largest landmass in the continent, is highly urbanised,[10] and has the worlds 14th-largest economy with the second-highest human development index globally.[11][12] Australia also has the worlds 9th largest immigrant population.[13][14] The continent of Australia is sometimes known by the names Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to differentiate it from the country of Australia, and consists of the landmasses which sit on Australias continental plate. This includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which comprises Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua, provinces of Indonesia).[15][16][17][18] The name Sahul takes its name from the Sahul Shelf, which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The term Oceania, originally a great division of the world in the 1810s, was replaced in English language countries by the concept of Australia as one of the worlds continents in the 1950s.[19]
Warfare (disambiguation). Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general. Warfare may also refer to: KRISTAL MARIA NGUYEN
Conflict Zone. Conflict Zone is a war-themed real-time strategy game, developed by MASA Group and published by Ubi Soft for Dreamcast, PlayStation 2, and Microsoft Windows. In 2010, the majority of the worlds developed countries have formed a centralised organisation, known as the International Corps for Peace, dedicated to bringing about world peace through worldwide media, but not all developing countries are keen to be involved. Ghost, a secret organisation, seeks only the economic interests of its members without any attachment to morals thus does not hesitate to create crisis situations which the International Corps for Peace is forced to solve, through humiliation, and healthy propaganda. There are two playable campaigns in Conflict Zone: the Ghost campaign, and the International Corps for Peace campaign. Missions take place in locations where fictional conflicts take place such as civil war in Ukraine, wars between Indonesia and Malaysia, India and Pakistan and Nigeria and Niger. Most missions usually require the player to build a base (or a camp in Ghosts case) and complete objectives in order to successfully complete the mission. Unlike most other traditional real-time strategy games, where a main resource pool is used to produce units and buildings, Conflict Zone uses a unique system where innocent civilians are the centerpiece and that the two factions have two completely different strategies that offers a unique challenge to master. Conflict Zones main innovation was the use of propaganda, which was crucial in the game, with money second. Coming in the form of Popularity Points, players have to exploit the media in order to gain more PP to unlock units and buildings to help turn the fight in their favour, which faction the player may choose affects the way they are gained.
Northern United States. The Northern United States, commonly referred to as the American North, the Northern States, or simply the North, is a geographical and historical region of the United States. Before the 19th century westward expansion, the Northern United States corresponded to the present day New England region. By the 1830s it corresponded to the present day Northeast and Great Lakes region. Before 1865, the North was distinguished from the South on the issue of slavery. In Southern states, slavery was legal until the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865. Northern states had all passed some form of legislation to abolish slavery by 1804. However, abolition did not mean freedom for some existing slaves. Due to gradual abolition laws, slaves would still appear in some Northern states as far as the 1840 United States census.[4] New Jersey was the last Northern state to end slavery when the 13th Amendment was ratified in 1865, when the 15 elderly slaves that had not been freed by its gradual abolition law were freed.[5] During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Northern states comprised the U.S. states that supported the United States of America, referred to as the Union. In this context, the North is synonymous with the Union, while the South refers to the states that seceded from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America. There is, however, some historical disagreement as to exactly which states comprised the North in the context of the Civil War as five slave-holding states largely remained with the Union: the southern border states of Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware, along with the disputed Indian Territory, though Missouri and Kentucky had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments with the Confederate government of Kentucky and the Confederate government of Missouri and the Confederacy controlled more than half of Kentucky and the southern portion of Missouri early in the war. The Confederacy largely lost control in both states after 1862; depending on the source, some of these states and territories may be included in either region.[6]
Warring (disambiguation). To be warring is to be engaged in organized violent conflict with one or more other belligerent groups or nations. Warring may also refer to:
Stele of the Vultures. The Stele of the Vultures is a monument from the Early Dynastic IIIb period (2600–2350 BC) in Mesopotamia celebrating a victory of the city-state of Lagash over its neighbour Umma. It shows various battle and religious scenes and is named after the vultures that can be seen in one of these scenes. The stele was originally carved out of a single slab of limestone, but only seven fragments are known to have survived up to the present day. The fragments were found at Tello (ancient Girsu) in southern Iraq in the 1880s and are now on display in the Louvre. The stele was erected as a monument to the victory of king Eannatum of Lagash over Ush, king of Umma.[1][2] It is the earliest known war monument.[3] The stele is not complete; only seven fragments are known today. The first three fragments were found during excavations in the early 1880s by the French archaeologist Ernest de Sarzec at the archaeological site of Tello, ancient Girsu, in what is today southern Iraq. Another three fragments came to light during the excavations of 1888–1889. A seventh fragment, which was later determined to be part of the Stele of the Vultures and thought to have come from Tello, was acquired on the antiquities market by the British Museum in 1898. While two initial requests to hand this fragment over to the Louvre were denied by the British Museum, it was eventually given to them in 1932 so that it could be incorporated in the reconstructed stele together with the other fragments.[4] It was first translated by F. Thureau-Dangin in 1907.[5] The complete monument, as reconstructed and now in display in the Louvre, would have been 1.80 metres (5 ft 11 in) high, 1.30 metres (4 ft 3 in) wide and 11 centimetres (4.3 in) thick and had a rounded top. It was made out of a single slab of limestone with carved reliefs on both sides.[6] The stele can be placed in a tradition of mid- to late-third millennium BC southern Mesopotamia in which military victories are celebrated on stone monuments. A similar monument is the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, created during the Akkadian period that followed on the Early Dynastic III period.[7] The two sides of the stele show distinctly different scenes and have therefore been interpreted as a mythological side and a historical side. The mythological side is divided into two registers. The upper, larger register shows a large male figure holding a mace in his right hand and an anzu or lion-headed eagle in his left hand. The anzu identifies the figure as the god Ningirsu. Below the anzu is a large net filled with the bodies of naked men. Behind Ningirsu stands a smaller female figure wearing a horned headband and with maces protruding from her shoulders. These characteristics allow the figure to be identified as the goddess Ninhursag. The lower, smaller register is very badly preserved but, based on comparisons with contemporary depictions, it has been suggested that it depicted the god Ningirsu standing on a chariot drawn by mythological animals.[6] A more recent analysis suggests that the chariot is approaching Ninhursag standing outside a sacred building.[8] The historical side is divided into four horizontal registers. The upper register shows Eannatum, the ensi or ruler of Lagash (his name appears inscribed around his head), leading a phalanx of soldiers into battle, with their defeated enemies trampled below their feet. Flying above them are the vultures after which the stele is named, with the severed heads of the enemies of Lagash in their beaks. The second register shows soldiers marching with shouldered spears behind the king, who is riding a chariot and holding a spear. In the third register, a small part of a possibly seated figure can be seen. In front of him, a cow is tethered to a pole while a naked priest standing on a pile of dead animal bodies performs a libation ritual on two plants spouting from vases. Left of these scenes is a pile of naked bodies surrounded by skirted workers with baskets on their head. Only a small part of the fourth register has been preserved, showing a hand holding a spear that touches the head of an enemy.[6] Some Sumerologists have proposed reconstructing a caption near the enemy as Kalbum, King of Kish.[9]
War (disambiguation). A war is a large-scale armed conflict and the term is used as a metaphor for non-military conflicts. War or WAR may also refer to:
Tang Dynasty (band). Tang Dynasty (Chinese: 唐朝; pinyin: Táng Cháo) is a Chinese rock band formed in 1989. They are often credited as being the first Chinese heavy metal band[citation needed] and the first folk metal band of Asian style as well. Singer and rhythm guitarist Ding Wu, bassist Zhang Ju, and Chinese-American guitarist Kaiser Kuo co-founded Tang Dynasty in early 1989.[1] Kuo left shortly after to return to the United States, with Liu Lao Wu Yijun took his place. According to Kaiser, went on to become Chinas first guitar hero.[1] In 1990 the band participated in the Chinese modern rock concert, where they performed early versions of two of their eventual songs. In 1991, the band released its metal/rock version of The Internationale in Chinese. Tang Dynasty rose to fame with their eponymous debut album, released in December 1992. The album officially sold about 2,000,000 authentic copies throughout Asia and abroad, not counting the multitudes more of infringing copies. Their sound is part progressive rock and artistic metal and part traditional Chinese vocal technique. The lyrical poetry and musical arrangements meant to hearken back to the glorious days of ancient Chinese civilization; in particular, the art and cultural epitome of Chinese history as popularly represented by the era of the Tang dynasty. In 1993, Tang Dynasty performed at The Chinese Avant Garde, a concert featuring Cui Jian, Cobra, and Wang Yong, some of the most prominent rock artists from China at the time. During this concert, they would play songs from their first album, closing the concert with The Internationale. In 1994, Tang Dynasty performed at The Power of Chinese Rock Bands alongside Dou Wei, Zhang Chu, and He Yong, closing the concert with Choice and Soaring Bird. Tragedy struck when bassist Zhang Ju died on May 11, 1995, when his motorcycle collided with a truck on the Zizhuqiao freeway overpass in western Beijing. Gu Zhong joined the band to fill the empty role of bass player. That August, Liu left the band. Co-founder Kaiser Kuo rejoined as guitarist in August 1996.[1] During this time, the band had developed creativity conflicts and had parted with their Magic Stone Label, Almost disbanding during this era. The bands 1998 release Epic was their second album, seven years after their debut record. The record received less recognition, as many believed the album had abandoned Tang Dynastys oriental rock style for a more western style. In 1999, Tang Dynasty would hold a series of live performances showcasing tracks on Epic along with some popular tracks from Tang Dynasty. Kaiser again parted company with Tang Dynasty in June 1999 after a multitude of disagreements with Ding brought to a head by the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia. He would later form another well-recognized metal/rock band, Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu).[1][2] Kaiser was replaced by former Iron Kite frontman Yu Yang, and then by young guitar virtuoso Chen Lei in late 2000. After some more member changes, Liu rejoined the group in 2002.
Northern America (disambiguation). Northern America may refer to:
Later Tang. Tang, known in historiography as the Later Tang (Chinese: 後唐; pinyin: Hòu Táng), was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China and the second of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in Chinese history.[1] With the exception of its final ruler, the Later Tang was ruled by ethnically Shatuo Turk (沙陀) emperors.The name Tang was used to legitimize itself as the restorer of the Tang dynasty.[2]  The official start of the Later Tang dynasty is in the year 923. The Later Tang dynasty emerged when Li Cunxu (李存勖), son of Shatuo Turk chieftain Li Keyong (李克用), conquered the Later Liang (后梁). After inheriting the Jin (晋) state, Li Cunxu waged a prolonged war against the Later Liang, culminating in the fall the Liang capital, Daliang (Kaifeng) in 923. His victory marked the first of the Five Dynasties successive dynastic transitions. The Later Tang dynasty was officially proclaimed in 923, though its origins lay in the precursor Jin dynasty (907-923), known in historiography as the Former Jin. Its founder Li Cunxu already possessed the Li surname - shared with the Tang emperors - which helped legitimize his claim as the Tang dynastys rightful successor. The Li Clan of Shatuo received the surname Li from Emperor Xianzong of Tang as a reward for their loyalty and military service.
Entertainment.   Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but it is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audiences attention. Although peoples attention is held by different things because individuals have different preferences, most forms of entertainment are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, and developed into sophisticated forms over time, becoming available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products, to a banquet adapted for two, to any size or type of party with appropriate music and dance, to performances intended for thousands, and even for a global audience. The experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose. This may be the case in various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire, for example. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears to be entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.
New Tang Dynasty Television.  New Tang Dynasty Television (NTD Television) is a multilingual American television broadcaster founded by adherents of the Falun Gong new religious movement and based in New York City.[1] The station was founded in 2001 as a Chinese-language broadcaster,[2] but has since expanded its language offerings; in July 2020, it launched its 24/7 English channel which now broadcasts nationwide in the U.S. and UK. It is under the Epoch Media Group, a consortium which also includes the newspaper The Epoch Times.[3] The Epoch Media Groups news sites and YouTube channels have promoted conspiracy theories such as QAnon, anti-vaccine misinformation[12] and false claims of fraud in the 2020 United States presidential election.[16] NTD was founded in 2001 by practitioners of the Falun Gong new religious movement.[2][1] The station has a regular focus on the promotion of traditional Chinese culture and western classical arts, and devotes extensive news coverage to Chinese human rights issues,[citation needed] scrutinizing abuses of power by the Chinese Communist Party.[17][18] The name was chosen to invoke the ancient Tang dynasty that the company considers the golden age of Chinese spirituality and civilization ... known for its high moral standards and unparalleled cultural achievements.[19] The Christian Science Monitor in 2004 called NTD the first independent Chinese-language TV station in the US.[20] The Wall Street Journal said in 2007 that NTD serves as a platform for Chinas pro-democracy dissidents, who have been torn by internal squabbling and lack of organization.[21] In 2009, NTD had an income of $5.3 million, including $2.4 million from 3,000 donations. In 2011, NTD had a staff of 80, nearly all volunteers.[22]
Tang Dynasty (album). Tang Dynasty (Chinese: 唐朝; pinyin: Tángcháo), also known as A Dream Return to Tang Dynasty (Chinese: 梦回唐朝; pinyin: Mènghuí Tángcháo) is the eponymous debut studio album by Chinese heavy metal band Tang Dynasty, released in China in December 1991 and internationally on December 11, 1992 by Magic Stone Records. The album is lauded as the first Chinese metal album, combining heavy metal and progressive rock with traditional Chinese folk styles, poetry, and Beijing opera vocal techniques. Tang Dynasty was officially formed in February 1989[1] by Americans Kaiser Kuo (guitar) and Andrew Szabo (drums), along with Beijing musicians Ding Wu (guitar) and Zhang Ju (bass). However, the Tiananmen Square Protests forced Kuo and Szabo to leave China.[2] The band went on hiatus, and Ding Wu moved to Xinjiang for several months. In October, Ding Wu returned to Beijing, and together with Zhang Ju recruited lightning-fast[3] guitarist Liu Yijun and drummer Zhao Nian.[4] On May 1, 1990, the new lineup participated in a fundraising concert for the 1990 Asian Games, playing in front of 100,000 people at the Workers Stadium.[5] The success of the concert led the band to be signed by Magic Stone Records (Chinese: 魔石唱片; pinyin: Móshí Chàngpīan), the fledgling mainland division of Taiwan-based label Rock Records (Chinese: 滚石唱片; pinyin: Gŭnshí Chàngpīan, lit. Rolling Stone Records) specializing in Chinese rock acts.[2] Recording took place in the second floor studio of the China National Radio headquarters in Xicheng, over a 44-day period,[6] from September through October 1991.[7][1] Founding guitarist Kaiser Kuo briefly returned in May to record some demos with the band, but left again for the United States before sessions formally began in order to complete graduate school. Bassist Zhang Ju had also been singing lead since Kuos departure, but Kuo insisted that Ding Wu be designated lead vocalist instead, thereby cementing Dings position as Tang Dynastys frontman.[1] According to Ding Wu, a significant portion of the songs melodies were not established until recording was underway,[8] although he later clarified that the band had completed most of the instrumentals before entering the studio.[6] The album was engineered by Wang Lao Ge (Chinese: 老哥; lit. Old Brother) Xinbo (Chinese: 王昕波), who had worked on Cui Jians Rock n Roll on the New Long March and Black Panthers debut album.[9] It was also the first album by a mainland Chinese band to be produced by Jeff Chia (Chinese: 贾敏恕; pinyin: Jiǎ Mǐnshù), who would go on to record other notable Beijing artists for the Magic Stone label. Chia recalled the making of Tang Dynasty as an intensive, around-the-clock process, and that an armed guard was stationed outside the studio as they worked. Despite having never worked with a rock band before, Chia noted the ease with which he and the band members could communicate musical ideas, which streamlined the otherwise stressful undertaking.[7] Tang Dynasty was released domestically in December 1991.[10] Magic Stone Records spent the next year launching a massive overseas marketing campaign,[1] securing the band a following in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore.[11] Five high-budget music videos for A Dream Return to Tang Dynasty, The Sun, Nine Rhythm,  Choice, and Moon Dreams were shot and released. As Kuo noted, Nothing like that had ever been done for a Chinese band.[1]
Zhou. Zhou may refer to:
Singapore.  in Southeast Asia Singapore,[f] officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The countrys territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree of latitude (137 kilometres or 85 miles) north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bordering the Strait of Malacca to the west, the Singapore Strait to the south along with the Riau Islands in Indonesia, the South China Sea to the east, and the Straits of Johor along with the State of Johor in Malaysia to the north. In its early history, Singapore was a maritime emporium known as Temasek; subsequently, it was part of a major constituent part of several successive thalassocratic empires. Its contemporary era began in 1819, when Stamford Raffles established Singapore as an entrepôt trading post of the British Empire. In 1867, Singapore came under the direct control of Britain as part of the Straits Settlements. During World War II, Singapore was occupied by Japan in 1942 and returned to British control as a Crown colony following Japans surrender in 1945. Singapore gained self-governance in 1959 and, in 1963, became part of the new federation of Malaysia, alongside Malaya, North Borneo, and Sarawak. Ideological differences led to Singapores expulsion from the federation two years later; Singapore became an independent sovereign country in 1965. After early years of turbulence and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation rapidly developed to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. As a highly developed country, it has the highest PPP-adjusted GDP per capita in the world. It is also identified as a tax haven. Singapore is the only country in Asia with a AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies. It is a major aviation, financial, and maritime shipping hub and has consistently been ranked as one of the most expensive cities to live in for expatriates and foreign workers. Singapore ranks highly in key social indicators: education, healthcare, quality of life, personal safety, infrastructure, and housing, with a home-ownership rate of 88 percent. Singaporeans enjoy one of the longest life expectancies, fastest Internet connection speeds, lowest infant mortality rates, and lowest levels of corruption in the world. Singapore is organised into five regions and 55 planning areas. It has the third highest population density of any country, although there are numerous green and recreational spaces as a result of urban planning. With a multicultural population and in recognition of the cultural identities of the major ethnic groups within the nation, Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. English is the common language, with exclusive use in numerous public services. Multi-racialism is enshrined in the constitution and continues to shape national policies.
Ethel Hill. Ethel Hill (1898–1954) was an American screenwriter and race horse owner.[1][2][3] One of her best-known scripts is for The Little Princess (1939), starring Shirley Temple. Ethel was born in Sacramento, California, the eldest daughter of Charles Hill and Susie Marston. The family moved to Los Angeles when Ethel was young, and she and her younger sister Garna attended high school in Santa Monica. When Dore Schary first went to work for Columbia Pictures as a new screenwriter, he was paired with the veteran Hill to learn from her; together, they wrote the screenplay for Fury of the Jungle (1933).[4] Hill was described by Marc Norman in his book What Happens Next: A History of American Screenwriting as an extremely dear and generous woman [who] had an interest in horses and often wore jodhpurs and riding gear to the studio.[4] Fellow screenwriter Gertrude Walker—who worked with Hill toward the end of her career at Republic Pictures—described her as a sweet old lady who always wore a shawl and bedroom slippers.[5] Hill bought the Thoroughbred race horse War Knight, a son of Preakness winner High Quest, as a foal with her $1500 life savings.[6] He went on to win 10 of 28 starts,[6] including the 1944 Arlington Handicap.[2] He was injured in 1945 and did not win any of his five 1946 starts[6] leading up to the $100,000 added Santa Anita Handicap, which he proceeded to win in a photo finish.[1][3] He retired to stud afterward.[6]
Dorothy Howell (screenwriter). Dorothy Howell (May 10, 1899 – June 8, 1971), was an American screenwriter active mostly during the 1920s and 1930s. Born to Elmer Howell and Carrie Lorenz, Dorothy was raised in Illinois alongside her younger brother Raymond. Raymond would go on to work at Hollywood studios as a technician, according to census records. Howell worked as a scenarist and screenwriter for Columbia for much of her career. She started out at Columbia as Harry Cohns secretary and was appointed assistant general production manager at the company in 1926.[1] Before joining Columbia, she had also worked as a secretary to executives Irving Thalberg and B.P. Schulberg. She was married to Mendel B. Silverberg, a prominent entertainment lawyer (who had previously been married to Alice Calhoun).[2][3]
Wu Zhu. Wu Zhu (Chinese: 五銖; pinyin: wǔ zhū) is a type of Chinese cash coin produced from the Han dynasty in 118 BC when they replaced the earlier San Zhu (Three Zhu) cash coins, which had replaced the Ban Liang (半兩) cash coins a year prior,[1] until they themselves were replaced by the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) cash coins of the Tang dynasty in 621 AD. The name Wu Zhu literally means five zhu, with a zhu being a measuring unit officially weighing about 4 grams; however, in reality the weights and sizes of Wu Zhu cash coins varied over the years. During the Han dynasty, a very large quantity of Wu Zhu coins were cast, and their production continued under subsequent dynasties until the Sui.[2] The production of Wu Zhu cash coins was briefly suspended by Wang Mang during the Xin dynasty, but after the reestablishment of the Han dynasty, the production of Wu Zhu cash coins resumed. They continued to be manufactured for another 500 years, long after the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty.[3] Minting was definitively ended in 618 with the establishment of the Tang dynasty. Wu Zhu cash coins were cast from 118 BC to 618 AD, giving them a span of 736 years, which is the longest for any coin in human history.[4] Wu means five and zhu was an ancient Chinese unit of weight equal to 100 grains of millet. A five zhu cash coin would weigh about 4 grams (1⁄7 ounce). Originally Ban Liang cash weighed 12 Zhu as a Liang (tael) was 24 Zhu, however over time the weight of Ban Liang cash coins gradually decreased so the Wu Zhu cash coins were introduced as a new standard unit (after the earlier San Zhu, or 3 Zhu cash coins) under the reign of Emperor Emperor Wu.[5] The introduction of the Wu Zhu also fixed the standard exchange between bronze coins and gold as 10,000 bronze Wu Zhu cash coins would be worth 1 Jin of gold.[6] The first Wu Zhu cash coins had unfiled edges, but the second series issued under the reign of Emperor Wu were filed. In 118 BC the central government of the Han dynasty ordered both the Commanderies (郡; jùn) and the Principalities (國; guó) to cast Wu Zhu coins, so these Wu Zhu coins are referred to as jùn guó wǔ zhū (郡國五銖) coins which at most have a diameter 33.3 millimetres and a weight of 5.8 grams. A notable feature of Jun Guo Wu Zhu coins is that they have a rim around the square center hole of the reverse side. These rims were added to prevent people from scraping metal off the coins, which would reduce their value. Another notable feature of these early Wu Zhu coins is that they tend to have edges which are unfiled, making these cash coins have rough edges; they are notably also heavier than later cast Wu Zhu coins.[7] In 115 BC Emperor Wu decreed that all Wu Zhu cash coins should be cast with a value of 5 cash coins. These coins are known as chì zè wǔ zhū (赤仄五銖; red side Wu Zhu) or zhōng guān chì zè (鍾官赤仄; official unit red side) because as they were filed, they gained red or purple edges that showed as the copper became visible. Another feature of these cash coins is that the Wu (五) character tends to be composed of some rather straight lines. Starting from the year 113 BC, the central government regained the exclusive authority to manufacture coinage. From this point Wu Zhu cash coins started being produced by the Three Offices of Shang Lin (上林三官; shàng lín sān guān). These Wu Zhu coins had a nominal value of one coin as opposed to the Chi Ze Wu Zhus, which had an unrealistic nominal value of five. The majority of the Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhus contain a raised line above the square center hole on the obverse side of the coin.[8]
Bermuda.  Bermuda[c][d] is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. The closest land outside the territory is in the United States state of North Carolina, about 1,035 km (643 mi) to the west-northwest. Bermuda is an archipelago consisting of 181 islands, although the most significant islands are connected by bridges and appear to form one landmass. It has a land area of 54 square kilometres (21 sq mi). Bermuda has a tropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Its climate also exhibits oceanic features similar to other coastal areas in the Northern Hemisphere with warm, moist air from the ocean ensuring relatively high humidity and stabilising temperatures. Bermuda is prone to severe weather from recurving tropical cyclones; however, it receives some protection from a coral reef and its position north of the Main Development Region, which limits the direction and severity of approaching storms. Bermuda is a self-governing parliamentary democracy with a bicameral parliament located in the capital Hamilton. The House of Assembly dates from 1620, making it one of the worlds oldest legislatures. The premier is the head of government and is formally appointed by the governor, who is nominated by the British government as the representative of the King. The United Kingdom is responsible for foreign affairs and defence. An independence referendum was held in 1995 with a large majority voting against independence. The territory is divided into nine parishes. As of 2019, Bermuda had a population of around 64,000 people, making it the second-most populous of the British Overseas Territories. Black Bermudians, a diverse population primarily of any mixture of African, European, and Native American ancestry,[7][8] make up around 50% of the population, while White Bermudians, primarily of British, Irish and Portuguese descent, make up 30% of the population. There are smaller groups from other races or identifying as mixed race and about 30% of the population is not Bermudian by birth. The last remaining territory in the former British North America (following the 1867 Confederation of Canada and the Colony of Newfoundland becoming the Dominion of Newfoundland in 1907), Bermuda has a distinct dialect of English and has historically had strong ties with other English-speaking countries in the Americas, including the United States, Canada, and the Commonwealth Caribbean. It is an associate member of the Caribbean Community.
Roy William Neill. Roy William Neill (born Roland de Gostrie, 4 September 1887 – 14 December 1946) was an Irish-born American film director best known for producing and directing almost all of the Sherlock Holmes films starring Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce, made between 1943 and 1946 and released by Universal Pictures.[1] With his father as the captain, Roy William Neill was born on a ship off the coast of Ireland. Neill lived in the United States for most of his career and was an American citizen. He began directing silent films in 1917 and went on to helm 111 films, 55 of them silent. He was also credited in some works as R. William Neill, Roy W. Neill, and Roy Neill. Neill was known for his striking visual style: meticulously lit scenes, careful compositions, and layered shadows that would become the tone of film noir in the late 1940s (his last film, Black Angel (1946), is considered a film noir). Neills imaginative direction and compositions were noticed by then-low-budget Columbia Pictures, which hired him in 1928. Roy William Neill became one of Columbias dependable directors. His best-known Columbia features are Whirlpool, a Jack Holt vehicle that introduced one of Columbias major stars, Jean Arthur; and The Black Room (1935), a costume thriller starring Boris Karloff in a dual role. Neill also directed additional scenes, without screen credit, for Frank Capras 1932 feature American Madness. In 1935 Neill left Columbia for a five-year stay in London, where better opportunities existed for American directors. British film producer Edward Black hired Neill to direct The Lady Vanishes. However, due to delays in production, Black engaged Alfred Hitchcock to direct instead.[2]
Robert North (producer). Robert North (February 2, 1884 – August 13, 1976) was an American vaudeville performer who became a success as a stand-up comedian. Later he became a prolific motion picture producer. Bobby North was born in New York City.[1] He joined a vaudeville company at the age of twelve as a boy balcony singer.[2] As North explained, ... there was a vogue of a soubrette, as we called her, singing on the stage, and a kid would get up from the gallery and sing the chorus. The Gallery Gods, of course, thought he was one of them and applauded loudly. I was the kid in the gallery. I had the voice and I could sing.  North traveled around the US with the company playing in small town opera houses or theaters for one- or two-night stands.[1]  He developed a song and dance act.[2] In January 1909 North performed as a Hebrew impersonator at the Colonial Theatre in New York. In this act he told humorous stories with a Jewish accent and sang parodies of popular songs. He would continue to perform this act between other roles.[3] These include a part in 1909 in the Emmerich Kálmán operetta The Gay Hussars, and a straight role in 1910 in the play Just a Wife.[3] North was a star of the Ziegfeld Follies of 1910. In one number he acted as a Jew in love with an Irish girl, and sang My Yiddisha Colleen to Shirley Kellogg. The song illustrates the common stereotypes and ethnic humor of the period, with verses like Ill jig and Irish reel each morning, if youll dance Kazotski evry dawn ... And Ill even kiss the Blarney stone, if youll change your name to Maggie Cohn.[4] North closed the second act of the Follies of 1910 with a solo performance of the Gus Edwards song The Waltzing Lieutenant.[5] Variety editor Sime Silverman praised Norths performance.[4] The 1910 Ziegfeld Follies played in over twenty theaters in major cities around the country, including Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Chicago, Des Moines, Kansas City and San Francisco, where North was the local favorite. The company of over one hundred traveled in style in a special train, and stayed at the best hotels.[6] North married Stella Maury, another vaudeville and Ziegfeld Follies trouper.  Their son Edmund H. North was born in Manhattan on March 12, 1911 (Edmund later became a successful screenwriter).[7]
Jack Holt (actor).  Charles John Holt, Jr.[1] (May 31, 1888 – January 18, 1951) was an American motion picture actor who was prominent in both silent and sound movies, particularly Westerns. Holt was born in 1888 in the Fordham section of The Bronx, New York, the son of an Episcopal priest at St. James Church.[2] When in Manhattan, he attended Trinity School. He was accepted into the Virginia Military Institute in 1909,[3] but expelled for misbehavior in his second semester there.[2] Following Holts fathers death, the family moved to Manhattan, where Jack, his mother, and brother Marshall lived with his married sister, Frances.[2] Holt worked at various jobs, including construction of the Pennsylvania Railroads tunnel under the Hudson River and being a surveyor, laborer, prospector, trapper, and stagecoach driver, among many other jobs during an almost six-year stay in Alaska.[2]
Metropolitan Museum of Manila.  The Metropolitan Museum of Manila, also branded as the M, is a non-profit art museum located in Bonifacio Global City (BGC) in Taguig, that exhibits local and international contemporary art.[1] It bills itself as the Philippines premier museum for modern and contemporary visual arts by local and international artists.[2] Established since October 3, 1976, it was formerly located within the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) Complex along Roxas Boulevard in the Malate district of Manila. The museum initially exhibited international artists to expose Filipinos to contemporary visual works in other cultures. By 1986, its focus shifted to local works and extend its reach to more common people by offering bilingual exhibition texts and developing several outreach educational programs like workshops and symposia, thereby promoting local pride and identity.[3][4] Since 2022, the M has been relocated to its dedicated premises at the MK Tan Centre within the business district of Bonifacio Global City in Taguig. Formerly subsidized by the BSP, the management of the museum has now shifted to the Metropolitan Museum of Manila Foundation, Inc., initially established by former First Lady Imelda Marcos and businessman Bienvenido Tantoco, Sr. in 1979. In September 1986, seven months after the EDSA revolution, the museum acquired a new board of trustees and became a non-government organization.[5] The museum, which previously offered complimentary entry on Tuesdays, has extended this to all days during its operating hours from Tuesdays to Saturdays.[6] In April 2024, the museum announced a teaser for an upcoming exhibition called Banksy Universe, causing speculation on whether the exhibit would include works by Banksy. However, the announcement also caused criticism as some contrasted Banksys use of street art with the prevailing restrictions on street art and graffiti enforced in Bonifacio Global City, while others criticized the exhibition for running counter to Banksys subversive and anti-capitalist messaging in his art. Banksys managing agency, Pest Control, denied involvement in the upcoming exhibit.[7][8] The museum stated that the exhibit, like many Banksy exhibitions in museums around the world, was “not authorized or endorsed” by Banksy, and was instead created in partnership with an international art production collective to display Banksys works in an immersive setup.[9] The exhibit opened on May 14, 2024 and lasted until November 20.[10]
Index of Japan-related articles (C).  This page lists Japan-related articles with romanized titles beginning with the letter C. For names of people, please list by surname (i.e., Tarō Yamada should be listed under Y, not T). Please also ignore particles (e.g. a, an, the) when listing articles (i.e., A City with No People should be listed under City).
Southern Tang. Southern Tang (Chinese: 南唐; pinyin: Nán Táng) was a dynastic state of China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Located in southern China, the Southern Tang proclaimed itself to be the successor of the Tang dynasty. The capital was located at Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province. At its territorial peak in 951,[1] the Southern Tang controlled the whole of modern Jiangxi, and portions of Anhui, Fujian, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangsu provinces.[4] The Southern Tang was founded by Li Bian in 937, when he overthrew emperor Yang Pu of Wu. He largely maintained peaceable relations with neighboring states. His son Li Jing did not follow this foreign policy, conquering the Min and Ma Chu dynasties in 945 and 951 respectively. The Later Zhou dynasty invaded the Southern Tang domain in 956 and defeated them by 958. Li Jing was forced to become a vassal of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, cede all territory north of the Yangtze River, and relinquish his title of emperor. In 960, the Southern Tang became a vassal of the newly established Northern Song dynasty. After the Emperor Taizu of Song had defeated the Later Shu and the Southern Han, he ordered the conquest of the Southern Tang, which was completed in 975. The names and titles used by Southern Tang rulers changed several times throughout its existence. In the 930s Xu Zhigao ruled as king over a sizeable territory called Qi (齊) that existed within Wu. After deposing the Yang Imperial family in 937 he adopted the title of emperor and announced the creation Great Qi (大齊). The Zizhi Tongjian referred to this state as Tang from its foundation,[5] while the majority of historical sources, including the Old History of the Five Dynasties,[6] New History of the Five Dynasties,[7] and the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms,[8] referred to the state as Qi. They begin to use Tang only after Xu Zhigao adopted the name Li Bian in 939. Unlike the continual unrest and rebellions of the Central Plains, Tang rule across the Yangtze and Southern China had been generally more successful. These halcyon days had become a source of nostalgia for people in the south. This respect paid to the deposed dynasty became a useful political tool for Li Bian.[9] The Later Tang were overthrown in late 936, which opened the way for Li Bian to claim it.[10] In February 939 Li Bian renamed his realm to Great Tang (大唐).[11] Taking on the name of Tang increased his status. Such a move could be easily construed to mean the potential unification of [Chinese] territories under one ruler.[12]
Metropolitan Museum of Lima. The Metropolitan Museum of Lima (Spanish: Museo Metropolitano de Lima) is a museum located next to the Park of the Exhibition in Lima, Peru. The neoclassical building that houses the museum was designed by French architect Claude Sahut and built in 1924, formerly housing the countrys Ministry of Development and Public Works.[1] It was inaugurated on October 10, 2010.[2][3] The museum links the history of the city with the history of Peru using audiovisual resources such as scenery, videos and holograms, which covers the pre-Hispanic, viceregal and republican eras told by the characters who shaped it, such as Viceroy Amat, Rose of Lima, Pancho Fierro, José Olaya, José de San Martín, Simón Bolívar, Ricardo Palma, Abraham Valdelomar, Miguel Grau, among others. It has 27 projection rooms,[4] whose museographic direction was directed by filmmaker Luis Llosa.[5] It also contains a temporary exhibition hall, the Municipal Library, the Historical Archive and the Taulichusco auditorium. 12°03′49″S 77°02′13″W / 12.0636°S 77.0369°W / -12.0636; -77.0369
Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science. The Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science was a Smithsonian Institution Affiliate and American Alliance of Museums accredited museum located in downtown Fresno, California, in the San Joaquin Valley.  The Museum was established in 1984 and was one of the largest museums between San Francisco and Los Angeles. The Met was housed in the historic 1922 Fresno Bee Building. In August 2005, the museum began an extensive interior renovation; the first of its kind since the Museums opening. The museum reopened on November 13, 2008, and closed on January 5, 2010, after defaulting on its renovation loans.[1] In 1978, a group of Fresno civic leaders began to explore the possibility of creating a regional museum for the San Joaquin Valley. From 1981 to 1985, these members of the community raised more than $5.5 million to open the Met in the historic downtown Fresno Bee building.[2] The Museum opened its doors to the community on April 8, 1984. Since that time, the Museum has attracted more than two million people with its programs in art and science with diverse exhibitions including A T. rex Named Sue, Masterworks from the Albertina, Georgia OKeeffe: Visions of the Sublime, Variations on a Theme: American Prints from Pop Art to Minimalism and Grossology: The (Impolite) Science of the Human Body. In 1995, the Museum became the first organization outside the Bay Area to win Northern Californias Award for Excellence in non-profit management from Chevron and The Management Center of San Francisco. In 1995, the Met received a Central California Excellence in Business Award in the non-profit category as presented by The Fresno Bee, and American Alliance of Museums accreditation status in July 2007. The Museum was named the Best Museum each year since 1999 by the readers of The Fresno Bee.
Hotel Metropolitan Museum.  Hotel Metropolitan Museum is a museum in historic hotel building in Paducah, Kentucky, U.S. The Hotel Metropolitan provided lodging for African Americans traveling through the area;[1] was a stop on the Chitlin Circuit, and was listed in The Negro Motorist Green Book.[2] The Hotel Metropolitan Museum focuses on African American history.[1] Hotel Metropolitan was built in 1909 by its owner, Maggie Steed, to accommodate guests who were denied lodging at white-owned hotels due to discriminatory laws and practices of the Jim Crow South.[1][2] Hotel guests included Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, and Thurgood Marshall.[3] Notable guests often gathered and performed in the hotels Purple Room.[1] The Purple Room, a freestanding building behind the hotel, was used as a gathering space and music venue. It was frequented by notable musicians staying in the hotel.[1] Steed died in 1924. Her son ran the hotel for a few years before selling it to Mamie Burbridge. In 1951, Burbridge sold it to the Gaines family whose son, Clarence Big House Gaines, donated it the Upper Town Heritage Foundation.[1][4] The hotel now houses a museum dedicated to its history.[5] In 2021, the museum received a grant from the National Trust for Historic Preservations African American Cultural Heritage action Fund for the purpose of restoring The Purple Room.[5]
Luoyang (disambiguation). Luoyang or Loyang is a prefecture-level city in Henan Province, China. Luoyang or Loyang may also refer to:
Empire. An empire is a realm controlled by an emperor or an empress and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries.[1] The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) has political control over the peripheries.[2] Within an empire, different populations may have different sets of rights and may be governed differently.[3] The word empire derives from the Roman concept of imperium. Narrowly defined, an empire is a sovereign state whose head of state uses the title of emperor or empress; but not all states with aggregate territory under the rule of supreme authorities are called empires or are ruled by an emperor; nor have all self-described empires been accepted as such by contemporaries and historians (the Central African Empire of 1976 to 1979, and some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in early England being examples).[a] There have been ancient and modern, centralized and decentralized, ultra-brutal and relatively benign empires.[4] An important distinction has been between land empires made up solely of contiguous territories, such as the Roman Empire, Achaemenid Empire, the Mongol Empire, or the Russian Empire; and those - based on sea-power - which include territories that are remote from the home country of the empire, such as the Dutch colonial empire, the Empire of Japan, the Chola Empire or the British Empire.[4] Aside from the more formal usage, the concept of empire in popular thought is associated with such concepts as imperialism, colonialism, and globalization, with imperialism referring to the creation and maintenance of unequal relationships between nations and not necessarily the policy of a state headed by an emperor or empress. The word empire can also refer colloquially to a large-scale business enterprise (e.g. a transnational corporation), to a political organization controlled by a single individual (a political boss) or by a group (political bosses).[5] Empire is often used as a term to describe overpowering situations causing displeasure.[6] An empire is an aggregate of many separate states or territories under a supreme ruler or oligarchy.[7] This is in contrast to a federation, which is an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples. An empire is a large polity which rules over territories outside of its original borders. Definitions of what physically and politically constitutes an empire vary. It might be a state affecting imperial policies or a particular political structure. Empires are typically formed from diverse ethnic, national, cultural, and religious components.[8] Empire and colonialism are used to refer to relationships between a powerful state or society versus a less powerful one; Michael W. Doyle has defined empire as effective control, whether formal or informal, of a subordinated society by an imperial society.[9] Imperialism for Doyle is simply the process of establishing and maintaining an empire.[10] Similarly, for Rein Taagepera imperialism is a policy of conquest and domination of foreign lands and populations.[11]
Old City of Luoyang. 34°43′43″N 112°37′21″E / 34.72861°N 112.62250°E / 34.72861; 112.62250 The Old City of Luoyang is a site located 15 kilometers east of the urban area of modern Luoyang. It was the capital of the Northern Wei dynasty. Emperor Yang of Sui rebuilt the city in 605. The Old City was listed as major cultural heritage sites under national-level protection in 1961, and as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site in 2014, as one part of the larger Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Changan-Tianshan Corridor designation.[1] The existing structure and layout of the Old City is essentially left over from the Northern Wei dynasty, with a length of 10km from east to west and 7.5km from north to south. The total area is about 75 square kilometers. The existing important relics mainly include: the Northern Wei-era inner city wall (that is, Luoyang during the Han, Wei and Jin), the outer Guocheng City of the Northern Wei, Gongcheng, Jinyong, Yongning Temple and the base of the Yongning Temple Tower, Taiji Hall, Changhe Gate, Taixue of the Eastern Han, Mingtang, Biyong, Lingtai, Eastern Han Cemetery, Northern Wei Dashi, Rented Cattle and Horse Market, Eastern Han Prisoners Cemetery, etc., and unearthed a large number of cultural relics, including ceramics, clay statues, iron wares, copper coins (ware), gold and silver wares.[2]